Basin Research (2003) 15, 479502, doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2117.2003.00216.

Normal fault growth and early syn-rift sedimentology

and sequence stratigraphy: Thal Fault,
Suez Rift, Egypt
Mike J. Young, Rob. L. Gawthorpe and Ian R. Sharp
Basin and Stratigraphic Studies Group, Department of Earth Sciences,The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK

ABSTRACT
This paper investigates the tectono - stratigraphic development of a major, segmented rift border fault
(Thal Fault) during ca. 6 Myr of initial rifting in the Suez Rift, Egypt.TheThal Fault is interpreted to
have evolved by the progressive linkage of at least four fault segments.We focus on two contrasting
structural settings in its hangingwall: Gushea, towards the northern tip of the fault, and Musaba
Salaama, ca. 20 km along- strike to the south, towards the centre of the fault.The early syn-rift
stratigraphic succession passes upwards from continental facies, through a condensed marginal
marine shell-rich facies, into fully marine shoreface sandstone and oshore mudstone. Regionally
correlatable stratal surfaces within this succession dene time- equivalent stratal units that exhibit
considerable along- strike variability in thickness and facies architecture. During the initial ca. 6 Myr
of rifting, the thickest stratigraphy developed towards the centre of the array of fault segments that
subsequently hard linked to form theThal Fault.Thus, a displacement gradient existed between fault
segments at the centre and tip of the fault array, suggesting that the fault segments interacted, and a
xed length was established for the fault array, at an early stage in rifting.Towards the centre of the
Thal Fault the early syn-rift succession shows pronounced thickening away from the fault and towards
a series of intra-block antithetic faults that were active for up to ca. 6 Myr.This indicates that a large
proportion of fault- controlled subsidence during the initial ca. 6 Myr of rifting occurred in the
hangingwalls of antithetic intra-block faults, and not the present-dayThal Fault.The antithetic faults
progressively switched o during rifting such that after ca. 6 Myr of rifting, fault-activity had localised
on theThal Fault enabling it to accrue to the present-day high level of displacement. Aspects of the
development of theThal Fault appear to be in contrast to many models of fault evolution that predict
large-displacement rift- climax faults to have always had the greatest displacement during fault
population evolution.This study has implications for tectono - stratigraphic development during
early rift basin evolution. In particular, we stress that caution must be taken when relating nal rift-
climax fault structure to the early tectono - stratigraphy, as these may dier considerably.

INTRODUCTION greatest subsidence during early rifting are thought to de-

velop into the highest displacement faults during later rift-
The early phase of rift basin development is thought to be
ing (e.g. Walsh & Watterson, 1988; Cartwright et al., 1995;
characterised by the occurrence of distributed, small-dis-
Dawers & Anders, 1995; Nicol et al., 1997; Cowie, 1998;
placement faults resulting in distributed extension (e.g.
Gupta et al., 1998; Cowie et al., 2000; Meyer et al., 2002).
Cowie, 1998; Gupta et al., 1998; Cowie et al., 2000;
This fault population evolution is likely to exert a signi -
Gawthorpe & Leeder, 2000). It is not until rifting pro -
cant inuence on the coeval syn-rift stratigraphy in terms
gresses towards the climax phase (sensu Prosser, 1993) that
of spatial and temporal thickness and facies variability as
extension is thought to become localised onto preferen- surface deformation develops from propagation folds to
tially oriented faults (with respect to fault interactions), re-
surface breaking faults, and as the main locus of fault-con-
sulting in continued and enhanced subsidence in certain
trolled subsidence shifts with the migration of activity on
regions (e.g. hangingwalls of rift-border faults), whereas
faults (cf. Schlische & Olsen, 1990; Schlische, 1995;
faults within stress shadow zones become inactive (e.g.
Schlische & Anders, 1996; Gawthorpe et al., 1997; Gupta
many intra-block faults). Furthermore, faults with the
et al., 1999; Gawthorpe & Leeder, 2000; Sharp et al., 2000a).
Fault evolution models imply that the greatest subsidence
Correspondence to present address: Mike J. Young and Ian R.
Sharp, Norsk Hydro, PO Box 7190, N-5020 Bergen, Norway. and hence main depocentres should be located in the hang-
E-mail: mike.young@hydro.com or rob.gawthorpe@man.ac.uk ingwalls of the major rift- climax faults that are predicted to

r 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd 479

M. J.Young et al.
have consistently developed the greatest displacement
throughout rifting. Few studies to date (e.g. Gawthorpe
et al., 1997; Davies et al., 2000; McLeod et al., 2000; Sharp
et al., 2000b; Young et al., 2001) have examined the detailed
nature and variability of early syn-rift stratigraphy in rift
basins, and consequently the inuence of the evolving fault
structure on stratigraphic development during the early
stages of rifting is relatively poorly understood.
Using a combination of structural and stratigraphic
data from a major, block-bounding fault zone, we investi-
gate the tectono - stratigraphic development during the
early stages of rifting, the so - called rift initiation stage
(sensu Prosser, 1993). We have paid attention to thickness
variations, facies distributions and onlap/truncation pat-
terns within the syn-rift in order to reconstruct the loca-
tion of fault tips, fault segment lengths, fault/fold
geometry and locus of fault activity for dierent times in
the rift history.We specically examine the sedimentology,
sequence stratigraphy and stratigraphic architecture of a
well- exposed Miocene (Aquitanian^Burdigalian) early
syn-rift succession in the hangingwall of the Thal Fault,
Hammam Faraun fault block (Suez Rift), focusing on two
age- equivalent successions: one situated towards the tip
and one near the centre of the fault segment (Figs 1 and 2).
Stratigraphic ages are based on biostratigraphic (Krebs
et al., 1997) and magnetostratigraphic (Bentham et al.,
1995) studies. In addition, dating of key stratal surfaces
has been established using marine Sr-isotope stratigraphy
Fig. 1. Geological map showing the main structural elements in the Hammam Faraun fault block, central dip province, Suez Rift.The
stratigraphic column shows the thickness of the main lithological units. Modied from Moustafa & Abdeen (1992) and Moustafa (1996).
Note theThal Fault, which is the focus of this study.
480
following the approach of McArthur et al. (2001) to convert
87
Sr/86Sr ratio of oysters to numerical ages.
The early syn-rift succession described in this paper
occurs stratigraphically below that described in previous
studies by Young et al. (2000, 2002). In contrast to most rift
basins where the early syn-rift stratigraphy is buried be-
neath later syn-rift and post-rift deposits and generally
poorly imaged on seismic reection data, uplift of the rift
shoulder of the Suez Rift, especially the Hammam Faraun
fault block, has exposed the early syn-rift and late pre-rift
stratigraphy. In addition, the semi-arid nature of the study
area and the network of cross- cutting wadi systems allows
unique three-dimensional control for the tracing of struc-
tures and related syn-rift sediments, in semi- continuous
strike and dip sections. Therefore, the study area oers an
exceptional opportunity to examine the early stages of
evolution of normal fault populations and the coeval syn-
rift depositional systems.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
Structure
The Gulf of Suez is a failed intra- continental Neogene rift
system, approximately 300 km long and 80 km wide, that
forms the northern continuation of the Red Sea Rift (Fig.1).
The main phase of rifting occurred during the separation
of the African and Arabian plates from the latest Oligocene
r 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Basin Research, 15, 479^502

