Under the Microscope

In the
Ocean
Sabrina Crewe

Consultant:
Professor Anne K. Camper,
Montana State University
Copyright 2010 by Infobase Publishing

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Crewe, Sabrina.
In the ocean / Sabrina Crewe ; consultant, Anne K. Camper.
p. cm. -- (Under the microscope)
Includes index.
ISBN 978-1-60413-827-6 (hardcover)
ISBN 978-1-4381-3468-0 (e-book)
1. Marine organisms--Juvenile literature. I. Title. II. Series.

QH91.16.C74 2010
578.77--dc22
2010000180

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Text design by Sabine Beaupr

Illustrations by Stefan Chabluk
Originated by Discovery Books
Composition by Discovery Books
Cover printed by Bang Printing, Brainerd, MN
Book printed and bound by Bang Printing, Brainerd, MN
Date printed: May 2010
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Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the following for permission to reproduce photographs: H.M.S. Challenger Library:
p. 29; Dennis Kunkel Microscopy, Inc.: pp. 8, 24, 25 both; MicroAngela: pp. 4, 16, 20, 22 left, 23; NOAA: pp. 10
both, 11, 14, 19, 22 right, 26 (1), (3), (4), and (5), 27 top left, top right, middle right, and bottom; Science Photo
Library: pp. 9 (Steve Gschmeissner), 12 (Sinclair Stammers), 13 (Claire Ting), 17 both (Steve Gschmeissner),
18 (Volker Steger and Christian Bardele), 21 (Dante Fenolio), 26 (2) (Science Source); Shutterstock Images:
pp. 5 (Emin Kuliyev), 6 (Pinosub), 15 (Armin Rose), 27 middle left (Vittorio Bruno).
Contents
Invisible Oceans 4
The Ocean Web 6
Ocean Bacteria 8
Life in the Deep 10
Cyanobacteria 12
All About Algae 14
Amazing Phytoplankton 16
Zooplankton 18
Crustaceans 20
Micromollusks 22
Protozoa 24
Larvae 26
Size and Scale 28
About Microscopes 28
Micro-Detective 29
Glossary 30
Explore These Web Sites 31
Index 32
Some words are bold the first time they appear
in the text. These words are explained in the
glossary at the back of this book.
Invisible
Oceans
The oceans that cover
most of Earth are vast,
with towering waves
and dark depths. Huge
whales, enormous
octopuses, and plants
as tall as buildings live
in this watery world. But
there is another, invisible
world in the oceans.
Micro-Monster
The Lucifer is a very small kind
of shrimp that is among the
plankton floating in the ocean.
The word lucifer means light-
bearing or bright, and the Lucifer
shrimp can glow in the dark!
The Lucifer has eyes sticking out
on stalks, which give it a better
view of its surroundings.

Microorganisms
Living things, such as
plants and animals, are
known as organisms.
Organisms that are too
small to see with the
human eye are called
microorganisms.
Many microorganisms
that live in the ocean
are known as plankton.
The word plankton
means drifting, and thats
what plankton do. They
float and drift with the
movement of the water.


 Some plankton are marine animals or animal-like
creatures. Others are more like plants. They may be tiny,
but these organisms are important for all living things.
Well find out why, and discover many other things, as
we take a look at the ocean under the microscope.

Micro-Fact
Near the surface
of the ocean, every
drop of ocean water
contains thousands
of plankton.
5
Micro-Scientist
A microbiologist is
a scientist who studies
microorganisms. A marine
microbiologist focuses
on microscopic
life-forms in
the ocean.
 The Suns
energy passes
through the
ocean web to all
living things.

The Ocean Web

To understand the microscopic world of the ocean, we
have to learn a little about how all living things in the
ocean work together. They depend on each other for
food and survival. Microorganisms are an important
part of this network.

Phytoplankton and zooplankton

As we learned, plankton are the tiny floating organisms
in the ocean. Those that are similar to plants are called
phytoplankton. Animals or animal-like plankton are
known as zooplankton.

6
 So whats the difference? All
livings things need energy,
and that energy comes from Micro-Fact
food. Zooplankton eat other
Phyto- means plant, and
living things to get their
zoo- refers to animals.
food. Phytoplankton make
So phytoplankton means
their own food through
drifting plant, and
photosynthesis. Using the
zooplankton means
Suns energy, they combine
drifting animal.
water and carbon dioxide
(a mix of carbon and oxygen)
to produce carbohydrates.

