STRAPEAT STATUS REPORT (THE PEAT SOIL OF SARAWAK)

THE PEAT SOILS OF SARAWAK

Murtedza Mohamed, E. Padmanabhan, B.L.H. Mei and

W.B. Siong
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
Malaysia

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STRAPEAT STATUS REPORT (THE PEAT SOIL OF SARAWAK)

THE PEAT SOIL OF SARAWAK

Existing Knowledge and Information Gaps

1 Definition

Peat in strict definition usually refers to the accumulation of a purely one hundred percent
organic material and the distinction between soil and vegetative accumulation is not clear
(Andriesse,1992). Over the years, peat has been alternately referred to as organic soils
and Histosols. Tie (1979) refers to peat as organic soils on the basis of mass composition
i.e. soils that contain at least 65% organic matter or conversely, less than 35% mineral
content. The more recent definition for organic soils as adopted by the Soil Division of
Sarawak is based on profile partition, i.e. soils that have 50 cm or more organic soil
matter within 100 cm or more than twice that of mineral soil materials overlying bedrock
within 50 cm (Teng, 1996). On the other hand, USDA defines a soil type as organic soils
(or Histosols) if more than half of the upper 80 cm of the soil is organic or if organic soil
material of any thickness rests on rock or on fragmental material having interstices filled
with organic materials (Soil Survey Staff, 1998).

2 Genesis of Peat Deposits

Peat soils in Sarawak occur in large basin swamps and in small interior valleys that have
developed in comparatively recent times (Andriesse, 1972). 14C dating from Baram (Miri
Administrative Division) in northern Sarawak indicates that the sea was at the inland
margin of the peat swamp about 5400 years ago (Wilford, 1996). The large basin
swamps are dome-shaped. Organic soil deposits occupying the central portion of the
dome, generally known as ombrogenous peat, comprises mainly of disaggregated tree
trunks, branches, leaves, roots and fruits (Yogeswaran, 1995). The surrounding base and
along fringes of the peat dome and lower bank of streams draining the peat swamps on
the other hand are predominated by topogenous peat which comprise mainly of slightly
to moderately decomposed plant matter and fine clastic sediments.

Anderson (1961, 1964, 1976, 1983) and Anderson and Muller (1975) observed the
domed topography of peat deposits and the relationship between the concentric zonation
of surface vegetation and increasing peat thickness, acidity and decreasing nutrient
availability. The variations in peat type within the deposits reflect the succession and
lateral migration of the surface vegetation and associated environs concurrent with
coastal progradation (Anderson and Muller, 1975).

Subsequent studies (Tie and Kueh, 1979; Tie, 1990; Esterle et al., 1992; Tie and Esterle,
1992) corroborated Andersons working hypotheses on peat formation and soil nutrient-
mediated vegetational changes with topography. Tie (1990) for example demonstrated
that the initial formation of lowland peats in Sarawak took place under low-lying, poorly
drained but largely terrestrial conditions rather than an aquatic situation with a permanent
water body. As successive layers of peat in the shape of an inverted saucer were
accumulated, the deposit grew vertically and laterally. As the peat at the center became
thicker, the rate of growth decreased as a result of lower soil fertility due to leaching.

3 Classification

Soil classification in Sarawak dated back to 1966 with the maiden publication of A
Classification of Sarawak Soils. Several revisions were made thereafter (Lim, 1975;
Scott, 1985; Tie, 1982). Classification of organic soils in Sarawak differed to a certain
extent from the USDA Soil Taxonomy. For instance, the degree of decomposition was not

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used for classification but the surface vegetation was used instead. The reason, as given
by Tie and Lim (1992), was that the degree of decomposition of organic soils in Sarawak
shows little differences.

The latest soil classification in Sarawak was published in 1996. Under the current soil
classification, the Organic Soil Groups were separated into two Subgroups based on the
surface vegetation. These two Subgroups were montane forest (highland Organic soils)
and peat swamp forest (lowland Organic soils). These Subgroups were further
differentiated into Family and Series according to the type of organic materials, thickness
of organic materials, ash content, groundwater table, and nature of mineral substratum.

