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all good learning was that which was in advance of development and
involved the acquisition of skills just beyond the student s grasp. Such
learning occurred through interaction within the student s zone of
proximal development.. Vygotsky defined the zone of proximal
development as the discrepancy between the student s actual
developmental level (i.e., independent achievement) and his/her potential
level (achievement with help from a more competent partner).
Piaget asserted that for a child to know and construct knowledge of the world, the
child must act on objects and it was this action that provided knowledge of those
objects (Sigel, 1977); the mind organized reality and acted upon it. The learner must
be active; he was not a vessel to be filled with facts.
Children who were at a certain stage cannot be taught the concepts of a higher stage.
Piaget promoted active discovery learning environments
at schools. Intelligence grew through the twin processes of assimilation and
accommodation; therefore, experiences should be planned to allow opportunities
for assimilation and accommodation.
Instruction should be individualized as much as possible and students should have
opportunities to communicate with one another, to argue and debate issues. He
saw teachers as facilitators of knowledge - they were there to guide and stimulate
the students, also allowing students to make and learn from mistakes. Learning
was much more meaningful if the students were allowed to experiment on their
own rather than listening to the teacher lecture. The teacher should present
students with materials and situations and occasions that allowed them to discover
new learning.
Bandura s Social Learning Theory
As far as instruction was concerned, the instructor should try and encourage
students to discover principles by themselves
Positive goal interdependence: Students perceive that they could achieve their
learning goals if and only if all the members of their group also attain their goals.
Resource interdependence was structured when each member had only a portion
of the information, materials, or resources necessary for the task to be completed
and members resources have to be combined in order for the group to achieve its
goal.
Individual Accountability (Akauntabilti individu)
Individual accountability was the element, which provided for each student
believing that it was important for him/her to learn the material.
Each team member feels in charge of their own and their teammates learning and
makes an active contribution to the group. Thus there was no hitchhiking or
freeloading for anyone in a teameveryone contributes
Quality of Group Interaction Process (Pemprosesan Kumpulan)
The quality of interaction would depend on a number of factors such as: the
grade and frequency in which the students cooperated among themselves in
their academic tasks, giving feedback between each other in their learning
activities, sharing learning experiences and life experiences, and supporting and
engaging among themselves in their feelings and educational expectations.
Under this perspective, Johnson & Johnson (1990) and Slavin (1987) stated that
placing students in groups to work together, even under the name of cooperative
learning or task structure, did not ensure that they would engage in the kinds of
positive interactions that promote learning.
A positive classroom environment was also associated with the quality of group
interaction.
Students must learn the task and maintenance skills for the groups to run
smoothly. Students might not intuitively know those social skills; therefore,
they must be taught explicitly how to cooperate with others.
Johnson et al (1990) suggest that the interpersonal and small group skills could
be taught through a number of means; first of all, setting a social skills goal
along with the academic goal lets students know it s important to the teacher.
Fasa 4: Cikgu menggunakan kuiz atau ujian untuk menguji pengetahuan pelajar.
Adakalanya, setiap kumpulan akan membentangkan hasil kerja mereka. Ini
adalah antara cara yang cikgu gunakan untuk memastikan pembelajaran telah
berlaku.
Fasa 5: Cikgu memberikan ganjaran kepada individu dan kumpulan atas usaha
dan pencapaian mereka.
Peranan Pelajar Dalam
Pembelajaran Koperatif
Fasilitator - memastikan rakan kumpulan tumpu
perhatian kepada tugasan; ahli kumpulan bertingkah laku
sesuai; mulakan perbincangan dlln.
Pencatat - buat catatan tentang idea daripada
perbincangan; tulis laporan tentang projek; buat
rumusan untuk pembentangan dlln.
Pelapor- sedia & hantar laporan projek/kerja akhir.
Penyemak- membantu fasilitator; mengingatkan ahli
kumpulan tentang peranan masing-masing dan tugas
sebagai pemikir, penyokong dan penyoal.
Tingkah Laku Dalam
Kumpulan
Bercakap dengan suara rendah hanya yang terdekat
boleh dengar.
Tekun dengan kerja/tugas masing-masing.
Meminta bantuan rakan jika memerlukan.
Sentiasa memberi sokongan.
Meminta diberikan sebab-sebab.
Mengkritik idea bukan mengkritik orangnya.
Mengakaitkan pembelajaran semasa dengan
pembelajaran lampau.
Menjalankan peranan yang ditugaskan.
Contoh aktiviti untuk membantu pelajar menguasai kemahiran berkongsi.