CHAPTER 2

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND LOGIC GATES

Axiomatic Definition of Boolean Algebra

Boolean algebra is an algebraic structure defined on a set of elements B

together with two binary operators + and . provided that the following
(Huntington) postulates are satisfied.

1. a) Closure with respect to operator +

b) Closure with respect to operator .
2. a) An identity element with respect to + designated by 0:
x+0 =0+ x = x
b) An identity element with respect to . designated by 1:
x.1 = 1.x = x
3. a) Commutative with respect to +: x + y = y + x x + y = y + x
b) Commutative with respect to . : x. y = y.x
4. a) . is distributive over +: x.( y + z) = ( x. y) + ( x.z)
b) + is distributive over .: x + ( y.z ) = ( x + y).( x + z )
5. For every element x B , there exists an element x B such that
a) x + x =1 b) x.x =0
6. There exists at least two elements x, y B such that x y .

In order to have a Boolean Algebra, one must show:

1. the elements of the set B
2. the rules of operation for the two binary operators,and
3. that the set of elements B, together with the two operators, satisfies the six
Huntington postulates.

Two-valued Boolean Algebra:

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B = { 0,1} + .

1. Closure is obvious 1,0B

2. a) 0+0=0 0+1=1+0=1
b) 1.1=1 1.0 = 0.1= 0
two identity elements 0 for +, 1 for .

3. The commutative laws are obvious from the symmetry of the binary
operator tables.

4. The distributive law x.( y + z ) = ( x. y) + ( x.z ) can be shown valid by

forming a truth table.

5. From the complement table it is easily shown that

a) x + x= 1 since 0 + 0= 0 +1 =1 and 1+1 = 1+ 0 = 1
b) x.x= 0 since 0.0 = 0.1 = 0 and 1.1 =1.0 = 0
6. Postulate 6 is satisfied because two_valued Boolean Algebra has two distint
elements, 1 and 0, with x y .

Basic Theorems and properties of Boolean Algebra

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Duality states that every algebraic expression deducible from the postulates of
Boolean algebra remains valid if the operators and identity elements are
interchanged.

Theorem 1.a) x+ x = x Idempotent law

x + x = ( x + x).1 (2b)
= ( x + x).( x + x
) (5a)
= x + x.x (4b)
= x+0 (5b)
=x (2a)

Theorem 1.b) x.x = x

x.x = x.x + 0 (2a)
= x.x + x.x (5b)
= x( x + x
) (4a)
= x.1 (5a)
=x (2b)

Theorem 2.a) x +1 = 1

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 x +1 = 1.( x +1) (2b)
= ( x + x).( x +1) (5a)
= x + x .1 (4b)
= x + x (2b)
=1 (5a)

Theorem 2.b) x.0 = 0 can be proved using duality.

Theorem 3. ( x
)=x Involution
x + x=1, x.x = 0 which defines the complement.
The complement of xis x and is also ( x
)
.

Theorem 6.a) x + xy = x
x + xy = x.1+ xy (2b)
= x(1+ y) (4a)
= x( y +1) (3a)
= x.1 (2a)
=x (2b)

Operator Precedence
1. Paranthesis
2. NOT
3. AND
4. OR

Boolean Functions

A Boolean function described by an algebraic expression consists of binary

variables, the constants 0 and 1, and the logic operation symbols.
A literal is a primed or unprimed variable.
F = x + y
1 z
F = x
2 yz + x
yz + xy

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Example 2.1 Simplify the following Boolean functions to a minimum number
of literals.
1. x( x + y) = xx
+ xy = 0 + xy = xy
2. x + x y = ( x + x)( x + y) = 1( x + y) = x + y
3. ( x + y)( x + y ) = x + xy + xy + yy = x(1+ y + y )= x
4. xy + x z + yz = xy + x z + yz( x + x)
= xy + x z + xyz + x yz
= xy(1+ z) + x z(1+ y)
= xy + x z
5. ( x + y)( x + z)( y + z) = ( x + y)( x+ z) , by duality from function 4.
Complement of a Function

The complement of a function F is F' and is obtained from an interchange of

0s for 1s and 1s for 0s in the value of F. The complement of a function may
be derived algebraically through DeMorgans theorems. DeMorgans theorems
can be extended to three or more variables.
( A + B + C)
= ( A + x) let B + C = x
= A x by theorem 5a(DeMorgan)
= A ( B +C ) substitute B + C = x
= A (BC ) by theorem 5a(DeMorgan)
= A
BC
These theorems can be generalized as follows:

( A + B + C + D + ....+ F ) = A
B C D ....F
( ABCD...F ) = A + B+ C + D+ ... + F

Example 2.2 Find the complement of the functions F = x

1 yz + x
y
z and
F = x( y
2 z+ yz) .
F = ( x
1 yz + x z) = ( x
y yz ) z ) = ( x + y
( x y + z)( x + y + z
)
F = [ x( y
2 z+ yz)]= x + ( y
z+ yz) = x + ( y
z)( yz)

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 = x
+ ( y + z)( y
+ z
)
= x
+ yz + yz
A simpler procedure for deriving the complement of a function is to take the
dual of the function and complement each literal.

