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EXPERIMENT 1: BASIC TECHNIQUES OF HANDLING CHEMICALS AND

LABORATORY APPARATUS

Objectives

1. To understand and abide laboratory safety rules and regulations


2. To acquire the correct techniques of handling laboratory apparatus

Handling of Chemicals

SAFETY IS THE PRIORITY. Take every precaution to prevent chemicals from coming into contact
with your skin and clothing.

All volatile or hazardous chemicals such as concentrated acids are placed in the fume cupboards.
Chemicals that are less hazardous are placed on shelves or benches. It is wise to assume that all
chemicals are hazardous.

Before using any chemicals, read labels carefully.

When pouring out reagents, hold the part of the bottle where the label is placed so that it is against your
palm as shown in Figure 1.1.

Take only the necessary amount of chemicals required for your experiments.

NEVER return unused chemicals to their respective bottles to avoid contamination.

Discard excess chemicals into appropriate waste bottles.

Wash hands thoroughly before leaving the laboratory.

Figure 1.1: Transferring solution from a reagent bottle

Handling of Apparatus

Check the condition of the apparatus and ensure that it is clean. Report any breakage or malfunction of
apparatus to your instructor immediately. Use and handle apparatus with care.
(A) Graduated or measuring cylinder

A graduated or measuring cylinder is used for measuring solutions where approximate volumes
are required.

Steps in using the measuring cylinder

Rinse with distilled water before and after use.

Fill the cylinder with a solution to the required level. The surface of the solution in the cylinder
will form a curve known as meniscus.

Take the bottom of the meniscus that aligns with the calibration mark at eye level as the
reading. Refer to Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2: A meniscus

(B) Pipette

The pipette is used for transferring an accurate and precise volume of a solution. The pipette
comes in various volumes, i.e. 1 mL, 5 mL, 10 mL, 20 mL, 25 mL and 50 mL.

Steps in using a pipette

(a) Cleaning a pipette

Rinse the pipette with distilled water. Then rinse again with the solution to be transferred.

To rinse a pipette with a solution, draw a small amount of the solution into the pipette with a pipette
filler or pipette bulb as shown in Figures 1.3 and 1.4.
Figure 1.3: Pipette filler Figure 1.4: Pipette bulb

iii. Close the opening at the top of the pipette with the tip of your index finger. Then,
position the pipette horizontally and rotate it so that the whole pipette is covered
with the solution as shown in Figure 1.5.

Discard the solution. The pipette is now ready for use.

Figure 1.5: Cleaning a pipette

(b) Transferring a solution


Pour a slightly more than the required amount of solution into a beaker.
ii. Dip the tip of the pipette into the solution. The tip should be placed well below the
surface of the solution.

iii. Use a pipette filler or bulb to overfill the pipette. Place the index finger
over the top of the pipette to adjust the level of the solution to the
graduated mark.
iv. Transfer the solution into a receiving flask by holding the pipette vertically and
allowing the liquid to drain. Do not blow or shake the pipette as the final drop has been
accounted for in the calibration of the pipette.
NOTE: NEVER fill the pipette directly from the reagent bottle.

(C) Volumetric flask

A volumetric flask is used to prepare a solution with an accurate concentration at a fixed volume.
The flask cannot be heated or used for preparing hot solutions.

Steps in preparing a standard solution


Weigh the solid accurately in a weighing bottle and transfer it to a clean dry beaker.

Add distilled water to dissolve it. Stir the solution and, if necessary, heat it to dissolve the solid.
Let the solution cool to room temperature.

Pour the solution into a volumetric flask using a filter funnel.

Rinse the beaker and transfer the solution into the volumetric flask.

Repeat Step (iv).

Add distilled water to the flask until three quarters full. Then add distilled water, a drop at a time,
until the bottom of the meniscus is aligned with the graduated mark.

Stopper the flask, invert and shaket it thoroughly.

