The Origin and Composition of Iron Sand Deposit in the Southern Coast of

Yogyakarta
Abstract. The iron sand mineral deposit in the southern coast of Yogyakarta is analyzed.
The exploration area spans the beach area to the east of Opak river. Longitudinal analysis
of the magnetic-sand composition along the shoreline with varied distance from the Opak
river support the argument that the minerals is originated from the volcanic materials
brought by the river flow in combination with the littoral drift concentrated by the waves.
The magnetic-sand contents ranging from 5.85 % to 95,11% are revealed, varied with the
distance of sampling area from the river banks. The magnetic component of the iron-sand
mainly composed of magnetite, maghemite, ilmenite and titanomagnetite whereas the non-
magnetic residue mainly consists of silica, alumina and calc.

Keywords: Iron sand, magnet, Littoral drift, volcanic material

INTRODUCTION

The deposit of iron sand in Indonesia has been known to spread along the coastal area of
Sumatra, Java, Lesser Sunda Island and Sulawesi [1]. In the southern shore of Java, the iron sand
deposits spans the province of East Java, Yogyakarta, Central Java and West Java. The southern
coast of Yogyakarta from the Bogowonto to Progo riverbanks, specifically, has been targeted for
iron sand mining plant [2].
The beach placer deposits covering the southern coast of Yogyakarta closely related to the
volcanic minerals originating from the volcanoes from the middle part of Java Island. As the
volcanic rock weathered and exposed to the erosion by rainfall and river flow, the particulates
are carried and the sediment deposited along the riverbanks and the shoreline area where the
rivers joins the seawater [3].
Further theory suggested that the small particulates of these heavy mineral are accumulated in
the shoreline by littoral drift. During the high tide, the heavy mineral particulates that are seated
in the bottom are brought to the shore by the upward turbulence work. However during the low
tide, the particulates will not be brought down by the tide, rather, the heavy mineral particulates
remained in the shoreline [4]. Over the time, the work of littoral drift causes concentrations of
heavy minerals deposits in the southern coast of Yogyakarta.
The magnetic components of the iron sand sample is known to contain magnetite (Fe3O4),
maghemite (Fe2O3), ilmenite (FeTiO3) and titanomagnetite (Fe2TiO4) between 10% to 66.32%
[5]. The residue, on the other hand composed of Silica (SiO2), alumina (Al2O3) and calc (CaO)
[6]. The heavy magnetic mineral usually originated from volcanic material whereas the lighter
non-magnetic mineral comes from geological decomposition and marine life forms.
In this work, the origin of iron-sand deposit in the southern coast of Yogyakarta in relation to
the volcanic material erosion and littoral drift mechanisms is analyzed. Understanding the origin
of the iron-sand deposit might help reveals the historical volcanic rock composition occurred in
the past. Conversely, if the compositions of volcanic materials are known, the potential mineral
deposits in the corresponding shoreline can then be predicted.
 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

Sampling Area of The Iron-Sand Deposit

The exploration area for this work spans the 8 km southern shoreline of Yogyakarta, to the
east of the Opak riverbank. The area is sampled for approximately every 1 km aparts. There are 9
sampling area divided into two sample block, namely the farther block (farthest from the
riverbank) and the closer block (close to the riverbank). For each area, 5 points within the radius
of 2.0 m are sampled. Figure 1 shows the location of the sampling area along the shoreline. To
minimize the perturbation by the waves, sample is taken from the depth of 0.2 m from the
surface and 20.0 m from the shoreline.

FIGURE 1. Sampling area along the southern shoreline of Yogyakarta

Separation of Magnetic Component of the Iron Sand from the Residue

The collected iron sand sample is then allowed to dry in room temperature. 10.0 grams from
each sample is then weighted and the magnetic component of the sand sample is separated from
the non-magnetic component by using permanent magnet separated by cellulose membrane. The
separation proces is repeated until no more magnetic-sand can be extracted from the samples.
The method is as illustrated in Figure 2.