Table 1 shows the classification of organic soils in Sarawak according to Tie and Kueh
(1979) and Teng (1996). The latest classification by Teng (1996) dropped the salinity
phases adopted earlier by Tie and Kueh (1979). The current classification identified eight
Family of organic soils, namely Mulu, Umor, Bareo, Igan, Mukah, Merapok, Melinau and
Anderson. The Umor Family was the latest addition to the list of Soil Family with Umor
Series classified under this Family. Another amendment was classifying the Kapor Series
as Melinau Family. Previously Kapor Series was classified as Kapor Family (Tie and Lim,
1992).

4 Characteristics of Organic Soils in Sarawak

4.1 Landscape and morphological characteristics

In Sarawak, the landscape for lowland organic soils ranges from basin swamps to valley
swamps. The morphological characteristics of lowland organic soils are quite similar
throughout the region. The convexity of coastal and deltaic peat swamps surfaces are
increasingly pronounced with distance from the sea (Mutalib et al., 1992). In the natural
state, the water table is always high, often at or near the surface (Tie & Kueh, 1979;
Andrieese, 1988; Mutalib et al., 1992).

In drained areas, the organic soils is transformed to a compact mass consisting of

partially and well-decomposed plant remains with large wood fragments and tree trunks
embedded in it (Mutalib et al., 1992). Sulfidic marine clay is often found underlying the
organic materials in organic soils (Andriesse, 1964). The common soil profile in drained
organic soils consists of three distinct layer an upper layer (20 30 cm thick) consisting
of well-decomposed organic materials of the sapric type, a middle layer (30 40 cm
thick) consisting of semi-decomposed organic materials of the hemic type and a lower
layer of fibric materials which is mainly large wood fragments and branches and tree
trunks (Figure 1) (Mutalib et al., 1992).

4.2 Physical Properties

The physical properties of organic soils are dependent on the four major components
which make up the organic soil system; the organic material, the mineral material, water
and air. Andriesse (1988) highlighted difficulties in characterisation of the physical
properties of organic soils caused by the changes in the proportions of the four
components upon reclamation or drainage for utilisation. The presentation of the results
of analysis for the physical properties of organic soils has been largely questioned
especially in the context of reporting in volume or weight basis. There is a tendency to
use volume ratios for practicality purposes (Andriesse, 1988).

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Table 1. Classification of Organic Soils in Sarawak by Teng (1996) and Tie and Kueh (1979)

Vegetation/ Thickness
Type of organic Water
of organic Family Ash content Series
Elevation soil materials table
material

Mossy Absent Mulu Mulu

50-150 cm
Montane Woody Present Umor Umor
< 10%
forest
> 150 cm Woody Present Bareo Bareo

Texture and Salinity Phase*

Vegetation/ Thickness
nature of Water (Groundwater EC umhos/cm)
of organic Family Ash content Series
Elevation underlying table
material <500 500-4000 >4000
mineral soil
Sandy (15% clay) Igan < 10% Igan 1 Igan Igan-S1 Igan-S2
Clayey (>15% < 10% Mukah 1 Mukah Mukah-S1 Mukah-S2

Non-diagnostic parameter
Mukah
clay), non-sulphidic > 10% Epai 1 Epai Epai-S1 Epai-S2
< 10% Patok 1 Patok Patok-S1 Patok-S2
50-150 cm Clayey (>15%
Merapok > 10% Merapok 1 Merapok Merapok-S1 Merapok-S2
clay), sulphidic
Peat swamp Undifferentiated Mahat 2 Mahat Mahat-S1 Mahat-S2
forest
< 10% Kapor 1
Lithic/paralithic Melinau
> 10% Melinau 1
Not differentiated < 10% Anderson 1 Anderson Anderson-S1 Anderson-S2
by texture of > 10% Gadong 1 Gadong Gadong-S1 Gadong-S2
> 150 cm Anderson
underlying mineral
soil Undifferentiated Luk 2 Luk Luk-S1 Luk-S2

* Tie & Kueh (1979). 1 = autochtonous; 2 = allochthonous

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sapric

hemic

fibric

Remnants of decomposing wood/ trunks

Semi decomposed wood/log/trunk

FIGURE 1. Profile morphology of drained organic soils

(Source: Modified from Mutalib et al., 1992)

The parameters commonly used to describe the physical properties of organic soil are
those related to texture, loss on ignition, bulk density, porosity, wetting and drying
process, moisture relationships and hydrology (Sime Darby Services, 1999).