Webs and chains Sun

The Suns energy is the starting point
for almost all food. Phytoplankton use
it to make their own food and grow.
Zooplankton eat phytoplankton. Small
fish and crustaceans survive by phytoplankton
eating zooplankton. Bigger fish and
other large marine animals prey
on these smaller ones.
This passing of energy
from one organism to zooplankton
This diagram
another is known as a of a marine food
food chain. There are chain shows how
many different food energy produced by
phytoplankton feeds
chains, however, and
zooplankton
they often cross over. and bigger small crustacean
Together, many food animals.
chains form a food web.

7
fish
 Ocean Bacteria
Living things need nutrients to keep them healthy and help
them grow. The nutrients in the ocean come from organisms
that die and settle on the ocean floor. There, they are broken
down by decomposers.
Many decomposers are microorganisms, especially
bacteria. Lets find out more about bacteria and how they
play an important part in the ocean web.

What are bacteria?

Bacteria are some of the
smallest living things in the
ocean and on land. They
have only one cell, and
this cell does not have a
nucleus. Bacteria multiply
by dividing themselves.

An important job
Many bacteria Many kinds of bacteria live
are rod-shaped, like
these ones found in among the dead plant and
the ocean. They are animal matter in the ocean. Most
magnified here feed by absorbing nutrients from
more than
the dead organisms that they live on.
5,000 times.
Bacteria break down, or decompose,
the matter they use for food. This process
releases substances into the water that become
nutrients for phytoplankton. The most phytoplankton are
found in areas where the ocean is rich in nutrients. These
nutrients can also come from rivers that flow into the ocean.

8
 Viruses
One type of microbe
is smaller than a
How Small
bacterium, and that is a
Is Small?
virus. Some are so tiny
that they are measured Scientists say that a
in nanometers. Viruses, teaspoonful of seawater contains
however, are not really between 10 million and 100 million
organisms. A virus is a marine viruses. They are so small
package of chemicals that you would have to put
that can only multiply more than 20 billion of them
inside a living cell, or together before you
host. Viruses invade could see them!
the cells of plants,
animals, and bacteria.
In the ocean, viruses
infect bacteria living
on the ocean A diatom
is a type of
floor and plankton phytoplankton. If you
in the water. look closely at these
diatoms, you can
see the bacteria
(white specks) that
live on them.

9
 Life in
the Deep
In some parts, the ocean is more
than 30,000 feet deep. Not many
organisms can live at those depths.
There is little or no sunlight. So
without the Suns energy, how can
there be life?

Hydrothermal vents
In the deepest parts of the ocean,
This photo shows
a hydrothermal vent there are openings, called vents,
deep in the ocean. The in the ocean floor. Boiling water
cloud comes from the hot constantly spews out of these
water gushing out. The water
is full of minerals that
hydrothermal vents from deep
provide nourishment for underground.
the microorganisms Thousands of species of microbes
living around live around these openings. They
the vent.

These
tubeworms
at a hydrothermal
vent get nutrients
from bacteria
that live in
their tubes.

10
 Micro-Fact
Scientists believe
that the microbes in
hydrothermal vents are
related to the earliest
forms of life
on Earth.
get their energy from the
minerals in the boiling
water gushing from the
vents. They live on the
surface of the vents or on
larger creatures that also
flourish in this extreme
environment.
Archaea
Many of the microbes that
live in the thermal vents
are archaea. These are not
animals, plants, viruses, or
bacteria. But, like bacteria,
they have one simple cell,
and they are very tiny. Most
archaea are only 1 to 15
micrometers in size.
11
Extremophiles
Any organism that likes to
live at extremes is called an
extremophile. They survive and
flourish where other organisms
would die. Most extremophiles
are microbes, but some are
bigger creatures, like the ones
that live around hydrothermal
vents. The tiny shrimp above
lives in the icy water of the
Arctic Ocean. Extremophiles
that live in very cold places
are known as psychrophiles or
cryophiles. Organisms that like
hot places are thermophiles.
Creatures that tolerate very
salty water are halophiles.
So as you can imagine, the
ocean depths are full of
extremophiles!
 Cyanobacteria
As we learned, most bacteria absorb
their food from other living things. But
there is an important type of bacteria
in the ocean that is different.