Figure 1.6: Volumetric flask Figure 1.7: Handling a volumetric flask

NOTE : When diluting concentrated acid, always add acid to water.

(D) Burette

A burette is used to dispense a solution in precise volumes. It is used primarily to dispense a


reactant for the process of titration.

Steps in using a burette

Clean the burette with distilled water.

Rinse the burette with approximately 5 - 10 mL of the solution to be used by holding the
burette horizontally and rotating it so that the solution covers the inner wall. Discard
the solution through the tip.

Clamp the burette vertically to a retort stand.

Close the stopcock. Use a clean dry filter funnel to pour the solution into the burette until
the level is slightly above the zero mark.
Remove the filter funnel from the burette. Turn the stopcock so that the burette tip is filled
with the solution.
Check for air bubbles. If there are any air bubbles, tap gently on the side of the burette
while the solution is flowing.
Figure 1.8: Filling a burette

Figure 1.9 : Apparatus set up for titration

(b) Steps in titration

Place a piece of white tile beneath a conical flask. The most commonly used flask is a 250 mL conical flask
(Erlenmeyer flask).

Record the initial reading to two decimal places ( 0.05 ).

During titration control the stopcock with your left hand while swirling the conical flask with your right
hand as shown in Figure 1.10.
For the first titration, dispense the solution slowly until it reaches the endpoint. Record the final reading.
The difference between the final and initial readings is the gross volume.

In the subsequent titrations, dispense the solution quickly up to a few milliliters from the endpoint. Titrate
a drop at a time until the endpoint is reached.

Repeat the titration twice.

Figure 1.10: Titrating a solution

NOTE : The point at which the indicator changes colour permanently is called the endpoint.

(E) Burner

Several types of laboratory burners can be used for heating in experiments.


Bunsen burner Portable burner
Figure 1.11: Types of burner

Steps in lighting the burner

Before lighting the burner, control the air vent by adjusting the collar as shown in Figures 1.12a
and 1.12b.

ii. Turn on the gas valve and light the burner as shown in Figure 1.12c and 1.12d.

iii. Adjust the flame by turning the collar so that a medium blue flame is obtained.

iv. Stay alert throughout the experiment. If a problem occurs, turn off the burner
immediately. Never leave your table unattended.

Figure 1.12a: Opening the air vent Figure 1.12b: Closing the air vent

Figure 1.12c: Tap closed Figure 1.12d: Tap opened

CAUTION

Within the vicinity of a flame, treat all chemicals as flammable. Water is the only non-flammable liquid
you will encounter in the laboratory.
Never heat any organic solvent directly with a flame. Such solvents should be heated in a water bath
or on a hot plate.

Keep away all volatile liquids from fire sources.

(F) Weighing scale

In some experiments, students are required to weigh the mass of compounds. However, different
experiments require different levels of accuracy.

(a) Gross weight

Gross weight refers to a mass of compound that is not used in quantitative calculations. Use
a top-loading balance for measuring gross weights. The level of accuracy is approximately
0.1g.

Figure 1.13: A top-loading balance

Steps in using a top-loading balance

i. Press the ON/OFF button and wait until it displays 0.00 g.


ii. Place a container on the balance pan. Press the TARE button to set the reading to
0.00 g.
iii. Remove the container and carefully place the substance to be weighed into it.
iv. Place the container on to the balance pan and record the mass.

Accurate weight

All chemicals used in quantitative calculations must be weighed accurately.


Use the analytical balance located in the weighing room. The level of accuracy is up to four
decimal places (0.0000 g).
Figure 1.14: An analytical balance

Steps in using an analytical balance

i. Ensure all three doors of the balance are closed and the air bubble in the spirit level is
located in the middle of the ring before turning on the balance.

ii. Press the ON/OFF button.

iii. Once the balance is initialised, set the reading to zero by pressing the TARE/RE-ZERO
button as shown in Figure 1.15.