4.2.1 Bulk density

Tie and Kueh (1979) reported very few bulk density determinations have was carried out
on organic soils in Sarawak. The few measurements made gave bulk density values
ranging from 0.05 g/cm3 in fibric, very undecomposed materials, to less than 0.5 g/cm3 in
well decomposed sapric materials. The mean bulk density values reported for Sarawak
organic soils were between 0.12g/cm3 and 0.09 g/cm3 (Andriesse, 1988). The higher bulk
density values of 7 to 8 % of a mineral soil implies high pore space in organic soils.

4.2.2 Porosity

Porosity data for organic soils in Sarawak is equally scarce. Total pore space largely
determines the water retention (Andriesse, 1988). Organic material in organic soils
deposits in Sarawak contain a high percentage of raw and woody material. Therefore,
porosity is high, ranging from 80 to 90 percent, resulting in high soil permeability.
Drainable pore space or storage coefficients are as high as 0.8. Sime Darby Services
(1999) found the drainable porosity (estimated over a 3-day period) of Sarawak organic
soils to be between 15 to 40 percent. Storage coefficients of between 0.2 0.15 for
sapric or highly humified lowland organic soils has been reported (PS Konsultant and
LAWOO, 2001). Due to the high porosity, capillary rise will be minimal unless the soil is
drained. Large pores in fibric horizons will collapse on progressive decomposition and
total pore space will decrease.

4.2.3 Subsidence

Subsidence is an important characteristic of drained organic soils. contrast to mineral

soils, subsidence in organic soils does not stop over time but continues at decreasing
rates (Table 2) (PS Konsultant and LAWOO, 2001). However, there is limited measured
data available for organic soils subsidence in Sarawak due to the lack of studies on the
actual occurrence of subsidence.

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TABLE 2. Measured subsidence data for Sarawak

Source Subsidence (cm/year)
Initial year 1 and 2 After year 2
(consolidation) (oxidation & shrinkage)
Tie and Kueh (1979) 50 6
Yogeswaran (1990) 16
a
Agric. Research Station Sibu 4.4
Salmah (1998) 5
b
Chin and Poo (1991) 6 35
a. Average subsidence rate over the period 1983 2000
b. Higher values in the vicinity of the drains
(Source: PS Konsultant and LAWOO, 2001)

Initial subsidence is mainly caused by consolidation when natural organic soils are
drained. Permanently saturated organic material layers is compressed due to loss of
buoyancy after the water table is lowered (Tie and Kueh, 1979). Subsequently,
compaction is followed by rapid decomposition of the exposed organic matter through
biochemical oxidation. Organic materials above the water table level then experience
shrinkage or a volume reduction due to irreversible loss of water at highly negative water
pressures (PS Konsultant and LAWOO, 1998).

Subsidence depends to a large extent on the depth of water table Therefore, in reclaimed
peat land for agriculture, water table should be kept as high as possible according to the
plant needs. PS Konsultant and LAWOO (2001) presents the first approximate equation
for determining subsidence using the relationship between water table level and rate of
subsidence:

Subsidence rate (cm per year) = 0.1* water table level (cm)