Using photosynthesis
Like other bacteria, cyanobacteria
do not have a nucleus in their single
cell. But unlike other bacteria,
cyanobacteria make their own
food. They float on the surface of
water and use sunlight to perform
photosynthesis.
Organisms that use energy
from photosynthesis are called
phototrophs. And because they
are phototrophs, or plant-like,
cyanobacteria are part of the floating
world we know as phytoplankton.

Trichomes and coccoids

Cyanobacteria live together in large
Oscillatoria groups. Some form filaments, or
is a trichome
strands, in which long chains
cyanobacteria because
its cells form long strands. of them are joined together.
You can see the individual These cyanobacteria are called
cells that make up trichomes. Others, known as
the strands in
this photo. coccoids, live together in a
group inside a blob of jelly.

12
Bubbles of oxygen
Whether they are in chains or blobs, cyanobacteria
often form mats over areas of the ocean. As they
photosynthesize, cyanobacteria absorb carbon dioxide
and release oxygen. You can often see bubbles of oxygen
rising from the mats.

Prochlorococcus
The smallest known phototrophonly about
0.6 micrometers in sizeis a cyanobacterium
called Prochlorococcus. But it may also be the
most important. There can be 100 million of these
cyanobacteria in a quart of seawater. Scientists
believe they could perform as much photosynthesis
as all other phytoplankton put together.

13
 Marine algae
produce the same green
substancechlorophyll
that plants do. So, many species
are green in color. But some
algae can be red, purple, brown,
or yellow because they contain
other pigments (colors) besides
chlorophyll. These red and
green algae are growing
on rocks in the
Pacific Ocean.

All About
Micro-Fact
Most algae are
Algae
microscopic, but some Most kinds of phytoplankton
are very big. Large algae in the oceans belong to
are what we know as a large group of organisms
seaweed, and they called algae. Algae are
can be over 100 plant-like because they
feet long. perform photosynthesis, but
they are not actually plants.

1
What are algae?
Algae dont have stems,
roots, or leaves. Algae
often live joined together
in long strands, but some
species float around by
themselves.
Many algae have
just one cell, and they
reproduce simply by
When ocean
dividing their cells. Other water freezes into
algae create new cells, ice, algae of different
called spores, which they colors can make
release into the water to icebergs
stripy!
make new algae.

Algae and Earths Cycles

Algae and cyanobacteria are essential to Earths natural
cycles. The carbon cycle is the movement of carbon among
air, water, and living things. If there is too much carbon
in the air, Earth gets too warm. But oceans remove a lot of
carbon dioxide from the air by dissolving it in their waters.
Phytoplankton help because they take in carbon dioxide
from the water during photosynthesis. This allows
the oceans to absorb more carbon dioxide from the air.
And because they only need the carbon, phytoplankton
release the oxygen. They provide the world with about
half the oxygen that living things need to survive.

15
 Amazing
Phytoplankton
We learned that all phytoplankton are phototrophs, or
plant-like. But some phytoplankton dont look anything
like the plants we know. Lets see
what they do look like under
the microscope.

Diatoms
The most plentiful of
all phytoplankton are
diatoms. Diatoms are
enclosed in a cell wall
that forms a hard casing.
These cases are made of
silica, which is the same
stuff that glass is made
of. Diatoms come in all
Under the
microscope, kinds of interesting shapes
diatoms reveal and often have beautiful
their complex patterns. Whatever their shape,
patterns.
diatoms are symmetrical, which means that
one half is the mirror image of the other.

Coccolithophores
Coccolithophores surround themselves with tiny shields
only 3 micrometers across. The shields are made of
calcite, a hard material that also makes limestone rocks.

16
Unlike other
phytoplankton, You can see
the microscopic
coccolithophores shields that form a
can survive in ball around this
water that contains coccolithophore.
few nutrients.

Dinoflagellates
There are about 2,000 kinds
of dinoflagellates, and some
of them are phototrophs. They
have little tails called flagellae,
which help them move.
Dinoflagellates can reproduce very fast,
Dinoflagellates creating a huge number of cells called
come in many a bloom. Some dinoflagellate blooms
shapes and range
in size from 5 can poison other marine life. These
micrometers to dinoflagellates are red in color, so
2 millimeters. their blooms are called red tides.