Example 2.3 Find the complement of the functions F = x

1 yz + x
y
z and
F = x( y
2 z+ yz) by taking their duals and complementing each literal.
F = x
1 yz + xyz
+ y + z
The dual of F is ( x
1 )( x + y+ z)
Complement each literal: ( x + y
+ z)( x + y + z
) = F 1

F = x( y
2 z+ yz)
The dual of F is x + ( y
2 + z
)( y + z)
Complement each literal: = x
+ ( y + z)( y
+ z
)= F 2

Canonical and Standard Forms

A binary variable may appear either in its normal form or in its complement
form. Now consider two binary variables x and y combined with an AND
operation. x'y', x'y, xy', xy. Each of these terms is called a minterm, or a
standard product. In a similar fashion, n variables forming an OR term called
maxterms, or standard sums.

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f = x
1 yz + xyz + xyz = m + m + m 1 4 7

f = x
2 yz + xyz + xyz + xyz = m + m + m + m 3 5 6 7

f = x
1 yz + x
yz + xyz + xy z + xyz
f = ( x + y + z)( x + y
1 + z)( x + y + z + y + z
)( x + y
)( x + z)
f =M M M M M
1 0. 2. 3. 5. 6

f = x
2 yz + xyz + x
yz + xy z
f = ( x + y + z)( x + y + z
2 )( x + y
+ z)( x
+ y + z)
f =M M M M
2 0. 1. 2. 4

Boolean functions expressed as a sum of minterms or product of maxterms are

said to be in canonical form.

Example 2.4 Express the Boolean function F = A + B

C as a sum of
minterms form.

F = A(B + B ) + B C = AB + AB + B
C
= AB(C + C ) + AB(C + C
) + BC ( A + A
)
= ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + AB C + A
BC
= m +m +m +m +m
1 4 5 6 7

F ( A, B, C ) = (1,4,5,6,7)

Example 2.5 Express the Boolean function F = xy + x

z as a product of
maxterms.

F = xy + x z = ( xy + x)( xy + z)
= ( x + x )( x+ y)( x + z)( y + z) = ( x+ y)( x + z)( y + z)
= ( x + y + z z)( x + z + yy)( y + z + xx)
= ( x + y + z)( x + y + z)( x+ y + z)( x + y + z)
= M .M .M .M
0 2 4 5

f ( x, y, z) =(0,2,4,5)

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Conversion between Canonical Forms

F ( A, B,C ) = (1,4,5,6,7)
F ( A, B, C ) = (0,2,3) = m + m + m
0 2 3

F = (m + m + m )
0 2=m 3.m = M .M .M
.m 0 2 3 0 2 3

F = (0,2,3)
Standard Forms

F = y
1 + xy + x
yz sum of products
F = x( y
2 + z)( x+ y + z
+ w) product of sums
F = ( AB + CD)( A
3 B + C
D) neither sop or pos form

Other Logic Operations

2 n functions for n binary variables.

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Digital Logic Gates

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Extension to Multiple Inputs

NAND and NOR operators are not associative. ( x y) z x ( y z )

( x y) z = [( x + y) + z]
= ( x + y) z = xz + yz
x ( y z) = [ x + ( y + z)= x
] ( y + z ) = xy + xz
To overcome this difficulty, we define the multiple NOR(or NAND) gate as
complemented OR(or AND) gate. Thus, by definition, we have

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x y z = ( x + y + z)
x y z = ( xyz)
The exclusive-OR and equivalence gates are both commutative and associative
and can be extended to more than two inputs.

Positive and Negative Logic

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Integrated Circuits
Levels of Integration:
SSI gates fewer than 10
MSI 10~100 gates
LSI 100~few thousand
VLSI thousands
Digital logic families
TTL
ECL high speed operation
MOS high component density
CMOS low power consumption
Important Parameters of Logic Gates
Fan-out specifies the number of standard loads that the output of a typical gate
can derive without impairing its normal operation. A standard load is usually
defined as the amount of current needed by an input of another similar gate of
the same family.
Power dissipation is the power consumed by the gate that must be available
from the power supply.
Propagation delay is the average transition delay time for the signal to
propagate from input to output. The operating speed is inversely proportional to
the propagation delay.

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Noise margin is the minimum external noise voltage that causes an undesirable
change in the circuit output.

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