4.2.4 Swelling, shrinking and irreversible drying

Most organic soils shrink when dried but swell when re-wetted, unless they are dried to a
threshold value beyond which irreversible drying occurs (Andriesse, 1988).
Overdrainage can cause irreversible drying and shrinkage. The loss of water and
colloidal changes lead to considerable and irreversible shrinkage of some of the organic
soils, which would then deteriorate to a granular powder with unattractive physical and
agricultural properties (Tie and Kueh, 1979). Andriesse (1988) described the granular
materials as similar to coffee grounds, which are very difficult to re-wet. This process will
lead to water stress in shallow rooted plants. Several explanations have been presented
to describe the resistance to re-wetting in overdried organic soils; however, the results
does not correlate well with tropical organic soils. Re-wetting resistance has been
attributed to the high resin content as well as iron coatings and air films formed around
the organic particles. Resistance to re-wetting also appears to be related to bulk density
where organic soils with high bulk density are comparatively easier to re-wet (Andriesse,
1988).

4.2.5 Strength, Compaction, Consolidation and Bearing Capacity

The bearing capacity of organic soils varies considerably with moisture content and
generally improves with decreasing moisture content (Sime Darby Services, 1999).
Therefore, the bearing capacity is indirectly linked to the water table level in the soil.
Salmah (1992) showed that the bearing capacity and water table projects a straight line
relationship:

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y = 7.68 + 0.044 x
where
y = bearing capacity (kN/m2)
x = water table (mm)

Therefore, if the water table is at the surface (x = 0), the bearing capacity would be
7.68kN/m2.

Other factors affecting bearing capacity are the fibres matrix at the surface and the bulk
density (Sime Darby Services, 1999). A higher bulk density would result in higher bearing
capacity. This can be achieved through drainage, which will result in compaction and
consolidation of the organic materials. Organic soils have often been mechanically
compacted after drainage before proceeding with planting for agriculture. The mechanical
compaction improves the bearing capacity by increasing the bulk density.

4.2.6 Moisture relationships

The knowledge of moisture relationships in organic soils is particularly important

especially for drainage considerations. As earlier described, many characteristics of
organic soils such as the porosity, subsidence and bearing capacity relate to the water
table level. Andriesses (1988) discussion on moisture relationships focus on the
discrepancies found in moisture relationship measurements made with different methods
as well as the discrepancies arising from reporting on a weight and volume basis.
Organic soils contain less water in comparison to mineral soil when both are compared at
volume basis using the same amount of water. Fibric materials were also found to
contain lest water compared to sapric materials. Past studies appear to focus on the
organic soils in Peninsular Malaysia and data for Sarawak are limited. Sime Darby
Services (1999) uses values from the Johore Barat organic soils as reference on the
basis of the strong similarity in hydro-pedological data between Johore and Sarawak.
Ong and Yogeswaran (1992) gave a range of 90 95 percent for moisture content in
Sarawak organic soils.

4.2.7 Hydraulic conductivity

Hydraulic conductivity in organic soils are controlled by several factors the most important
being the porosity (Sime Darby Services, 1999). Other factors are the degree of
decomposition and bulk density which are both indirectly related to porosity. Course fibric
materials have a low bulk density as well as large pores.

Values for hydraulic conductivity in Sarawak organic soils are generally high due to its
open structure (PS Konsultant and LAWOO, 2001). Ong and Yogeswaran (1992)
provided some insight into the values for hydraulic conductivity in Sarawak organic soils
(Table 3). Ong and Yogeswaran (1992) also highlighted the need for more studies to be
in the area of hydraulic behaviour of organic soils in Sarawak.

4.2.8 Hydrology

In their studies done on organic soils in Sarawak, Sime Darby Services (1999)
discovered that few results for hydrology studies are available and the quality of these
studies are not comprehensive enough as contiguity of the system is not considered.
This is caused by inaccessibility into natural organic soil areas.