into the Miocene (ca. 24^15.5 Ma), abating around the time
when signicant movement began on the Dead Sea^Aqaba
transform, which accommodates continued extension
within the Red Sea (e.g. Garfunkel & Bartov,1977; Richard-
son & Arthur, 1988; Steckler et al., 1988; Patton et al., 1994).
Longitudinally, the rift is segmented and consists of three
main dip provinces within which the main faults and fault
blocks have consistent dip directions (e.g. Moustafa, 1976;
Colletta et al., 1988; Bosworth, 1995). These dip provinces
are separated by the Morgan and Gharandal accommoda-
tion zones in the south and north, respectively (e.g. Mous-
tafa, 1976; Bosworth, 1995).The segmented rift border and
intra-rift faults have developed through the growth and
linkage of individual fault segments on a variety of dier-
ent scales (e.g. Sharp et al., 2000b), and the growth of faults
and associated fault propagation folds has been shown to
exert a signicant inuence on the coeval sedimentation
within the rift (e.g. Gawthorpe et al., 1997; Gupta et al.,
1999; Sharp et al., 2000a; Jackson et al., 2002).
TheThal Fault, the focus of this paper, bounds the east-
ern side of the Hammam Faraun fault block, central dip
province, Suez Rift (Figs 1 and 2). The fault is a ca. 30 km
long, down-to -the SW normal fault with up to ca. 2 km of
displacement. In plan view it has an en echelon dog-leg
pattern of dominant, 3^8 km long, rift-parallel fault seg-
ments linked by shorter, oblique faults (cf. Moustafa,
1976, 1993; Colletta et al., 1988; Sharp et al., 2000a). In gen-
eral, the erosion level of the pre-rift within the Hammam
Faraun fault block becomes progressively deeper towards
the Thal Fault in the east (Fig. 2a) (Moustafa & Abdeen,
1992; Moustafa, 1996). This simple observation suggests
that the eastern part of the fault block (i.e. around the Thal
Fault) may have represented a relative high during early rift
times and consequently experienced the greatest amount
of erosion. The pre-rift strata in the footwall of the Thal
Fault become progressively younger towards its northern
tip, suggesting that footwall uplift and fault throw gener-
ally decrease in this direction (Fig. 2). However, this de-
crease in throw is not smooth, but shows considerable
variation (Young et al., 2002). Analysis of fault displace-
ment^distance data (Fig. 2b), stratal dips and syn-rift stra-
tal thickness patterns (Fig. 2a) indicates that theThal Fault
is segmented and composed of at least four hard-linked,
smaller length- scale fault segments: Gushea, Abu Idei-
mat, Sarbut El Gamal and Nukhul segments (cf. Sharp
et al., 2000a; Young et al., 2002) (Fig. 2). The centres of the
fault segments are marked by (i) synclines containing the
thickest syn-rift deposits and (ii) high fault throw values.
In contrast, the boundaries of the fault segments are
marked by (i) transverse anticlines, (ii) low fault throw va-
lues and (iii) generally lack preserved syn-rift strata (cf.
Anders & Schlische, 1994; Schlische, 1995; Sharp et al.,
2000a, b; Young et al., 2001, 2002).
This paper focuses on two contrasting structural set-
tings in the hangingwall of theThal Fault: Gushea, towards
the northern tip of the fault, and Musaba Salaama,
ca. 20 km along- strike to the south, towards the centre of
the fault (Figs 1^3). Gushea is situated in the hangingwall
r 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Basin Research, 15, 479^502
Thal Fault, Suez Rift, Egypt
of the Gushea segment, a region in which there are several
intra-block antithetic faults up to 11km in length, with
displacements up to ca. 300 m and situated up to 4 km west
of the Thal Fault (Figs 2 and 3a). Musaba Salaama is situ-
ated in the hangingwall of the Sarbut El Gamal segment,
a region in which there are four main antithetic faults,
1^4 km in length, with up to ca. 400 m displacement, and
situated up to 2.5 km west of theThal Fault (Figs 2 and 3b).
Furthermore, Musaba Salaama is situated in the southern
half of a syncline (hangingwall depocentre) whose axis
parallels theThal Fault (Fig. 3b).
Late pre- and syn-rift stratigraphy
The late pre-rift stratigraphy of the Hammam Faraun fault
block consists mainly of Eocene-aged carbonates: the
Thebes Formation (lower^middle Eocene), Darat Forma-
tion (middle Eocene), Thal/Khaboba Formation (middle^
upper Eocene) and Tanka Formation (middle^upper
Eocene) (e.g. Garfunkel & Bartov, 1977; Abul-Nasr, 1990,
1992; Moustafa & Abdeen 1992; Moustafa, 1993) (Fig. 1).
The syn-rift stratigraphy of the Gulf of Suez is schemati-
cally summarised in Fig. 4. The sedimentation and tec-
tonic subsidence during the initial phase of rifting in the
Gulf of Suez were thought to be slow and the correspond-
ing stratigraphy, above the pre-rift/syn-rift unconformity,
shows an upward transition from red bed uvio -lacustrine
deposits of the Abu Zenima Formation, with local volca-
nics, to marginal marine clastics of the Nukhul Formation
(e.g. Patton et al., 1994; Sharp et al., 2000b; Jackson et al.,
2002; Carr et al., 2003) (Fig. 4). Local erosional valleys may
be present at the pre- to syn-rift contact, where they are
lled with continental mud and conglomerate (Sharp
et al., 2000b; Jackson et al., 2002; Carr et al., 2003). The
Nukhul Formation is overlain by the Lower Rudeis
(Mheiherrat) Formation, generally consisting of deeper
water, mud-dominated deposits (with localised basin-
margin clastics) that can be interpreted to represent
rift- climax deposition over most of the gulf (e.g. Patton
etal.,1994; Gupta etal.,1998).The transition from the Low-
er to Upper Rudeis Formation is marked by the mid-Clys-
mic or mid-Rudeis unconformity that is believed to be
associated with a regional tectonic event causing uplift of
the basin (e.g. Garfunkel & Bartov, 1977; Patton et al., 1994;
Wescott et al., 1996). Sedimentation during the Upper Ru-
deis is characterised by fan deltas along the rift margins,
submarine fans in hangingwall depocentres, and hanging-
wall shorelines (Hawara and Asl Formations) (e.g. Evans,
1988; Smale et al., 1988).This paper focuses on the Abu Ze-
nima, Nukhul and Lower Rudeis Formations, although
this three-fold lithostratigraphic breakdown is dicult to
apply strictly adjacent to the Thal border fault because of
the limited development of a strong tidal character to the
stratigraphy (especially the Nukhul Formation) and due to
the high coarse clastic sediment supply (cf. Upper Rudeis;
Fig. 4 and Young et al., 2000, 2002).
The onset of movement on the Dead Sea^Aqaba trans-
form fault at ca.15.5 Ma is thought to have inhibited rifting
481
M. J.Young et al.

Fig. 2. (a) Geological map of theThal Fault, showing along- strike throw values, and the location of fault segments (cf. Sharp et al.,
2000a).The fault-throw values reveal the location of displacement maxima and minima along the length of the fault; see text for
explanation. Note that Miocene syn-rift exposures occur as isolated synclines in the immediate hangingwall of theThal Fault. Modied
from Moustafa & Abdeen (1992) and Moustafa (1996). (b) Fault displacement^distance prole for theThal Fault. The relative distance
along theThal Fault is the scale of the x-axis.

482 r 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Basin Research, 15, 479^502


Fig. 2. (Continued).
in the Gulf of Suez, leading to late syn- to post-rift sedi-
mentation, including mid^late Miocene evaporites (Ras
Malaab Group) (Richardson & Arthur, 1988). However,
faults bounding the present-day shoreline of the Gulf of
Suez have activity on them up to recent times as indicated
by uplifted shorelines and marine terraces (Garfunkel &
Bartov, 1977; Gawthorpe et al., 2003), thick post-Miocene
successions in their hangingwalls (Gawthorpe et al., 2003)
and historical earthquakes (e.g. Jackson et al., 1988).
SEDIMENTOLOGY AND DEPOSITIONAL
SYSTEMS
Detailed analyses of the sedimentology of the early syn-
rift succession (i.e. grain size, sedimentary structures,
body and trace fossils) have enabled eight main facies to
be determined within the study area that were deposited
within three main genetic depositional settings (facies as-
sociations): (i) continental, (ii) shallow water, marginal to
fully marine, and (iii) shoreface to oshore.
Facies Association 1: Continental
This facies association is situated at the base of the syn-rift
succession and represents the Abu Zenima Formation, the
initial syn-rift depositional unit. It comprises a conglom-
eratic facies (Facies 1a) and a mudstone facies (Facies 1b).
Facies 1a forms more than 90% of the facies association.
Facies 1a: pale grey conglomerate with minor sandstone
Facies 1a occurs immediately above pre-rift strata and
above/inter-bedded with reddened mudstone (Facies 1b)
(Figs 5c and 6a). The facies has an erosional base, a total
thickness of more than 40 m and has lateral continuity of
41.5 km. It consists of a poorly sorted, clast- to matrix-
supported conglomerate that has a ne sandstone to mud-
stone matrix. The clasts are typically rounded to sub-
rounded in shape, range in size from o1cm to 1m, and
r 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Basin Research, 15, 479^502
Thal Fault, Suez Rift, Egypt
are predominantly composed of white Eocene Tanka
Formation limestone (95%), with rare brown muddy lime-
stone and bio-clastic limestone clasts of theThal/Khaboba
or Darat Formations (5%) (Fig. 1). The facies is crudely
bedded on a metre scale, marked by clast size variations.
Individual beds are generally planar, ungraded, lack pri-
mary sedimentary structures (e.g. cross-bedding or
clast imbrication) and have sheet-like geometries. A minor
sandstone sub-facies occurs inter-bedded within the
conglomerate, but comprises o5% of the facies unit as a
whole. The sandstone is ne-grained, centimetre^deci-
metre- scale planar bedded and is generally eroded into
by the conglomerate beds (Fig. 6a).
Facies 1b: variegated mudstone
Facies1b consists of massive mudstone that has a variegated
red/brown to purple colour and occurs immediately above
the pre-rift strata, where it varies from o1^10 m in thick-
ness and has lateral continuity of o100 m. It is inter-bedded
with and typically incised into by conglomerate (Facies 1a)
(Fig. 6a). The mudstone commonly contains pale grey car-
bonate nodules that generally occur at specic horizons.
These have two main forms: (i) irregular patches or nodules
that are up to 20 cm in diameter and (ii) vertical streaks that
are a few centimetres in width and up to 30 cm long.
Interpretation of Facies Association 1
The lack of any marine indicators such as fauna or trace
fossils, together with the pedogenic carbonate that occurs
in Facies 1b, suggests that this is a non-marine facies asso -
ciation. The clast/grain size, generally planar, sheet-like
internal bed geometries, lack of cross-bedding and lack of
upward ning motifs indicates that Facies1a was deposited
as gravel sheets or low relief longitudinal bars within a u-
vial setting, where the lack of slip-face deposits (cross-
bedding) suggests that gravel-bed streams were shallow
with gravel rapidly deposited (e.g. Boothroyd & Ashley,
1975; Boothroyd & Nummedal, 1978; Todd, 1989; Brierley
483
484
M. J.Young et al.