Micro-Fact
Some dinoflagellates
glow in the dark. You can
see a flicker of blue light
in the ocean at night if
a group of these
dinoflagellates is
disturbed.

17
Zooplankton
Do you remember zooplankton? They are the microscopic
animals and animal-like creatures that float in the ocean.
There are thousands of species of tiny organisms that
make up the zooplankton population. They fall into three
main groups: microanimals, protozoa, and the larvae
of larger animals.

Protozoa
Protozoa are
microorganisms
that are similar to
animals, but they are
simpler in structure.
Protozoa often have
only one cell, and
many reproduce by
dividing themselves.
But they can move
around in the water and
catch prey to eat. Sometimes,
they catch and eat other protozoa
bigger than themselves! This amoeba
is a kind of
protozoa. It lives
Larvae in the seas off
Some larger marine creatures are western Australia
and eats
microscopic when they are larvae. diatoms.
A larva is an animal in the stage
before it becomes an adult. Marine

18
 These
zooplankton
are microscopic
larvae may turn into worms, coral, crustaceans. The
snails, or fish, but they start out as one in the center
is the larva of
zooplankton. Well take a look at a bigger
some of these later. crustacean.

Microanimals
Animals are living things that have many cells,
can move themselves around, and feed on plants or
other animals. With a microscope, you will find a world
of miniature animals on land and in the ocean. We call
them microanimals because they are too small to be
seen easily by the human eye.
Microanimals in the ocean feed on other zooplankton
and on phytoplankton. Some of the most common
microanimals are crustaceans, which were going to
look at next.

19
 Crustaceans
Not all crustaceans are
Micro-Monster microscopic. The crustaceans
we picture when thinking
The Pleuromamma is a
about the ocean are bigger
copepod with antennae
animals, such as lobsters
as long as its body. The
and crabs. Shrimp are
antennae are covered in
crustaceans, too. What
small hairs that pick up
these crustaceans have in
signals, such as smells or
common is a hard outside
movements. This detection
skeleton. They also have
system enables the
bodies with separate
Pleuromamma to attack
segments, or jointed parts.
prey with lightning speed.
Many microscopic
crustaceans live below the
ocean surface and come up
at night to feed on plankton.
Some live attached to other
animals. Others live in the
sand on the ocean floor.
Yet others create their own
houses and float around.

Copepods
Copepods are usually 1 or 2
millimeters in length. Some
species live on the ocean
floor. Others float on or near
the surface as zooplankton

20
 in fact there are usually more
copepods than any other
zooplankton. Micro-Fact
Some copepods are
Amphipods
parasites, which means they
Amphipods, like
live and feed on a host instead of
copepods, may live at
swimming around to find food.
the top or bottom of
Parasitic copepods live on
the ocean depending
fish. A large shark may
on their species. Most
have hundreds on its
of them have flat bodies,
fins and gills and even
and they all have three
in its nose!
pairs of tail legs that
they flick to move quickly
through the water.

A Phronima is an
amphipod that lives in
the middle and upper areas
of the ocean. It makes its
home inside another tiny
animal called a salp. The
Phronima will kill the salp,
hollow out its body,
and move in!

21
 Micromollusks
Mollusks in the ocean include everything from the giant
squid and octopus to the cowrie and abalone, whose
beautiful shells you might find on a beach. On land,
mollusks include the snails in your backyard.
When scientists talk about micromollusks, however,
they usually mean shelled mollusks that live in
the ocean. They are so tiny that
some of them cant be
seen without a
microscope.
This pteropod
is a micromollusk
with a coiled shell. It
lives among plankton in
the ocean. The pteropods
foot is formed into
flaps that it uses
for swimming.

This shell is
only 1.5 millimeters
long. It was once
home to a
micromollusk.

22
 Sand from the
ocean is made up of
tiny fragments of shell and
rock. This magnified sand
from a beach in Hawaii
contains micromollusk
shells along with
fragments of
larger shells.

Gastropods
The mollusks that live in seashells
are called gastropods. Inside their
beautiful shells, gastropods
Micro-Fact
have soft bodies. They make
The word gastropod
their shells with minerals in
means stomach foot.
the water that they process
Most gastropods have a
in their bodies and release
strong foot that they
as a liquid through their skin.
use to move along
The liquid hardens around
surfaces.
them to form a shell.