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Hydrology in the organic soil system is influenced largely by the pattern of precipitation
and soil hydraulic parameters. The influence of these factors makes management for
organic soils complicated especially due to the uneven distribution of rainfall.
TABLE 3. Estimates of hydraulic conductivity
Location Degree of Hydraulic Method of
humification conductivity Analysis
(m/day)
Sedi H4-H6 35 Jacob/Theis
Sedi H2-H3 15 Jacob/Theis
Semah H4-H6 8 Jacob/Theis
Tambirat H3-H4 0.6-3.8 Slug test
Tambirat H4-H5 0.7-2.5 Slug test
Tambirat H5-H6 0.5-0.7 Slug test
Tambirat H6-H8 0.3-0.5 Slug test
Tambirat Mainly H5-H8 12 Water Balance
Sai H3 0.5 Slug test
Sai H7.5 0.001 Slug test
Sai Mainly H4-H6 10-60 Computer/mathema
tical modelling
Semup Mainly H4-H6 140 One-dimension
model
(Source: Ong and Yogeswaran, 1992)

The hydrology surrounding the organic soil basins will influence their genesis and soil
properties (Sime Darby Services, 1999). As basin swamps usually have a saucer-shaped
base, the lowest point in the area would be in the middle of the basin. Water from the
surrounding area would flow into the basin initially bringing minerals into the basin. On
the other hand, excess water is drained radially from the surface of the dome-shaped
deposits thereby forming several small catchments around the dome (PS Konsultant and
LAWOO, 2001). The properties of the organic soils are therefore influenced by the input
and output of water into the system. The contiguous nature of the organic soils as a
single unit in relation to the surrounding areas must be taken into consideration (Sime
Darby Services, 1999) for sustainable management.

4.3 Chemical Properties

4.3.1 pH

Soil acidity (pH) of organic soils in Sarawak was found to be highly correlated to the
decomposition rate; the higher the pH, the greater the decomposition rate (Murayama
and Johari, 1992). Almost all organic soils in Sarawak are very acidic with pH ranging
from 3.2 to 4.0 (Sime Darby Services, 1999). Variations within this range are caused
either by admixtures of mineral soil which generally increase the pH or by specific
locations in the peat swamp (Andriesse, 1988). According to Andriesse, these variations
occur in different sections of the dome shaped (ombrogenous) peat swamps where the
surface layer of the thickest section are lower in pH compared to the shallower organic
soils near the edge. In terms of the methodology for pH determination, a good correlation
(R2 = 0.8) was established between pH measured in KCl and pH measured in water
(Siong, 2001) whereby the former was found to be 0.2 1.5 unit lower. However, the
correlation was determined only for the Mukah Family.

4.3.2 CEC (Cation Exchange Capacity) and base saturation

The CEC measured at pH 7.0 is very high (usually more than 50 meq/100g) but is
considerably less at soil pH in the field because most of the surface charges are pH

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dependent (Sime Darby Services, 1999). Andriesse (1988) quoting Volarovich and
Churaev (1968) stated that the ion adsorption and exchange is associated with the
hydrophilic colloids of the organic soils, namely the humic acids and hemicelluloses. The
occurrence of ion adsorption both at the surface of loose particles as well as inside the
loose particles of the hydrophilic colloids explains the high CEC values usually found in
organic soils. Organic soils in Sarawak tends to be highly saturated with hydrogen ions
(Tie and Kueh, 1979). Therefore, the base saturation is low. The average exchangeable
cations in the surface are 5.68, 4.55 and 0.41 meq/100g soil respectively (Sime Darby
Services, 1999).

4.3.3 Organic carbon

Determination of organic carbon content in organic soils is important, particularly for

calculating the C/N ratio of the material (which is relevant for agricultural development
purposes). The C/N ratio is also an indication of the degree of humification of the organic
materials. The values can range from 12 60 percent (Andriesse, 1988). Organic carbon
content has been normally found to be higher at the surface than in the subsoil.
Kanapathy (1976) gave values ranging from 58 percent at the surface and 25 percent in
the subsoil. This pattern is better associated to deep organic soils due to the large
content of ligneous materials in oligotrophic Histosols. Shallower organic soils have less
accumulation of lignin.

4.3.4 Nitrogen

Most of the nitrogen found in organic soils are in the organic form. Nitrogen levels in the
surface layers of deep organic soils are generally higher than those in the shallow peat
(Andriesse, 1988). Values between 0.5 2.05 percent have been reported by Tie and
Lim (1976) in the topsoils of shallow organic soils and values between 1.10 1.67
percent were reported for deep organic soils.

