Advances in Remediation-eBook

2016
Our industry-leading
scientists and engineers
are rethinking the
future of site evaluation
and restoration
and redefining
what is possible.
2
Introduction
The remediation industry is on the Our focus on increasing the certainty
cusp of major breakthroughs that will of outcomes, attaining sustainability
challenge conventional treatment and achieving business objectives
methods and solve some of your most is driving innovation in this industry.
complex environmental issues. Many It requires a new way of thinking
of these breakthroughs are not only to break through the conventional
significant to the remediation industry mindset. And these are the discoveries
of tomorrow, but are also applicable that wed like to share with you.
to your remediation projects today.
At Arcadis, our scientists and engineers

are rethinking the future of site evaluation
and restoration by improving the
application of existing tools, developing
the next-generation technologies and
overturning outdated scientific models
to redefine what is possible. In this book,
you will hear from our industry-leading
experts on a wide range of environmental
topics, such as innovations in the
treatment of emerging contaminants,
new approaches in the management
of NAPL seepage and sheen, and
advancements in the remediation of
fractured bedrock and large plumes.
Introduction
3
Our focus on
increasing the
certainty of
outcomes, attaining
sustainability and
achieving business
objectives is
driving innovation
in this industry.
4
Table of Contents
Introduction.............................................................................................................3
Leading the Way:

Transforming Remediation through Arcadis Innovation.........................7
Targeting the Sources that Matter Most:

Smart Characterization and Return on Investigation............................13
Dynamic Groundwater Recirculation:

Success Where Remediation Was Once Considered Impossible.......19
Understanding NAPL Seepage:

A Robust CSM Leads to Cost-Effective Sheen Mitigation....................27
An Improving Picture for Site Owners:

Bringing Large-Plume Sites to Closure.......................................................33
Focusing on the Mass that Matters:

Successful Remediation at Fractured Rock Sites....................................39
Tackling the In Situ Treatment of Metals:

The Case for Speciation....................................................................................45
Knowledge, Engineering and Partnership:

Adapting Large-Scale Strategies to Smaller-Scale Sites.......................51
Winning with Karst:

Effectively Managing These Most-Challenging Sites.............................57
Watch for
items with
Innovation as a Mindset:
a sign. Achieving Remediation Endpoints in a Back Diffusion World.............65
These can
be clicked to Poly- and Perfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS):
enlarge them. New Tools for Characterization and Treatment......................................71
Our Perspective:
The Future of Site Investigation and Remediation.................................79
Introduction
5
We are on the cusp of
major breakthroughs
that are not only
significant to the
remediation industry
of tomorrow, but
are also applicable
to your remediation
projects today.
6
CLICK HERE
AUTHORS
to play audio
Craig Divine and Jason Carter
Leading the Way:

Transforming Remediation
through Arcadis Innovation
Innovation is what we do its in our management through guaranteed
DNA. We believe that great insights are outcome project delivery, leading to
born when innovation is at the core of the closure of thousands of sites across
an organizations vision and operation. North America and saving clients over
That is why we invest in hundreds of $1 billion in remediation costs. We are
new concepts each year through our now using advances in materials and
global innovation program to bring technology to improve environmental
fresh ideas to the remediation industry. clean-up decision-making through highly
We combine cross-discipline expertise accurate subsurface characterization,
and creativity from more than 27,000 enhanced in situ remediation alternatives
Arcadians worldwide with a network of and advanced data analysis platforms. As
key clients, national research centers, part of a current pipeline of more than
vendors and partners from the nations 40 new innovation concepts, Arcadis is
leading universities to continuously demonstrating lower-cost techniques
evaluate horizon challenges and that quickly capture plume and aquifer
develop new and sustainable solutions. characteristics for nonaqueous-
We bring Arcadis innovation to each phase liquid (NAPL) sites, improving
project, producing greater certainty the safety of direct-push subsurface
and long-term cost savings. investigations, using thermally enhanced
in situ remediation to speed site closure,
For more than 25 years, Arcadis has led and applying horizontal wells filled
the way in site remediation, with concepts with reactive media to passively treat
such as in situ anaerobic reactive zone recalcitrant contaminants in situ. These
remediation for metals, chlorinated promising innovations are described in
solvents and nitrates in groundwater. further detail in the sections that follow.
We have pioneered site closure risk
Leading the Way: Transforming Remediation through Arcadis Innovation
7
NUCLEAR MAGNETIC Target
NMR
Detected
RESONANCE LOGGING: Product Type Saturation
(% pore vol.)
Presence/Absence
Saturation
Efficiency
DISRUPTING CONVENTIONAL (%pore vol.)
SITE CHARACTERIZATION Fresh Diesel 10% 7.3% 0.73
APPROACHES WITH FASTER, Fresh Diesel

(duplicate)
10% 7.6% 0.76
CHEAPER AND BETTER TOOLS Fresh Diesel 5% 2.2% 0.44

2.37
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) Fresh Diesel 1% 2.4% (over-estimate)
logging tools are commonly used in

Weathered
the oil and gas industry to estimate Gasoline
10% 3.3% 0.33
reservoir flow and storage parameters

and to determine hydrocarbon saturation. Figure 1. Laboratory testing results validating
Although the size and cost of oil-field LNAPL quantification with NMR.
tools historically limited their use for near- about the relative degree of saturation
surface hydrogeologic investigations, of water and of diesel fuel. By integrating
smaller and more economical NMR NMR for LNAPL management, we
logging tools are now available. These can provide more technically based
new NMR tools require no radioactive solutions for defining impacts and
sources, and the small-diameter remediation goals, and measuring
downhole tools can be either directly progress, while building in cost efficiency.
pushed or lowered into pre-existing
polyvinyl chloride monitoring wells. ZIPLINERS: REDUCING SITE
INVESTIGATION HAZARDS
Over the past two years, through field
testing at several remediation sites, we Every year, miles of soil cores are
have demonstrated the viability of NMR collected from site investigation and
to provide high-resolution measurements remediation projects. Soil cores collected
of important hydrogeologic properties, by direct-push technology, the most
including porosity, fluid mobility and common method, are collected into a
hydraulic conductivity. This information rigid plastic tube, which requires a blade
obtained from NMR can support to open. Arcadis recognized that serious
Smart characterization approaches, hand injuries could result from the use
resulting in more-reliable conceptual of a blade to open these soil liners. We
site models and more-effective eliminated this hazard by developing the
remediation system designs. worlds first soil liner that opens without
a blade: Zipliners (U.S. Patent No.
One of the most exciting applications 8,459,374). The concept is simple and
of NMR is for quantifying the porespace removes the potential for hand injury
saturation of residual hydrocarbons (or by eliminating use of blades to open soil
light nonaqueous-phase liquid [LNAPL]) cores. The liner is available from all major
in situ. The results of our bench-scale drilling firms and is fully compatible
testing (Figure 1) further establish the with Geoprobe and PowerProbe direct-
capabilities of NMR to reliably detect push machines, including traditional
diesel fuel and provide information and track-mounted rigs. And safety
8
doesnt add to the price: there is no
cost difference from a standard liner.
For samples of Zipliners, contact Nick
Welty at nicklaus.welty@arcadis.com.
35000
ScisoR: IN SITU TREATMENT OF 30000
POLY- AND PERFLUORINATED
Concentration (ng/L)
25000
ALKYL SUBSTANCES
20000
Poly- and perfluorinated alkyl substances C8S
15000 C6S
(PFAS) such as perfluorooctane C6A
C4A
sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic 10000
C5A
C4S
acid (PFOA) are a class of emerging 5000 C8A
C7S
contaminants that pose a risk to drinking 0 C7A
H4PFOS
water aquifers, human health or the LIN
E
0.5% 1% 2.5% 5%
SE
environment in multiple areas globally. BA
These compounds have had multiple

uses in numerous industrial products Figure 2. ScisoR test data demonstrating
and can be present in firefighting effective treatment of PFAS
foams, water- and oil-resistant fabrics,
The ScisoR technology offers the
and packaging for many consumer
following advantages and applications:
goods. They may be released to the
environment at fire training areas; It is effective at ambient temperature.
landfills; and chemical manufacturing, Reagents can be injected or mixed
blending and storage areas. PFAS with impacted soil and groundwater.
compounds are not biodegradable and It enables in situ remediation
For more
are very difficult to treat in situ with of source areas via injection or
information
conventional remediation, such as in situ mixing with unsaturated soils. on ScisoR,
chemical oxidation, with the exception It effectively treats waste contact
firefighting foam materials. Ian Ross at
of Arcadis ScisoR (Smart Combined ian.ross@
In Situ Oxidation and Reduction) It facilitates regeneration of arcadis.com.
technology, which has been shown support media (e.g., ion exchange
to mineralize PFAS, including PFOS. resins and other absorptive
Other, currently available remedial media) to destroy PFAS on site.
options to destroy PFAS are limited
to incineration above 1,000 C, which THERMAL IN SITU SUSTAINABLE
is cost prohibitive and unsustainable. REMEDIATION: LINKING
As shown on Figure 2, Arcadis has RENEWABLE ENERGY TO
demonstrated that the ScisoR chemistry ENHANCED SUSTAINABLE
can remove PFAS from groundwater, SITE RESTORATION
and the approach has been patented The goal of Arcadis Thermal in Situ
(patent status achieved in 2013 for the Sustainable Remediation (TISR;
Netherlands; patent pending in the U.S.). international patent pending) approach
is to increase ambient groundwater
9
temperature using renewable energy,
Solar collectors
thereby enhancing hydrolysis or
biodegradation rates three- to fivefold Closed-loop Circulation
(Figure 3). Hydrogeological thermal heating fluid pump
modeling and pilot testing are ongoing to
support full-scale TISR implementation in
the state of New York, where the subject
Water level
plume spreads across 10 acres. TISR does
not entail any groundwater pumping
Borehole heat exchangers Contamination
and is focused on capturing solar energy
to facilitate subsurface groundwater 9 21 33 42 51 63 72 C
heating in order to increase degradation

Figure 3. Thermal in Situ Sustainable
rates and enhance physical contaminant Remediation (TISR) process layout.
mass recovery, thus resulting in increased
large-diameter horizontal wells filled
contaminant attenuation, removal
with a solid-phase treatment media
and degradation within the target
(such as granular activated carbon or
contaminant zone. Ongoing field testing
zero valent iron) installed roughly in
has confirmed that the target treatment
the direction of groundwater flow. The
zone can be heated to the desired
concept leverages natural flow-focusing
treatment temperature via a uniform
behavior caused by the high-permeability
and controlled process (Figure 4).
contrast between the aquifer and the
Salient features of TISR are as follows: well to capture and treat large volumes
of groundwater (see Figure 5).
Bioremediation
Chemical hydrolysis
Effective in complex geology TC-1
25
Enhanced physical recoverability 1400
of the contaminants
20 1200
Reduced costs/carbon footprint

1000
Temperature (C)
Radiation (W/m2)
HORIZONTAL REACTIVE MEDIA 15
800
TREATMENT WELLS: NEW,

SUSTAINABLE, PASSIVE IN SITU 10 600
REMEDIATION CONCEPT 400
The Horizontal Reactive Media

5 Radiation
13
200
Treatment (HRX) well concept is a new

16
19
Arcadis-developed in situ remediation

0 0 22
25
technology (U.S. Patent No. 8,596,351) Date
that provides sustained passive treatment

and contaminant flux control for a wide Figure 4. Temperature data from various depths below ground
surface (bgs) at observation location TC-1 at the New York site
variety of problematic contaminants. (October 2015 March 2016). Actual solar radiation (W/m2)
Specifically, the technique utilizes data collected at the site is also shown on the secondary Y-axis.
10
Feed tank track-mounted
to modify applied head
Well outlet
Packed tank with 2 gravel
overlay
Aquifer outlet (behind tank)

Tank inlet from feed tank
Figure 5. Left) Conceptual depiction of HRX well installation and performance.

