Geologic modelling

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Geological mapping software displaying a screenshot of a structure map generated for an
8500ft deep gas & Oil reservoir in the Erath field, Vermilion Parish, Erath, Louisiana. The
left-to-right gap, near the top of the contour mapindicates a Fault line. This fault line is
between the blue/green contour lines and the purple/red/yellow contour lines. The thin red
circular contour line in the middle of the map indicates the top of the oil reservoir. Because
gas floats above oil, the thin red contour line marks the gas/oil contact zone.
Geologic modelling, Geological modelling or Geomodelling is the applied
science of creating computerized representations of portions of the
Earth's crust based on geophysical and geological observations made on and
below the Earth surface. A Geomodel is the numerical equivalent of a three-
dimensional geological map complemented by a description of physical
quantities in the domain of interest.[1]Geomodelling is related to the concept of
Shared Earth Model;[2] which is a multidisciplinary, interoperable and updatable
knowledge base about the subsurface.
Geomodelling is commonly used for managing natural resources,
identifying natural hazards, and quantifying geological processes, with main
applications to oil and gas fields, groundwater aquifers and ore deposits. For
example, in the oil and gas industry, realistic geologic models are required as
input to reservoir simulatorprograms, which predict the behavior of the rocks
under various hydrocarbon recovery scenarios. A reservoir can only be
developed and produced once; therefore, making a mistake by selecting a site
with poor conditions for development is tragic and wasteful. Using geological
models and reservoir simulation allows reservoir engineers to identify which
recovery options offer the safest and most economic, efficient, and effective
development plan for a particular reservoir.
Geologic modelling is a relatively recent subdiscipline of geology which
integrates structural geology, sedimentology, stratigraphy, paleoclimatology,
and diagenesis;
In 2-dimensions (2D), a geologic formation or unit is represented by a polygon,
which can be bounded by faults, unconformities or by its lateral extent, or crop. In
geological models a geological unit is bounded by 3-dimensional (3D)
triangulated or gridded surfaces. The equivalent to the mapped polygon is the
fully enclosed geological unit, using a triangulated mesh. For the purpose of
property or fluid modelling these volumes can be separated further into an array
of cells, often referred to as voxels (volumetric elements). These 3D grids are the
equivalent to 2D grids used to express properties of single surfaces.
Geomodelling generally involves the following steps:

1. Preliminary analysis of geological context of the

domain of study.
2. Interpretation of available data and observations as
point sets or polygonal lines (e.g. "fault sticks"
corresponding to faults on a vertical seismic section).
3. Construction of a structural model describing the
main rock boundaries (horizons, unconformities,
intrusions, faults)[3]
4. Definition of a three-dimensional mesh honoring the
structural model to support volumetric representation
of heterogeneity (see Geostatistics) and solving
the Partial Differential Equations which govern
physical processes in the subsurface (e.g. seismic
wave propagation, fluid transport in porous media).

Contents
[hide]

1Geologic modelling components

o 1.1Structural framework
o 1.2Rock type
o 1.3Reservoir quality
o 1.4Fluid saturation
o 1.5Geostatistics
o 1.6Mineral Deposits
2Technology
3Research in Geomodelling
4History
5Geologic modelling software
6See also
7References
8Footnotes
9External links

Geologic modelling components[edit]

Structural framework[edit]
Incorporating the spatial positions of the major formation boundaries, including
the effects of faulting, folding, and erosion (unconformities). The major
stratigraphic divisions are further subdivided into layers of cells with differing
geometries with relation to the bounding surfaces (parallel to top, parallel to
base, proportional). Maximum cell dimensions are dictated by the minimum sizes
of the features to be resolved (everyday example: On a digital map of a city, the
location of a city park might be adequately resolved by one big green pixel, but to
define the locations of the basketball court, the baseball field, and the pool, much
smaller pixels - higher resolution - need to be used).
Rock type[edit]
Each cell in the model is assigned a rock type. In a coastal clastic environment,
these might be beach sand, high water energy marine upper shoreface sand,
intermediate water energy marine lower shoreface sand, and deeper low energy
marine silt and shale. The distribution of these rock types within the model is
controlled by several methods, including map boundary polygons, rock type
probability maps, or statistically emplaced based on sufficiently closely spaced
well data.
Reservoir quality[edit]
Reservoir quality parameters almost always include porosity and permeability,
but may include measures of clay content, cementation factors, and other factors
that affect the storage and deliverability of fluids contained in the pores of those
rocks. Geostatisticaltechniques are most often used to populate the cells with
porosity and permeability values that are appropriate for the rock type of each
cell.
Fluid saturation[edit]