4.3.5 Humic Substances

Humic substances (HS) are known to be present in significant quantities in the aquatic
and soil environment of peat swamps. Except for the preliminary investigation by Fong
(2000), no other studies have been documented on the chemical characterisation of the
locally occurring peat swamp originated HS. Fong (2000) preliminary study involved
isolation of humic acid, fulvic acid and humin from the topogenous organic soils and peat
swamp runoff from eight localities in Sarawak, followed by the determination of key
chemical properties of these HS. The results obtained showed that the total acidity of the
isolated HS ranged between 5.8 and 8.3 meq/g, with clear indication that the fulvic acid
component of HS contained more carboxylic groups. Comparison with the literature
values for HS occurring elsewhere, HS from the organic soils in Sarawak were found to
posses slightly higher carboxylic and phenolic-OH contents suggesting the
predominance of oxidative degradation of the precursor materials in this tropical
environment. Similarly, elemental and total hydrolysable carbohydrate analyses,
suggested the local HS had a higher carbohydrate (1-3%) and oxygen contents. The UV-
Vis analyses implied the prominence of aliphatic components. The relatively lower range
of Mw (4700 5500 Da for humic acids and 4200 4900 Da for fulvic acids) further
suggested a relatively lower degree of polymerisation (Table 4). In considering the
characteristics of the three fractions of the local HS, it was concluded that the molecular
size decreases and the acid content increases in the following order: humin - humic acids
- fulvic acids.

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TABLE 4. Chemical characteristics of humic substances from

the topogenous organic soils in Sarawak

Parameter Unit Humic Acids Fulvic Acids Humin

UV-Vis, E4/E6 7.7 10.2 10.5 18.2 3.3
Apparent molecular weight, Mw Da 5003 - 5488 4233 - 4910
Acid base content
COOH meq/g 3.3 5.4 3.3 9.0 0.6
Phenolic OH meq/g 2.5 4.4 0.7 5.9 1.7
Elemental atomic ratio
H/C 1.13 1.19 1.14
O/C 0.61 0.76 0.77
N/C 0.03 0.04 0.01
Total hydrolysable carbohydrates mg/g 19.6 33.8 10.8 27.9 2.3
Source: Fong (2000)

These structural attributes suggest that the local HS has a strong complexing capability
as well as greater susceptibility to electrophilic cleavage by trihalomethanes (THM)
forming agents (such as chlorine). In fact another study by Fong (2000) on the THM
formation in four water treatment plants in Kuching district showed the presence of
chloroform in excess (55 80 ug/L) of the USEPA limit of 30 ug/L in the treated water
from two of the four treatment plants. The occurrence of this halogenated organic water
treatment residue was attributed to the presence of HS in the raw water intake of these
plants.

4.4 Selected Analytical Parameters for Management

Effective management and utilisation planning for organic soils in Sarawak calls for
collation of information vital to management decision making. Maltby (1989) and
Andriesse (1988) has provided some insights into the parameters important to
management of Histosols (Table 5).

TABLE 5. Essential Information for Planning Utilisation of Organic Soils

Information Parameter/data Type of Information

Physical characteristics
Profile description, Humification, woody/non-
1
Peat morphology woody, Mineral soil
component and distribution
1
Peat depth Profile description
1
Underlying materials Profile description Texture and character
1 potential acid sulphate
Presence of sulfidic materials Profile description
conditions
2
Bulk density Bulk density Variation with depth
2 Position, spatial and
Water table Profile description
temporal variation
2 Specific density,
Total pore volume
bulk density
Chemical Properties
2 Rubbed fiber
Degree of decomposition Profile
content
2 CEC, Base Available ions/base
Cation exchange characteristics
saturation saturation