FIGURE 2. Schematics of the magnetic separation of magnetic component from the residue of
iron-sand
RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The result of magnetic component extraction from the iron sand deposits is summarized in
Table 1. The magnetic content of the iron sand sample is ranged from minimum value of 5.85%
to the maximum value of 95.11%. For each sampling point, the samples show acceptable
variation.
TABLE 1. The magnetic component content of the iron
sand sample
Magnetic Comp.
Sample (g) Residue (g) Sample Magnetic Comp. (g) Residue (g)
1a 1.182 8.829 6a 5.550 4.450
1b 1.338 8.665 6b 6.496 3.504
1c 1.407 8.600 6c 5.628 4.372
1d 1.111 8.903 6d 3.772 6.228
1e 1.741 8.262 6e 4.726 5.274
2a 1.300 8.701 7a 9.032 0.969
2b 1.542 8.521 7b 8.694 1.306
2c 1.036 8.971 7c 9.511 0.489
2d 0.585 9.421 7d 8.074 1.927
2e 1.333 8.679 7e 8.078 1.922
3a 1.198 8.807 8a 7.921 2.080
3b 1.844 8.166 8b 7.016 2.984
3c 1.217 8.783 8c 6.094 3.906
3d 1.209 8.855 8d 6.142 3.858
3e 1.913 8.087 8e 6.078 3.922
4a 0.908 9.099 9a 7.314 2.689
4b 0.776 9.232 9b 9.216 0.815
4c 1.216 8.789 9c 8.695 1.404
4d 1.008 9.002 9d 6.579 3.441
4e 1.148 8.855 9e 8.831 1.180
5a 1.840 8.165
5b 1.440 8.569
5c 1.556 8.446
5d 1.081 8.924
5e 1.293 8.761

Figure 3 shows the plot of magnetic contents as a function of longitudinal distance from the
river banks. Generally it can be observed that the closer the sampling location to the riverbank,
the higher the magnetic component of the iron sand sample. However, the magnetic content also
shows variation within each geographical block (closer block: sample 1, 2, 3, 4 and farther block:
sample 6, 7, 8, 9).
If the volcanic material erosion mechanism dominates the origin of the iron sand deposit, the
closer to the riverbank the contents of the magnetic component should increase accordingly,
presumably in a linear manner. On the other hand, if littoral drift mechanism dominates, the
content of magnetic components should be similar along the shoreline. As our result shows that
the magnetic content compositions shows some degree of conformity to the distance from
riverbanks as well as variation within sample block, both mechanisms (the volcanic materials
erosion and littoral drift) prevails
 FIGURE 3. Magnetic composition contents of iron sand deposit as a function of distance from
riverbanks

CONCLUSION

To conclude, the iron sand mineral deposit in the southern coast of Yogyakarta to the east of
Opak river contains magnetic components at varying compositions. The lowest magnetic
component content is 5.85% and the highest is 95.11%. The content of magnetic component
generally increases with sample block location closer to the riverbank. While within the sample
block, the content of magnetic component varied in a relatively random manner. The origin of
these mineral deposits is therefore deemed due to combined mechanism of volcanic material
erosion and littoral drift by the waves.
 EFFECTS OF HEAVY METALS ON HUMAN HEALTH

Metallic elements are intrinsic components of the environment. Their presence is considered
unique in the sense that it is difficult to remove them completely from the environment once they
enter in it. Metal constitute an important class of toxic substance which are encountered in
numerous occupational and environmental circumstances. The impact of these toxic agents on
human health is currently an area of intense interest due to the ubiquity of exposure.

With the increasing use of a wide verity of metals in industry and in our daily life, problems
arising from toxic metal pollution of the environment have assumed serious dimensions.

Material adapted from: Hudson, T.L, Fox, F.D., and Plumlee, G.S. 1999. Metal Mining and the
Environment, p. 7,20-27,31-35,38-39. Published by the American Geosciences Institute
Environmental Awareness Series.
Modern mining operations actively strive to mitigate potential environmental consequences of
extracting metals, and such operations are strictly regulated in the United States. The key to
effective mitigation lies in implementing scientific and technological advances that prevent or
control undesired environmental impacts.
Operations and waste products associated with metal extraction and processing are the principal
causes of environmental concerns about metal mining. Concerns include:

1. Physical disturbances to the landscape

2. Soil and water contamination
3. Air contamination
4. Public safety
5. Marine Habitat Destruction

TOXIC EFFECTS

In general the toxicity of metal ions to mammalians systems is due to chemical reactivity of the
ions with cellular structural proteins, enzymes and membrane system. The target organs of
specific metal toxicities are usually those organs that accumulate the highest concentrations of
the metal in vivo. This is often dependent on the route of exposure and the chemical compound
of the metal i.e. its valiancy state, volatility, lipid solubility etc.
Besides the general toxicities of metals, we are today also concerned with the potential
carcinogenicity of metal compounds. Certain metals such as chromium and nickel have been
linked with cancers in exposed human populations.
Metals have been shown to causes acute as well as chronic poisoning in man and other
experimental animals. Harmful effects of individual metals are presented briefly below
 American Geological Institute
Alexandria, Virginia

In cooperation with

U.S. Department of the

Society of Society for Mining, Metallurgy, Interior
Economic Geologists and Exploration, Inc. U.S. Geological Survey

American Geological Institute

Alexandria, Virginia

Later chapters describe the mining process, which separates metals from the rocks and
minerals in which they occur, as well as potential environmental impacts and solutions.
Included in this chapter is basic information about metal mining: what the
environmental concerns are, how science and technology can help, why metals are
important, and the steps in the mining cycle.

As scientific and technological advances increase the understanding of the physical and chemical
processes that cause undesired environmen-tal consequences, metal mines and related
beneficiation or smelting facilities apply this understanding to prevent and resolve environmental
problems. Ongoing mining operations and mine closure activities employ several different
mitigation approaches including

1. Reclamation of disturbed lands,

2. Treatments and stabilization of metal-bearing soils,
3. Prevention and treatment of contaminated water,
4. Controls on the amount and character of emissions to the atmosphere,
5. Minimizing waste and recycling raw materials and byproducts.

Better, more cost-effective approaches are needed for dealing with the environmental impacts of
mining, beneficiation, and smelting, especially measures that prevent undesired environmental
impacts. Scientific and technological research, focused on understanding the underlying
processes important to these problems, can provide the foundation for new, cost-effective
solutions. The challenge for future metal production is to develop environmentally sound mining
and processing techniques that can also contribute to more widespread mitigation of historical
environmental problems.
Metals are a class of chemical elements with very useful properties, such as strength,
malleability, and conductivity of heat and electricity. Most metals can be pressed into shapes or
drawn into thin wire without breaking, and they can be melted or fused. Some metals have
magnetic properties, while others are very good conductors of

Metal and other minerals are essential components in such everyday necessities as ourselves
becoming increasingly dependent on a vast array of new technologies - computer information
system and global communications networks all of which need metals. Metals are also integral
to the basic infrastructure of our society : transportation system (highways,bridges, railroads,
airports and vehicles), electrical utilities for consumer power, and food production and
distribution

HEAVY METAL REMOVAL METHODS

Journal of Multidisciplinary Engineering Science Studies (JMESS)
ISSN: 2912-1309
Vol. 1 Issue 1, November 2015