A 3D finite difference grid used in MODFLOW for simulating groundwater flow in an aquifer.
Most rock is completely saturated with groundwater. Sometimes, under the right
conditions, some of the pore space in the rock is occupied by other liquids or
gases. In the energy industry, oil and natural gas are the fluids most commonly
being modelled. The preferred methods for calculating hydrocarbon saturations
in a geologic model incorporate an estimate of pore throat size, the densities of
the fluids, and the height of the cell above the water contact, since these factors
exert the strongest influence on capillary action, which ultimately controls fluid
saturations.
Geostatistics[edit]
An important part of geologic modelling is related to geostatistics. In order to
represent the observed data, often not on regular grids, we have to use certain
interpolation techniques. The most widely used technique is kriging which uses
the spatial correlation among data and intends to construct the interpolation via
semi-variograms. To reproduce more realistic spatial variability and help assess
spatial uncertainty between data, geostatistical simulation based on variograms,
training images, or parametric geological objects is often used.
Mineral Deposits[edit]
Geologists involved in mining and mineral exploration use geologic modelling to
determine the geometry and placement of mineral deposits in the subsurface of
the earth. Geologic models help define the volume and concentration of minerals,
to which economic constraints are applied to determine the economic value of
the mineralization. Mineral deposits that are deemed to be economic may be
developed into a mine.

Technology[edit]
Geomodelling and CAD share a lot of common technologies. Software is usually
implemented using object-oriented programming technologies
in C++, Java or C# on one or multiple computer platforms. The graphical user
interface generally consists of one or several 3D and 2D graphics windows to
visualize spatial data, interpretations and modelling output. Such visualization is
generally achieved by exploiting graphics hardware. User interaction is mostly
performed through mouse and keyboard, although 3D pointing devices
and immersive environments may be used in some specific cases. GIS
(Geographic Information System) is also a widely used tool to manipulate
geological data.
Geometric objects are represented with parametric curves and surfaces or
discrete models such as polygonal meshes.[3][4]

Gravity Highs
Research in Geomodelling[edit]
Problems pertainting to Geomodelling cover:[5][6]

Defining an appropriate Ontology to describe geological

objects at various scales of interest,
Integrating diverse types of observations into 3D
geomodels: geological mapping data, borehole data and
interpretations, seismic images and interpretations,
potential field data, well test data, etc.,
Better accounting for geological processes during model
building,
Characterizing uncertainty about the geomodels to help
assess risk. Therefore, Geomodelling has a close
connection to Geostatistics and Inverse problem theory,
Applying of the recent developed Multiple Point
Geostatistical Simulations (MPS) for integrating different
data sources,[7]
Automated geometry optimization and topology
conservation [8]

History[edit]
In the 70's, geomodelling mainly consisted of automatic 2D cartographic
techniques such as contouring, implemented as FORTRAN routines
communicating directly with plotting hardware. The advent of workstations
with 3D graphics capabilities during the 80's gave birth to a new generation of
geomodelling software with graphical user interface which became mature during
the 90's.[9][10][11]
Since its inception, geomodelling has been mainly motivated and supported by
oil and gas industry.

Geologic modelling software[edit]

Software developers have built several packages for geologic modelling
purposes. Such software can display, edit, digitise and automatically calculate
the parameters required by engineers, geologists and surveyors. Current
software is mainly developed and commercialized by oil and gas or mining
industry software vendors:
Geologic modelling and visualisation

Datamine Studio RM
 MineSight
SGS Genesis
IRAP RMS Suite
Geomodeller3D
Geosoft provides GM-SYS and VOXI 3D modelling
software
GSI3D
GOCAD
SKUA
Petrel
Rockworks
Move
Groundwater modelling

FEFLOW
FEHM
MODFLOW

GMS
Visual MODFLOW

ZOOMQ3D
Moreover, industry Consortia or companies are
specifically working at improving standardization and
interoperability of earth science databases and
geomodelling software:

Standardization: GeoSciML by the Commission for

the Management and Application of Geoscience
Information, of the International Union of Geological
Sciences.
Standardization: RESQML(tm) by Energistics
Interoperability: OpenSpirit, by TIBCO(r)

