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APL 102
Introduction to Materials Science & Engineering

Packing of atoms: Bonding & Crystal

Concepts: matl. properties, bonds, lattice, motif, crystal
Lecture 2
 Recap
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Ask yourself is it always good to learn from failures/from

experience?
Or
Is it better to prevent failures by understanding the
materials/conditions
 Engineering Materials Classification
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 Material properties (with units)
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Each material can be thought of as

having a set of attributes or properties

The combination that characterizes a

given material is its property profile

Materials Selection in Mechanical Design, 4th Edition 2010 Michael Ashby

 Mechanical Properties
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1. Stiffness, Elastic modulus

2. Yield strength
3. Tensile strength and ductility
4. Fracture toughness
5. Density
 Thermal Properties
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1. Maximum service temperature (creep)

Metals upto 800 C; polymers 150 C
2. Thermal expansion coefficient
3. Thermal conductivity
- high for cooking pans
- low for insulating homes, or
enable space vehicle to re-enter earths
atmosphere
4. Heat capacity and thermal diffusivity
metals - high heat capacity ( heat to T)
polymers - low
 Electrical, Magnetic and Optical Properties
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1. Conductivity, Resistivity and dielectric

properties
2. Magnetism Remanence (measure of
intensity of retained magnetism)
- Hard and soft magnetic materials
3. Optical response to light
opaque material reflect
transparent material refract
 Chemical Properties
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Resistance to:
1. Water (corrosion, erosion)
2. Acids
3. Alkalis
4. Organic solvents
5. Oxidation
6. Radiation
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General Characteristics/Property profile of

each of the Material Class
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Metals
Tough high KIC
Stiff high E
Ductile
Wide range of strengths depending on composition
and processing
Thermally and electrically conductive
Reactive low corrosion resistance

Hybrids
Properties dependent on combination of
materials
Difficult to shape and join
Expensive
Materials: engineering, science, processing and design, 2nd edition Copyright (c)2010 Michael Ashby, Hugh Shercliff, David Cebon
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Ceramics
Stiff high E
Hard
Abrasion resistant
Good high temperature strength
Good corrosion resistance
Brittle

Glasses
Hard
Corrosion resistant
Electrically insulating
Transparent
Brittle low KIC
Materials: engineering, science, processing and design, 2nd edition Copyright (c)2010 Michael Ashby, Hugh Shercliff, David Cebon
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Polymers
Light low
Easily shaped
High strength per unit weight (/ )
Lack stiffness low E (50X less than metals)
Properties highly sensitive to temperature

Elastomers
Lack stiffness low E (500 5000X less than metals)
Able to retain initial shape after being stretched
Relatively strong and tough

Materials: engineering, science, processing and design, 2nd edition Copyright (c)2010 Michael Ashby, Hugh Shercliff, David Cebon
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Question for thought?

What differentiates the materials property profiles

or their characteristics?
 Broad topics
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This course covers Structure, Properties & Processing of materials

Material scientist engineer this tetrahedron

 Origin of properties
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All materials are made up of atoms

These atoms are held together by forces (called interatomic bonds)

These forces act like springs, linking each atom to its neighbour

Several types of bonds form between atoms

The type of bonding between atoms can

give rise to very different properties
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Factors that influence material properties

1) The nature of interatomic bonding that holds the atom together

2) Atomic packing: no. of bonds per unit area and the angle with
which they are pulled

Materials Selection in Mechanical Design, 4th Edition, 2010 Michael Ashby

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Bonding in solids: Bond types
There are two different ways that atoms can be bound together:

Primary bonds: Strong bonds

There are three types:
i) ionic (transfer of valence electrons)
ii) covalent (sharing of valence electrons)
iii) metallic or directional (delocalization of valence electrons)

Secondary bonds: Weak bonds

There are two types:
i) van der Waals forces (Picture of Lizard/gecko)
ii) hydrogen bonds (bonding due to dipole interaction)

Note: In many materials there exists a mixture of different bond types

e.g. W, Mo, Ta, many ceramics and polymers
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Bonding in solids: Bond types
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Bonding forces and energies
Understanding of many important physical properties of materials requires knowledge of
interatomic forces that holds the atoms together

Considering the interaction between two isolated atoms as they are brought into close
proximity from an infinite separation.

At larger distances, the interactions are negligible.

As the atoms approach, each exerts forces on the other:

Attractive
Repulsive

Ultimately, the outer electron shells of the two atoms begin to overlap, and a strong repulsive
force comes into play.
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Bonding forces and energies
Atoms in a solid feel an attractive force at larger atomic separations and feel a
repulsive force (when electron clouds overlap too much) at shorter separations
(At very large separations there is no force felt).

The energy and the force (which is a gradient of the energy field) display functional
behaviour as below

A B
U n m
r r
Attractive Repulsive

A,B,m,n constants
m>n
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Bond energy vs. distance curve
A B
U n m
r r
Repulsive
Potential energy (U)

E0 = Bond energy
r
E0

r0
Attractive

r0 Equilibrium separation
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What do the shape of the U vs r curve depend on and

signify?

The shape of U vs r curve would be significantly dependent on the bond type

The shape of these curves change for different bond types and materials
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Question for thought?

What material properties get affected by bonding?

Melting temperature, Tm &

Coefficient of thermal expansion, &
Elastic Modulus, E
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Atomic Structure and Crystal Geometry

 Atomic packing in Engineering materials
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Metals

Ceramics

Glasses

Polymers

Atomic Packing can broadly be divided into two categories

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Regular arrangement Random arrangement

Long range periodicity No periodicity (short range order)

Courtesy: H. Bhadhesia
Examples of regular and random arrangement among materials?
 Energy and Packing
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Non dense, random packing Energy

typical neighbor
bond length

typical neighbor r
bond energy

Energy
Dense, regular packing typical neighbor
bond length

typical neighbor r
bond energy

Dense, regular-packed structures tend to have lower energy

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Lattice

Regular arrangement

A translationally periodic arrangement of points is called

a lattice (in specific, point lattice)
 Space Lattice?
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A 3D translationally periodic arrangement of points in space

is called a space lattice.
or
An array of points in space such that every point has identical surroundings

Lattices are infinite (infinite array)

Lattices have translational periodicity

We can have 1D, 2D or 3D arrays (lattice)

 Point Lattice
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b

a

Periodic array of points with each point having identical neighbourhood

a, b and are the parameters that defines lattice

 Point Lattice
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B B

A A

Not A Point Lattice! Is A Point lattice

 Crystal ?
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A translationally periodic arrangement of

atoms is called a crystal

2D crystal 3D arrangement in space crystal structure

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Lattice Crystal

A 3D A 3D
translationally translationally
periodic periodic
arrangement of arrangement of
points atoms
 What is the relation between the two?
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Crystal = Lattice + Motif

Lattice: the underlying periodicity of the crystal

Motif or basis: an atom or a group of atoms
associated with each lattice point

Lattice: how to repeat

Motif or basis: what to repeat
IIT Delhi Lattice + Motif = Crystal

+ =

Lattice + Heart = Love Crystal

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Illustration of periodicity of
lattice with Escher patterns
(Part of your First lab)
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Air, Water and Earth by M.C. Escher

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Every periodic pattern

(and hence a crystal)
has a unique lattice
associated with it
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Unit cell in 2D lattice