Figure 1.15: Pressing the TARE/RE-ZERO button

vi Open one of the side doors and place the weighing bottle on the balance pan. Then gently
close the sliding glass door.
v. Press the TARE/RE-ZERO button to cancel the weight of the weighing bottle. The
display will again read 0.0000 g.
vi. Remove the weighing bottle from the balance pan. Carefully place the chemical to be
weighed.
vii. Place the weighing bottle onto the pan and close the glass door. Record the mass of the
chemical.
viii. If the desired mass is not obtained, repeat Step (vi).

Caution: Do not lean on the beach while weighing as vibrations can affect your readings.

ACTIVITY: Determining the density of water


The following apparatus are provided:

Burette
Glass rod
Filter funnel
Beaker (50 mL)
Pipette (10 mL)
Analytical balance
Top loading balance
Measuring cylinder (20 mL)

i. Write the procedure on how to determine the density of 10 mL of water using the apparatus
provided.

ii. Based on the procedure suggested, determine the density of water.

iii. Compare the density of water obtained using different apparatus.

DATA SHEET

EXPERIMENT 1: BASIC TECHNIQUES OF HANDLING CHEMICALS AND


LABORATORY APPARATUS

NAME : ____________________________________________________
GROUP : ____________________________________________________

LECTURER : ____________________________________________________

DATE : ____________________________________________________

ACTIVITY : Determining the density of water

OBJECTIVE : ____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

PROCEDURE :

RESULTS

Temperature of water : _________________________

Atmospheric pressure : _________________________

Volume of water : _________________________

Reading Burette Pipette Measuring cylinder


Mass of empty beaker/g
Mass of beaker + water/g
Mass of water transferred/g
Density of water/g mL-1

DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:

REFERENCES:
EXPERIMENT 2: PREPARATION AND DILUTION OF SOLUTION

Objective
1. To acquire the right technique of preparing solutions with desired concentration

Introduction:

In the laboratory, sometimes you need to prepare a solution from solid or liquid chemicals. From the
solution, you are required to dilute it with solvent.

The concentration of a solution can be expressed in unit of moleL-1, gL-1 and others.
In this experiment, you are to employ correct techniques to prepare a solution and then dilute it to
several concentrations.

The formula for dilution is M1 x V1 = M2 x V2

Where M1 = initial concentration of solution


V1 = initial volume of solution
M2 = final concentration of diluted solution
V2 = final volume of diluted solution

Method

Weigh accurately approximately 0.5 g hydrated copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4.5H2O in a


weighing bottle and record the mass

Add some amount of distilled water to the weighing bottle and stir the solid using glass rod,
add more water to dissolve all the solid.

Pour the solution into a 100 ml volumetric flask through the funnel. Rinse the weighing
bottle, glass rod, and the funnel with distilled water and the rinsing water should ALL go into
the volumetric flask.

Add distilled water to the volumetric flask until the level of solution approaches the graduated
mark, then make up the level of 100 ml by using dropper.

Stopper the volumetric flask and shake the volumetric flask so that homogeneous solution can
be obtained. Name the solution as P solution.

Pipette 25.0 ml of solution P and transfer it into another empty 100 ml volumetric flask.
Repeat method 4 for the dilution process.

Stopper the volumetric flask and shake or swirl it to obtain homogeneous solution. Label the
diluted solution as solution Q.
DATA SHEET

EXPERIMENT 2: PREPARATION AND DILUTION OF SOLUTION

NAME : ____________________________________________________

GROUP : ____________________________________________________

LECTURER : ____________________________________________________

DATE : ____________________________________________________

Mass of g
Weighing bottle
Weighing bottle& hydrated copper(II) sulphate
Hydrated copper(II) sulphate

1. Calculate the concentration of P solution in g L-1 unit

2. Calculate the concentration of P solution in mole L-1 unit

3. Determine the concentration of Q solution in mole L-1 unit

4. Calculate the number of times P solution has been diluted to produce Q solution

DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:

REFERENCES:
EXPERIMENT 3: DETERMINATION OF THE FORMULA UNIT OF A COMPOUND

Objectives

1. To synthesise a zinc chloride compound

2. To determine the formula unit of zinc chloride

Introduction

One of the main properties of a compound is its chemical composition which can be identified simply
by determining the elements present. Although qualitative analysis is very useful, chemists also need
to know the quantitative aspect of the compound. A quantitative analysis can be used to determine
the composition of an unknown compound. Once the composition of the compound is known, its
formula unit can be determined. For example, a compound containing 0.1 mole of silver and 0.1 mole
of bromine will have a formula unit of AgBr.

In this experiment, you will prepare a simple compound composed of zinc and chlorine. Once the
mass of zinc and the mass of the compound are known, the mass of chlorine can be determined. Using
these masses, the percentage composition of the product can be determined and the formula unit can
be calculated.

Apparatus Chemical reagents

Hot plate 6 M HCl


Glass rod Zinc powder
White tiles
Crucible tongs
Crucible (50 mL)
Analytical balance
Measuring cylinder (10 mL)

Procedure

1. Weigh the crucible and record the exact mass.

2. Place approximately 0.25 g of zinc. Weigh the crucible with its contents and determine the
exact mass of zinc.

3. Carefully add in 10 mL of 6 M HCl solution into the crucible containing the zinc powder and
stir the contents gently using a glass rod. A vigorous chemical reaction will occur and hydrogen
gas will be released. Caution: Carry out
this step in a fume cupboard. Do not work near a fire source. Wet hydrogen gas can cause
explosions.)

4. If the zinc powder has not dissolved completely, continue adding the acid, 5 mL at a time until
all of the zinc is dissolved. The amount of acid to be used must not exceed 20 mL.

5. Place the crucible on a hot plate in the fume cupboard and heat the contents slowly so that the
compound does not splatter during the heating process.

6. Heat the compound gently until it is completely dry. Make sure that the compound does not
melt.
7. Allow the crucible to cool to room temperature. Then weigh it.

8. Reheat the crucible. Let it cool to room temperature and then weigh it again. Repeat the
procedure until the difference in mass does not exceed 0.02 g.

9. Determine the mass of zinc chloride from the final weight of the sample. Calculate the mass of
chlorine in the zinc chloride.

10. Calculate the formula unit of zinc chloride.


DATA SHEET

EXPERIMENT 3: DETERMINATION OF FORMULA UNIT FOR A COMPOUND

NAME : ____________________________________________________

GROUP : ____________________________________________________

LECTURER : ____________________________________________________

DATE : ____________________________________________________

OBJECTIVES : ____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

PROCEDURE :

RESULTS

DATA TAKEN:

Mass of crucible
Mass of crucible and zinc powder
Mass of zinc powder
Mass of crucible + Zinc Chloride
Mass after 1st heating
Mass after 2nd heating
Mass after 3rd heating

Mass of zinc chloride


Mass of chlorine

Calculation to determine the formula unit of zinc chloride

Questions:
1. Explain why the content is not weighed while it is hot.
2. Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction

3. Compare the calculated formula unit with the true formula unit of zinc chloride

4. Suggest the possible reasons for difference in experimental value and the true value

DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:

REFERENCES:
EXPERIMENT 4: DETERMINATION OF CONCENTRATION OF ACID SOLUTION

Objectives

1. To determine the concentration of sulfuric acid solution


2. To determine the concentration of acetic acid in vinegar
3. To acquire the correct techniques of titration.

Introduction

Qualitative analysis has many applications in everyday life, for example, to determine the amount of
acid in vinegar, alcohol in wine or carbon dioxide in soft drinks. This analysis involves the volume
measurement of solutions and is called volumetric analysis. Titration is one of the techniques used in
volumetric analysis.