The environmental issues due to globalization and rapid industrialization are becoming more and
more nuisance for human being. Therefore efficient and effective methods are needed especially
for chemical industries. Heavy metals present in wastewater and industrial effluent is major
concern of environmental pollution. Heavy metals are generally considered those whose density
exceeds 5 g per cubic centimeter. Most of the elements falls into this category are highly water
soluble, well-known toxics and carcinogenic agents. Heavy metals are considered to be the
following elements: Copper, Silver, Zinc, Cadmium, Gold, Mercury, Lead, Chromium, Iron,
Nickel, Tin, Arsenic, Selenium, Molybdenum, Cobalt, Manganese, and Aluminum.
They represent serious threats to the human population and the fauna and flora of the receiving
water bodies ([1]. They can be absorbed and accumulated in human body and caused serious
health effects like cancer, organ damage, nervous system damage, and in extreme cases, death.
Also it reduces growth and development. Industrial wastewater streams containing heavy metals
are produced from different industries. Heavy metals such as cadmium, zinc, lead, chromium,
nickel, copper, vanadium, platinum, silver, and titanium are generated in electroplating,
electrolysis depositions, conversioncoating, and anodizing-cleaning, milling, and etching
industries. Significant amount of heavy metals wastes like Tin, lead, and nickel result from
printed circuit board (PCB) manufacturing. Wood processing industries where a chromated
copper-arsenate wood treatment produces arsenic containing wastes; inorganic pigment
manufacturing producing pigments contain chromium compounds and cadmium sulfide;
petroleum refining generates conversion catalysts contaminated with nickel, vanadium, and
chromium; and photographic operations producing film with high concentrations of silver and
ferrocyanide. All of these generators produce a large quantity of wastewaters, residues, and
sludge that can be categorized as hazardous wastes requiring extensive waste treatment [2]. As
the low amounts of these metals are highly toxic, removal of heavy metals from wastewater has
recently become the subject of considerable interest owing to strict legislations. Wastewater
regulations were established to minimize human and environmental exposure to hazardous
chemicals. These include limits on the types and concentration of heavy metals that may be
present in the discharged wastewater. The Maximum Contaminated Level (MCL) standards, for
those heavy metals, established by USEPA [3] are summarized in Table 1. Therefore it is
necessary to treat metal contaminated wastewater prior to its discharge to the environment.
Heavy metal removal from inorganic effluent can be achieved by conventional treatment
processes. Removal of heavy metals from industrial wastewaters can be accomplished through
various treatment options, including such unit operations as chemical precipitation, coagulation,
complexation, activated carbon adsorption, ion exchange, solvent extraction, foam flotation,
electro-deposition, cementation, and membrane operations. This paper describes these various
treatment strategies and methodologies employed for heavy metal removal.

A. Physico-chemical methods Following methods have been used by various researchers for
removal of heavy metals. Physical separation techniques are primarily applicable to
particulate forms of metals, discrete particles or metalbearing particles. Physical separation
consists of mechanical screening, hydrodynamic classification, gravity concentration,
flotation, magnetic separation, electrostatic separation, and attrition scrubbing,. The
efficiency of physical separation depends on various soil characteristics such as particle size
distribution, particulate shape, clay content, moisture content, humic content, heterogeneity
of soil matrix, density between soil matrix and metal contaminants, magnetic properties, and
hydrophobic properties of particle surface
B. Chemical Precipitation Chemical precipitation is one of the most widely used for heavy
metal removal from inorganic effluent in industry due to its simple operation [22]. The
mechanism of this process is based on to produce insoluble metal precipitation by reacting
dissolved metals in the solution and precipitant. In the precipitation process very fine
particles are generated and chemical precipitants, coagulants, and flocculation processes are
used to increase their particle size to remove them as sludge [21, 22]. Once the metals
precipitate and form solids, they can easily be removed, and low metal concentrations, can
be discharged. Removal percentage of metal ions in the solution may be improved to
optimum by changing major parameters such as pH, temperature initial concentration,
charge of the ions etc. The most commonly used precipitation technique is hydroxide
treatment due to its relative simplicity, low cost of precipitant (lime), and ease of automatic
pH control. The solubilities of the various metal hydroxides are minimized for pH in the
range of 8.0 to 11.0.
C. Coagulation and Flocculation
The coagulation-flocculation mechanism is based on zeta potential () measurement as the
criteria to define the electrostatic interaction between pollutants and coagulant-flocculant
agents. Coagulation process is reduced the net surface charge of the colloidal particles to
stabilize by electrostatic repulsion process [24]. Flocculation process continually increases
the particle size to discrete particles through additional collisions and interaction with
inorganic polymers formed by the organic polymers added [25]. Once discrete particles are
flocculated into larger particles, they can be removed or separated by filtration, straining or
floatation. Production of sludge, application of chemicals and transfer of toxic compounds in