Right) 3-dimensional tank test set-up (the tank is run in upflow mode).
Captured groundwater passively flows The concept has been significantly

into the well through the screen at the developed and tested through extensive
upgradient portion of the well, is treated numerical modeling and physical
in situ as it contacts the treatment media, modeling (e.g., tank testing shown on
and then exits the well through the Figure 5), and Arcadis has received
screen along the downgradient sections. funding from the Department of Defense
The HRX well approach can provide rapid to conduct field testing and validation.
and dramatic reduction in contaminant
mass discharge, and it requires no
aboveground treatment or footprint, For further
and limited ongoing maintenance. information
on the HRX
It is increasingly recognized that well concept,
contact Craig
contaminant mass flux and discharge Divine at
may represent the most-appropriate craig.divine@
measure of plume strength and potential arcadis.com.
migration risk. Therefore, remedial
objectives and technologies focusing
primarily on long-term mass discharge
reduction will be increasingly favored,
and, consequently, the HRX well concept
is particularly well suited for sites where
long-term mass discharge control is
a primary performance objective.
11
About the authors
Author
CRAIG DIVINE, PhD, PG
Craig Divine, PhD, PG, leads Arcadis North America Site
Evaluation and Restoration technical services and is the
Environment Business Line representative for Satellite,
Arcadis global innovation development program. He has
20 years of experience in hydrogeology, geochemistry,
subsurface characterization and groundwater remediation.
Co-Author
JASON CARTER, PE
Jason Carter, PE, leads Arcadis North America Delivery
and Innovation. He has more than 18 years of experience in
water treatment process, strategic planning and compliance
services. Currently, he leads the North America Innovation
and Intellectual Property Programs that focus on bringing
new insight and solutions to emerging challenges across the
water, environment, infrastructure and buildings sectors.
12
CLICK HERE
AUTHORS
to play video
Nicklaus Welty, Patrick Curry and Joseph Quinnan
Targeting the Sources that Matter Most:

Smart Characterization and
Return on Investigation
The best remediation strategy begins
with a fresh look at the way you evaluate
your site. Advances in physical, chemical
and biological treatment methods
enable you to treat contaminants
previously considered recalcitrant.
What we are seeing...
But the practical reality is that most
remediation efforts take longer, cost
more than expected and fall short of
...whats really there
performance expectations. While the
underlying treatment technology may be
sound, successful application depends
not only on chemistry or biology, but
also on having a clear target. However,
that target isnt clear when you rely on
Figure 1. Monitoring wells present an out-of-
the most common characterization focus picture of conditions in an aquifer.
method: monitoring wells.
commonly leads to orders-of-magnitude
variability in permeability in a few meters, For the vast
THE PROBLEM WITH it is also common to see orders-of- majority
MONITORING WELLS magnitude changes in concentrations of sites,
more than
Permanent monitoring wells are the best at this scale in the aquifer. As shown 80% of the
option for reproducibility of groundwater on Figure 1, monitoring wells present groundwater
quality data, but, if the plume is not an out-of-focus picture of conditions plume mass
moves in less
characterized before the wells are in an aquifer because they average than 20% of
installed, they often give a misleading conditions over a relatively large interval. the aquifer
picture of groundwater concentrations. A sharper focus shows us that there is volume.
Because geologic heterogeneity significant variation we were missing.
Targeting the Sources that Matter Most: Smart Characterization and Return on Investigation
13
Monitoring Wells
Water Level
Plume size based on conventional methods
Flow
High-Resolution Boring
Water Level
Actual plume based on Smart characterization approach
Flow
Figure 2. Monitoring wells and Smart characterization lead to dramatically different plume interpretations.
The monitoring wells underestimate the groundwater concentrations and overestimate the plume thickness.
14
THE SMART SOLUTION cut through the slow, step-wise process
of planning, investigating and reporting.
Arcadis Smart characterization provides The biggest
New tools and a focus on finding the
a new way to evaluate sites. It enables you impact on
moving contaminant mass result in a remedy
to understand where your groundwater
dynamic approach that is not only faster performance
plume is moving so it can be cost
and cheaper, but better because your and total cost
effectively remediated. Instead of focusing is driven by
resources are focused on better decision narrowing
on generalized data from monitoring
making and better remedy design. the focus for
wells (Figure 2), the Smart approach
remediation
uses high-resolution sampling to create a To obtain a return on investigation (ROI), based on
flux-based conceptual site model (CSM) we use a decision process that aligns the Smart
to distinguish the contaminant mass characterization
your investment in site evaluation with approach.
that moves, leading to potential off-site your business objectives. Our experience
liability, from the mass that doesnt with Smart characterization shows that,
move. Now, you can surgically target for the vast majority of sites, more than
the sources that matter most or pursue 80% of the groundwater plume mass
streamlined management strategies moves in less than 20% of the aquifer
that meet your business objectives. volume. Understanding the mass flux
enables you to tailor the remedy to
Using adaptive, real-time methods, we
match your business objectives. For
streamline the site evaluation process to
example, we recognize that aggressive
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Elevation,
Feet 0.0 500 1,000 1,500
Distance, Feet
Approximate extent of groundwater
90% of mass flux
impacts based on monitoring wells
Smart characterization borings
Extent of impacts based on Extent of impacts
concentration based on flux
Figure 3. The Smart characterization mapping used flux instead of concentration and identified
a smaller extent of groundwater impacts compared to conventional investigation.
15
source remediation isnt always the best SMART CHARACTERIZATION
approach. Sometimes, it makes more TOOLS
sense to balance capital expenditures
Instead of using monitoring wells,
with long-term management strategies
the Smart characterization approach
and focus on optimizing your operational
uses new high-resolution tools in a
expenditures. We developed the Smart
technical and economic decision-making
characterization program to help
framework to maximize ROI and: Now you can
you optimize your existing remedy or surgically
develop the best total cost solution Reduce the total cost of remediation target the
to match your business model. Better define uncertainty and risk sources that
matter most
Establish achievable endpoints or pursue
For example, Arcadis has been before remediation begins streamlined
characterizing a former wood treatment management
facility located in the southeastern United Every site is different, and no single strategies
tool will work at every site. Often, that meet
States. The wood treatment process has your business
left large areas impacted with creosote different tools are needed across a single
objectives.
dense nonaqueous-phase liquid and site, especially when moving from a
associated volatile and semivolatile mature source zone to a downgradient
organic compounds. Contaminant groundwater plume. Screening-level
concentrations and aquifer permeability tools, such as the membrane interface
were mapped along the property probe, may be very effective for source
boundary using a Smart characterization prospecting, but generally cant be used
program to determine whether impacts for delineation to meet groundwater
are migrating off site and need to be quality standards. On the other hand,
addressed as part of the long-term quantitative sampling can be cost
strategy. The relative permeability prohibitive and inefficient when little
and groundwater concentrations is known about potential sources.
were combined to produce a measure Smart characterization tools provide
of plume strength: mass flux. quantitative mapping of the distribution
of relative permeability and contaminant
Concentration, the conventional measure concentrations in real time and at high
of contaminant extent, would suggest resolution so you can find the flux and
that the entire perimeter would require focus on the mass that matters.
a slurry wall (Figure 3). However, the
results of the investigation show that
90% of the mass is moving across the
property boundary within small areas.
The resulting remediation strategy
can now be focused in a small area,
rather than the entire perimeter, with
significant return on investigation.
16
THE NEW ROI: RETURN
ON INVESTIGATION
Smart characterization methods are
transforming the way we investigate
and remediate contaminated sites. The
new ROI return on investigation
demonstrates that the biggest impact
on remedy performance and total cost
is not driven by remedial technology, but
by narrowing the focus for remediation
based on the Smart characterization
approach. Smart characterization:
Provides quantitative, flux-based
CSMs in near real time to increase
efficiency and reduce cost.
Provides the right tools to map
geology, permeability and contaminant
distribution to separate the mass
that moves, and matters most,
from the mass that doesnt.
Helps us understand plume
maturity and trajectory to tailor
appropriate remedies.
Smart characterization
Enables us to determine in advance
of design and construction whether tools provide
quantitative mapping
aggressive source treatment or
a management strategy makes
better business sense.
The bottom line is this: Smart so you can find the
characterization is one of the
most powerful tools available to flux and focus on the
improve the reliability and cost
effectiveness of site remediation. mass that matters.
17
About the authors
Author
NICKLAUS WELTY, CPG, PG
Nicklaus Welty, CPG, PG, is the Arcadis North America
Director of Site Investigations. He specializes in dynamic,
adaptive, high-resolution site investigations with real-time
3D hydrostratigraphic and plume modeling and has led
the first commercial applications of several advanced site
characterization tools and strategies. Welty has presented
internal and external workshops to regulators, clients and
consultants on innovative site characterization strategies
and leads the Arcadis-wide training initiative to improve
high-resolution site characterization methods for geologic,
permeability and contaminant mapping. He co-authored
the upcoming Remediation Engineering: Design Concepts,
which explores the history and future of remediation.
Co-Author
PATRICK CURRY, CPG
Patrick Curry, CPG, has 16 years of experience in
environmental consulting, primarily focused on site
characterization. He is the Practice Lead for the
hydrostratigraphy and mass flux disciplines within the
Arcadis Technical Knowledge and Innovation Group.
He is actively engaged in the development of Smart
characterization tools and methodology, including relative
mass flux analysis, hydrostratigraphic analysis, 3D data
visualization and conceptual site model development.
Co-Author
JOSEPH QUINNAN, PE, PG
Joseph Quinnan, PE, PG, is the Global Director of the
Arcadis site investigation community of practice and is co-
author of Remediation Hydraulics. He is actively engaged
in advancing Smart characterization methods for DNAPL,
LNAPL, solvents and emerging contaminants, which
enable clients to maximize their return on investigation
by determining mass flux and establishing realistic
clean-up objectives before beginning restoration.
18
CLICK HERE
AUTHORS
to play audio
Scott Potter and Marc Killingstad
Dynamic Groundwater Recirculation:

Success Where
Remediation Was Once
Considered Impossible
Groundwater extraction, or pump and

treat, is arguably the first groundwater
remediation technology and continues
to be in widespread use as a strategy to
control plume migration and protect
critical resources. Conventional pump
and treat is a brute-force approach
that focuses on controlling rather than
remediating a plume. This strategy,
while often effective, inherently results
in excess groundwater pumping
a shortcoming, stemming from Figure 1. Generalized real world cross-section illustrating
a flawed conceptual model of the presence and impact of heterogeneous flow paths.
process, that has long been recognized the complexity observed in soil borings
but never thought to be critical. into a simplified, but equivalent, model
Before the start of the new millennium, and make accurate predictions. This
concept would be great if it worked, but The goal
the conceptual model of contaminant is simple:
transport was built upon the notion it doesnt because it fails to recognize maximize
that a representative elemental volume the importance and presence of contaminant
heterogeneous flow pathways, which mass removal
(REV) can be used to adequately describe
groundwater flow dynamics. The idea are pervasive in the real world (Figure
was that practitioners could simplify 1). This has been demonstrated over
and over again through tracer studies
Dynamic Groundwater Recirculation: Success Where Remediation Was Once Considered Impossible
19
performed in a wide range of geologic concentration gradients
settings. The results of these studies between the high- and Mobile Fraction m
have revealed that our plumes were low-permeability materials
moving three to four times faster than we in real soils that, over
Mass Transfer
initially thought, retardation was often time, drive diffusion
solely an emergent property of diffusive of contaminants into
storage, and anisotropy always affected the less-permeable Immobile Fraction i
contaminant movement and remedy zones (Figure 2).
Diffusion
performance. These new perspectives
forced us to reconsider (and improve) To successfully restore
remedy design and performance an aquifer, we believe it Stationary Fraction s
assessment of extraction-based remedies. is necessary to create
dynamic hydraulic
conditions by adaptively Figure 2. Reference CSM at
AIRING OUT THE HOUSE the applied scale showing:
changing system operation 1) the mobile fraction where
An important element of this new to essentially mimic, even pure advection dominates
conceptualization is the idea of exaggerate, the natural (high permeability); 2) the
change. We know that, in the real variability to accelerate the immobile fraction where
world, groundwater levels rise both mass storage and
removal of contaminants. slow advection occurs
and fall, flow patterns shift, and This process is the basis (moderate permeability);
groundwater demands vary over time for the concept we call and 3) the stationary
but we do not consider, much less fraction where storage
enhanced groundwater occurs (low permeability).
try to quantify, how these changes flushing. The technology
can impact contaminant transport. to implement this concept is known as
dynamic groundwater recirculation (DGR).
An appropriate and useful analog for
these processes is how a breeze moves
through a house with open windows. A DYNAMIC AND ADAPTIVE
Interior walls, doors and hallways act APPROACH
as baffles and preferred pathways, with The concepts described
their configuration altering the air flow above highlight the
Groundwater Flow
from room to room. The direction of the fundamental weakness