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2 Redox potential,
Redox potential and pH Variation with depth
pH
1 Electrical Seasonal variation
Salinity of groundwater
conductivity
2 Relationships to
Hydraulic conductivity
acrotelm/catotelm
Topographic characteristics
3 Microrelief and landscape
Surface configuration Profile description
features
3 Temporal
Subsidence data Rate and spatial variation
changes of depth
(Revised from Maltby, 1989 & Andriesse, 1988)
Method of derivation
1
Soil survey
2
Analytical properties
3
Topographic relationships

5 Information Gaps

5.1 Area of Organic Soils and Mapping Scales

The soil maps of Sarawak currently in circulation are the 1:500 000 maps dated 1968;
and 1:100 000 and 1:50 000 maps dated 1972. The various estimates for organic soil
area coverage is given Table 6.

TABLE 6. Comparison of Total Area of Organic Soils in Sarawak

from Different Sources
Total Area % of land area
Source
(ha) of Sarawak
1:500 000 Soil Map of Sarawak (1968) 1 825 170 14.7
Tie and Kueh (1979) 1,660,000 13.3
1996 Sarawak Statistic Yearbook 1,697,827 13.6
PS Konsultant and LAWOO (2001) 1,657,600 13.3

While the consistency of estimates is noted for the more recent works, the accuracy in
terms of areas represented by each soil type, especially for organic soils, is ambiguous.
Conversion of organic soils for agriculture has increased tremendously since the last
mapping exercise; thus the actual size of organic soils coverage would have changed to
a certain extent given the degradable properties of organic soils. The coverage of
Anderson (120 200 cm) under oil palm cultivation for example will have the time span of
12 to 22 years (PS Konsultant and LAWOO, 2001). Mazrul (2000) for example showed
that the mineral substratum in the organic soil dome at Kota Samarahan had been
exposed over time due to subsidence and rapid oxidation of the organic materials present
above the mineral layer (Figure 2).

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The completeness of records and details in terms of organic soil series is also poor due
to lack of soil series purity in the delineation of map units. Analysis of the 1:100 000 Soils
Map of West Sarawak for example gave a discrepancy of nearly 10% attributable to
areas delineated as undifferentiated soil series of Anderson-Bijat and Igan-Anderson
(Mei, 2001; Siong, 2001).

The influence of mapping scale on organic soil management and decision making could
be an issue given the vagueness of soil series boundary lines in smaller scale maps. A
comparison between the 50 000 and 100 000 scaled maps for a selected location in Kota
Samarahan area (Figures 3a-d ) showed a discrepancy of 3.5% (21 ha smaller in 50 000
map against 595 ha delineated in 100 000 scale map).

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Sampling and observation density is imperative for accuracy of soil maps. 499 samples
were taken (Andriesse and Sebli, 1972) during the survey for the Detailed
Reconnaissance Soil Map of West Sarawak. This represents only 0.007 % of the
optimum sampling and observation density needed to costruct an accurate 1:100 000
map.

5.2 Availability and Quality of Data for Soil Parameters

A preliminary assessment of the state and quality of information (including the suitability
of the analytical methods used) for organic soils in Sarawak has been carried out by Mei
(2001) and Siong (2001). The assessment, which was based on 98 records of soil
profiles obtained from DOA and UNIMAS, indicated that:
conductivity, total base, base saturation and available Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu were
determined in less than 10% of profile samples;
only pH, rubbed fibre content and bulk density were analysed for over 70% of the
profile samples;
other parameters, namely loss-on-ignition, organic carbon, total N, N/C ratio, CEC,
granulometric analysis, available P, total N, total metals (Fe, Zn, Cu, K, Mg, Mn, Ca)
were analysed at an average of 25% of the profile samples;
reports produced/published in 1970s and 80s were very much lack of information
compared to those produced after 1990s;
there is no organic carbon (OC) data available for the clayey sulphidic Merapok
Family (Table 7). The range of (OC) values in the sandy Igan and clayey non-
sulphidic Mukah are so varied that some of them exceeded the values recorded for
the Anderson Family.