Vinegar is an acetic acid (CH3COOH) solution which can be prepared by bacterial oxidation of dilute
alcohol. In this experiment, the acid-base titration is used to determine the concentration of the
vinegar that reacts with a standard NaOH solution.

Apparatus Chemical reagents

Burette vinegar
Glass rod Distilled water
White tile Phenolphthalein
Pipette filler H2SO4 stock solution
Filter funnel 0.20 M standard NaOH solution
Beaker (250ml)
Conical flask (250ml)
Volumetris flask (250ml)
Pipette (5ml,10ml, and 25ml)

Procedure

(A) Determination of concentration of sulfuric acid

1. Fill approximately 100ml of distilled water into a 250ml beaker


2. Rinse a clean 10 ml pipette with the H2SO4 stock solution
3. Pipette 10 ml of the stock solution and transfer it into the beaker containing the distilled water
4. Stir the solution with a glass rod and transfer it into a 250 ml volumetric flask
5. Add distilled water to the volumetric flask up to the graduated mark. Stopper and shake the
flask to obtain a homogeneous solution.
6. Rinse a clean 25ml pipette with the diluted H2SO4 acid solution.
7. Pipette 25 ml of the diluted acid into a 250ml conical flask and add 2 drops of phenolphthalein.
8. Fill a burette with 0.20M standard NaOH solution and record the initial burette reading
9. Titrate the acid with the standard NaOH solution.
10. Record the final burette reading
11. Repeat the titration three times.
12. Calculate the concentration of the
i. diluted H2SO4 solution
ii. H2SO4 stock solution

(B) Determination of concentration of acetic acid in vinegar


1. Pipette 5.0 ml of vinegar into a conical flask
2. Add approximately 50 ml of distilled water and 2 drops of phenolphthalein.
3. Titrate with the standard NaOH solution
4. Record the final burette reading
5. Calculate the concentration of acetic acid in vinegar.
EXPERIMENT 4: DETERMINATION OF CONCENTRATION OF ACID SOLUTION

Name :

Group :

Date :

Lecturers :

Objective :

Introduction :

RESULTS

(A) Determination of concentration of sulfuric acid

Volume of sulfuric acid used =

Burette reading/mL Gross I II III


Final reading
Initial reading
Volume of NaOH used

Average volume of 0.20 M NaOH used =

i. Molarity of diluted sulfuric acid =


ii.Molarity of sulfuric acid stock solution =

(B) Determination of the concentration of acetic acid in vinegar

Volume of vinegar used =

Burette reading/mL Gross I II III


Final reading
Initial reading
Volume of NaOH used

Average volume of NaOH used =

Calculate the molarity of acetic acid in vinegar.

CONCLUSION:
DISCUSSION:
REFERENCES:
EXPERIMENT 5: MOLECULAR GEOMETRY

Objectives

1. To view molecules in 3-dimensional structure

2. To determine the shape of molecules using the VSEPR theory

3. To determine the type of hybridisation of the central atom

Introduction

The first step toward visualising the structure of a molecule is to convert its molecular formula to its
Lewis structure. A Lewis structure is a 2-dimensional structural formula that shows how the atoms are
attached to each other within a molecule. It does not reveal the overall shape.

The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory is used to determine the geometry of a
molecule. In the VSEPR theory, the repulsion between two pairs of electrons (i.e. bonding pairs or lone
pairs) in the valence shell is the dominant factor that determines the geometry of a molecule. The
electron pairs around the central atom are oriented as far apart as possible to reduce the repulsion
between them. In this case, the lone pairs repel more strongly than the bonding pairs.

The geometry of a molecule is determined by the position of the terminal atoms that are bonded to the
central atom. The lone pairs will influence the bond angles but do not contribute to the shape. The
hybridisation of the central atom can be predicted based on the basic geometry of a molecule. The
number of hybrid orbitals is the same as the number of electron pairs around the central atom.