prevailing wind further influences how of conventional pump
air moves throughout the house. In an and treat: the temporal
aquifer system, high-permeability zones changes in aquifer
A B
are the rooms and hallways of the house, hydraulics are not
Injection Well Extraction Well
where groundwater flow will be focused, considered in system
while the low-permeability zones act design and operation. Figure 3. Conceptual layouts
of DGR with groundwater
as baffles, deflecting/altering flow. The Typically, extraction wells flow vectors. A) 2:1 ratio of
dynamics of variable flow directions are located downgradient injection and extraction wells
across the seasons eventually spread of source areas with an with injection along plume
periphery and extraction in
contaminants across all permeable expectation that steady the core. B) 3:1 ratio with
portions of an aquifer downgradient of operation will achieve injection within and along
the source. This is further enhanced by performance objectives. periphery and extraction
within and downgradient.
20
This strategy tends to create fixed A MORE-FOCUSED
hydraulic conditions, often leading to REMEDIAL
the development of stagnation zones STRATEGY
and limiting flushing to the principal
The basis of DGR system
flow pathways while isolating other
design begins with
important zones containing contaminant
the volume of water
mass static (steady-state) groundwater
contained within the
extraction continually drains the same
plume and the number
primary flow channels and, thereby,
of pore volume flushes
maximizes the distance over which
(PVFs) required to
contaminants must diffuse (Figures 1 and
achieve the performance Figure 4. DGR maximizes pace
2). These systems frequently demonstrate of remediation by creating
objectives. The primary dynamic flow regime, maximizing
short-term value, but tend to have an
objective is to accelerate flow in preferential and less-
asymptotic performance curve that preferential flow paths, and
pore volume flushing
results in a pumping forever mentality. minimizing diffusional distances.
within the plume to
The primary distinction between DGR maximize contaminant
and conventional pump and treat is the mass recovery via all advective pathways
use of site data (i.e., the conceptual site and diffusive gradients (Figure 4). To
model [CSM]) to develop an appropriate that end, an effective DGR design
flushing framework, a dynamic operation and implementation should:
plan and an approach for continuous To successfully
Minimize transit times between restore an
adaption based on remedial performance. injection and extraction wells while aquifer, we
After implementation, the goal of DGR maintaining hydraulic control. This believe it is
system operation is simple: maximize promotes back diffusion and shortens necessary
to create
contaminant mass removal by extracting clean-up times by maximizing the
dynamic
contaminants within the plume core concentration gradient between the hydraulic
while injecting clean water at strategic more-permeable zones (where clean conditions to
water flows) and the less-permeable accelerate the
locations along the plume periphery to removal of
zones (where mass storage occurs).
enhance flushing and direct contaminants contaminants.
toward extraction wells. The key to Segment the plume through multiple
success is dynamic system operation, cut-off measures to reduce the overall
footprint. This allows for mass removal
using performance data to frequently
across the entire plume and better
optimize the system by varying pumping/
management of transit times and PVFs.
injection rates and locations in response
Make use of quantitative
to changes in concentration data to
modeling tools to develop and
maximize mass removal rates while
test operational scenarios while
maintaining hydraulic control of the weighing site-specific factors.
plume (Figure 3). This can be described
Focus efforts in areas that result
as engineered stretching and folding of
in the highest rate of return (i.e.,
the plume or chaotic advection. Following contaminant recovery and mass
this concept, conventional pump and flux reduction) while managing
treat systems can be re-engineered and the overall scale of the system.
enhanced as a more-effective remedy.
21
This approach
is currently
being applied
to numerous
contaminated
sites with
tremendous
results.
Figure 5. Observed reduction in trichloroethene (TCE) plume over an 8-year remediation period at the
Reese Air Force Base (AFB). Shaded plume areas represent plume footprint in excess of the MCL (5 g/L).
Be continuously assessed from former source areas. The

using performance data the original system was a pump and
backbone of DGR system treat with injection system (for
management and optimization. disposal only) operating at over 900
gallons per minute (gpm) with little
Following the approach outlined above change in aquifer conditions over
will lead to a more-focused remedial the first seven years of operation.
strategy and, subsequently, a significant
2004: We began a program
reduction in lifecycle remedial costs. of dynamic system operation
(responding to performance data),
ONGOING SUCCESS which led to a system flow reduction
Click here to
We have successfully implemented to less than 400 gpm, a significant learn more
DGR systems at numerous sites (both increase in mass recovery rates, about the
and installation of additional wells Former Reese
large- and small-scale). Here is a Air Force
for extraction and injection.
sampling of our recent successes: Base clean-
Period of performance was reduced up project
Former Reese Air Force Base, Texas by 20 years, overall remedial costs
Approximately 700 acres of were lowered by $22 million and
trichloroethene- (TCE) impacted a sole-source drinking aquifer
groundwater extended three miles was restored (Figure 5).
22
NAPL Site, Northeastern U.S.
Approximately 4-acre hydrocarbon
pool of light nonaqueous-phase
liquid (LNAPL) and a large
diffuse downgradient plume.
Initial remedy was extraction only
(multi-phase extraction system).
Adaptive design implemented
during the first two years of
operation resulted in the design
of a complementary system of
28 injection wells to manage
the hydraulics (prevent further
migration and recover residual
source) and deliver oxygenated
treated water into the plume. Figure 6. Observed reduction in CVOC plume over an 38-
Hydraulic control and compliance week remediation period. Shaded plume areas represent
with regulatory requirements plume footprint in excess of the standard (1-10x and >10x).
maintained through an extraction and three injection wells)
unbalanced injection-extraction installed as an interim measure (IM)
approach (60% reinjected). to prevent further plume migration
Dramatic reductions in and protect downgradient residents. The DGR
approach
dissolved-phase concentrations June 2015: More than 60% reduction leads to a
over short period. in TCE plume footprint and more more-focused
Transportation Warehouse than 40% reduction in estimated remedial
Facility, Northeastern U.S. plume mass (only three monitoring strategy and,
subsequently,
Approximately 11 acres of chlorinated wells remaining above PCL). a significant
volatile organic compound-impacted Success of DGR IM led to reduction
groundwater extended about 1,500 submittal of Revised Remedial in lifecycle
remedial
feet from former source area. Action Plan with DGR as selected
costs.
December 2014: DGR began remedy for remaining plume.
operation at 65 gpm with 29 Chemical Warehouse Site,
extraction wells and 58 injection Southwestern U.S.
wells. Contractually driven goal: meet Circa 2010: Approximately 67 acres
remedial objectives within 18 months. of carbon tetrachloride-impacted
September 2015: More than 90% of groundwater extended about
the initial plume footprint is below 4,000 feet from source area.
remedial objectives (Figure 6). 20102012: DGR system (six
Industrial Site, Southwestern U.S. extraction and 11 injection wells)
Approximately 4 acres of operated intermittently due to
TCE-impacted groundwater mechanical issues; since then,
extended about 1,000 feet operating between 180 and 200 gpm.
from former source area. 20102013: Data showed plume
May 2014: Downgradient DGR (two migration halted but limited progress
23
in plume remediation minimal We follow a dynamic and adaptive
footprint reduction (67 acres in implementation of DGR, allowing CSM
2010 vs. 58 acres in 2013). and system performance data to guide
20132014: CSM review and 3D design and operation. We continuously
groundwater model development evaluate water quality and hydraulic
in 2013 led to operational changes data while continually focusing on
implemented in early 2014. improving the rate of cleanup. This
Early 2015: More than 40% approach is currently being applied
reduction in plume footprint to numerous contaminated sites with
(from late 2013). tremendous results. And, while this
strategy may not work for every project
AN EXCEPTIONALLY site (conditions must be conducive), we
PRODUCTIVE STRATEGY are able to achieve what was previously
When properly designed and operated, unthinkable for many large and/or
DGR can be a highly effective remedial complex contaminant plumes. This shows
technology that significantly advances that the advancements being made in in
conventional pump and treat applications situ remediation are supporting the real
of the past. It helps maintain water levels; possibility of large-scale restoration. In
provides an efficient way to manage fact, the combination of DGR with mass
treated water; reduces time required flux-based solutions have made it possible
for remediation through enhanced for stakeholders of large plume sites to
flushing; and, most importantly, can plan for closure within relatively shorter
achieve endpoints that were previously time frames and under reduced costs
considered impossible to reach. The where, historically, it was thought that
underlying concept is relatively simple: remediation could not be accomplished.
accelerate the influx of clean groundwater
to enhance hydraulic and concentration
gradients that, in turn, drive contaminant
mass out of the aquifer (both flow and
storage zones) by advection and diffusion.
Faster cleanup times can be achieved
by strategically moving more pore
volumes and manipulating gradients to
increase mass flux/advective transport
through the mobile fraction and mass
transfer/diffusive transport across low-
permeability zones where contaminant
mass is stored, essentially overcoming
aquifer heterogeneities and the effects
of matrix-controlled back diffusion.
When applied to sites with miscible
contaminants, complex geology and/or
large diffuse plumes, our DGR strategy
can be exceptionally productive.
24
We can achieve
endpoints that
were previously
considered
impossible
to reach.
25
About the authors
Author
SCOTT POTTER, PhD, PG
Scott Potter, PhD, PG, is the Chief Hydrogeologist for
Arcadis North America. He has more than 30 years of
experience in groundwater hydrology and remediation.
Potter has project experience developing site-wide
remedial strategies, groundwater flow and contaminant
transport, surface-water flow and transport, and
quantitative analysis of hydrogeologic systems.
Co-Author
MARC KILLINGSTAD, PE
Marc Killingstad, PE, is a Principal Water Resources
Engineer/Groundwater Hydrologist for Arcadis and
serves as the Director of Hydrogeology and Remediation
Hydraulics within our Technical Knowledge and Innovation
Group. He has 20 years of experience developing
and applying groundwater models to support site
investigation and remedial design in a variety of settings
throughout North America, Europe and Australia.
Killingstad also provides technical leadership in the areas
of remediation well design, installation, development,
hydraulic testing/assessment and rehabilitation.
26
CLICK HERE
AUTHORS
to play audio
Rick Ahlers and Shannon Dunn
Understanding NAPL Seepage:

A Robust CSM Leads
to Cost-Effective
Sheen Mitigation
When nonaqueous-phase liquid (NAPL) near the groundwater-surface water
seeps from soil and sediment to the interface (GSI) and in the upland, will To reduce the
generation of
surface of a water body and visible contribute to the generation of sheens. sheens, the
sheens occur, several factors, including focus must be
the Clean Water Act of 1972 (the Sheen This article discusses NAPL mobility, on the NAPL
the development of NAPL seepage at the GSI.
Rule), potential ecological risk and public
perception, can prompt the requirement conceptual site models (CSM), the
that anthropogenic sheens be mitigated. assessment of NAPL assimilative
capacity and the state of the art
The ability to predict the potential for in NAPL seepage mitigation.
NAPL seepage and resulting sheens,
as well as their potential magnitude,
requires a knowledge of NAPL mobility NAPL DRAINAGE
NAPL
and natural depletion, hydrogeology, WITH LOW WATER

groundwater-surface water hydrology
and surface water characteristics. The
scale and aggressiveness of mitigation SOIL
measures should be connected to
the existing and future potential for
High Water
NAPL seepage to generate sheens,
rather than as is too often the
Low Water
case assuming that all NAPL, both
Figure 1. Sheens can be generated when NAPL seepage

occurs because of NAPL drainage and mobility at low water.
Understanding NAPL Seepage: A Robust CSM Leads to Cost-Effective Sheen Mitigation
27
HOW DOES NAPL
GET TO THE GSI? WICKING
NAPL
For NAPL released to the subsurface to
reach the adjacent water body (to migrate
or flow), it must be both mobile and SOIL
driven by sufficient hydraulic gradient.
NAPL is present at many sites at residual
saturations that are not mobile. There
may also be insufficient gradient to
induce flow. NAPL mobility, like the
potential productivity of a groundwater
aquifer, can be quantified by evaluating
transmissivity, which characterizes Figure 2. Sheens may be generated by NAPL
wicking along the capillary fringe.
NAPL properties, soil properties, and
site-specific NAPL saturation and the gradient driving NAPL flow can
spatial distribution all in one parameter. overcome capillary forces resisting
NAPL migration toward the GSI is NAPL flow. After that, NAPL will no
most generally controlled by the NAPL longer migrate. Natural source zone
transmissivity and NAPL gradient, depletion (NSZD) is an assimilative
but other mechanisms can change mechanism that continuously acts to
and contribute to NAPL migration. naturally reduce the mass of NAPL in The scale and
aggressiveness
Water table variation can control NAPL the subsurface through dissolution, of mitigation
mobility. When a rising water table volatilization and biodegradation. measures
submerges NAPL, it can lose larger- should be
connected to
scale continuity and therefore mobility. WHAT ARE THE MECHANISMS the existing
When the water table subsequently FOR NAPL SEEPAGE AT THE GSI? and future
drops, water drains from the largest potential for
The generation of sheens is not NAPL seepage
pores. NAPL can then flow through
those air-filled pores, because it is easy directly connected to the discharge to generate
of groundwater at the GSI. Dissolved sheens.
for NAPL to displace air (Figure 1).
chemicals that are discharged with
NAPL wicking is a process where
NAPL propagates along the top of groundwater, even if they came from
the capillary fringe by the same dissolution of NAPL constituents, cannot
mechanism that causes sheens to recondense into NAPL. When the NAPL
spread on a water surface (Figure 2). migration processes described above
NAPL flux via wicking is likely low. act at the GSI, NAPL seeps and becomes
Erosion may contribute to redistribution a sheen on surface water. There must
of NAPL from banks to sediments. be flow of NAPL across the GSI for a
sheen to be generated. The discharge
The assimilative capacity of the of groundwater at a GSI, which is due
subsurface naturally mitigates NAPL to groundwater mobility and a driving
migration and NAPL seepage. Storage gradient, does not imply that there
plays a role as an assimilative factor is NAPL mobility and a driving NAPL
because releases will spread only while gradient to induce NAPL seepage.
28
Ebullition is a fourth mechanism that
can drive NAPL seepage because the
Performance monitoring of the initial remedy at the
NAPL forms an intermediate wetting
Pine Street Canal Superfund Site revealed sheens
phase between air and water. The NSZD
on the surface water and NAPL on the surface of
process of methanogenic degradation
a 3-foot-thick sand cap in the canal intended to
can produce methane in excess of its
isolate NAPL in the sediment. Arcadis executed
solubility so that it forms gas bubbles.
a re-design investigation to fill data gaps and
These gas bubbles provide an air-water
develop a CSM that included NAPL mobility within
interface that accumulates a film of
a peat layer. Conducted over three seasons, the
NAPL, and that NAPL is carried to the
investigation included borings, TarGOST, diver
water surface by the bubbles bouyancy,
surveys of NAPL seepage and surveying ebullition
where a sheen blooms. (Figure 3).
(Figure 4). NAPL residual saturation testing and
bench-scale column testing were conducted to
HOW LONG WILL UPLAND confirm the basis of design. Arcadis concluded that
NAPL FLOW RECHARGE hydraulic gradient and ebullition were causing
NAPL AT THE GSI? NAPL seepage into the canal and causing sheens. A
Understanding the potential contribution reactive cap made of organoclay reactive core mat
of upland NAPL to long-term NAPL was placed in areas of NAPL seepage and ebullition
seepage and sheen generation potential to sequester NAPL. The organoclay reactive core
at the GSI is critical to selection of a long- mat is effectively controlling NAPL seepage.
term mitigation technology. Site-specific
characterization of NAPL migration can
elucidate whether reduction of NAPL Sheen generation processes are
mass in the upland is needed to mitigate
NAPL seepage and sheen generation. complex but can be understood and
High NAPL mobility, and a NAPL gradient
in the upland, is necessary for it to
mitigated when a robust CSM exists.
continue to feed NAPL seepage at the
GSI. Counteracting the NAPL gradient are
capillary forces that resist the intrusion
of NAPL into pore space not already
occupied by NAPL. Counteracting the EBULLITION
actual flow of NAPL, and preventing the
spread of the NAPL body, is NSZD. Even
if there is NAPL flow from the upland
toward a NAPL seepage zone at the GSI,
the flow may be attenuated by natural
depletion before it results in seepage. In
this way, the rate of NAPL seepage and
resulting rate of sheen generation can
be substantially less than what would
Figure 3. Sheens can be generated by ebullition
be inferred from upland NAPL flow. carrying NAPL to the water surface.
29
At most NAPL sites, existing NAPL bodies
are quite mature, and the majority of the Seep sampling
NAPL will not contribute to seepage and
sheen generation. Because mechanisms
like NSZD and NAPL smearing continually
act to reduce overall NAPL mobility, past
NAPL seepage and sheen generation
rates are not necessarily a good guide
to current or future risk. To reduce
the generation of sheens, the focus
must be on the NAPL at the GSI.
NAPL SEEPAGE AND

SHEEN GENERATION
MITIGATION MEASURES Sheen blossom survey
The appropriate measures for effective,
long-term mitigation of NAPL seeps and
resulting sheens should be informed
by a CSM. The CSM connects the
observed sheen to a NAPL seepage
mechanism and to the potential for
NAPL recharge from the upland.
1 sq. ft.
Evaluating the rate of NSZD determines
the significance of upland NAPL
flow to the GSI and helps determine
whether measures such as NAPL
Figure 4. Methods for quantifying sheen
recovery in the upland, upland barriers
that prohibit NAPL migration to the upland fed NAPL seepage at the GSI, low
water body or upland excavation of NAPL transmissivity implies low NAPL
NAPL would be worth the cost. flow that is likely insufficient to overcome
NSZD losses and continue to add NAPL
NAPL recovery can reduce the source mass to the near GSI environment.
but only to a point. Once recovery
rates become asymptotic and NAPL Upland barriers, while they may be a
transmissivity drops below 0.1 square measure that disconnects upland NAPL
foot per day (ft2/day) to 0.8 ft2/day, from the near GSI NAPL, should be
additional recovery effort does little to used only where there is demonstrated
reduce source longevity. In part, this is due NAPL flow in excess of the rate of NSZD.
to the fractional reduction of NAPL mass Similarly, complete removal (excavation)
that can be accomplished by hydraulic of upland NAPL is a measure that is
recovery when NAPL transmissivity is rarely, if ever, necessary on the sole
low. More importantly for mitigation of basis of risk of sheens. Further, the thin
30
wedge of NAPL-affected soil between
the excavation and the body of water
can still generate sheens, despite the At a petroleum bulk storage facility adjacent to a
complete removal of upland NAPL. tidally influenced river, residual NAPL was present
in shoreline sediment, and sporadic sheen was
The CSM should carefully evaluate observed. Arcadis conducted pilot testing of an
NAPL mass near the GSI that is directly oleophilic bio barrier (OBB) that is designed to
connected to NAPL seepage and sheen allow the flow of water and gasses while capturing
generation. Through characterization and storing NAPL on an oleophilic membrane.
of NAPL seepage mechanisms and The OBB is also designed to limit the intrusion of
rates, and NAPL mass, informed sediment particles, maintaining the flow of water
decisions can be made about the use and air. Naturally occurring microbial communities
of sorptive, reactive and/or NAPL- colonize the OBB. Water and/or air exchange
wetting flow-through technologies at freely through the OBB to deliver oxygen and
the GSI and the amount of capacity other electron acceptors promoting degradation
to design into these measures. of the NAPL. Consequently, the NAPL storage
capacity of the OBB mat is restored over time.
CONCLUSIONS Since installation of the OBB, no sheens have been
observed where the OBB was placed (Figure 5).
Sheen generation processes are complex
but can be understood and mitigated
when a robust CSM exists. Specifically,
the CSM clearly explains the significance
of NAPL migration to the seepage point
and the mechanism(s), rate and longevity
of NAPL seepage. Using the CSM,
informed decisions can made on how
to effectively and efficiently control the
NAPL seepage for mitigation of sheens.
No sheens
along OBB
Seeps and sheens

adjacent to OBB
Figure 5. Use of OBB to control sheen
31
About the authors
Author
RICK AHLERS, PE
Rick Ahlers, PE leads the NAPL management community
of practice within the Arcadis Global Knowledge Network.
He has extensive experience with the evaluation and
restoration of NAPL sites, particularly petroleum NAPLs.
Ahlers is a contributor to the Interstate Technology &
Regulatory Councils (ITRC) LNAPL guidance and is an
instructor for ITRCs LNAPL classroom and internet training.
Co-Author
SHANNON DUNN, PG
Shannon Dunn, PG leads the sediment management
community of practice within the Arcadis Global
Knowledge Network. She works on aquatic sites,
evaluating the nature of sheen and its transport
mechanisms, mass flux and methods of control.
32
CLICK HERE
AUTHORS
to play video
Fred Payne and Scott Potter
An Improving Picture for Site Owners:

Bringing Large-Plume
Sites to Closure
Large plume is a term that covers The classic approach to large plumes
a wide range of contaminated has been groundwater pumping. In the
Groundwater
aquifer scenarios, but they all share early years of pump and treat, there flow in
four common characteristics: was an expectation that the process aquifers
would lead to site closures. Since the occurs in a
Large plumes occur in productive very small
aquifers with high rates of mid-1990s, it has been understood that fraction of the
groundwater flow and the conventional pump and treat approaches total aquifer
potential to transport dissolved can contain large plumes, but cannot volume.
contaminants over large distances. be expected to drive them to closure.
Large plumes comprise compounds
Many of the large plumes under
that are not quickly degraded
chemically or biologically under treatment today were discovered more
natural aquifer conditions. than 25 years ago, and more large
Large plumes occur when contaminant plumes are being added to the national
compounds dont interact chemically inventory every year as new risk-bearing
with the aquifer matrix either the compounds are recognized. During the
aquifer matrix has limited sorptive past 15 years, there has been steady
capacity or the contaminant cant be progress moving smaller-plume sites to
sorbed due to its molecular structure. closure through improved technology
For most contaminants, there must and increasingly risk-based regulatory
be a large source mass to generate standards. However, over that same time
a large volume of groundwater period, there has been little progress for
that exceeds regulatory criteria. large plumes, and the total inventory
appears to be increasing due to the
recognition of emerging contaminants.
An Improving Picture for Site Owners: Bringing Large-Plume Sites to Closure
33
THE CHALLENGE ARCADIS ANSWERS
Smaller sites have benefited significantly THE CHALLENGE
from advances in site characterization Beginning in the 1990s, Arcadis began
and remedial technologies during the its performance-based contracting
past 15 years. But site owners, consultants program, through which we committed
and even regulatory agencies remain to achieving closure for several
pessimistic regarding the prospects for large-plume sites. To meet these
bringing large-plume sites to closure. commitments, we had to abandon the
The challenges that must be overcome classic approaches to large plumes.
are both technical and financial: Ultimately, we followed a three-fold path
Technical Challenges To move to solving the large-plume challenge:
beyond simple containment for Re-examine our understanding of
large plumes, three major technical hydrogeology to better understand
problems must be solved: contaminant storage and
1. Development of cost-effective transport in aquifers (Figure 1).
mechanisms to restore groundwater Develop cost-effective
quality over large volumes characterization strategies and tools
of contaminated aquifer. to support the improved science
2. Effective source containment of remediation hydrogeology.
or removal technologies. Invent and test technologies to cost
3. Cost-effective characterization tools effectively treat large aquifers. 90% of the
contaminant
to develop more detailed mapping flows through
Through the reconstituted science of
of contaminant transport and less than 10%
remediation hydrogeology (introduced in
storage in large-aquifer settings. of the aquifer.
our 2008 book, Remediation Hydraulics),
Business Case Many large-plume
we learned that, because of the wide
sites have classic pump and treat
systems already in place with significant range of hydraulic conductivities of
sunk capital costs. These overhang the sediments in even the simplest
any discussion of further investment geologic settings, groundwater flow in
to drive large plumes to closure. In aquifers occurs in a very small fraction
newly discovered large plumes, there of the total aquifer volume. At typical
is a better case today for closure- sites, we saw that more than 90% of the
oriented strategies, but the business contaminant flows through less than 10%
case for containment remains strong. of the aquifer (Figure 2). By improving
our mapping of contaminant transport
zones, we could reduce the scope of
34
absorbed adsorbed
mass mass
dissolved-phase
mass transport
transmissive zone
stagnant zone
adsorbed dissolved-phase absorbed

