Gender differences in underlying rationales for

continuing professional development

Shelleyann Scott, Curtin University of Technology, Australia

Paper presented at SCUTREA, 33rd annual conference, University of Wales, Bangor,

1-3 July, 2003

Background
Western Australia, similar to most Western countries, has undergone considerable reform
within the educational system. These reforms have been in relation to the management of
schools and in the curriculum offered to students. Even though there has been rolling
educational reform over the past twenty years, the pace of change appears to increasing along
with the level of complexity. Tangentially over the same period, Western Australia has
experienced an influx of refugees and other immigrants which has created a distinctly
multicultural community. These changes and reforms have impacted on teachers and
administrators in relation to their working lives, classroom environments, career management,
and teaching and professional development practices. This paper explores gender differences
in secondary teachers experiences and rationales for participation in professional
development activities within this environment of administrative and curriculum reform.

The environment of educational reform

Historically, education has been an easy target for political reform as a social institution that
accepts the mantle of responsibility for solving societal problems. Reform is a global
phenomenon with Western Australia not being quite isolated enough to escape. The early
1980s saw an escalation in public criticism of the Australian educational sector and record
levels of unemployment, particularly among the young members of the community. Susan
Robertson (1993) identified the intention and commitment to transform the public sector
precipitated devolution in decision-making and other structures. Curiously, the rationale for
journeying into these new forms of management is usually touted to be for increasing student
achievement and/or performance (Latham 1998; Holloway 2000).

When devolution was introduced it created massive changes and concern was expressed that
it entailed the acceptance of greater responsibility with less power and excessive attention to
outcomes as opposed to processes (Robertson 1993, p.124). Massive cuts in the education
budget endorsed the perception that these reforms were cost-cutting exercises. Industrial
action aimed at securing wage increases to compensate teachers for increased administrative
duties ensued. The dispute was eventually resolved; unfortunately, teaching morale was a
casualty with 50% of teachers reporting they would not willingly choose to work in the
profession again (Robertson 1993, p.128).

Davies identified a potential danger in the refocusing of teachers priorities to management

activities rather than the core business of teaching and learning, a concern strongly reiterated
by a Ministerial Task Force (2001). Davies stated when
 new teachers and those looking towards the furtherance of their career see that the
top jobs involve management activity, then it is hardly surprising that staffroom
conversation is about management, systems and procedures, rather than about the
excitement of the last lesson and the looking forward to the next (Davies, 1992, in
Ball, 1993, p.78).

Additionally, adjusting to the new system of power required new skills and time
(Robertson 1993, p.129).

Similar to any change situation, teachers and administrators have adjusted and some positive
outcomes have emerged. Kowalskis (1994 in Latham 1998, p.85) study involving principals
found that the majority (88%) agreed that site-based management is a sound concept for
school governance [it] encourages teachers to assume higher levels of responsibility
[and] change was more likely to occur at the school level than at district or state level. Weiss
(1993 in Conway & Calzi 1996) found that teachers involved in the decision-making
processes within their schools felt more professional and enjoyed the increased authority and
collegiality. Robertson and Souceks (1991 in Robertson 1993, p.129) Western Australian-
based study found teachers did not romanticise previous bureaucratic structures, disliked the
excessive rules, imposed rigidities, the lack of opportunity for change, inflexible resourcing
and staffing boundaries, the promotion by seniority and an irrelevant curriculum. Many
indicated that there was a need for change and they were happy to embrace it; even though
the reforms had altered the school environment within which they worked. Even though
devolution of decision-making and site-based management appears to support and promote
educational reform, there is little evidence that there is any positive effect on student learning
(Conway & Calzi 1996; Latham 1998).

Curriculum reform
Coupled with the administrative and managerial reform was curriculum and pedagogical
reform. During the late 80s early 90s, focus was shifted from modularised forms of
curriculum to a more systematic approach. Eventually, a set of shared learning outcomes was
defined in the National Profiles and Curriculum Statements in Australia (Griffin & Smith
1997). They were the closest Australia has come to developing a national curriculum. The
outcomes were formulated in eight key learning areas with a number of strands to each. Each
strand has eight levels and within each level, a series of outcome statements. Initial response
from teachers was that this new curriculum approach was daunting. All of the states
developed their own version of the national statements, however, the national profiles formed
the central basis for outcome-based teaching and learning (Griffin & Smith 1997, p.6).

In 1998 the Curriculum Framework document (Curriculum Council of Western Australia

1998) was legislated as the required curriculum for all Western Australian schools. This
framework necessitated review and change to the content, pedagogical and assessment
practices in education from K-12. Likewise this curriculum reform has resulted in
considerable upheaval, discomfort and frustration by teachers who have been worn down by
too much and too fast change.