See also[edit]
Petroleum engineering
Seismic to simulation

References[edit]
 Bolduc, A.M., Riverin, M-N., Lefebvre, R., Fallara, F.
et Paradis, S.J., 2006. Eskers: la recherche de l'or
bleu. La Science au
Qubec : http://www.sciencepresse.qc.ca/archives/qu
ebec/capque0606f.html
Faure, Stphane, Godey, Stphanie, Fallara,
Francine and Trpanier, Sylvain. (2011). Seismic
Architecture of the Archean North American Mantle
and Its Relationship to Diamondiferous Kimberlite
Fields. Economic Geology, MarchApril 2011, v. 106,
p. 223-
240. http://econgeol.geoscienceworld.org/content/106
/2/223.abstract
Fallara, Francine, Legault, Marc and Rabeau, Olivier
(2006). 3-D Integrated Geological Modeling in the
Abitibi Subprovince (Qubec, Canada): Techniques
and Applications. Exploration and Mining Geology,
Vol. 15, Nos. 1-2, pp. 27
41. http://web.cim.org/geosoc/docs/pdf/EMG15_3_Fa
llara_etal.pdf
Berg, R.C., Mathers, S.J., Kessler, H., and Keefer, D.
A., 2011. Synopsis of Current Three-dimensional
Geological Mapping and Modeling in Geological
Survey Organization, Champaign, Illinois: Illinois
State Geological Survey, Circular
578. http://library.isgs.uiuc.edu/Pubs/pdfs/circulars/c5
78.pdf
Turner, A. K.; Gable, C. (2007). "A review of
geological modelling. In: Three-dimensional geologic
mapping for groundwater applications, Workshop
extended abstracts," (PDF). Denver, Colorado.
Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-11-21.
Kessler, H., Mathers, S., Napier, B., Terrington, R. &
Sobisch, H.-G (2007). "The present and future
construction and delivery of 3D geological models at
the British Geological Survey". (GSA Denver Annual
Meeting. Poster)
Wycisk,P., Gossel W., Schlesier, D. & Neumann, C
(2007). "Integrated 3D modelling of subsurface
geology and hydrogeology for urban groundwater
management"(PDF). International Symposium on New
 Directions in Urban Water Management. Archived
from the original (PDF) on 2008-12-17.
Kessler, H., Mathers, S., Lelliott, M., Hughes, A. &
MacDonald, D. (2007). "Rigorous 3D geological
models as the basis for groundwater modelling. In:
Three-dimensional geologic mapping for groundwater
applications, Workshop extended abstracts,"(PDF).
Denver, Colorado. Archived from the original (PDF) on
2008-12-03.
Merritt, J.E., Monaghan, A., Entwisle, D., Hughes, A.,
Campbell, D. & Browne, M. (August 2007). "3D
attributed models for addressing environmental and
engineering geoscience problems in areas of urban
regeneration a case study in Glasgow, UK. In: First
Break, Special Topic Environmental and Engineering
Geoscience" (PDF). pp. Volume 25, pp 7984.

Kevin B. Sprague & Eric A. de Kemp. (2005)

Interpretive Tools for 3-D Structural Geological
Modelling Part II: Surface Design from Sparse Spatial
Data http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1046957.1
046969&coll=&dl=ACM
de Kemp, E.A. (2007). 3-D geological modelling
supporting mineral exploration. In: Goodfellow, W.D.,
ed., Mineral Deposits of Canada: A Synthesis of
Major Deposit Types, District Metallogeny, the
Evolution of Geological Provinces, and Exploration
Methods: Geological Association of Canada, Mineral
Deposits Division, Special Publication 5, p. 1051-
1061. http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/mindep/method/3d/pdf/d
ekemp_3dgis.pdf

Footnotes[edit]
1. Jump up^ Mallet, J. L. (2008). Numerical Earth
Models. European Association of Geoscientists and
Engineers (EAGE Publications bv). ISBN 978-90-
73781-63-4.
2. Jump up^ Fanchi, John R. (August 2002). Shared
Earth Modeling : Methodologies for Integrated
Reservoir Simulations. Gulf Professional Publishing
(Elsevier imprint). pp. xi 306. ISBN 978-0-7506-
7522-2.
 3. ^ Jump up to:a b Caumon, G., Collon-Drouaillet, P., Le
Carlier de Veslud, C., Sausse, J. and Viseur, S.
(2009), Surface-based 3D modeling of geological
structures, Mathematical Geosciences, 41(9):927-945
4. Jump up^ Mallet, J.-L., Geomodeling, Applied
Geostatistics Series. Oxford University
Press. ISBN978-0-19-514460-4
5. Jump up^ Caumon, G., Towards stochastic time-
varying geological modeling (2010), Mathematical
Geosciences, 42(5):(555-569)
6. Jump up^ Perrin, M., Zhu, B., Rainaud, J.F. and
Schneider, S. (2005), Knowledge-driven applications
for geological modeling, "Journal of Petroleum
Science and Engineering", 47(1-2):89-104
7. Jump up^ Tahmasebi, P., Hezarkhani, A., Sahimi, M.,
2012, Multiple-point geostatistical modeling based on
the cross-correlation functions, Computational
Geosciences, 16(3):779-79742
8. Jump up^ M.R. Alvers, H.J. Gtze, B. Lahmeyer, C.
Plonka and S. Schmidt, 2013, Advances in 3D
Potential Field Modeling EarthDoc, 75th EAGE
Conference & Exhibition incorporating SPE
EUROPEC 2013
9. Jump up^ Dynamic Graphics History
10. Jump up^ Origin of the Gocad software
11. Jump up^ J. L. Mallet, P. Jacquemin, and N.
Cheimanoff (1989). GOCAD project: Geometric
modeling of complex geological surfaces, SEG
Expanded Abstracts 8, 126, doi:10.1190/1.1889515

External links[edit]
Geological Modelling at the British Geological Survey
Categories:
Economic geology
Petroleum geology
Geology software
Scientific modeling
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