mass mass mass
Figure 1. Arcadis transport and storage conceptual model for contaminants

in large, dilute plumes (redrawn from Remediation Hydraulics).
Figure 2. Longitudinal cross-section developed using Arcadis next-generation site characterization tools.
More than 90% of the contaminant transport was found to occur in less than 10% of the aquifer matrix.
35
remedial action to a small fraction of
what is needed for a classic remedial
method. This has two implications:
First, closure of large-plume
sites is technically feasible and,
in many cases, site closure can
be the best business case.
Second, even in cases where
containment is the best business-
case approach, the costs for
long-term containment can
be dramatically reduced.
The environmental remediation
community has been too pessimistic
regarding the prospects for cost-
effectively managing large, dilute plumes.
Arcadis has developed characterization
strategies that yield immediate pay-
back in the form of reduced remedy
scope and improved capture efficiency.
We have also translated our new
understanding of contaminant flow
pathways and aquifer matrix storage
Closure of large-plume sites is
processes into more-effective remedial
technologies, such as Directed technically feasible and, in many
Groundwater Recirculation (DGR). Even
where long-term containment is still the cases, can be the best business
best business case, new technologies
for source mass reduction and DGR can case. Where it is not, the costs
significantly reduce long-term operation
and maintenance costs. At Arcadis, for long-term containment
we have answered the challenges,
and were strongly optimistic. can be drastically reduced.
36
Even where long-
term containment
is still the best
business case, new
technologies can
significantly reduce
operation and
maintenance costs.
37
About the authors
Author
FRED PAYNE, PhD
Fred Payne, PhD, is a Senior Vice President and Chief
Scientist for Arcadis North America. He has nearly 40 years
of environmental industry experience, encompassing a
broad range of natural resource, wastewater, stormwater and
hazardous waste management. He is a leader in the design
and development of in situ reactive zone technologies
for aquifer restoration and is the inventor of six patented
technologies used in the treatment of contaminated
soils and groundwater. Payne is a global leader in the
ongoing reformulation of remediation hydrogeology,
resulting in more effective site characterization, more
cost-effective remediation and more sensible regulation.
Co-Author
SCOTT POTTER, PhD, PG
Scott Potter, PhD, PG, is the Chief Hydrogeologist for
experience in groundwater hydrology and remediation.
Potter has project experience developing site-wide
remedial strategies, groundwater flow and contaminant
transport, surface-water flow and transport, and
quantitative analysis of hydrogeologic systems.
38
CLICK HERE
AUTHOR
to play audio
Allan Horneman
Focusing on the Mass that Matters:

Successful Remediation
at Fractured Rock Sites
Remediation of fractured bedrock 1A 1B
sedimentary, igneous or metamorphic Depth
(ft bgs)
Tetrachloroethene
Estimated Porewater
Concentrations
(ug/L)
VOC &
Physical Sample
Property Position
Samples
Features
0
Orientation
From Horizontal
(degrees)
30 60 90
Run Recovery
# (ft)
01 2 3 45 0
RQD
(%)
50 100
Stratigraphy
Depth
(ft bgs)
remains one of the most significant

bf 2
bet
bf
bet
45 45
bet
challenges facing environmental

bf 3
50 bet 50
professionals, responsible parties

bf 4
f3
bf
af
55 bf 55
and stakeholders. While there have

f2 5
bet
Tunnel City Formation

60 bet 60
been significant advances in the

bf 6
bf
f3
characterization and remediation

65 65
bf
bet 7
bf
of alluvial aquifers, much of this

70 bet 70
bet 8
bf
progress has not translated to clear

75 75
bet
9
bet
bf
f3
strategies for fractured rock sites.

80 bet 80
0 1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10
The main challenge for the restoration Figure 1. A) Data from CORE sampling of unfractured and
fractured rock matrix. Order of magnitude concentrations
of fractured rock is to understand the in the rock matrix are observed in the more highly fractured
contaminant mass flux from mass zones. B) Transmissivity profiling using FLUTe liner.
storage in low-transmissivity zones to (Figure 1B), and downhole geophysical
the high-transmissivity fractures that methods have allowed for greater
dominate overall groundwater flow resolution in the investigation of fractured
and contaminant transport. Additional rock, supporting the development of
challenges arise from this dynamic as more-robust conceptual site models.
how best to characterize, set appropriate However, this improvement in
remedial goals, balance the overall cost characterization technologies has not
in the context of risk, and understand materially advanced discussion on the
realistic exit strategies and timeframes. identification of definitive remedial
Development and commercialization of strategies in fractured rock settings. Some
characterization technologies such as of the reasons for this lack of progress are
CORETM (Figure 1A), FLUTeTM liners rooted in the misguided assumption that
the concept of back diffusion provides
Focusing on the Mass that Matters: Successful Remediation at Fractured Rock Sites
39
evidence that we cannot remediate 2A 2B 2C
fractured rock plumes to low clean-up
standards. Other practitioners fail to
adopt new investigation and remediation
methodologies or they stand on the
sidelines of the innovation process.
However, based on new strategies

adapted from alluvial sites and real
successes in fractured rock settings,
we see reasons for optimism.
Figure 2. A) Fractured metamorphic rock (biotite gneiss)
with matrix porosity less than 1%. B) Road cut in fractured
A SIGNIFICANT REDUCTION metamorphic rock, providing a sense of the three-dimensional
IN COST AND TIME nature of fractures, joints, and cleavage. C) Fractured sandy
silt stone with matrix porosity of approximately 12%.
Our long history of remediation in
complex fractured rock settings has the effort on the mass flux and
provided us with unique insight into overcoming the mass contribution from
remedial strategies that can be effective the low-advection fractures both in the
in meeting remedial goals in the short and short and long term. Conversely, fractured
long term. We can provide perspective rock settings associated with significant
up front in situations and geologic matrix porosity provide the potential for
settings where meeting stringent matrix diffusion processes and significant
water quality targets is unrealistic and mass stored in the low-transmissivity
where development of long-term, cost- zones (e.g., silt and sandstone settings
efficient solutions is the path forward. Figure 2C) and constitute a different
challenge, very analogous to overburden
Our successes in fractured rock settings sites with mass storage in silt/clay layers
are the result of contaminant flux-based and transport in coarser, more-permeable
approaches and a thorough materials. However, in many cases and
understanding of potential receptor counter to much of the current thinking,
pathways. Fractured rock sites where the remediation of these high-matrix-porosity The CSM
is a living
majority of mass resides in fractures and sites does not require unrealistic
document,
where little or no mass has diffused into remediation of the gross contamination becoming
the rock matrix (e.g., some igneous and residing in the fractured rock matrix to be more robust
successful. Rather, by identifying and and focused
metamorphic rock settings Figures 2A
as the
and 2B) may be associated with large focusing on the fracture zones that investigation
plumes. These sites can be efficiently contributes to mass flux and by and
remediated by applying Arcadis large addressing the rock matrix immediately remediation
progress.
plume philosophy, concepts and adjacent to these fractures, we have
strategies: continuously reassessing and demonstrated a significant reduction in
retargeting the remedial effort based on capital cost, long-term operations and
performance monitoring data, focusing maintenance, and remedial timeframes.
40
TAILORED INVESTIGATION
We tailor our investigation approach to
each site based on our understanding
of hydrogeologic conditions, bedrock
and fracture characteristics, and the
physical and chemical nature of the
contaminant(s), and we work closely with
our client to define the questions that
must be answered by the investigation.
All effort is centered on the development
of a conceptual site model (CSM) that
describes the most important elements
of a site and serves as the framework
for developing remedial objectives. The
CSM (Figure 3) is a living document
that is continuously tested and updated
as more data are collected, becoming
more robust and focused as the Figure 3. Sample CSM capturing vertical and horizontal
investigation and remediation progress. extent of contaminant mass and hydrogeology. This
CSM demonstrated a stable deep plume and a migrating
shallow plume discharging into a nearby river.
Our characterization generates a flux-
based CSM that more clearly achievable goals in the plume often are
distinguishes between the source and the driven by the risk assessment and
mass that moves. Our objective is to regulatory guidance.
understand and distinguish between the
Our successes
source zone and plume and define the A TARGETED APPROACH in fractured
fracture intervals where the majority of Centered on our focused CSM and rock settings
mass flux occurs. This enables us to work are the result
clearly defined remedial goals, we work of contaminant
with our client and stakeholders to with our client to develop the remedial flux-based
formulate clear and well-defined remedial strategy that best fits their needs and approaches
goals, support the selection of remedial and a thorough
objectives whether they include a fast understanding
alternatives that meet these goals in a and dramatic decrease in mass flux and of potential
timely and cost-efficient manner, and groundwater contaminant concentrations receptor
obtain a return on investigation (ROI) by pathways.
over a short period or longer-term
focusing the remedial effort and solutions that may be associated with
shortening the remedial timeframes. In more modest capital investments.
many cases, the appropriate remedial
goals in the source zone differ from those Our remedial approaches are designed
in the plume. In the source zone, goals to target the mass that matters and
may include reducing mass flux by one or reduce the flux in the source area and
more orders of magnitude, whereas downgradient plume. In the source area
41
(Figure 4), considerations include:
100%
12
Mass in the advective zones, including 2 4 68
10
Relative VOC Mass Discharge

fractures and overburden. Time (years)
Slow-advection zones, including micro 80%

and blind fractures and overburden
1 kg/day
sands mixed with silts and clays.
60%
Storage zones, including primary
porosity (unfractured rock matrix), 0.1 kg/day
the matrix of highly weathered rock 40% 0.01 kg/day
and overburden silts and clays. The 0.001 kg/day
storage zone is important in many
sedimentary rock settings associated 20%
with significant matrix porosity, but less

important at many igneous rock sites
0%
with matrix porosities of less than 1%. 0 50 100 150 200 250
Figure 5 provides an example of Total VOCs Removed (kg)

successful fractured rock remediation by
applying the large plume strategy. In the Figure 4. Data from a chlorinated volatile organic compound-
contaminated sandstone site in Colorado showed source
source zone, this involved addressing zone treatment in an fractured rock aquifer resulted in a
high- and low-advection fractures and dramatic and rapid mass discharge reduction. After two years
reducing concentrations in the rock of treatment, which removed 150 kg of source mass, the
mass discharge was reduced by approximately 95%. Data are
matrix near fractures by increasing the consistent with cleanup of high- and low-advection fractures as
chemical gradients and driving out mass. well as storage in a rind around the high-advection fractures.
In the plume, the main focus was on the edge emerging remedial strategies
high-advection fractures. Even though include moderately low-temperature
notable contaminant mass may remain in enhanced hydrolysis with or without pH
the matrix, it is far away from the adjustments. As opposed to conventional
fractures and the effective mass transfer thermal treatment, enhanced hydrolysis
from the matrix to the fractures is very can focus on the fracture intervals
low, resulting in minimal long-term associated with the majority of mass flux
contaminant flux from the source area. and requires significantly less energy
input while increasing contaminant
Of course, each fractured rock site is
breakdown by orders of magnitude in
different, and we are not promoting one
the fractures and in the rock matrix
technology or approach to fit all sites. Our
immediately adjacent to these fractures.
toolbox includes extraction approaches
such as multiphase extraction (source Regardless of remedial technology,
zone only) and dynamic groundwater our successful remediation outcomes
recirculation (source zone and/or plume), in fractured rock settings are directly
as well as injected fluid-based in situ related to well-developed CSMs and
methods such as ERD and in situ chemical our ability to target the fracture zones
oxidation (both may be applicable in associated with flow and mass.
the source zone and/or plume). Cutting-
42
SUCCESS
Our implementation of characterization
methods focused on identifying the
fractures associated with the significant
mass flux has greatly improved our
understanding of fate and transport and
our conceptual site models. The success
we have achieved on behalf of our clients
at multiple fractured rock sites supports
our contention that cost and performance
are driven by the selection of the right
technologies and remedial alternatives
within the framework of appropriate
and well-defined remedial goals.
Plume 2001 Pre remediation
Despite widespread industry pessimism,

# A
!
fractured rock sites can be remediated A

!
A
!
A
!
#
A
!
# A!
#
MISSISSIPPI AV
A
A
! ! A
!
in a timely and cost-efficient manner

A
!
# !# A ! A!
! #A
A ! A! A!# # #
A "
)
A
!
"
)
A
! A
! A
!
! "
! ! A
)
# "
) A A !!
A
! A
# ## A A
! #
by focusing on the mass that matters.