Apparatus

3D molecular model set (4 students per set)

Procedure

(A) Basic geometry

1. Using a 3-D model set, construct structures with the following geometry:
i. Linear
ii. Trigonal planar
iii. Tetrahedral
iv. Trigonal bipyramidal
v. Octahedral

2. Draw the structures in Table 7.1

3. Determine the bond angles and write the general formulae to represent the molecules. Use
the symbol A as the central atom and X as the terminal atom.

(B) Molecular geometry

1. Draw Lewis structures and construct the molecular model for the following molecules:
i. CO2 and BeCl2
ii. BH3 and SO2
iii. CH4, NH3 and H2O
iv. PF5, AsCl5, SF4, ICl3 and XeF2
v. SF6, BrF5 and XeF4

2. Draw and name the molecular geometry of each molecule in Table 7.2.

3. State the bond angle(s).

4. Write the general formula of each structure.

5. Determine the type of hybridisation of the central atom.

Excercises

1. What is the most important factor in determining the geometry of a molecule or an ion?

2. List down the steps to determine the molecular shape of a compound.

3. Explain why the geometry of H2O is not linear whereas CO2 is linear.

4. How do you determine the type of hybridisation of the central atom? Relate the molecular
geometry with the type of hybridisation.
DATA SHEET

EXPERIMENT 6

Table 4.1 : Basic geometrical drawings and bond angles

Molecular Geometry Bond Angle General Formula

linear

Trigonal planar

tetrahedral

Trigonal bipyramidal

octahedral
Table 4.2 : Molecular geometry and bond angle for particular compounds

Compound Lewis Molecular Bond General Type of


Structure Geometry Angle Formula Hybridisation

CO2

BeCI2

BH3

SO2

CH4

NH3

H2O

PF5

AsCI5

SF4

ICI3

XeF2

SF6

BrF5

XeF4
EXPERIMENT 7 : ACID-BASE TITRATION

Objectives

1. To prepare a standard solution of oxalic acid

2. To standardise a NaOH solution

3. To determine the concentration of HCl solution

4. To acquire the correct techniques of titration

Introduction

Titration is a technique used to determine the concentration of a solution using another solution with a
known concentration.

Standards in acid-base titrations

One of the solutions involved in a titration is used as a standard solution. The standard solution can
be classified as either primary or secondary. A primary standard solution is prepared by dissolving
an accurately weighed pure solid of a known molar mass in a known volume of distilled water.

A primary standard is used to determine the molarity of the other standard solution, known as a
secondary standard. For example, oxalic acid, H2C2O4, and potassium hydrogen phthalate,
KHC8H4O4, are two common primary standards used to determine the concentration of bases
(secondary standard).

Solutions of NaOH and HCl used in titrations need to be standardised because they contain
impurities. Solid NaOH is hygroscopic (it absorbs moisture). Thus, it is difficult to obtain its accurate
mass. The standardised base can then be used to determine the concentration of other acids.

Equivalence point and end point

An equivalence point is the point at which exact reaction occurs between the two reagents according
to the stoichiometry. To detect this equivalence point, an indicator which produces a change in colour
is often used. The point at which the indicator changes colour is called the end point. The end point
and equivalence point should ideally be the same.

Chemical equations

In this acid base titration, the neutralisation reactions involved are:

H2C2O4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2C2O4(aq) + 2H2O(l) . . .(1)


HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) . . .(2)
Apparatus Chemical reagents

Burette x M HCl
Glass rod y M NaOH
White tiles Distilled water
Retort stand Phenolphthalein
Filter funnel Hydrated oxalic acid, H2C2O4.2H2O
Beaker (50 mL)
Pipette (25 mL)
Weighing bottle
Analytical balance
Conical flask (250 mL)
Volumetric flask (250 mL)
Measuring cylinder (50 mL)

Procedure

(A) Preparation of standard solution

1. Weigh the exact mass, 3.25 g of hydrated oxalic acid, H2C2O4.2H2O and record.

2. Place the acid in a 50 mL beaker. Add approximately 30 mL of distilled water to dissolve


the solid.