D. Electrochemical Treatments Electrolysis: Electrolytic recovery is one technology used to

remove metals from wastewater streams. This process uses electricity to pass a current
through an aqueous metal-bearing solution containing a cathode plate and an insoluble
anode. Electricity can be generated by movements of electrons from one element to another.
Electrochemical process to treat wastewater containing heavy metals is to precipitate the
heavy metals in a weak acidic or neutralized catholyte as hydroxides. Electrochemical
 treatments of wastewater involve electro-deposition, electrocoagulation, electro-flotation and
electro-oxidation [26]. Electrodestabilization of colloids is called coagulation and
precipitation by hydroxide formation to acceptable levels. It is the most common heavy
metal precipitation method forming coagulants by electrolytic oxidation and destabilizing
contaminants to form folc [27]. The electro-coagulation process the coagulant is generated in
situ by electrolytic oxidation of an appropriate anode material. In this process, charged ionic
metal species are removed from wastewater by allowing it to react with anion in the effluent.
This process is characterized by reduced sludge production, no requirement for chemical
use, and ease of operation. However, chemical precipitation requires a large amount of
chemicals to reduce metals to an acceptable level for discharge. Other drawbacks are huge
sludge production, slow metal precipitation, poor settling, the aggregation of metal
precipitates, and the long-term environmental impacts of sludge disposal [28]. It changes the
aqueous pollution problem to a solid waste disposal problem without recovering the metal.
E. Biological Methods Biological removal of heavy metals in wastewater involves the use of
biological techniques for the elimination of pollutants from wastewater. In this processes
microorganisms play a role of settling solids in the solution. Activated sludge, trickling
filters, stabilization ponds are widely used for treating wastewater. Activated sludge is the
most common option uses microorganisms in the treatment process to break down organic
material with aeration and agitation, and then allows solids to settle out. Bacteriacontaining
activated sludge is continually recirculated back to the aeration basin to increase the rate
of organic decomposition. Most of the research on heavy metals removal in biological
systems has been directed towards the suspended growth activated sludge process. Trickling
Filters which consist beds of coarse media (often stones or plastic) 3-10 ft. deep help to grow
microorganisms. Wastewater is sprayed into the air (aeration), then allowed to trickle
through the media and microorganisms break down organic materials in the wastewater.
Trickling filters drain at the bottom and the wastewater is collected and then undergoes
sedimentation. Stabilization ponds or lagoons are slow, cheap, and relatively inefficient,
biological method that can be used for various types of wastewater. They rely on the
interaction of sunlight, algae, microorganisms, and oxygen. Biosorption is another method
that can use to remove heavy metals from wastewater. Sorption process is transfer of ions
from solution phase to the solid phase, actually describes a group of processes, which
includes adsorption and precipitation reactions. Adsorption has become one of the
alternative treatment techniques for wastewater. Basically, adsorption is a mass transfer
process and substances bound by physical and or chemical interactions to solid surface [3].
Various low-cost adsorbents, derived from agricultural waste, industrial by-product, natural
material, or modified biopolymers, have been recently developed and applied for the
removal of heavy metals from metal-contaminated water. Use of activated carbon in water
and wastewater treatment has been oriented towards organics removal [39]. Research efforts
on inorganics removal by activated carbon, specifically metallic ions, have been markedly
1imited [39] Selective adsorption by red mud [40], coal [41], photocatalyst beads [42], nano-
particles [43] fertilizer industrial waste [44], biomass [45], activated sludge biomass [46],
algae [47, 48] etc. has generated increasing excitement.
Industrial by-products such as fly ash [49], waste iron, iron slags [50], hydrous titanium
oxide [51, 52],
can be chemically modified to enhance its removal performance for metal removal from
wastewater. Recently, research for the removal of heavy metals from industrial effluent has
 been focused on the use of agricultural by-products as adsorbents through biosorption
process. New resources such as hazelnut shell, rice husk, pecan shells, jackfruit, maize cob
or husk, rice straw, rice husk, coconut shell etc can be used as an adsorbent for heavy metal
uptake after chemical modification or conversion by heating into activated carbon or biochar
[3, 53]. They found that the maximum metal removal occurred by those biomass due to
containing of cellulose, lignin, carbohydrate and silica in their adsorbent [54]. Biopolymers
are posse a number of different functional groups, such as hydroxyls and amines, which
increase the efficiency of metal ion uptake [55]. They are widely use in industrially as they
are capable of lowering transition metal ion concentrations to subpart per billion
concentrations. New polysaccharidebased-materials are described as biopolymer adsorbents
(derived from chitin, chitosan, and starch) for the removal of heavy metals from the
wastewater. The sorption mechanisms of polysaccharide-basedmaterials are complicated and
depend on pH [55]. Also hydrogels, which are cross linked hydrophilic polymers, are widely
used in the purification of wastewater. The removal is basically governed by the water
diffusion into the hydrogel, carrying the heavy metals inside especially in the absence of
strongly binding sites. Maximum binding capacity increases with higher pH due to
polymerization/cross linking