# A
! A
!
A
! A
!
MISSOURI AV
A! A
!
A
!
#")
A
!
#
"
)A
!
A
!
A
! A
#
!
A
! A
!
#
BELLAIRE ST
A
!
A
CHERRY ST
! A
!
A
! A
!
"
)
A
!
KANSAS AV
A
! A
!
A
!
0 50 100 150
A
!
Feet
A
!
"
)
A
!
ARIZONA AV
ARIZONA AV "
)
A
!
A
! A
! A
! A
! ARIZONA AV
A
! "
)
A
!
#
CLERMONT ST
DAHLIA ST
#
"
)
A
!
# A
! A
!
# A! #
ALABAMA PL
#
A
!
A
! #
#A! A
!
A
! "
)
A
! #
#A! # ! #
A A
!
# #
#
A
! #
# ! #
"
)
A
A
!
Legend
! ")
A #
!
A
! #!A! "
)
A # A
!
A
! A
! # # # #A # 70 g/LLOUISIANAA
!AV Shallow Monitoring Well
# #A !# # A ! LOUISIANA AV
A A
! # AA #
! ! ! A
! !#
A # # A
!
1,000 g/L # Injection Well
Document Path:
A
! A
! !A
A
# !
# A
#!
A!#A
! A!
A On-Site Recovery or
!#A
A !#!
A
#! #A
! # ! 10,000 g/L" S
A !#
A "
) Injection Location
! A
! !
"
)
!# " !"
#)
A A! A! #
A#A
) A
! !
A A #A
!! #
!A
A #
! #
A #")
A
!
!#
A
!
Monitoring Well used
A #
A!! "
)
A "
)
A
!
!
A
! #A A! as Injection Well
A
! A
!A A
!
0 225 450 675
"
) A!
Drawn by: BCG
Feet
BIRCH ST
A
!
A
! WYOMING PL A
!
A
!
Plume 2014 Post remediation
Figure 5. Adaptive remedial approach in fractured sandstone,

focusing on continuous performance assessment and
system optimization. Initial remedial approach involving
enhanced aerobic bioremediation (AB) was effective, but,
based on new pilot test results, site-wide conversion of the
We have demonstrated groundwater treatment system from an aerobic to an anaerobic
a significant reduction in biodegradation remedy would result in a faster clean-up pace.
capital cost, long-term Consequently, the AB system was converted to a full-scale
operations and maintenance, enhanced reductive dechlorination (ERD) system in early 2009.
and remedial timeframes. Performance of the full-scale ERD system has matched and,
in some cases, significantly exceeded expectations developed
from the ERD pilot test. Overall, the remediation actions have
been very successful: approximately 90% of the volatile organic
compound mass in the off-site plume has been destroyed,
and active remediation was discontinued in the off-site area
in 2013. Continuous post-remediation monitoring supports
the conclusion that no significant rebound has occurred.
43
About the author
Author
ALLAN HORNEMAN, PhD
Allan Horneman, PhD, leads the Arcadis community
of practice for sedimentary rock and matrix diffusion.
He has 15 years of experience in hydrogeology,
geochemistry, contaminated site characterization and
remediation. He is engaged in multiple North American
and European fractured rock projects involving metals,
petroleum hydrocarbons, chlorinated volatile organic
compounds and emerging contaminants such as poly-
and perfluoralkyl substances (PFAS) and 1,4-dioxane.
44
CLICK HERE
AUTHORS
to play audio
Jeff Gillow and Mike Hay
Tackling the In Situ Treatment of Metals:

The Case for Speciation
We have learned a lot over 20 years of in Can your toolbox, now fully outfitted
situ groundwater remediation. Solvent to tackle even the most recalcitrant Speciation
is essential
and hydrocarbon plumes, large and solvent plumes, be used in a similar to truly
small, can be successfully addressed manner for metals or are you missing understand the
when a well-honed conceptual site something fundamental? Is there mechanisms
that control
model that incorporates high-resolution something further you must understand arsenic
hydrostratigraphic data and the principles before advancing an in situ strategy for mobilization
of remediation hydraulics underpins your metals and radionuclides in groundwater and arsenic
in situ
remediation approach and system design. something so critical that not
immobilization.
knowing it will doom you to failure if it
Applying this framework to your solvent is missing? We have found that, when
plume results in the predictable and information on speciation is missing, in
methodical transformation of solvent situ metals remediation projects often
and hydrocarbon constituents fail and sometimes catastrophically.
ultimately, to innocuous end products.
However, the treatment of metals and ARSENIC A REASON TO
metalloids is a bit different. They cannot SHARPEN THE AXE
be destroyed, and their in situ treatment
relies on transforming their solubility, and Speciation in its truest sense is the
hence mobility, in soil and groundwater chemical form of the metal, metalloid
systems. As such, long-term stability or radionuclide in the environmental
and the permanence of the treatment media of interest. For example, arsenic
often require long-term alteration in groundwater doesnt exist as a simple
of the geochemical environment, pentavalent cation (As5+), but rather
controlling solubility and mobility. as the arsenate oxyanion (depending
upon pH, either H2AsO4- or HAsO4)
Tackling the In Situ Treatment of Metals: The Case for Speciation
45
or as arsenite (H3AsO3). In the case of arsenic immobilization in geochemical
arsenic, pH and oxidation state [As(III) environments where insoluble arsenic
or As(V)] matter, and a total of eight sulfide minerals (orpiment and realgar)
different forms of the arsenic oxyanion may be assumed to dominate. In the
are possible in aqueous systems. Each research world, this has become a classic
behaves differently in terms of sorption to example, as epitomized by the work at
soil surfaces and, therefore, groundwater the Rifle, Colorado, UMTRA site. At this
transport and attenuation. Other, more- site, microbial reduction strategies for
exotic forms of arsenic may be present in immobilization of uranium under iron-
highly anaerobic, sulfidic environments and sulfate-reducing conditions have
(e.g., arsenic sulfides in the form of been shown to generate thioarsenic
thioarsenic complexes) that may be species upon release of arsenic originally
persistent and resistant to precipitation associated with metal oxides. This has
from groundwater. Arsenic removal from resulted in secondary byproducts that
groundwater is highly dependent on do not attenuate as expected outside
which form the arsenic takes; arsenate the immediate treatment zone. Although
is much more likely to be removed from such secondary geochemical processes Identifying
these forms
solution through precipitation, co- present real challenges for in situ of metals in
precipitation and sorption than is arsenite treatment, the possibilities are too often environmental
or any of the thioarsenic forms. An ignored in consulting and industry. systems goes
beyond the
investigation of the speciation of arsenic capabilities of
is often viewed as an esoteric matter, In our work, elucidation of speciation standard EPA
but if one truly is seeking to understand has resulted in even more-extreme methods.
the mechanisms that control arsenic modifications to the conceptual site
mobilization (including anthropogenic model. At a number of sites where we
arsenic from a source material or have employed advanced analytical
geogenic arsenic from soil) and arsenic methods for speciation, we discovered
in situ immobilization (via precipitation, a flaw in standard EPA methods
coprecipitation or sorption), then for determining arsenic in soil and
understanding speciation is essential. groundwater: an interference caused
by the presence of rare earth elements
Arsenic speciation must be unraveled (lanthanides) resulted in a false-
for strategies that rely upon monitored positive detection of arsenic across
natural attenuation, as well as for a site. This error would have never
passive (permeable reactive barrier) and been discovered if we had decided
enhanced attenuation (injection-based not to dive deeper into understanding
in situ) approaches. Speciation often arsenic speciation at these sites.
provides the key piece of information
necessary for validating or refuting the We posit that, because of reliance on
conceptual site model and efficacy of these standard analytical methods,
the treatment approach. In the example there are many other sites where the
noted above, formation of soluble understanding of arsenic impacts not only
thioarsenic species under reducing may be incomplete, but also may paint a
conditions represents an impediment to much worse picture than reality. The good
46
Geochemical Modeling to Investigate Nickel Speciation:
Effect of Organic Chelating Agent on Nickel Solubility
news is that the rationale for speciation 4
100% Ni-citrate complex
when dealing with arsenic is becoming Ni(OH)3-
Saturation Index (Nickel Hydroxide)

2
more widely accepted. This is evidenced Nickel hydroxide precipitate
Dissolved Nickel Species

80% forms where saturation index is >0
by the multitude of commercial analytical 0
laboratories and analytical methods for 60% Nickel hydroxide is soluble -2

where saturation index is <0
quantifying arsenic speciation. While
-4
deduction of aqueous speciation using 40%
hydride generation atomic-absorption Ni(OH)2

-6
spectroscopy (via EPA method 1632) 20%

-8
has been around for several years, more
direct, reliable and elucidative methods 0%
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
-10
that rely on coupling ion chromatography pH

with inductively coupled plasma mass Figure 1. Nickel speciation in the presence of citrate (4.5Modeling
Total nickel concentration = 4.5 ppm (0.08 millimolar); NaCl (10 ppm); no CO included. 2
Citrate present at 100 ppm (0.5 millimolar); ligand to metal molar ratio of 6:1. Figure 2
spectrometry are exhibiting increased use. ppm nickel,
Modeling performed 100
using ppm
PHREEQCi citrate; 6:1 =ligand:metal
v.2.13; Database WATEQ4F, USGS 2001.molar ratio).
Nickel-citrate complex dominates up to pH ~10.5 and stabilizes