3. Transfer the solution into a 250 mL volumetric flask. Rinse the beaker and pour the content
into the flask. Add distilled water up to the graduated mark of the volumetric flask.

4. Replace the stopper and shake the flask to obtain a homogeneous solution.

5. Calculate the concentration of the standard oxalic acid solution.

NOTE: Use this solution to standardise the NaOH solution in Part (B).

(B) Standardisation of NaOH solution

1. Rinse a clean burette with a given NaOH solution to be standardised.

2. Fill the burette with the NaOH solution. Ensure there are no air bubbles trapped at the tip.

3. Record the initial burette reading to two decimal places.

4. Pipette 25 mL of oxalic acid solution from Part (A) into a 250 mL conical flask. Add 2
drops of phenolphthalein to the oxalic acid solution.

5. Place a white tile underneath the flask so that any colour change can be clearly observed.

6. Titrate the acid with NaOH solution from the burette. During the titration, swirl the flask
continuously.

7. Upon reaching the endpoint, a temporary pink solution appears but fades when the solution
is swirled. Continue titrating until a pale pink colour persists for more than 30 seconds.
This is the endpoint.

8. Record the final burette reading to two decimal places.


9. Repeat the titration three times.

10. Calculate the molarity of the NaOH solution.

(C) Determination of the molar concentration of HCl solution.

1. Pipette 25 mL of a given HCl solution into a 250 mL conical flask.

2. Add two drops of phenolphthalein.

3. Repeat Steps 5-9 as in Part (B).

4. Calculate the concentration of HCl.


DATA SHEET

EXPERIMENT 7: ACID - BASE TITRATION

Name :

Group :

Date :

Lecturers :

Objective :

Introduction :

RESULTS

(A) Preparation of standard solution

i. Exact mass of hydrated oxalic acid =


ii. Moles of hydrated oxalic acid =
iii. Molarity of oxalic acid =

(B) Standardisation of NaOH solution

Burette reading/mL Gross I II III


Final reading
Initial reading
Volume of NaOH used

Average volume of NaOH used =

Calculate the molarity of NaOH solution.

(C) Determination of the molar concentration of HCl solution

Burette reading/mL Gross I II III


Final reading
Initial reading
Volume of NaOH used

Average volume of NaOH used =

Calculate the molarity of HCl solution.

CONCLUSION:
DISCUSSION:
REFERENCES:
EXPERIMENT 8: CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

Objectives

1. To study the effect of concentration and temperature on chemical equilibrium

2. To determine the equilibrium constant, Kc of a reaction

Introduction

There are two kinds of chemical reactions, i.e. irreversible and reversible. A reversible reactions will
react a dynamic equilibrium when the rate of forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction.
At this stage, one cannot see any changes in the system. However, this does not mean that the reactions
have stopped. The reactions are still reoccurring but at the same rate.

The factors that influence chemical equilibrium are:


i. Concentration
ii. Temperature
iii. Pressure (for reactions that involve gases)

Le Chateliers principles is used to determine the position of the equilibrium when one of the above
factors is changed.

Le Chateliers principles states that if a system at equilibrium is disturbed by a change in temperature,


pressure or concentration of one or more components, the system will shift its equilibrium position in
such a way so as to counteract the effect of the disturbance.

The Effect of Concentration

According to the Le Chateliers principles, the change in concentration of any substance in a mixture
at equilibrium will cause the equilibrium position to shift in the forward or reverse direction to restore
the equilibrium.