23
 Protozoa
Lets take a look at some protozoa that you would find in the
ocean. They are all microscopic, most of them have just one
cell, and many of them live as zooplankton.

Ciliates
Vorticella
Ciliates all have hairs called cilia in one
are attached form or another. The short hairs often
ciliates. You can see cover the whole body. They are used
the cilia of this for swimming and for waving food
Vorticella around
its mouth toward the ciliate.
opening. Some ciliates are
not free-swimming.
Instead they attach
themselves to algae
or a rock. Vorticella
look like little
bells at the end of
stalks attached to
a surface. The bell
shape is actually a
tiny home, called
a lorica, that keeps
the creature safe
inside. The stalks
can contract like
springs, drawing
the Vorticella down
to its base if it
is disturbed.

2
Amoebas with shells
Amoebas are found in all kinds
of water. Many amoebas look
like blobs of jelly, but marine
amoebas, such as radiolarians
and foraminifera, are often encased
in a kind of shell called a test.
Foraminifera tests look like
beautiful, smooth sculptures under
the microscope. Most foraminifera
live near the ocean surface.
When we view
radiolarian tests,
or shells, with a
microscope, we can
see their shapes
How Small and patterns.
Is Small?
Several foraminifera
tests would fit on
the head of
a pin.

When foraminifera
die, they drift to the
bottom of the ocean. Their
tests get covered up, and
eventually they become part
of the ocean floor. The
preserved remains of
foraminifera, called fossils,
can be millions
of years old.
25
Larvae
As we learned earlier, some marine animals are
microscopic in their larval stage. They live among other
zooplankton, feeding on phytoplankton or on creatures
smaller than themselves. With their transparent bodies
and tiny size, they look more like copepods or protozoa
than their adult selves.

1
These zooplankton
are all larvae of
larger animals. See
if you can match the
5 larvae with the adults 2
opposite. The answers
are on page 31.

 3
26
 crab fish

octopus starfish

squid

27
 Size and Scale
In this book, we measure some things in millimeters and even
smaller measurements. This is because inches are just too
big for measuring microorganisms and microscopic parts
of things. Millimeters are pretty small, and micrometers and
nanometers are so tiny that they are impossible to see with
the naked eye and hard to imagine. There are more than 25
million nanometers in just one inch!

1 inch = 25.4 millimeters

1 millimeter = 1,000 micrometers or
1,000,000 nanometers
1 micrometer = 1,000 nanometers

Only the smallest of microorganisms are measured in

nanometers. Some of these, such as the tiniest bacteria and
archaea, have to be magnified thousands of times before
we can see them. Other microorganisms are huge compared
to bacteria and archaea, but we still need to magnify them
to see them clearly.

About Microscopes
Many of the images you have looked at were produced
using an electron microscope. Electron microscopes can
magnify things hundreds of thousands of times, so they
are used to magnify archaea and bacteria. They are also
used for some of the amazing close-up images of marine
microorganisms weve seen.
At home or in school, we use optical microscopes. They
usually magnify things anywhere between 20 and 1,000
times, depending on the lenses used. Its always fun to take
an everyday object, like a grain of sand or a drop of water,
and look at it under the microscope.

28
 Micro-Detective

Marine Shapes
.
If you look back at all the microorganisms you have
learned about, you will see many amazing forms.
Diatoms, dinoflagellates, radiolarians, foraminifera, larvae,
and shelled gastropods come in all kinds of wonderful
shapes. These radiolarians were drawn by scientists on
an ocean expedition more than one hundred years ago
as a record of what they found. You can find many more
pictures of
microorganisms
in the library
and on the
Internet. Find
as many marine
microorganism
shapes as you
can, draw them,
and cut them out.
Use a large sheet
of blue paper to
create an ocean
background.
Then stick on
your collection of
microorganisms
to create a
microscopic
marine mural.