Fig. 3. Detailed geological maps of the study areas based on 1 : 10 000 scale mapping on air photographs.The key, regionally correlatable stratal surfaces (FS-1 to FS-3) are highlighted: (a) Gushea,
towards the tip of theThal Fault, and (b) Musaba Salaama, towards the centre. Note the location of measured sections (sedimentary logs) and photographs that appear in preceding gures. See Fig. 2 for

r 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Basin Research, 15, 479^502

locations of the maps.
 Thal Fault, Suez Rift, Egypt

Fig. 3. (Continued)

etal.,1993; Nemec & Postma,1993; Jo etal.,1997).The uvial was frequently transported across the mudstone (Facies
system probably consisted of wide, shallow ephemeral river 1b) into which it incised.
beds, similar to the present-day wadis in Sinai, Egypt (cf.
Roberts, 1987). The mudstone of Facies 1b and also the Facies Association 2: Shallow water, marginal
minor sandstone in Facies 1a were most likely deposited to fully marine
from suspension/waning ow during channel abandon-
This facies association overlies Facies Association1, repre-
ment following a ooding event. Mudstone was also prob-
sents part of the Nukhul Formation, and comprises a
ably deposited in playa lakes adjacent to the wadis. During
shell-rich facies (Facies 2a).
intervening non-depositional periods, evaporation, oxi-
dation and pedogenic processes occurred (cf. Rhee et al.,
Facies 2a: oyster-rich shell unit
1998), resulting in the precipitation of calcrete nodules
within soils, and also preferentially around rootlets (verti- Facies 2a is composed of up to 90% mono - specic oysters
cal streaks). During unconned ash ood events, gravel (Hyotissa sp.) and forms a single massive unit that has a

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M. J.Young et al.

Fig. 4. Schematic chronostratigraphic section for the early Miocene syn-rift of the Hammam Faraun fault block, highlighting the
position of the major marine ooding surfaces (FS-1to FS-3) used in this study.The main lithostratigraphic units are shown, along with
the division into biostratigraphic sequences (S10^S30) and their bounding terraces (T00^T30) from Wescott et al. (1996) and Krebs et al.
(1997). Eustatic sea-level curve from Haq et al. (1987).

thickness of ca. 2 m and is laterally extensive on the scale of
kilometres. The facies unconformably overlies pre-rift
Eocene limestone or continental deposits (Facies Associa-
tion 1) and has sharp planar basal and upper contacts.The
facies consists of a chaotic mass of well-preserved oysters,
generally not in life position, and frequently shell sup-
ported, being cemented or encrusted to other oysters
(Fig. 6b). The oysters are thick-ribbed with an average size
of 10 cm. Occasional, smaller (average size of 3 cm) thick
ribbed Pecten shells are distributed throughout, and form
5% of the shells. A brown/grey matrix of silt grade material
lls the spaces between and around the oysters. Barnacles
and corals (Tarbellastraea and Porites) locally occur, generally
in the upper parts of the oyster shell beds or on the top
surface. There is no discernable bedding or primary sedi-
mentary structures within this facies.
Interpretation of Facies Association 2
Deposition of this facies occurred during a widespread
marine transgression over the underlying continental de-
posits. The oysters probably dwelled in a shallow water
marine to marginal marine environment, with a low/epi-
sodic sedimentation rate and potentially quite extreme or
restricted conditions that enabled a high-abundance, low-
diversity benthic macrofauna to dwell and build up as a
shell bank (cf. Dreyer & Falt, 1993).The dense packing of the

486 r 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Basin Research, 15, 479^502

 Thal Fault, Suez Rift, Egypt

oysters is most probably beyond likely living densities, sug-
gesting a slow net accumulation rate, potentially correspond-
ing to stratigraphic condensation in shallow water (cf.
Kidwell, 1989, 1993). Furthermore, the chaotic arrangement
of shells suggests that they may have been locally reworked
by possible storm events, although the preservation of many
whole shells and the lack of intense boring and encrustation
implies that the shells were neither continuously reworked
nor exposed for long periods on the sea oor after death
(Banjerjee & Kidwell,1991). It is likely that the oyster bed (Fa-
cies 2a) is transitional to a major tidal system situated further
west, which is more characteristic of the Nukhul Formation
(Jackson et al., 2002; Carr et al., 2003).
Facies Association 3: Shoreface to offshore
This facies association overlies Facies Association 2 and
represents parts of the Nukhul and Lower Rudeis Forma-

Fig. 5. Sedimentary logs showing the main lithologies and facies encountered in the early syn-rift succession, together with key stratal
surfaces used in this study.The numbers shown within the lithology column of the sedimentary logs refer to the facies. (a) Section c,
Gushea, (b) Section f, Gushea and (c) Section F, Musaba Salaama. See Fig. 3 for location of the sedimentary logs.

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M. J.Young et al.
Fig. 5. (Continued).
tions. The facies association has a thickness of more than
150 m, a lateral extent of tens of kilometres, and comprises
three sandstone facies (Facies 3a, 3c and 3d), a minor
conglomerate facies (Facies 3b) and a mudstone facies
(Facies 3e).
488
Facies 3a: Pebble-rich, ripple and cross-bedded sandstone
Facies 3a occurs within a thick (4150 m) lithological unit
that predominantly occurs in the northeastern region of
the Gushea study area, where it has kilometre- scale lateral
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 Thal Fault, Suez Rift, Egypt

(a) (b)

Conglomerate

Sandstone

Variagated
mudstone

(c)
(d)

(f)
(e)

2
2

(h)

(g)

1 5m
3

2 2
1

2
1

Fig. 6. (a) Fluvial conglomerate (Facies 1a) erosionally overlying uvial sandstone and variegated mudstone (Facies 1b).The
conglomerate is ca. 20 m thick and incises into the underlying sandstone and mudstone. (b) Oyster-rich shell unit (Facies 2a). Pencil for
scale. (c) Epsilon cross-bedding within a channel in Facies 3a. Note the mud drapes (recessive weathering) between successive cross-
beds. Metre rule for scale. (d) Hummocky cross stratication (HCS) in Facies 3a. Metre rule for scale. (e) Cli face (ca. 50 m high) of
shoreface sandstone (Facies 3c) showing the characteristic ribbed weathering prole (label 1). Note the sharp, regressive base to the
sandstone as it overlies oshore mudstone (Facies 3e) (label 2).The photograph was taken near Section b in Gushea South (see Fig. 3a). (f)
Plan view of the top of a ooding surface with abundant horizontal and vertical burrows. Pencil for scale. (g) Low-angle foresets (label 1)
of Facies 3d passing down into sub-horizontal toesets (label 2). Person for scale.The photograph was taken of the sandbody located at
320 m in Section F (Fig. 5C). (h) A ca. 5 m thick unit of Facies 3d. Note the sharp basal surface (label 1) and gently dipping upper surface
(label 2) that bounds the top of an individual bedform.This upper surface (label 2) is overlain by a layer of mudstone, above which there is
a second bedform (label 3), with distinct foresets, that oversteps the bedform beneath.The photograph is of the same sandbody as that
shown in Fig. 6g, except ca. 100 m along section.