III. EVALUATION OF HEAVY METAL REMOVAL PROCESSES

Removal of heavy metals from the effluent is very important part of the research carried out in
environmental field. Various methods tried by the researchers include physical, chemical and
biological methods. Physico-chemical treatments offer various advantages such as rapid process,
easy operation and control, various input loads etc. Whenever it is required, chemical plants can
be modified. These treatment systems require a lower space and installation cost. Their benefits
are outweighed by a number of drawbacks such as their high operational costs due to the
chemicals used, high-energy consumption and handling costs for toxic sludge disposal. If the
chemical costs are possible to reduce anyhow, physico-chemical treatments have been found as
one of the most suitable treatments for inorganic compounds produced from various industries
which cannot removed from any biological and physical techniques. Studies on biological
methods are very important area of research with huge potential for research and applicability for
removal of heavy metals. Various biological methods include trickling filter, biosorption,
activated sludge process can be used. Biological methods by using various low materials were
found be

CONCLUSION
Biological treatments are eco friendly, best removal and low cost methods. Lot of bio adsorbents
can be found in nature. Physical and other most common chemical methods are produced toxic
sludge which is unable to settle within industries. Although chemical cost is high chemical
treatments is one of the most suitable treatments for toxic inorganic compounds produced from
various industries which cannot removed from any biological and physical techniques.
 EJEAFChe, Electronic Journal Of Environmental,Agricultural And Food Chemistry

ISSN: 1573-4377
REMEDIATION AND BIOREMEDIATION

There is an increasing trend of uranium accumulating in soils due to a number of deliberate

or wrong practices. Public and political pressure to solve a problem situation of this nature
occurs when critical toxic levels are reached. As a consequence, there would be a risk for
ecosystems, agro-systems and health. It is suggested that knowledge of the mechanisms that
control the behaviour of such heavy metals must be improved and can be used for risk
assessment and proposition of remediation treatments (Berthelin and Leyval., 2000). Soil
remediation has to be considered when levels of toxic elements and substances present are
encountered. The choice of the most suitable treatment depends on the nature of
environmental hazards imposed by the presence of toxic substances in the soil, site
characteristics, concentration and types of pollutants to be removed. The selection of
treatment takes into account the risk assessment before, during, and after remediation, but
must also consider the cost of remediation and the designated use of the land.

SOLIDIFICATION / STABILIZATION
The purpose of compaction and stabilization is to care for contaminated soil Contaminants are
easily immobilized from potential leaching to the environment.
Solidification is the bonding of waste / soil into solid mass to reduce contaminants
INSITU MOBILIZATION
All in situ immobilization treatments in the long-term may have a positive effect. The order of
magnitude of the long term involved in the retention of pollutants after remediation is probably
close to the time scale involved in agronomic and pedologic processes. However, immobilization
of heavy metals by microorganisms, plants, or soil organic stays for a short time; since after the
death of the microorganisms and decomposition of organic matter, toxic elements may will be
mobile again. However, if heavy metals are incorporated in the mineral structures of soil, a
long-term fixation may be expected. Thus, the techniques considered to modify the
physicochemical state and the location of toxic materials in soil should take this parameter
into account, and only those which give long-term fixation should be used
CHEMICAL REDUCTION TREATMENTS
Like immobilization, contaminated environments can be treated in situ or ex situ to reduce
pollutants, their toxicity and mobility. The redox potential (Eh) depends on the availability of
oxygen in soil, water and sediment, and in biochemical reactions by microorganisms that release
oxygen for respiration.
BIOREMEDIATION
The purpose of bioremediation is to utilize natural biodegradation
Process to clean up contaminated sites.
PHYTOREMEDIATION
Phytoremediation utilizes plant nutrients to be consumed in water and nutrients
Through the roots, transpire water through the leaves (a plant known for its rapid growth and
high water levels.This plant and their microbial active rhizosphere will convert the pollutants,
including nitrogen nutrients, into valuable biomass and use waste water through neglect and
transpiration), and Acts as a transformation System to metabolize organic compounds, such as
oil and pesticides. Or they may absorb and catalyze toxic bioaccumulation including heavy
metals, lead, cadmium, and selenium.
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