Table of content

Conduction. 1

Convection. .3

Radiation 6

Reference 9

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Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of energy from a more energetic particle to the less energetic one of a
substance by collision. By considering a gas having a temperature gradient and by assuming that
there is no bulk or microscopic motion, the gas may occupy the space between two surfaces
which are at two different temperatures as shown in Figure 1. The energy of molecules at a point
is associated with the temperature at that point, and it is related to the random translational,
internal rotational and vibrational motions of the molecules

Figure 1 shows the process of conduction through which heat is being transferred with diffusion
of energy due to molecular motions

At high temperature, molecules have high energies and since they are in random motion, they
collide with each other transferring energy from the more energetic to the less energetic
molecules. By considering the presence of a temperature gradient, by conduction, the energy
transfer occurs in direction of decreasing temperature, even in the absence of collision. The
random motion of the molecules causes the hypothetical plane o to be constantly crosses by
molecules both above it and below it. Those above the hypothetical plane are associated with
higher temperature than those below it, causing a net energy transfer in the positive X direction.
This net energy transfer is regarded as a diffusion of energy caused by random molecular motion.

The same energy transfer is present in liquid although the molecular interactions are stronger,
more frequent and closely spaced. In solid, conduction is in the form of lattice vibrations. The
energy transfer to lattice waves is due to atomic motion. For example, in a non-electrical
conductor, the energy transfer is due to these lattice waves and in a conductor; energy transfer is
due to lattice waves and translational motion of free electrons.

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Some examples of the process of heat conduction;

A cold cast iron skillet is placed onto a stovetop. When the stove is turned on, the skillet
becomes very hot due to the conduction of heat from the burner to the skillet.
A shirt is placed on an ironing board to be ironed. Heat from the iron is conducted to the
shirt, making it easy to iron out all those unsightly wrinkles and make the shirt look
sharp.
The engine of a car is turned on, and the hood becomes warm due to the conduction of
heat from the engine to the hood of the car.

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Convection
Convection heat transfer mode is comprised of two mechanisms; random molecular motion
(diffusion) and macroscopic motion (bulk) of the fluid. This macroscopic motion is due to the
large amount of molecules moving collectively and contributes to heat transfer in the presence of
a temperature gradient. Hence, the total heat transfer id the superposition of the random motion
of the molecules and the bulk motion of the fluid.

Convection heat transfer occurs between a fluid in motion and a bounding surface at two
different temperatures. Consider the fluid the flow of a heated surface as shown in Figure 2. In
region where the fluid is in contact with the surface, the velocity of the fluid is zero and varies to
a finite value u with the flow, and is known as the boundary layer. If the surface and flow
temperatures are not the same, the temperature in the fluid will varies from Ts at y = 0 to T in the
outer flow, known as the thermal boundary layer. The thermal boundary layer may be smaller,
larger or same size as that through which the velocity varies. At any time, convection heat
transfer will occur from the surface to the outer flow if Ts > T

Figure 2 shows the boundary layer development in convection heat transfer

The random molecular motion (diffusion) nominates near the surface where the fluid velocity is
low. For example at the interface where the velocity is zero, heat is being transferred from the
heated surface to the fluid. The boundary layer grows as the flow progresses in the X direction,
or from left to right, resulting into the bulk fluid motion which then contributes to the net heat

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transfer. The heat that is conducted into this layer is swept downstream and is transferred to the
fluid outside the boundary layer.

There are two types of heat transfer convectional flow:

1. Forced convection
2. Natural(free) convection

1. In forced convection, the flow is caused by external means such as air conditioner, fan or
pump. For example, consider Figure 3a showing the use of a fan to provide forced
convection air cooling of hot electrical components on a stack of printed circuit boards.

Figure 3a shows a fan producing forced convection

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 2. In natural (free) convention, the flow is induced by buoyancy forces due to a different in
density in the fluid caused by temperature variations within the fluid. For example,
consider Figure 3b showing hot components on a vertical array of circuit boards in air.
Air making contact with the hot components experiences an increase in temperature
resulting to the reduction of density. This reduction in density makes that air lighter
compared to the surroundings. Therefore, buoyancy forces induce a vertical motion by
making the warm air to rise up and to be replaced by cooler ambient air.

Figure 3b shows natural convection process

Forced convection and natural convection can also occur at the same time (mixed convection).
For example, consider the flow velocities associated with Figure 3a. If the flow velocities are
small and the buoyancy forces are large, a secondary flow could be induced which is comparable
to the imposed forced flow. The buoyancy-induced flow would be normal to the forced flow
which would affect significantly the convection heat transfer process. For Figure 3b, mixed
convection would occur if a fan is used to force air upward between the circuit boards to either
assist the buoyancy flow or opposing it.

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Radiation
Thermal radiation is the energy emitted by matter which is not at an absolute zero temperature.
Thermal radiation occurs in all states of matter that is solid, liquid and gas. The energy emitted is
attributed to changes in the electron configurations of the constituent atoms or molecules, and is
transported by electromagnetic waves (photons). Compared to conduction and convection which
require a medium for energy transfer, radiation on the other hand does not require any medium to
transfer energy. For example, energy transfer can take place in vacuum. Infrared radiation from a
common household radiator or electric heater is an example of thermal radiation, or a person
warming up in front of a fire as shown in Figure 4a.

Figure 4ashows a person being warming up by thermal radiation

Thermal radiation falls in the range of 10-1-102 m of the Electro-magnetic spectrum as shown
below in Figure 4b.

Figure 4b shows the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation

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Figure 4c and 4d show the Emission process of thermal radiation of volumetric phenomenon and
surface phenomenon.

Figure 4c and 4d show the emission process

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Reference
FRANK P. INCROPERA, ADRIENNE S. LAVINE, THEODORE L. BERGMAN, DAVID P. DEWITT, 2008.

Fundamentals.of.Heat.and.Mass.Transfer . 6th ed. London: Don Fowley.

Prabal Talukdar, 2006. RADIATIVE HEAT TRANSFER. Delhi: MECH/IITD