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M. J.Young et al.
continuity (Section f; Fig. 3a).This facies forms more than
90% of the lithological unit, with Facies 3b forming the
remainder. Facies 3a is predominantly composed of coarse
to very coarse-grained sandstone containing broken shell
debris and abundant litho - and bio - clasts, 15^20 cm in
size, that occur in isolation, as stringers and conglomeratic
lenses (see Facies 3b) (Fig. 5b). In addition, there are occa-
sional, decimetre-thick beds that are rich in algal rhodo -
liths. Bedding is poorly dened and generally on a
decimetre scale, with less common centimetre- and
metre- scale beds. The thicker beds are commonly graded
with both ning upward and coarsening upward observed.
In general, the sandstone is moderately bioturbated with a
Bioturbation Index (BI) of 3 (sensuTaylor & Goldring,1993),
with Planolites, Thalassinoides and Ophiomorpha burrows
being the most common. Wave ripples, current ripples
and clast-lined planar and trough cross-bedding are com-
monly observed throughout the facies, whilst hummocky
cross stratication (HCS) is less common (e.g. Figs 6c and
d). Rare channel features inlled with mud-draped epsilon
cross-bedding form sandbodies with a lateral extent of
o15 m and thickness of up to 1m (Fig. 6c). Currents from
cross-bedding suggest a transport direction predomi-
nantly towards the SW, approximately perpendicular to
the main trend of rift faults (Young et al., 2002) (Fig. 2a).
Facies 3b: conglomeratic chutes or channel lls
Facies 3b occurs inter-bedded within Facies 3a, and repre-
sents o10% of a thick (4150 m) lithological unit (Section f;
Fig. 3a). Facies 3b is composed of conglomeratic lenses that
commonly have erosive bases, at tops, vary from1^15 m in
lateral extent and are typically up to 1m thick. The con-
glomerate is generally clast supported, with a minor
matrix of sandstone. Clasts range from 0.5^50 cm in size
(average 15^20 cm) and consist of chert and limestone
lithoclasts and a diverse assemblage of bioclasts, including
oysters (Hyotissa sp.), blocks of colonial coral (e.g. Porites)
that are o1m in size, and rare petried wood fragments.
The chert clasts are generally well rounded.
Facies 3c: bedded sandstone
Facies 3c occurs inter-bedded with oshore mudstone
(Facies 3e) in units up to 100 m thick that are laterally con-
tinuous on a length scale of kilometres to tens of kilo -
metres. The facies consists of ne to coarse-grained,
moderately sorted sandstone forming sharp-based beds,
25^30 cm thick, that stack into upward coarsening units
that are up to 30 m thick (Figs 5a and 6e).The regular bed-
ding, along with variations in the grain size and degree of
cementation, produces a ribbed weathering pattern that is
characteristic of this facies (Fig. 6e). Occasional parallel
and undulatory (broad convex upward) laminae are ob-
served within beds, together with relic wave ripples. Rare
oating clasts of chert and Eocene limestone, o15 cm in
diameter, and discontinuous beds and lenses of conglom-
erate are observed towards the top of upward coarsening
490
successions (Fig. 5a). Broken shells (thick-ribbed Pectens
and oysters) are found throughout the sandstone, but more
commonly towards the top of the upward coarsening units.
The facies is often burrow mottled due to moderate or high
bioturbation (BI of 3 or 4), mainly by a combination of Plano-
lites, Thalassinoides and Ophiomorpha burrows, that are often
seen descending from the top surface of individual beds
(Fig. 6f). Oysters (e.g. Hyotissa sp.) and Pectens together with
occasional echinoids (Clypeaster sp.), barnacles, benthic fora-
minifera (e.g. Operculina sp.) and re worked reefal detritus (e.g.
blocks of Porites) are common on the surface bounding the
top of units of Facies 3c (Figs 5a and c).
Facies 3d: low-angle cross-bedded sandstone
Facies 3d consists of 1^10 m thick sandstone units, with
sharp basal and top surfaces, that have lateral continuity on
the scale of kilometres. These units are commonly inter-
bedded with oshore mudstone (Facies 3e) and also shore-
face sandstone (Facies 3c) (Fig. 5c). Facies 3d is composed
of medium- to coarse-grained, moderately sorted sand-
stone, containing broken shell debris. Sigmoidal cross-bed-
ding, up to 3 m high and with dips of o301, form distinct
packages of bedforms in the facies (Fig. 6g). The cross-
bedding is dominantly unidirectional, with only occasional
opposing sets (Fig. 6h). Current ripples and HCS are occa-
sionally present in this facies (Fig. 5c at 310 m). The facies
generally has low-to-moderate bioturbation (BI of 2 or 3),
with Thalassinoides and Ophiomorpha burrows commonly
descending from the top surface of the facies unit, where
they occur together with oysters (Hyotissa sp.), Pectens, echi-
noids (Clypeaster sp.), algal rhodoliths, benthic foraminifera
(e.g. Operculina sp.) and reefal detritus (e.g. blocks of Porites).
Facies 3e: laminated grey mudstone
Facies 3e ranges in thickness from 1^20 m and is inter-
bedded with thick shoreface sandstone units (Facies 3a, 3c
and 3d). It consists of laminated grey mudstone or marl
that commonly contains centimetre- to millimetre- scale
planar layers of siltstone to very ne sandstone (Figs 5
and 6e). Body or trace fossils are rare and/or dicult to ob-
serve, with sand- lled Thalassinoides burrows below inter-
bedded, shoreface sandstone units (Facies 3a, 3c and 3d)
being the most conspicuous.
Interpretation of Facies Association 3
This facies association was deposited in an open marine
environment as indicated by the general abundance of
marine bio - clasts, shelly fauna and trace fossils. A range
of sandstone and associated conglomeratic facies (Facies
3a^3d) are interpreted to have been deposited within a lat-
erally extensive shoreface environment, whilst mudstone
(Facies 3e) was deposited further oshore in deeper water.
In general, the shoreface environment contained an abun-
dant benthic fauna and was inuenced by wave and tidal
currents. However, there are distinct variations in the frac-
tion of coarse clastic material within the dierent facies,
r 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Basin Research, 15, 479^502