29
 Glossary
algaeprotists that are similar to plants
archaeaorganisms with only one cell and similar to bacteria
bacteriamicroorganisms with only one cell that are the
smallest and most numerous life-forms on Earth
carbohydratesugars or starches that provide energy for plants
and animals and are an important part of cells in all living things
carbonelement that is present in the air, in all livings things,
and in many minerals
celltiny unit that all livings things are made of
crustaceantype of animal that has a hard exterior skeleton
cyanobacteriatype of bacteria that lives in strands or clumps
and resembles plants and algae
decomposerorganism that breaks down organic matter,
releasing nutrients into the soil, water, or air
hydrothermalhaving to do with hot water that comes
from underground, such as a hot spring on land or vent in the
ocean floor
larvastage of an insect after it has hatched from an egg but is
not yet an adult
marinehaving to do with, or from, the ocean
microanimaltiny bug or other animal too small to be seen
clearly without a microscope
microbemicroorganism that is not a microanimal, such as
bacteria or archaea
micrometermeasurement of length that is one-thousandth
of a millimeter
microorganismany living thing that is too small to be seen
properly without a microscope
mineralbasic solid substance, such as calcium
nanometermeasurement of length that is one-millionth
of a millimeter
nucleuspart of a cell that controls the cells form and functions

30
nutrientsubstance that is a building block for living things and
helps them grow and stay healthy
organismany living thing, such as a plant, animal, or bacterium
photosynthesisprocess by which plants and algae use sunlight
to combine carbon dioxide and water to make food
phototrophorganism that uses photosynthesis to make energy
phytoplanktonplankton that are plant-like
planktonsmall and microscopic organisms that float on or near
the ocean surface
preyhunt and catch living things for food, or a living thing
hunted or caught by another for food
protozoaprotists that are similar to animals
virusmicrobe that can only multiply by infecting living cells
zooplanktonplankton that are animal-like

Explore These Web Sites

Marine Microorganism Portrait
http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/artfeb02/
artwork.html
Click on each of the marine microorganisms in this group portrait
to find out more about them.
MicroAngelas Electron Microscope Image Galley
http://www5.pbrc.hawaii.edu/microangela/index.html
Find beautiful photos and fun information about marine
microorganisms and other kinds of microscopic life.

Answers to quiz on pages 2627

1. octopus 2. starfish 3. fish 4. squid 5. crab

31
 Index

algae, 14, 15, 24 decomposers, 8 parasites, 21

colors, 14, 15 diatoms, 9, 16, 18, 29 photosynthesis, 7, 12,
size of, 14 dinoflagellates, 17, 29 13, 14
amoebas, 18 phototrophs, 12, 13,
shelled, 25 extremophiles, 11 16, 17
amphipods, 21 phytoplankton, 6, 7, 8,
animals, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, fish, 7, 19, 21, 26, 27 12, 13, 26
11, 18, 19, 20, 26, 27 food, 6, 7, 8, 12, 24 in Earths cycles, 15
archaea, 11, 28 food chain, 7 plankton, 4, 5, 9, 20, 22
food web, 6, 7, 8 glowing, 4, 17
bacteria, 8, 9, 10, foraminifera, 25, 29 types of, 5, 6,
11, 12 fossils, 25 plants, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
size of, 8, 28 11, 14, 16
see also gastropods, 23, 29 prey, 7, 18, 20
cyanobacteria protozoa, 18, 2425
hydrothermal vents,
carbon cycle, 15 10, 11 radiolarians, 25, 29
carbon dioxide, 7, 13, 15 red tides, 17
cells, 9, 11 larvae, 18, 19, 26, 29 reproduction
algae, 15 in algae, 15
bacteria, 8, 9, 11 microanimals, 18, 19 in bacteria, 8
cyanobacteria, 12 microbes, 9 in protozoa, 18
phytoplankton, 17 at hydrothermal
protozoa, 18, 24, 26 vents, 1011 salp, 21
chlorophyll, 14 micromollusks, 2223 sand, 20, 23, 28
ciliates, 24 microorganisms, 4, seaweed, 14
coccolithophores, 10, 29 shells, 22, 23,
1617 importance of, 5, 6, 8 tests, 25
copepods, 2021, 26 measuring, 28 snails, 19, 22
crustaceans, 4, 7, 11, 19, microscopes, 5, 16,
2021, 26, 27 25, 28 viruses, 9, 11
cyanobacteria, 1213, mollusks, 22, 23, 26, 27
15 worms, 19
coccoids, 12 nutrients, 8, 17
Prochlorococcus, 13 zooplankton, 6, 7,
trichomes, 12 oxygen, 13, 15 1819, 20, 26

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