TABLE 7. Soil Organic Carbon (%)

Soil Depth Anderson Igan Family Merapok Mukah Family
Family Family
0 25cm 20.90 44.40 26.71 41.46 na 18.74 54.64
25 50 cm 19.89 48.34 21.63 35.65 na 12.20 48.42
50 100 cm 21.67 46.90 9.06 36.98 na 1.29 43.28
100 150 cm 19.17 45.20 na na 1.28 6.78

also unavailable (not determined for any of the 98 profiles) were data of N contents
and CEC for the Merapok and Melinau Families; and data for available P for Igan,
Melinau and Merapok Families.

Errors such as exclusion of Na in the computation of base saturation (the sum of Ca,
Mg, Na and K) and ambiguous data such as pH (KCl) of 4.9 6.6 and organic carbon
content of <25% for the Anderson Family were discovered.

The aforementioned shortcomings reflects inaccuracy of information that could result in

biased or incorrect interpretation of results. It is thus imperative that inconsistency in
sampling and analysis be addressed through a comprehensive quality control
programme.

5.3 Database Development

An integrated, dynamic and reliable database for soil is needed for sustainable land use
particularly of organic soils utilisation in Sarawak. The discussion in Section 5.2 clearly
indicate inadequacy of good quality data and information, which could lead to
misrepresentations and inaccuracy in mapping and decision making process. To facilitate
a more convenient and accurate classification of organic soils, a good data base should
be developed and linked to other supporting tools (such as GIS) to form an integrated

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STRAPEAT STATUS REPORT (THE PEAT SOIL OF SARAWAK)

and operational database system. At present, the organic soils data bases in Sarawak
are fragmented and are largely based only on reconnaissance and semi-detailed soil
surveys.

5.4 Linking Database with Soil Quality and Sustainable Soil Management

In terms of soil parameters, it is certainly useful to link up the immediate administrative

need of soil classification with the necessity of profiling a holistic database of a particular
soil ecosystem. This is for the simple reason that sustainable soil and land management
relates to soil functions, for which soil quality is the indicator. Thus, soil quality becomes
the link between conservation management practices and sustainable agriculture (Doran
et al., 1999) and the selected parameters should be representative of the soils physical,
chemical, biological and socioeconomic functions (Figure 4) (Seybold et al. 1998).

5.5 Better Understanding of Organic Constituents of the Organic Soils

There is a need to better understand the chemical and physical characteristics of the
organic constituents of organic soils. Studies on the chemical structure and properties of
the peat derived humic substances in Sarawak have been very preliminary in nature due
to constraints in analytical instrumentation. The findings of a more comprehensive
analysis of chemical structure, chelating and coagulation properties and other related
physical characteristics should complement efforts to better manage the peat resources
(which include the use of peat tainted water resources for municipal supplies).

5.6 Information on the Degree of Decomposition

A good knowledge on the relationship between the chronological effect of draining of

peat lands on the rate of biochemical oxidation is crucial for the prediction of impacts due
to land use change and disturbances. Unlike the USDA system where the extent of
decomposition is differentiated as fibric, hemic and sapric, the degree of decomposition is
a non-diagnostic feature in the classification of organic soils in Sarawak. This omission
could hinder attempts to accurately predict the potential impacts of any physical
modification to the organic soils ecosystem.

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STRAPEAT STATUS REPORT (THE PEAT SOIL OF SARAWAK)

Soil Functions Soil Indicators

Organic C, N Plant available water

Biodiversity Crusts pH, Al, bases
production Electrical conductivity Root restricting layers
Erosion/sedimentation Weed species/density

Water and Tillage Aggregate stability

Earthworms Porosity
solute flow
Structure Bulk density

Basal respiration Organic carbon

Filtering and Texture Microbial biomass
buffering CEC Chemical loading
Herbicide residues PAH

Organic C and N CEC

Basal respiration Microbial
Nutrient Particulate organic matter biomass
cycling Potentially mineralizable nitrogen
Conservation/farming system

Structural Soil structure Soil texture

Bulk density Landscape position
support
Aggregate stability

FIGURE 4. The soil functions - indicators (parameters) quality relationship

16 March 2002