most likely due to their location with respect to major clas-
tic transport pathways (Young et al., 2000, 2002).
Coarse- clastic-dominated Facies 3a and 3b occur inter-
bedded and are composed of coarse-grained sand together
with lithic- and bio - clasts, suggesting that deposition of
these facies occurred close to a coarse- clastic transport
pathway into or within the basin, and also local to reef
and shell build-ups.Wave, tidal and storm currents gener-
ated the wave ripples, current ripples, planar cross-
bedding, trough cross-bedding and HCS that are evident
in Facies 3a. However, there were times of lower energy en-
abling the sandstone to become bioturbated. A wave- and
tidal-inuenced shallow marine shoreface setting is sug-
gested for Facies 3a. The epsilon cross-bedding in Facies
3a and the erosively based and at-topped conglomerate
bodies of Facies 3b indicate that, locally, deposition oc-
curred within shallow channels or scours that eroded into
the seabed (Facies 3a).We propose two mechanisms for the
formation of these channels: (i) tidal channels or outlets
(e.g. rip- current channels; cf. Gruszczynski et al., 1993)
and/or (ii) chutes cutting through the shoreface that
formed during major river discharge events (ash oods)
by sediment laidend underows.
Facies 3c and 3d are generally ner grained and contain
less coarse-clastic material than Facies 3a and 3b, suggesting
that they were deposited further away (along-strike) from
any major clastic transport pathways (cf. Young et al., 2002).
Facies 3c is interpreted to have been deposited in a lower
shoreface setting possibly near the fair-weather wave base,
accounting for the moderate-to-high bioturbation and the
poor development or preservation of sedimentary struc-
tures (e.g. wave ripples). Facies 3c had a common storm in-
uence, transporting sand and shallower marine shelly
fauna into the depositional setting, and generating the sharp
bases to the beds and the parallel and undulatory laminae
(cf. Gowland, 1996). However, there were frequent interven-
ing periods of lower energy fair-weather conditions allowing
faunal colonization and bioturbation to occur and create the
more massive, homogeneous intervals of sandstone.
The prominent cross-bedding within Facies 3d indi-
cates that the sandstone was deposited by migrating
bedforms thatwere at least 3 m high.The bedforms migrated
in response to a predominant unidirectional current, allow-
ing them to climb over one another and produce a series of
overlapping and stacked foresets. The occasional sets that
have opposing dip directions suggest that there were infre-
quent changes to the predominant current direction. Facies
3d is interpreted to represent tidally-inuenced sandbodies
deposited in a shallow marine shoreface environment with a
minor storm inuence occasionally generating weak HCS
(cf. Surlyk & Noe-Nygaard, 1991).
The lack of wave- or current-generated structures sug-
gests that mudstone (Facies 3e) was deposited in lower en-
ergy, deeper water conditions, generally from suspension
fall- out. However, there was some variation in the grade
of sediment being carried out into the basin, accounting
for the siltstone and very ne sandstone inter-beds. This
may reect seasonal variations in sediment input. How-
r 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Basin Research, 15, 479^502
Thal Fault, Suez Rift, Egypt
ever, it is perhaps more likely that the siltstone to very ne
sandstone layers represent low-density turbidity current
input at the distal end of the sediment gravity ow or shelf
storm (tempestite) system (cf. Hamblin & Walker, 1979;
Dorsey & Kidwell, 1999).
STRATIGRAPHIC ARCHITECTURE
AND EVOLUTION
The aim of this section is to discuss the stratigraphic ar-
chitecture and evolution of the early syn-rift successions
at Gushea and Musaba Salaama, based on detailed geolo-
gical mapping, logging and the physical tracing of key stratal
surfaces and the stratal units that they bound. We focus on
dip and strike lateral variation in thickness, geometry and
facies. Key stratal surfaces consist of laterally persistent ma-
jor marine ooding and marine regressive surfaces of ero-
sion. The early syn-rift successions at Musaba Salaama and
Gushea occupy the same stratigraphic position and are in-
terpreted to be broadly age equivalent, based on (i) the pre-
sence of distinct regionally correlatable ooding surfaces
(FS-1, FS-2 and FS-3) that bound the successions (Figs 9
and 10), and (ii) biostratigraphy and Sr-isotope dating.
Major marine ooding surfaces in the study area are
generally characterised by a widespread, abrupt facies shift
with ner grained, deeper water facies (e.g. Facies 3e), over-
lying the sharp tops of upward coarsening sandstone units
(e.g. Facies 3c and 3d) (Figs 7 and 8). However, when traced
into proximal locations, close to sediment entry points,
the major ooding surfaces lie within amalgamated
sandbodies (e.g. Facies 3a/3b) and there are no signicant
facies shift across the surface (e.g. Section f; Fig.9). In gen-
eral, marine ooding surfaces are carbonate cemented and
marked by the occurrence of one or more types of colonis-
ing marine fauna, including oysters (Hyotissa sp.), echinoids
(Clypeaster sp.), Pectens, corals (e.g. Porites), barnacles,
benthic foraminifera (e.g. Operculina sp.) and algal rhodo -
liths. Thallasinoides and Ophiomorpha shafts commonly
penetrate at least10^15 cm down into the underlying sand-
stone. Based on these observations, the marine ooding
surfaces are interpreted to represent a phase of non-
deposition or marked reduction in sediment accumulation
rates, during which time early, near- surface diagenesis
produced a rm- to hard-ground, colonised by benthic
marine fauna (cf. Taylor & Gawthorpe, 1993; Taylor et al.,
1995; Gawthorpe et al., 2000).
Marine regressive erosion, or down-shift, surfaces in the
study area generally mark the bases of shoreface sandbodies
and record an abrupt vertical shift from deeper to shallower
water facies (i.e. basinward facies shift). Clasts, often derived
from the underlying oshore mudstones (e.g. concretions),
line the regressive erosion surfaces, and Thalassinoides bur-
rows commonly descend from the surfaces for o50 cm into
the underlying mudstone. The sharp, clast-lined bases to
many of the shoreface sandbodies and the absence of obser-
vable coarsening upward trends in the underlying strata
suggest that the surfaces represent regressive marine
491
M. J.Young et al.
Fig. 7. Photograph showing the nature of the inter-bedded shoreface sandstone (Facies 3c) and mudstone (Facies 3e) succession between
ooding surfaces in Gushea.
erosion and is consistent with many of the sandbodies
forming as a result of forced regression during relative sea-
level fall (e.g. Plint, 1988; Hunt & Tucker, 1992; Posamentier
et al., 1992; Gawthorpe et al., 1997, 2000).
Some assumptions are made herein to enable the pre-
served sediment thickness to be related to fault-controlled
subsidence. These particularly apply to the shoreface-
dominated syn-rift interval between surfaces FS-2 and
FS-3 (Facies Association 3), which represent more than
ca.90% of the studied succession (Figs 9 and 10).The main
assumptions are: (i) sediment supply was high, accommo -
dation space was essentially lled and therefore the shore-
face-dominated succession was sheet-like and deposited
over such a wide area (e.g. Figs 3, 9 and 10); (ii) to a rst ap-
proximation, there is little dierential water depth
in the shoreface succession (Facies 3a^3d); and (iii) over
the interval of deposition, eustasy is considered to play a
minor role compared with the tectonics in such an
active basin.
Architecture of the early syn-rift succession
at Gushea: Thal Fault tip
The syn-rift succession is bounded below by the pre-rift/
syn-rift contact (FS-1) and above by a major marine ood-
ing surface (FS-3) (Fig.9). Internally, the succession can be
sub-divided into four main stratal units (U1^U4)
bounded by laterally correlatable marine ooding surfaces
(FS-2, FS-2a and FS-2b) that have been physically traced
492
(i.e. walked- out) between the measured sections. Between
the two major bounding surfaces (FS-1and FS-3), the suc-
cession has a predominantly sheet-like architecture, show-
ing only minor thickness variation from 92 m in the east to
110 m in the west (Fig. 9).
The initial syn-rift stratal unit (U1) is bounded below
by FS-1, above by FS-2 and is composed of a ca. 2 m thick
marginal to fully marine shell bed (Facies 2a) that uncon-
formably overlies pre-rift Eocene carbonates, above FS-1
(Fig. 9).This stratal unit is bounded above by FS-2, across
which there is a general facies shift into oshore mudstone
(Facies 3e). Stratal units 2^4 (U2^U4), bounded below
by FS-2, above by FS-3 and internally delineated by
FS-2a and FS-2b, are composed of shoreface sandstones
(Facies 3a and 3c) and associated conglomeratic de-
posits (Facies 3b) that are inter-bedded with oshore mud-
stone (Facies 3e) (Fig. 9). Stratal units 2^4 exhibit subtle
internal variations in thickness (up to ca. 15 m) and facies
around the area, and can often be further sub-divided by
higher order regressive and ooding surfaces that occur
within each unit (Fig. 9). These internal sub-divisions
(higher order parasequences) are commonly manifest as a
series of stacked oshore mudstone^ shoreface sandstone
intervals (e.g. U4 in Section e; Fig. 9a) that are, however,
not evident in all sections. This can be observed when U4
is traced southwards from Section e to Section b (Fig. 9a).
The ooding surfaces that cap these mudstone^ sandstone
parasequences commonly form distinct, laterally traceable
topographic benches (Fig. 8).
r 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Basin Research, 15, 479^502
r 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Basin Research, 15, 479^502
Fig. 8. Photograph and line drawing showing the nature of laterally persistent sub-horizontal ooding surfaces, within the study area at Gushea (Fig. 3a), that bound the tops of upward coarsening
shoreface sandbodies (Facies 3c).The stippled pattern represents inter-bedded shoreface sandstone (Facies 3c) and oshore mudstone (Facies 3e), below FS-3.The pale grey colour represents oshore
mudstone above FS-3 (Young et al., 2000, 2002). Note the prominent benches that have formed above the ooding surfaces. See Fig. 3a for location of the photograph and sedimentary log.

493
Thal Fault, Suez Rift, Egypt
M. J.Young et al.

Fig. 9. Log correlation between the measured sections (sedimentary logs) at Gushea; (a) sections in the east of the area, (b) sections in
the west of the area. See Fig. 3a for locations of the sections.