Professional development
Dinham (1995 p.2) identified that above all, the impact of reform initiatives has been the
increased politicisation of education. He felt the connotation of reform is that schools
and teachers are deficient and that educational systems are in need of urgent and major
overhaul (p.2). Teachers are easy targets as the readily identifiable tools for the
implementation of change and as a result professional development is perceived as all that is
required to ensure the success of the reform(s) (Clarke & Hollingsworth 1994; Dinham
1995).

John Goodlad (1994, pp.637-638) described an input-output model that holds considerable
political appeal for those who wish to be credited with implementing educational reform.
The model works on the assumption that teacher development will immediately and
automatically result in increased student performance in a neatly linear manner. Again this
model is based upon the basic concept that the teacher is deficit in skills or knowledge,
thereby adversely affecting students performance (Goodlad 1994). He indicated that even
though this model has not proved to be successful in the past it continues to be employed as
it serves well the interests of those who seek simplicity in matters educational (p.637). He
posited that the model is bankrupt when examining schools, as they are complex cultures.

Theoretical understandings about professional development have evolved over the past twenty
years with the initial focus on providing teachers with increased skills and knowledge with the
assumption that it would automatically translate into increased learning outcomes for students
(Brandt and associates 1994). Research into the effectiveness of professional development
has shifted educational understanding to reflect the need for a more holistic approach. This
includes ensuring professional development activities encompass sound adult learning
principles; constructivist dimensions in teachers learning; collaborative and collegial
discussions, reflection, and experimentation focused on increasing students learning; and the
inclusion of organisational goals (Joyce & Showers 1995; Sparks & Hirsh 1997; Darling-
Hammond 1998; Lieberman & Miller 2000).

Research design
This study was largely interpretative due to the emphasis being on the experiences and
perspectives of the participants. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected.
Quantitative data included the number of professional development programs attended,
number of hours engaged in professional development, average effectiveness, demographic
information, and some descriptive statistics. Qualitative data involved teachers experiences,
perceptions, opinions, criteria for rating of effectiveness, and rationale for participation in
professional development. This paper mainly reports qualitative findings with some
background statistical data.

All Western Australian Government secondary schools were randomly sampled and from that
process 15 rural and 24 metropolitan schools were selected. Contact was made with teachers
in the sampled schools to invite their participation. Twenty two teachers responded (response
rate of 67%) from ten of the rural schools. Likewise, 28 teachers agreed to participate
(response rate of 42%) from the 24 selected metropolitan schools. Of the 50 teachers, 29
(58%) were male and 21 (42%) female. The highest proportion of the sample (44%) were in
the 7-18 years of experience range, with 22% in the 19-30, 10% in both the 2-3 and 4-6 years
of experience range, and 8% and 6% respectively at the two ends of the continuum, in < 1
year and 30 years and onward categories. Very few respondents (3) were self-selected, with
most agreeing to participate only after being contacted by the researcher in a follow-up call,
discussing the proposed outcomes of the research, perceiving the value of their feedback and
having obtained reassurance of confidentiality and anonymity.

Interviews
In-depth semi-structured telephone interviews were conducted with the 50 teachers who were
widely distributed across the state (2,527,621 km2). Interviews were conducted using a loud
speaker phone, which enabled the recording of responses (only with teachers agreement).
Interview duration ranged from 1 to 3 hours, averaging at 2 hours. Data were fully
transcribed and processed and analysed using a combined software approach using MS
Access, Excel and Word and SPSS. Data were analysed according to both research-based
and emergent themes.

Interview schedule
The schedule was structured to collect information about teachers professional development
experiences over the previous 18 months. It explored each program or activity in-depth
including details of the program and the teachers perceptions of it. Teachers perspectives of
the financial arrangements for professional development were also sought. Information was
sought on teachers perceptions of an employer-initiated professional development trial.
Rural teachers views on the quality, access, availability and any other issues related to
professional development were ascertained.

Discussion of results
Teachers choice of professional development
The data were examined from a variety of perspectives within this study and this article
outlines only one of those coding themes, that of teachers choice in relation to professional
development. The three categories that emerged were personal choice (including
professional association activities, further studies, self-directed where teachers perceived
further learning to have occurred, professional reading, and collaborative activities),
mandated (were programs that had been required by their employer or superior within the
school and usually undertaken during the school day), and obligated (were described as sort
of required to do a professional development program but were frequently happy to
participate for a range of reasons, such as, a representative was needed, it wouldnt look good
to superiors if they did not participate, they had some expertise and could provide an informed
perspective).

The majority of teachers hours (69% of total hours 13, 584 hours over the 18 months or 60
working weeks) of professional development were engaged in personal choice activities. One
fifth (20% - 4, 016 hours) of the total hours were spent in professional development teachers
felt obliged to attend and 11% (2, 213 hours) of the total was in mandated professional
development .