Consider a general reaction as follows:

A + B C + D

If substance A or B is added to a mixture at equilibrium, the reaction will shift forward to reduce the
concentration of A and B until equilibrium is reestablished.
On the other hand, if substance C or D is added, the equilibrium will shift in the direction that will
reduce the concentration of C and D, i.e. from right to left until equilibrium is reestablished.
The Effect of Temperature

The effect of temperature on an equilibrium system depends on whether the reaction is


exothermic or endothermic. Consider the following system:

E + F G + heat

If the forward reaction is exothermic, then the heat released is considered as one of the products. Heating
the system will cause the equilibrium to shift in the reverse directions so as to reduce the excess heat.
Thus, the concentration of E and F will increase while the concentration of G decreases. However, when
the system is cooled, the equilibrium will move forward to increase the heat in the system. The same
principle can be applied to explain an endothermic system.

In this experiment, you will study the effect of changes in concentration and temperature on two
equilibrium systems. You can notice the shift in equilibrium through changes in colour or phases such
as precipitation or dissolution.

Apparatus Chemical raegents

Burette 6 M HCl
Ice bath 0.2 M CoCl2
Test tube 2.5 M NaOH
Water bath 0.1 M KSCN
Pipette (10 ml) 0.1 M Fe(NO3)3
Beaker (100 ml) 0.5 M SbCl3 in 6 M HCl
Conical flask (100 ml)
Measuring cylinder (10 ml and 100 ml)

(A) The effect of concentration in the formation of thiocyanoiron(III) complex ion

The thiocyanoiron (III) complex ion is formed when iron(III) ion, Fe3+, is added to the thiocyanate ion,
SCN-. The equation for the reaction is

Fe3+ (aq) + 2SCN- (aq) [Fe(SCN)2]+ (aq)

Procedure

1. Place 2 ml of 0.1 M iron(III) nitrate, Fe(NO3)3, solution and 3 ml of 0.1 M potassium


thiocyanate, KSCN, solution in a 100 ml beaker.
2. Add 50 ml of distilled water to reduce the intensity of the blood red solution.

3. Place approximately 5 ml each of this solution into four test tubes.


a) To the first test tube, add 1 ml of 0.1 M Fe(NO3)3
b) To the second test tube, add 1 ml of 0.1 M KSCN
c) To the third test tube, add 6-8 drops of 2.5 M NaOH
d) The fourth test tube serves as a control
4. Tabulate the observations.

(B) The Effect of Temperature

The reaction between hexaaquacolbalt (II) complex ion with chloride ion produces tetrachlorocolbalt
(II) ion. The equation for the reaction is given below:

[Co(H2O)6]2+ (aq) + 4Cl- (aq) [CoCl4]2- (aq) + 6H2O (l)


(Pink) (blue)

Procedure:

1. Place 4 ml of 0.2 M CoCl2 solution into a conical flask.


2. Add 12 ml of 6 M HCl and swirl the flask.
3. A purple solution should form, indicating a mixture of pink and blue. If the solution appears
pink,
add more HCl ; if it is blue, add more distilled water.
4. Devide the purple solution into 3 separate test tubes.
a) Leave one test tube at room temperature.
b) Place the second test tube in the ice bath.
c) Place the test tube in a water bath at 80 90 0C
5. Record the colour of the solution in each test tube. Remove the second and third test tube and
leave them at room temperature. Observe the change in colour.

Exercise

Determine whether the forward reaction is exothermic or endothermic. Discuss.


(C) Determination of the equilibrium constant.

The following reaction is an example of a heterogenous system:

SbCl3 (aq) + H2O (l) SbOCl (s) + 2 HCl (aq)

The expression for the equilibrium constant is

Kc = [HCl] 2
[SbCl3]

Procedure

1. Pippete 5 ml of antimony chloride (0.5 M SbCl3 in 6 M HCl) into a conical flask.


2. Carefully add distilled water from a burette into the conical flask while swirling until a milky
solution is obtained.
3. Record the volume of water added
4. Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant, Kc.

Exercise

Explain why the concentration of pure liquid and solid are excluded from the equilibrium constant
expression for a heterogeneous system.
DATA SHEET

EXPERIMENT 8: CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

Name :

Group :

Date :

Lecturers :

Objective :

Introduction :

RESULTS

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