494 r 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Basin Research, 15, 479^502

 Thal Fault, Suez Rift, Egypt

Evolution of the early syn-rift succession at 10). It should be noted that this transect is not situated
Gushea: Thal Fault tip exactly in the centre of the Sarbut El Gamal fault segment,
but is representative of the main thickness relationships
Initial syn-rift deposition (U1) above the top pre-rift un-
within this hangingwall depocentre (Fig. 2). Between the
conformity occurred under shallow water, marginal to fully
two major bounding surfaces (FS-1 and FS-3), the succes-
marine conditions, during which time a relatively con-
sion shows a pronounced wedge- shaped geometry, with a
densed shell unit (Facies 2a) was deposited towards the rift
progressive increase in thickness from ca. 100 m (Section
margin. A subsequent, widespread major marine ooding
A; Fig. 10) in the immediate hangingwall of theThal Fault
event produced a pronounced landward shift in facies,
to more than ca. 400 m (Section F; Fig. 10), 2.5 km to the
generating FS-2. Deposition of U2^U4 occurred under
west of theThal Fault.
broadly similar environmental conditions, with uctua-
The initial syn-rift stratal unit (U1) is bounded below
tions in the accommodation to sediment supply ratio re-
by FS-1, above by FS-1A and is composed of uvial con-
sulting in the widespread deposition of regressive/
glomerate (Facies 1a) and overbank, reddened continental
progradational shallow marine shoreface sandstones (Fa-
mudstone with palaeosols (Facies 1b) (Figs 5c and 10). The
cies 3a^3c) inter-bedded with oshore mudstone (Facies
stratal unit progressively thickens towards the west into
3e). Following deposition of U2^U4, there was a further,
the hangingwalls of a series of antithetic faults, reaching a
widespread major marine ooding event, generating
maximum observed thickness of ca. 40 m in Section F
FS-3.
(Figs 5c and 10). Stratal unit 2 (U2) is bounded
The succession at Gushea exhibits a lateral facies
below by FS-1A, above by FS-2 and is composed of an ex-
change from pebble-rich sandstone and conglomerate (Fa-
tensive, 2 m thick, marginal to fully marine shell unit
cies 3a and 3b) in the north to bedded sandstone (Facies 3c)
(Facies 2a) that has a relatively constant thickness (Figs 5c
and oshore mudstone (Facies 3e) in the south. This
and 10).
change is most likely due to the main uvial entry point
Stratal units 3^5 represent the major portion (90%) of the
being situated towards the north of the study area, at the
early syn-rift interval and as a whole exhibit pronounced
fault tip of the Thal Fault (Young et al., 2002). However, in
thickening towards the west into the hangingwalls of the an-
general, the succession has a sheet-like geometry, with only
tithetic faults, with corresponding thinning towards theThal
a minor increase in thickness (o20 m) over 2 km away from
Fault (Fig. 10). In detail, stratal units 3^5 exhibit signicant
the rift margin. This suggests that accommodation in this
thickness variations around the antithetic faults. Stratal unit
area was relatively uniform (i.e. little dierential subsi-
3 is bounded below by FS-2, above by FS-2B and consists of
dence) during deposition of the stratigraphic interval and
an inter-bedded succession of oshore mudstone (Facies 3e)
that sediment supply was also relatively high to allow simi-
and sharp-based forced regressive shoreface sandbodies (Fa-
lar facies to occur over a wide area (e.g. Fig. 3a). Further-
cies 3c and 3d), and is thickest in the hangingwall of fault F2,
more, these observations suggest that either (i) the Gushea
where it is ca. 110 m thick. However, within U3 ooding sur-
segment of theThal Fault and the major antithetic fault in
face FS-2A passes across the top of fault F2 and is not oset
its hangingwall (Fault 3; Fig. 2) were active at the same time
by the fault.
and had similar displacement rates or (ii) that these faults
The overlying package, stratal unit 4 (U4), is bounded
were inactive and more regional controls on accommoda-
below by FS-2B, above by FS-2G and becomes increas-
tion were predominant.The more subtle thickness variabil-
ingly more sand-rich towards the top of the unit (Fig. 5c
ity (up to ca. 15 m) within the stratal units (U2^U4) around
and 3d). It consists predominantly of planar-bedded sand-
the area suggests that there were local variations in accom-
stone (Facies 3c), inter-bedded with tidally inuenced
modation space and/or sediment supply during deposition.
sandbodies (Facies 3d) (Fig. 5c). Stratal unit 5, the youngest
Thinning within stratal units occurred by onlap onto un-
unit below FS-3, consists of an inter-bedded succession of
derlying surfaces and truncation beneath regressive sur-
oshore mudstone (Facies 3e) and tidally inuenced sand-
faces that bound sharp-based shoreface sandbodies (Fig.
bodies (Facies 3d) (Fig. 5c). Stratal surface FS-2H passes
9), or alternatively the variation could be purely autocyclic.
across the top of fault F3 and has not been oset.With re-
gard to fault F1, there is little growth observed across this
Architecture of the early syn-rift succession fault within much of U4 and U5, and in fact the thickness
at Musaba Salaama: Thal Fault centre of strata between FS-2F and FS-3 is greater in its footwall
than its hangingwall (Fig. 10).
The succession at Musaba Salaama is bounded below by
the pre- to syn-rift unconformity (FS-1) and above by a
major marine ooding surface (FS-3), and internally can Evolution of the early syn-rift succession
be subdivided into ve main stratal units (U1^U5) on the at Musaba Salaama: Thal Fault centre
basis of laterally extensive marine ooding surfaces (FS-
1A, FS-2 and FS-2A to FS-2I) (Figs 5c and 10).These sur- Initial syn-rift deposition (U1) above the pre-rift uncon-
faces have been physically traced (i.e. walked- out) between formity consisted of uvial (wadi) conglomerates (Facies
seven sections that were measured along a 2.5 km dip- 1a) and continental mudstones (Facies 1b), which inll a
transect in the hangingwall of the Thal Fault (Figs 3b and palaeovalley system that has its greatest preserved thick-

r 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Basin Research, 15, 479^502 495

M. J.Young et al.

Fig. 10. Photographs and log correlation through the early syn-rift succession at Musaba Salaama (Fig. 3b), showing stratal surfaces and
faults that are correlated between the measured sections. (a) Photograph looking east towards theThal Fault. Numbers correspond to the
beds shown in the log correlation.The faults are labelled, as are the locations of the measured sections. (b) Log correlation from theThal
Fault in the east towards the west. Note that sections were measured as true stratigraphic thickness and not at the angles indicated on the
diagram. (c) Photograph looking west, from the footwall side of F1. See Fig. 3b for locations of the logs.

496 r 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Basin Research, 15, 479^502