Curiously, a theme that crossed all three of these choice categories was programs that
provided teachers with knowledge and/or skills to manage, teach or support students (and
occasionally parents) with specific problems/needs. These courses included developing the
literacy levels of local and English as a Second Language students, identifying students at
risk and counselling skills for troubled students (for example students who were traumatised
refugees, victims of sexual abuse, who had drug dependency problems), Indigenous education
awareness (this was mandated and proscribed by the employer), managing student behaviour
and students with specific disorders, for example, Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder, and
Aspergers syndrome. Approximately, 20% of programs across the three categories of choice
were reported as relating to specific problems with students although this percentage may
have been higher as frequently teachers reported their professional development under
different categories and the students at risk theme emerged later.
Gender differences in relation to professional development
In this study, similarities in teachers attitudes and perceptions related to professional
development did appear to be gender related or associated. Male teachers within the sample
were generally less positive about professional development than females. In contrast to
Robertsons (1992) description of female teachers lack of involvement in school related
professional development activities, this current study found the female teachers to be heavily
involved in professional development, expressing interest and professional commitment as the
rationale for their participation.

An interesting aspect of this study was that female teachers more frequently reported interest
and attendance at programs designed to target students with particular needs and on school
functioning in contrast with their male colleagues. Women were concerned with the welfare
of their students per se, and were highly motivated to work with, and for the interests of
students who were perceived to be at risk or disadvantaged. This finding may initially infer
that male teachers were less caring which was not the case; however, males were less
vehement about supporting students at risk and did not report accessing these types of
professional development as frequently as females.

Males in this study tended to be more openly interested in career advancement activities and
overtly selected professional development that would provide promotional advantages.
Surprisingly, the early career males were very outspoken on matters related to governance and
demonstrated a sophisticated perspective in planning their career advancement. They were
targeting professional development such as, information technology infrastructure and
management of school technology systems, how to build and write exemplary curriculum
vitae, leadership skills, specific train-the-trainer programs, and a variety of school committee
work which enabled them to demonstrate their leadership skills. This was intriguing as the
sample comprised more female Heads of Department and Teachers in Charge, although this
demographic was not representative of secondary teachers across the state, where there are
more males in substantive promotional positions (Education Department of Western Australia,
2000a). Even though there were more female superordinates in the sample, many of these
were not substantive so this raises the question of why wasnt their focus on consolidating
their promotional position.

Robertson (1992 pp.57-58) proposed that females continued to bear disproportionate

responsibility for home and childcare which may result in a lack of participation in
professional development activities and yet curiously, in this current study, it was males in the
30-45 age group who more frequently mentioned concerns related to childcare and the
demands of family commitments. Some of this group appeared to be juggling young families,
needs of working partners and experienced difficulty in participating in out-of-hours
professional development. This was an intriguing finding that led the researcher to conjecture
possible reasons for an apparent gender difference such as, could this be reflecting the shift in
society where many families have two working parents or single working parents juggling the
demands of parenting alone? With many marrying and having their families later in life, could
this explain why some of the more mature males in this study reported the demands of young
families? and/or could the number of people who are entering second relationships/marriages,
second families along with an increased expectation that both males and females will shoulder
the family responsibilities be affecting males capacity to engage in out-of-hours professional
development?
Overall, males in this study generally were more definite and emphatic regarding their
perceptions. Female teachers appeared to be either more accepting or attempted to present a
more balanced perspective. Although women tended to display less promotional drive, it may
have been interesting to know whether this was due to the press of family commitments, as
proposed by Robertson (1992), whether they generally were less personally driven with
promotion in view or whether they were already at a satisfactory promotional level. No
difference was found in the level of professional commitment demonstrated in either gender,
although the few teachers (3) who displayed Hubermans (1992) disenchantment and
stocktaking characteristics were male.

Conclusion
This study found there were gender associated differences in teachers perspectives and
experiences in relation to professional development in this study. They were interpreting their
lifelong learning goals in different ways, with women more orientated towards the classroom
and students, and maintaining high levels of professionalism. Likewise, males were
concerned with professionalism but also perceived lifelong learning as a means to secure their
career advancement and were more overt about these intentions.

It may be conjectured that these differences in perspective are indicative of the changing
educational and societal environment in which teachers are working. It also reflects teachers
coping mechanisms in an ever changing educational situation. The engagement with
professional development that targeted students with special needs/problems, mirrors the
changes in policy, specifically the Students at Educational Risk and Curriculum Framework
policies. The Curriculum Framework has had a significant impact whereby teachers are
acutely aware that students learning is the focus (as opposed to teaching) wherein the policy
indicates all students will achieve the outcomes by the completion of their schooling.
Similarly, male teachers interest in career management and advancement illustrates the
impact the changes in educational decision-making and administrative processes have had on
teachers. This finding endorses Robertson and Souceks findings (Robertson 1993), that
teachers were embracing the changes and ensuring their place in the new administrative
system.

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