ness (440 m) in the hangingwall of antithetic fault F3
(Fig. 10). This is partly due to a progressively deeper ero -
sion level towards the Thal Fault in the east. However, it
also suggests that uvial deposition and preservation may
have preferentially occurred in the subsiding regions (i.e.
hangingwalls of the antithetic faults) due to the incising
uvial system shifting into the topographic lows (cf. Alex-
ander & Leeder, 1987). Following deposition of U1, there
was a relative sea-level rise that resulted in a marine trans-
gression (above FS-1A) across the continental deposits.
Under shallow water marginal to fully marine conditions,
a relatively condensed shell unit (Facies 2a) was deposited
towards the rift margin. A subsequent, widespread major
marine ooding event generated FS-2 and resulted in
a pronounced landward shift in facies. Deposition of
U3^U5 occurred under broadly similar environmental
conditions, with uctuations in the accommodation to se-
diment supply ratio resulting in the widespread deposi-
tion of regressive shallow marine shoreface sandstones
and tidally inuenced sandbodies (Facies 3c and 3d)
alternating with oshore mudstone (Facies 3e). Following
deposition of U3^U5, there was a further, widespread ma-
jor marine ooding event, generating FS-3.
The succession at Musaba Salaama shows pronounced
thickening towards the antithetic faults in the west of the
area, with stratal units 1^5 thickening by more than ca.
280 m, over a distance of 2.5 km west from the Thal Fault
(Fig.10).This indicates that greater subsidence was gener-
ated by the antithetic faults than on the Sarbut El Gamal
segment of the Thal Fault during early rifting. The pro -
nounced thinning of the succession towards the east, i.e.
towards the Thal Fault, occurs by a combination of onlap
onto underlying beds and truncation beneath regressive
sandbodies (Fig. 10). By the formation of FS-3, it is prob-
able that considerably more subsidence had been gener-
ated by the antithetic faults F3 and F4 in the west, than
on the Thal Fault (Sarbut El Gamal segment) in the east.
The preserved sediment thickness variations, up to
400 m in the hangingwalls of the antithetic faults (e.g. Sec-
tion F; Fig.10) compared with 100 m close to theThal Fault
(Section A; Fig.10), suggest at least three times as much sub-
sidence on the antithetic faults comparedwith theThal Fault.
These data indicate that theThal Fault, now the major fault
bounding the Hammam Faraun fault block, did not generate
signicant subsidence or accommodation space during the
deposition of the early syn-rift stratigraphy (at least up to
FS-3). The fault was most probably buried and associated
with a monoclinal fold at the surface, which was eroded by
uvial processes and subsequently onlapped by younger
shallow marine deposits (Fig. 10). Thus, the main surface-
breaking fault activity was focused on the antithetic faults.
Assuming that stratigraphy thickens into the hanging-
wall of active faults, and where stratal surfaces are contin-
uous (i.e. not oset) above faults the faults were inactive, the
early syn-rift stratigraphy can provide insights into the ac-
tivity of the antithetic fault population. Initially all four
antithetic faults (F1^F4; Fig. 10) were active, producing
up to four individual depocentres and progressively oset-
r 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Basin Research, 15, 479^502
Thal Fault, Suez Rift, Egypt
ting FS-1 and FS-2. However, FS-2A is continuous across
fault F2, whilst being oset by all other antithetic faults,
suggesting that fault F2 was the rst antithetic fault to be-
come inactive (Fig. 10). FS-2H is continuous across fault
F3, whilst being oset by faults F1 and F4, suggesting that
Fault F3 had become inactive by the formation of FS-2 H
(Figs 3b and 10). Fault F1 appears to have remained active
until after the formation of FS-3, which it osets. How-
ever, there is no dierential thickening across the fault
above FS-2F, suggesting that activity on this fault had es-
sentially ceased following the development of surface FS-
2F. By the formation of FS-3, it is apparent that Fault F4
was the only signicant antithetic fault (Fig. 10). These
data suggest that as rifting progressed, the number of ac-
tive faults decreased and the lateral spacing between active
fault structures increased (Fig. 10).
TECTONO-STRATIGRAPHIC
DEVELOPMENT OF THE THAL FAULT
Integration of the structural and stratigraphic data from
Gushea, at the northern tip of theThal Fault, and Musaba
Salaama, ca. 20 km to the south towards its centre, pro -
vides insights into the tectono - stratigraphic development
of a major rift border fault zone during early rifting. The
early syn-rift successions at Musaba Salaama and Gushea
occupy the same stratigraphic position and are interpreted
to be broadly age equivalent. This is based on the fact that
in both areas the studied stratigraphic successions are
bounded below by the pre-rift to syn-rift contact (FS-1),
contain a laterally extensive marine ooding surface (FS-
2) that overlies marginal marine deposits (Facies 2), and
are bounded above by a major marine ooding surface
(FS-3) across which there is a widespread facies shift into
a thick oshore/basinal, mudstone-dominated interval.
Furthermore, the correlation between Gushea and Musa-
ba Salaama is based on the presence of either Uvigerina
Cosata or Cancris Primitiva within the mudstones overlying
FS-3. The presence of the benthic foraminifera Cancris
Primitiva (D. Pivnik, pers. comm., 2001) and ages based
on Sr-isotope ratios of oysters and the marine Sr-isotope
curve (McArthur etal., 2001) suggest that the major marine
ooding surface FS-3 is 18.5^18.2 Ma. This suggests that
the succession between FS-1 and FS-3 extends up into
the Lower Rudeis/Mheiherrat Formation and represents
deposition during the rst ca. 6 Ma of rifting (Krebs et al.,
1997). Note that it is not possible to correlate directly the
internal stratal units and surfaces between Gushea and
Musaba Salaama, only the major bounding surfaces
(FS-1, FS-2 and FS-3).
The time- equivalent early syn-rift stratigraphic succes-
sions below FS-3 at Gushea and Musaba Salaama dier
considerably in thickness and stratal architecture. The re-
latively consistent thickness (ca. 100 m) of the succession at
Gushea indicates that there was relatively little dierential
fault- controlled subsidence during this time and, if active,
displacement was comparable on the Thal Fault (Gushea
497
M. J.Young et al.
Fig. 11. Cartoons illustrating the palaeogeography and cross- sectional geometry during early (initial ca. 6 Myr) and later rifting stages in
the evolution of the eastern margin of the Hammam Faraun fault block. See text for further explanation.
segment) and the major antithetic fault in its hangingwall
(Fault 3; Fig. 2) (Fig. 11; Section A). Alternatively, accom-
modation space may have been created mainly by regional
subsidence with very little local fault control. The lack of
preserved early syn-rift stratigraphy in the footwalls of
these structures makes it dicult to distinguish between
these two alternative interpretations. In contrast, the suc-
cession at Musaba Salaama displays a marked thickness
variation from ca. 100 m against the Thal Fault to up to ca.
400 m in the hangingwall of antithetic faults (Fig. 11; Sec-
tion B).This indicates that during the rst ca. 6 Myr of rift-
ing, there was considerable dierential fault- controlled
subsidence at this location, with subsidence preferentially
occurring in the hangingwalls of the intra-block antithetic
faults and not theThal Fault.
Based on geometry and along- strike displacement var-
iations, it is inferred that theThal Fault developed from an
early array of fault segments (shown in Fig. 2) by progres-
sive fault linkage (cf. Cowie, 1998; Young et al., 2001).Thus,
faulting during early rifting is presumed to have been dis-
tributed on an array of antithetic and synthetic intra-block
faults together with the individual segments of the Thal
Fault. However, during the initial ca. 6 Myr of rifting, the
signicantly greater thickness of early syn-rift strata at
Musaba Salaama indicates that the displacement was
greater towards the centre of theThal Fault array than to -
wards its northern tip (Fig. 11).
498
At Musaba Salaama, the present-day throw on the Thal
Fault is ca. 1300 m. The thickness of syn-rift strata, pre-
served below FS-3 (ca. 100 m; Fig. 10), suggests that most of
this displacement was accrued following the rst ca. 6 Myr
of rifting. Early syn-rift stratal geometries suggest that the
Thal Fault was probably blind and that thickness and facies
were strongly inuenced by a monoclinal fault propagation
fold at the surface (cf. Gawthorpe et al., 1997, 2003). Conse-
quently, the preserved sediment thickness may not fully re-
ect the displacement on the fault during early syn-rift
times because the strata would have thinned towards the
fold created above the upward propagating blind fault (see
Gawthorpe et al., 1997). Despite these uncertainties, as
much as ca. 1000 m of throw probably accumulated on the
Thal Fault during the later stages of rifting (post-FS-3),
when the faultwas surface breaking. During this main phase
of displacement accumulation on theThal Fault, little or no
additional displacement was accrued on the antithetic faults
in its hangingwall. Given that the biostratigraphy and Sr-
isotope data suggest an age of 18.2^18.5 Ma for FS-3, and
rifting is thought to have slowed down at 15.5 Ma due to
Red Sea rifting (e.g. Richardson & Arthur, 1988; Patton et
al., 1994; Steckler et al., 1988), this suggests that most of
the displacement on the Thal Fault occurred during ca.
3 Myr. It can be inferred that during the later stage of rift-
ing (post-FS-3) the syn-rift thickening trends may have
reversed as the Thal Fault broke through at the surface
r 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Basin Research, 15, 479^502

and began to accrue a considerable amount of the displa-
cement that is evident at the present day (Fig. 11; Sections
C and D). This must also have been accompanied by a
marked increase in displacement rate. The same pattern
of late rift stage (post-FS-3) displacement accumulation
may also be true for the Gushea segment towards the tip
of theThal Fault, where more than 200 m of displacement
may have accrued on the fault post-FS-3.
IMPLICATION FOR RIFT BASIN
EVOLUTION
Numerical modelling studies suggest that normal faults
evolve from a distributed population of small-displace-
ment faults during rift initiation to fewer, localised large-
displacement faults during rift climax (Cowie,1998; Gupta
et al., 1998; Cowie et al., 2000). Furthermore, faults with the
greatest displacement during early rifting are thought to
develop into the highest displacement faults during later
rifting due to the inuence of stress shadows around the
larger displacement faults (Walsh & Watterson, 1988; Cart-
wright et al., 1995; Dawers & Anders, 1995; Nicol et al., 1997;
Cowie, 1998; Gupta et al., 1998; Cowie et al., 2000; Meyer
et al., 2002). In accordance with this, sub- surface studies
from the northern North Sea have demonstrated that
short-lived (3^4 Myr) early syn-rift faults can be distribu-
ted around major normal faults (e.g. Davies et al., 2000;
McLeod et al., 2000; Young et al., 2001). As rifting pro -
gresses, faulting is thought to localise onto optimally or-
iented faults that systematically develop the greatest
displacement, whilst early faults that only accumulated re-
latively small displacements become inactive prior to rift
climax (cf. Davies et al., 2000; McLeod et al., 2000). An ad-
ditional model for fault evolution suggests that intra-block
antithetic faults may become inactive because they inter-
sect and lock against the major border fault at depth
(Scholz & Contreras, 1998).The model proposed by Scholz &
Contreras (1998) predicts that subsidence will be relatively
uniform on a conjugate pair of faults (e.g. border fault and
antithetic fault) during early rifting, producing a symme-
trical graben. As rifting progresses however, one of the
conjugate pairs is locked against the other and becomes in-
active, and thus subsequent rifting is concentrated on the
single fault and the basin becomes an asymmetric half-
graben, with strata thickening towards the border fault
(cf. Scholz & Rosendahl, 1989a, b; Scholz & Contreras,
1998; McLeod et al., 2000).
This study supports the notion that faulting during early
syn-rift times may be distributed on a number of faults that
occur within a fault array or population. We demonstrate
that, in the eastern part of the present-day Hammam Far-
aun fault block, subsidence during the initial ca. 6 Myr of
rifting was distributed on several antithetic and synthetic
faults as well as the present-day block-bounding Thal
Fault. Signicantly, our results suggest that during the in-
itial ca. 6 Myr of rifting, the present-day major block-
bounding fault was less active than several of the antithetic
r 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Basin Research, 15, 479^502
Thal Fault, Suez Rift, Egypt
faults in its hangingwall. It was these antithetic faults that
controlled subsidence during the initial ca. 6 Myr and ex-
erted the main inuence on facies and thickness distribu-
tions of the early syn-rift stratigraphy (Fig. 11). These data
suggest that major block-bounding faults (e.g. Thal Fault)
that characterise the rift- climax phase may not always have
the greatest displacement as would be predicted by some
fault growth models (e.g. Walsh & Watterson, 1988; Cart-
wright et al., 1995; Dawers & Anders, 1995; Nicol et al., 1997;
Cowie, 1998; Gupta et al., 1998; Cowie et al., 2000; Meyer
et al., 2002). Thus, it may not always follow that major
block-bounding faults have always created the greatest sub-
sidence and accommodation space during rifting, or have
always had the main syn-rift depocentres in their hanging-
walls. Signicant thicknesses (e.g. 4300 m) of sand-prone
early syn-rift strata may in fact be controlled by and located
in the hangingwalls of intra-block or antithetic faults that
generated the greatest subsidence during early rifting (e.g.
the initial ca. 6 Myr), but did not develop into the highest
displacement border faults, evident at rift climax (cf. Sharp
et al., 2000b).
We suggest that if the faults around Gushea were active,
then subsidence during early rifting was broadly symme-
trical between the Thal Fault (Gushea segment) and the
antithetic fault in its hangingwall (Fault 3; Fig. 2a), and this
balance of displacement on border and antithetic faults
agrees with the structural model of Scholz & Contreras
(1998). In contrast, towards the centre of the Thal Fault at
Musaba Salaama, subsidence was always distinctly asym-
metrical, with the early syn-rift strata thickening towards
the west, away from the Thal Fault, and the younger syn-
rift, deposited after ca. 6 Myr of rifting, interpreted to
thicken towards the east, towards theThal Fault (Fig. 11).
During the initial ca. 6 Myr of rifting, there was greater
displacement on the segments towards the centre of the
Thal Fault array (Musaba Salaama), including the anti-
thetic faults, than towards the tip (Gushea). Thus, from a
relatively early stage in rifting, a displacement gradient
seems to have existed between fault segments located at
the centre of the Thal Fault and those located at its tip. It
has been suggested that when fault segments begin to in-
teract and link, the length of the combined fault may re-
main relatively xed, with continued fault growth
producing an increase in displacement accompanied by
only limited lateral fault propagation (e.g. Manseld &
Cartwright, 2001). This suggests that the array of faults
that preceded the Thal Fault may have interacted and soft
linked during the initial ca. 6 Myr of rifting and reached a
xed length. Subsequent displacement occurred without
signicant lateral propagation of the Thal Fault array, and
was generally greater towards the centre of the fault array.
CONCLUSIONS
This study has investigated the tectono - stratigraphic de-
velopment of the high-displacement Thal fault, bounding
the eastern side of the Hammam Faraun fault block,
499
M. J.Young et al.
during the initial ca. 6 Myr of rifting. The syn-rift strati-
graphic succession passes upwards from continental facies
that inll incised valleys, through a condensed marginal
marine shell-rich facies and into fully marine shoreface
sandstone and oshore mudstone. Regionally correlatable
marine ooding surfaces within the succession dene
time- equivalent stratal units that exhibit considerable
along- strike variability in thickness and facies, between
the tip and centre of theThal Fault.
Based on its zigzag plan-form geometry, location of dis-
placement lows, and the presence of synclinal syn-rift de-
pocentres, theThal Fault is interpreted to have evolved by
the progressive linkage of at least four fault segments, with
the Gushea segment located at the tip and Musaba Salaa-
ma (Sarbut El Gamal segment) towards the centre.
Towards the centre of theThal Fault, at Musaba Salaama,
the early syn-rift succession shows pronounced thickening
(by more than 280 m) away from theThal Fault and into the
hangingwalls of antithetic faults over a distance of ca.
2.5 km, reaching more than ca. 400 m in thickness. By con-
trast, towards the tip of theThal Fault, at Gushea, the early
syn-rift succession is only ca. 100 m thick and shows only
minor thickening (ca. 20 m) away from theThal Fault. Based
on these observations, four main conclusions can be drawn:
1 During the initial ca. 6 Myr of rifting, the thickest syn-
rift stratigraphy and greatest fault- controlled subsidence
was towards the centre of what is now the Thal Fault, but
during the early stages of rifting, deformation occurred
on an array of isolated fault segments and not a continu-
ous, linked fault zone. A pronounced displacement gradi-
ent seems to have existed between fault segments at the tip
and centre of this array. This suggests that the Thal Fault
segments interacted during the rst ca. 6 Myr of rifting
and the length of the fault array essentially became xed.
Subsequent fault displacement and hard linkage of the ar-
ray was accompanied by limited lateral propagation of the
Thal Fault.
2 Towards the centre of theThal Fault at Musaba Salaama,
a major proportion of fault- controlled subsidence during
the initial ca. 6 Myr of rifting occurred in the hangingwalls
of antithetic faults, and not theThal Fault (Sarbut El Gamal
segment).
3 The antithetic faults progressively switched o and ulti-
mately became inactive after ca. 6 Myr of rifting, with dis-
placement localising on theThal Fault enabling it to accrue
the high level of displacement observed today.This implies
that between early and late rifting the asymmetry of the
basin switched as the greatest subsidence and displace-
ment localised on the Thal Fault during rift climax. This
pattern is most pronounced towards the centre of the Thal
Fault at Musaba Salaama, where the displacement on the
Thal Fault (Sarbut El Gamal segment) is greatest.
4 The observed early syn-rift sediment thickness varia-
tions and inferred subsidence patterns indicate that the
Thal Fault, a major rift- climax fault, did not always have
the greatest subsidence and syn-rift depocentres located
in its immediate hangingwall during rifting, and does not
500
appear to have systematically accrued the greatest displa-
cement during rifting.Thus, its evolution is perhaps more
complicated than some fault evolution models may have
predicted.
This study has implications for tectono - stratigraphic de-
velopment during rift basin evolution, especially during
early phases of rifting. We stress that caution should
be taken when relating the nal (rift climax) structural
conguration to the early rift structure and syn-rift strati-
graphic distribution, because these may dier consider-
ably. The thickest syn-rift stratigraphy may not always be
located in the hangingwalls of the major faults that dene
the nal rift structure and are most distinctly observed
seismically.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge nancial support
from NERC (research grants GR3/R95/27 and GR3/12947
to RLG and studentship GT/04/97/196/ES to MJY). Saga
Petroleum (now Norsk Hydro) is also acknowledged for
providing nancial support, and the Gulf of Suez Petro -
leum Company (GUPCO) for logistical support and pa-
laeontological analysis of eld samples. Chris Jackson,
Dave Pivnik, John Dolson, Ian Carr, Adel Moustafa and
Tom Dreyer are thanked for useful discussions in the eld.
Rob Ellam is thanked for help with Sr-isotope analyses,
and John McArthur for access to marine Sr-isotope look-
up tables. Rebecca Dorsey and Aileen McLeod are thanked
for their constructive reviews. This work would not have
been possible without the logistical support of Sayed and
Gamal Gooda.
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