nickel in the dissolved phase, preventing precipitation as
DONT IGNORE THE HUMBLE a nickel hydroxide at elevated pH (speciation simulation
CATIONS THINGS MAY run using PHREEQC and the WATEQ4F database).
NOT BE SO SIMPLE can change profoundly in the presence
However, even seemingly simple divalent of citrate, an organic chelating agent.
cations, such as lead and nickel, can
Colloids and complexes were all the rage
require a closer look into speciation. Such
in PhD theses a decade ago, and they
simple systems can present an even
have made the cover of journals such
greater challenge than complex ones
as ES&T on numerous occasions, but
when analytical methods are not readily
such forms are still generally ignored
available for determining speciation.
by practitioner community consultants,
Our experience with nickel at plating
site environmental managers and
facilities, and in catalyst manufacturing,
regulators. Why? Because identifying
shows that its reputation as either
these forms of metals in environmental
being associated with particulates (and
systems is difficult and goes beyond the
detected mainly in the total unfiltered
capabilities of standard EPA methods.
groundwater fraction) or dissolved is
In our work, elucidation of speciation
oversimplified. Nickel can be present in
has required the development of
groundwater in colloidal form (e.g., as
creative methods. For example, we have
a pure-phase nanoparticulate or as a
used ligand-competition approaches
sorption complex on organic or inorganic
using ion-exchange resins to identify
colloids) or as a strong metal-ligand
complexed nickel in groundwater
complex (in association with a chelating
systems. We find that conventional in
agent), both of which may pass through
situ treatment strategies that rely upon
a 0.45-micron filter and therefore be
nickel sulfide formation, or sorption
considered dissolved by conventional
of nickel to iron, do not work when
analytical methods. Figure 1 provides
nickel is complexed. A new approach
an example of how nickel speciation
47
is needed for complexed or colloidal uranium through reductive precipitation
nickel focused first on destroying the [with transformation of uranyl to
complex, followed by precipitation. U(IV)] or formation of low-solubility
uranium phosphate minerals.
Lead in groundwater, particularly when
present in oxic conditions at neutral NOW GO FORTH AND SPECIATE
pH, serves as another classic example.
Although lead can technically be highly Here we make a case for speciation as a
soluble at neutral pH, particularly in proactive component of the conceptual
the absence of sulfide, it nevertheless site model (i.e., a key parameter that
typically exhibits extremely low mobility informs site strategy). In most cases today,
in groundwater environments due speciation is a reactive component of the
to its tendency to adsorb strongly to conceptual site model (i.e., an avenue for
organic matter and mineral surfaces exploration only after valuable time and
(particularly metal oxyhydroxides). money are spent pursuing ineffective
Accordingly, when lead is observed treatment strategies). We argue that the
under these conditions, it is very often time and expense is worthwhile, lest you When
an early warning that atypical speciation break your pick on the implementation information
of a potentially unsuccessful and costly on speciation
(e.g., nanoparticulate formation or is missing, in
complexation) may be at play. in situ treatment strategy for a metal, situ metals
metalloid or radionuclide plume. Water remediation
The chemistry of uranium in soil and chemistry matters when it comes to projects often
groundwater systems absolutely formulating approaches for these fail, sometimes
catastrophically.
requires that speciation be understood inorganic contaminants, especially
prior to attempting treatment, in both approaches that avoid pumping massive
aboveground and in situ systems. It amounts of water just to clean up
also further highlights the need for relatively low concentrations of metals.
understanding speciation of a system as In situ strategies avoid unnecessary
a whole, not just of the target analyte. contamination of clean water, as well as
Uranium is most often present as the generation of aboveground treatment
the uranyl cation (UO22+) under oxic, residuals that then must be managed
acidic to neutral pH conditions in the in landfills and waste repositories.
absence of alkalinity. Most soil and
groundwater systems have appreciable The future of remediation of inorganic
alkalinity, and uranyl forms a complex contaminants is following closely on
with carbonate such that a myriad of the heels of progress made with in situ
species form: UO2CO3, UO2(CO3)22-, remediation of solvents. We look forward
UO2(CO3)34-. Uranium can also form to the day when all in situ strategies for
ternary complexes such as CaUO2(CO3)2. inorganics are rooted in a well-formulated
The various uranium carbonates that conceptual site model that incorporates
can form have differing thermodynamic detailed speciation information
stabilities; an understanding of speciation and when treatment endpoints are
is critical for the success of in situ verified using this important tool!
strategies focused on precipitating
48
Speciation often
provides the key piece of
information necessary
for validating or refuting
the conceptual site
model and efficacy of
the treatment approach.
49
About the authors
Author
JEFF GILLOW, PhD
Jeff Gillow, PhD, has 26 years of experience in environmental
science, including 17 years at the U.S. Department of
Energy, researching metal and radionuclide mobility
in the environment. He provides expertise in the
assessment, evaluation and remediation of metals in soil
and groundwater systems, with a recent focus on arsenic
and other oxyanions for industrial and mining clients.
Co-Author
MICHAEL HAY, PhD
Michael Hay, PhD, is a Senior Geochemist with 14 years of
experience in environmental chemistry. He specializes in the
in situ remediation of groundwater impacted with metals
and inorganics, with a focus on geochemical and reactive
transport modeling. Prior to joining Arcadis, he served as a
research hydrologist for the U.S. Geological Survey, studying
metals transport at mining- and milling-impacted sites.
50
CLICK HERE
AUTHORS to play video
Fred Payne and Elizabeth Cohen
Knowledge, Engineering and Partnership:

Adapting Large-
Scale Strategies to
Smaller-Scale Sites
Environmental remediation is always Remedial strategies must match

changing: it evolves with technological business objectives, and solutions We must
must account for both financial remain
advances, changes in regulatory focused on
settings, the current financial climate and environmental drivers. In some ways we
and political drivers. A company that situations, achieving unrestricted can adapt
closure or meeting conservative clean- proven and
is aware of these developments and innovative
operates in a flexible manner one up goals may not make financial sense,
solutions to
while it may be a priority in others. suit all sites,
that isnt afraid to work outside the
norm and adjust the way environmental Innovation lies not just in developing regardless
new technologies, suitable for the of size or
remediation projects are managed is complexity.
most complex or highest-cost sites,
best qualified to deliver solutions relevant
but in generating adaptive and original
to todays issues and your challenges,
approaches to problems of any size.
regardless of size, scale and complexity.
There is no one-size-fits-all approach to
Arcadis believes that the future success in this changing environment.
of remediation lies in challenging However, adaptive, flexible remedial
conventional thinking and the solutions that match your sites budget,
status quo. We understand that: scale and risk profile can be achieved by:
Expertise in large-plume and complex Harvesting Knowledge: Distilling
high-cost sites can be leveraged to the knowledge gained through a
develop cost-effective strategies for broad portfolio of sites into lessons
smaller, less-complicated sites. learned and best practices that are
Knowledge, Engineering and Partnership: Adapting Large-Scale Strategies to Smaller-Scale Sites
51
distributed to project teams through We communicate
national technical networks. insights to enhance
Continue MNA
Value Engineering: Focusing strategic and expand our Additional
Site without
Changes
decision making while minimizing understanding of a Investigation
Required 19%
risk and long-term spending. technology and its 24%
Continue MNA
Partnering for Success: Building application. We also with
Optimized
on strengths and bringing in the develop procedures Transition to Monitoring
Active 23%
best teams while accounting and best practices to Remediation
34%
for continuity of project streamline processes
management and maintaining and realize cost and
existing positive relationships. implementation
Figure 1. Strong knowledge
efficiencies without management creates efficiency.
HARVESTING KNOWLEDGE sacrificing quality or
Arcadis history of technical excellence, reducing credibility
and our emphasis on the development with regulators and stakeholders.
of technical communities and dedicated
technical career paths, enables us to Arcadis recently undertook a review of a
keep pace with changing drivers and portfolio of approximately 90 retail gas
technological developments. In a climate stations in monitored natural attenuation
where many sites require a simplified (MNA). Our objective was to determine
technical approach, we succeed by if MNA was the most effective remedy,
leveraging our technical experts and if MNA managed risk adequately or if
effectively communicating knowledge some form of active remediation was
through established national and required, or if additional data were
international networks efficiently required to adequately assess MNA
adapting traditional and cutting-edge (Figure 1). If continuing MNA was the best Adaptive,
approaches to solve any problem. approach, it was necessary to optimize flexible
the program and reduce overall costs. remedial
solutions that
To complete the program, Arcadis used match your
If I have seen technical skills developed through years
sites budget,
scale and risk
of experience with natural attenuation profile can
further, it is by assessments and monitoring program be achieved.
optimization to create a streamlined,
standing on the efficient and consistent screening
process. We trained a team of internal
shoulders of giants. staff and two external stakeholders
and completed the screening of the 90
Issac Newton sites within a three-month period at a
fraction of initial expected costs. This
Through this distribution of knowledge process, training and knowledge have
and targeted training, we realize been disseminated through our technical
project efficiencies and apply lessons networks and are now an integral
learned on projects across the board. part of our toolbox for similar sites.
52
VALUE ENGINEERING The primary
purpose of any value 5
Value engineering is a process and Train and 1
engineering work empower Establish
set of tools designed to reduce the Stakeholders relevant and
is to provide data realistic
financial and schedule-related risks endpoints
to inform strategic 4
associated with long-term projects Further
Value
decision making. standardize Engineering
2
through the development of efficient, methods Approach
Typically, these data Evaluate
effective and sustainable remedies that and optimize

remedial
relate to reducing systems
capture project lifecycle savings (Figure 3
project lifecycle costs Develop metrics
2). Value engineering may be applied and tools
while minimizing
prior to establishing a remedy or used
risk. Arcadis applies
value engineering to:
Things should be Establish relevant and realistic
project endpoints that meet
made as simple business objectives (which may
not always be closure) and identify
as possible, but alternative endpoints as necessary.
Evaluate and optimize remedial
not any simpler. systems. We consider new site
characterization tools and
Albert Einstein remedial technologies as a
route to cost effectively modify
ongoing response actions.
effectively throughout the lifecycle to
Develop metrics and a set of
review ongoing projects and identify
tools to support technical,
modifications to operating systems where proactive decision making.
appropriate. Value engineering is relevant
Further standardize methods and
for a single project, a portion of a project
train and empower all stakeholders
or consistently throughout a portfolio of in their use and applications.
projects. The process and level of effort
can be tailored to match your objectives.
Figure 2. Expedite effective

decision making and reduce
project life cycle costs.
Typical project remedy-risk profiles

are more likely to exceed time and
cost estimates than to be completed
below estimates. The Value Engineering
process is designed to reduce both
the Probable Future Cost and the
Probable High Future Cost.
53
PORTFOLIO-WIDE SAVINGS
Arcadis developed a value engineering
approach for rail-sector client that Select the
Focus on best team,
addressed 63 sites with a total
annual operating cost of $5.9 million.
strength areas without
Impacts at these sites ranged in size, restrictions
complexity and contaminants and
employed a range of in situ remedial
solutions, including air sparge, soil vapor
extraction, bioventing, multiphase Greater
extraction, groundwater extraction, control over Continuity of
enhanced biodegradation, chemical project
team experience
oxidation and natural attenuation.
members
Each site went through a structured,
streamlined and consistent review
Figure 3. Partnering for success to efficiently
process, which included the development
and cost effectively achieve your goals.
of performance assessment dashboards
and the evaluation of remedial efficiencies The optimized remedy utilized existing
against key metrics in the context of infrastructure and a flexible pumping
individual site objectives. The outcome approach, targeting hotspots and
for each site was a determination of mitigating plume migration. The key
remedial efficiency and suggestions to our success was the development
for improving efficiency and reaching of a remedy management framework
goals with a lower risk of overruns. Value for the site based on risk and guided
engineering resulted in short-term cost by standard statistical procedures well
savings on the order of $10 million for documented in regulatory guidance.
the 63 sites, with long-term life-cycle Using this framework, Arcadis developed
costs savings expected to total $20 a series of decision trees to trigger and
million. The cost-to-complete assessment guide remedy optimization, all of which
averaged 30-35% of the annual were reproducible, defensible and agreed
spending for each site and was easily upon by stakeholders. The remedy
outgained by the short-term savings. management framework identified
areas of the plume that required
AN OPPORTUNITY TO INNOVATE immediate attention and prioritized
treatment in those areas over portions
Arcadis used value engineering to
of the plume that were lower risk or
optimize an existing groundwater
had favorable concentration trends.
treatment system at a National Priorities
Our efforts focused on areas of the
List site where six groundwater plumes
plume where remedial spending gave
containing explosive materials covered
the highest return on investment and
more than 5,000 acres and extended
on modifying our approach to these
up to two miles from the source.
areas through time as the remedy
54
progressed. This focused, flexible management, while we used existing
pumping approach with continuous data to negotiate and select the
optimization is expected to save up remediation strategy to design, install
to $35 million over the lifespan of the and operate remedial systems for a
project, eliminating $15 million in capital mixed-contaminant plume. Together,
expenditure for proposed additional we met remedial targets in less than
treatment infrastructure and reducing a year of operation that allowed the
the timeframes over which active sale to move ahead, while maintaining
pumping is expected by almost 20 years. and exceeding health and safety and
quality standards for the project.
PARTNERING FOR SUCCESS
As the remediation market continues to ADAPTATION IS KEY
develop, we are noticing an increasing Much of the remediation industry is
expectation and need to work within focused on developing solutions for large
partnerships with multiple consultants, plumes, complex hydraulic conditions, and
with each lending expertise to provide new and emerging contaminants. While
the best value possible. This is a shift from these are important issues, these types
traditional thinking, where consulting of sites represent a small portion of all
firms tended to form partnerships environmental challenges. It is critical that
with non-competing entities, such as we remain focused on ways we can adapt
universities or research organizations. proven and innovative solutions to suit
However, our objective remains the all sites, regardless of size or complexity,
same: to efficiently and cost effectively to provide flexible remedial solutions
achieve your goals (Figure 3). that match your sites budget, scale and
risk profile and meet your objectives.
COLLABORATION BRINGS
STRENGTH AND SUCCESS
When one of our competitors realized
they needed additional technical
expertise at a high-profile site in Boston,
they reached out to Arcadis. The goal
was to achieve a remedy in place and
We succeed by efficiently
site-specific clean-up objectives within
a specified amount of time to facilitate
adapting traditional and
a complex $100 million property sale.
cutting-edge approaches
Our partnership maximized the strengths
of both consultants without disrupting to solve any problem.
existing, positive working relationships.
Our competitor was responsible for
investigation, field work and project
55
About the authors
Author
FRED PAYNE, PhD
Fred Payne, PhD, is a Senior Vice President and Chief
Scientist for Arcadis North America. He has nearly 40 years
of environmental industry experience, encompassing a
broad range of natural resource, wastewater, stormwater and
hazardous waste management. He is a leader in the design
and development of in situ reactive zone technologies
for aquifer restoration and is the inventor of six patented
technologies used in the treatment of contaminated
soils and groundwater. Payne is a global leader in the
ongoing reformulation of remediation hydrogeology,
resulting in more effective site characterization, more
cost-effective remediation and more sensible regulation.
Co-Author
ELIZABETH COHEN, PhD
Elizabeth Cohen, PhD, has 14 years of experience in
geochemistry, site investigation, in situ remedial design and
statistical assessment. Her work promotes efficiencies that
optimize long-term and performance monitoring programs.
In 2014, Cohen was named one of Engineering News-
Records (ENR) Top 20 Environmental Engineers under 40
for contributions to technical staff development and training.
56
CLICK HERE
AUTHOR
to play audio
Keith White
Winning with Karst:

Effectively Managing These
Most-Challenging Sites
In terms of groundwater (and Despite the significant challenges
contaminant) movement and presented above, contaminant
remediation, karst aquifers are in a league problems in karst aquifers are tractable
of their own. Groundwater flow in these that is, contaminated karst sites The unique
systems does not follow Darcys Law, the can be properly understood and architecture
of karst
fundamental equation that describes managed. That is welcome news. In aquifers
the relatively slow movement of fluid our experience, this can be done only presents
through porous media. Furthermore, if the project team possesses bona significant
challenges.
data from monitoring wells alone cannot fide karst expertise, and such expertise
definitively characterize groundwater in the environmental community is
flow directions and rates; nor can they rare. Put simply, your karst site cant
adequately delineate the extent of be properly addressed if your team
groundwater contamination. In addition, doesnt understand how karst works.
at the typical site scale, groundwater
flow directions and rates cannot be
reasonably predicted using computer
models. Worse yet, computer models
that can simulate contaminant transport
in karst aquifers do not even exist.
You may be thinking, I am glad that none

of my sites are karst sites, but beware:
karst is not rare. In fact, the United
States Geological Survey estimates
that potential karst-forming bedrock
is beneath 20% of the United States.
This means that, on average, one in
five contaminated sites in the U.S. may
be underlain by karst-forming rocks! A stream disappears into a cave in Pulaski County, Kentucky.
Winning with Karst: Effectively Managing These Most-Challenging Sites
57
HOW KARST WORKS aquifer, and their distribution is not
predictable. Furthermore, unless
The most important factor for
they are large enough to be entered, One in five
understanding the movement of fluids they cannot be explicitly mapped. contaminated
and contaminants through a karst aquifer sites in the
Lack of a detailed map of the U.S. may be
is the unique permeability structure of
subterranean drainage network means underlain by
these aquifers. Karst aquifers begin as that monitoring wells are installed in a karst-forming
fractured rock aquifers, where much rocks.
hit-or-miss fashion, and the odds of a
of the fluid flow occurs through the well tapping into the drainage network
secondary porosity the fracture are poor. The implications of this
network of the rock. Inevitably, certain challenge are illustrated on Figure 1.
pathways are less resistive to flow than A fraction of the solution porosity is
others and are preferentially widened by often not well integrated into the active
dissolution over time and distance. Wider drainage network and may be clogged
pathways can accommodate more flow. with sediment washed into the bedrock
The end result of the dissolution process from above. This low-permeability
is an integrated network of solution- porosity can provide ample, long-term
widened pathways (tertiary porosity) that storage capacity for contaminants.
is organized much like surface streams At many karst sites, the solution
where small tributaries join together porosity facilitates rapid infiltration
to form larger and larger drains. These of stormwater, which can greatly
conduit networks drain the vast majority alter groundwater and contaminant
of the groundwater moving though the transport conditions for periods ranging
aquifer, with each network ultimately from hours to weeks. In fact, in some
aquifers, large quantities of sediment
discharging to one, or several, springs.
are flushed through the bedrock in
The unique architecture of karst aquifers response to storms a transport
presents significant challenges: phenomenon that is unique to karst.
Conduit networks occupy only a tiny

fraction of the volume of the bedrock
Figure 1. Challenges of characterizing karst groundwater movement with wells.

A) In most settings, groundwater is inferred to move toward and discharge to surface
streams. B) One or more monitoring wells are typically installed at locations inferred
to be upgradient and downgradient of the contaminant source area. C) These
inferences arent valid in karst, where a conduit network greatly complicates the
flow field. In this example, none of the monitoring wells would have actually been
monitoring the groundwater intended. Impacted groundwater is shown in purple.
58
CHARACTERIZING SUCCESSFULLY MANAGING
KARST AQUIFERS KARST AQUIFERS
The movement of groundwater Because remediation costs greatly
and contaminants through karst outweigh characterization costs,
aquifers is complex. In addition, some stakeholders must carefully weigh
of our best tools for characterizing remedial objectives, strategies and
contaminated groundwater (for example, technical approaches before proceeding.
monitoring wells and potentiometric Compared to other geologic settings,
maps) are less powerful in karst. the science of remediating karst aquifers
Given these realities, a successful is immature. It appears that, as an
characterization approach entails: industry, we have understandably saved
1. Forming a project team that includes the most-challenging sites for last.
individuals with karst expertise.
2. Developing a robust, karst-specific
conceptual site model to guide data
collection. Salient attributes of karst
flow systems vary considerably across
the globe. One size does not fit all!
3. Focusing efforts on sufficiently
identifying risks posed to human
health and the environment.
4. Working closely with stakeholders
early on to inform them about
the unique challenges that karst
brings. Karst-savvy stakeholders
understand why certain
characterization approaches
need to be modified for karst.
Remediating a creek bed in karst terrane.
5. Limiting the number of monitoring
wells. Dye-tracing studies should
be conducted to identify wells in Of course, this doesnt mean that you
communication with important karst should simply throw in the towel. So The best way
features, confirm the springs where how do you deal with a site where the to hedge
site groundwater discharges and technology to remediate it to prescribed against
measure groundwater flow velocities. regulatory endpoints is unproven or may uncertainty
and maximize
6. Focusing attention on those wells not even exist? These are considerable ROI is to
and springs traced to the site. It is challenges; however, we at Arcadis are engage
important to collect samples during not only convinced, but have proven, the right
base flow and storm flow conditions expertise.
that contaminated karst aquifers can
to obtain a thorough understanding be properly managed, and remedial
of contaminant transport. objectives that protect human health
and the environment can be achieved.
The operative term here is managed.
59
There are situations where, despite the WOOD-TREATING FACILITY,
immature nature of karst remediation, VALLEY AND RIDGE
active remediation is warranted and PROVINCE, VIRGINIA, USA
becomes an integral element in a site
This site is situated on the floor of a large
closure strategy. There are also situations
river valley. Operations conducted over
where remediation is not practicable,
decades resulted in inadvertent releases
but where risks posed by the site can
of creosote, a dense nonaqueous-phase Our karst-
be properly managed, allowing for no based
liquid (DNAPL), to the subsurface. The
active remediation or even closure. remedial
geology generally consists of 15 feet of and closure
The three keys to successfully managing alluvial sediments overlying a mature strategies
karst aquifer. While conducting a RCRA have resulted
a contaminated karst site are: in favorable
Facility Investigation, the Arcadis team outcomes for
1. Focusing remedial strategies
identified creosote in the bedrock to a our clients.
on reducing the risks to
acceptable levels. depth of nearly 100 feet. Groundwater
quality at some locations was found to be
2. Building on the relationship
impacted with compounds dissolved from
developed with stakeholders,
explaining why certain remedial the creosote. A tracer study found that
approaches are inappropriate groundwater flow rates were either very
and working together to develop low or that site groundwater was greatly
and support realistic and diluted as it moved toward the river that
achievable remedial objectives. drains the valley. In addition, tracer dye
3. Conducting relevant performance introduced at the site was not detected
and, if needed, long-term at a municipal wellfield located several
monitoring. When the quality miles down-valley. These findings helped
of bedrock groundwater has round out the site characterization,
been impacted, it is critical to but we suspected that tracing could
understand what effect the remedial also play a role in the final remedy.
action is having on groundwater
quality. Even if it is determined A number of remedial actions were
that remediation of bedrock performed, consisting mainly of targeted
groundwater is impracticable, long- removal and capping activities. Working
term monitoring of groundwater closely with stakeholders, we reached
quality is often required. agreement that it was impracticable to
Here are two examples where Arcadis remediate the creosote in the bedrock.
developed karst-based remedial or A risk assessment demonstrated that
closure strategies that resulted in the bedrock groundwater posed no
favorable outcomes for our clients. unacceptable exposure risk to humans
or the environment. However, a valid
concern arose regarding the nature
and scope of long-term groundwater
monitoring specifically, we understood
that the existing monitoring-well network
alone might not reliably detect changes
60
in groundwater movement patterns over MANUFACTURING FACILITY,
time. Regulatory stakeholders required PENNYROYAL SINKHOLE
more assurance. Arcadis explained PLAIN, KENTUCKY, USA
that installing additional monitoring
At this manufacturing facility, a
wells was not the answer in this
polychlorinated biphenyl- (PCB)
complicated karst aquifer, installing
based hydraulic fluid (a DNAPL)
several hundred thousand dollars worth
was inadvertently released to the
of new monitoring wells was not going
environment. The nature and extent
to appreciably decrease the monitoring
of contamination in bedrock was
uncertainty. Rather, Arcadis proposed a
characterized using a combination of
novel, yet more appropriate, approach
monitoring wells and dye tracing. The
to monitoring groundwater for changes
karst aquifer was found to be shallow
in established flow patterns: dye tracing.
and relatively thin. The tracing work
The logic was simple: groundwater flow
identified three adjacent springs located
patterns at the site were characterized
a few thousand feet from the site that
using a combination of wells and
were discharging to an urban stream
tracing, so why couldnt the same be
that was running on bedrock. Sediments
used for long-term monitoring? The
and biota in the stream were impacted
benefits of adding periodic tracing to
by PCBs. In addition, the characterization
help confirm flow patterns (in this case,
confirmed that DNAPL was present in
once every five years) were multiple:
the bedrock and had migrated offsite.
more certainty, a reduction in the size
of the monitoring well network and
no new (and costly) bedrock wells to
maintain (and ultimately decommission).
Furthermore, dye tracing is a simple
concept that is easily understood and
accepted by the public. To Arcadis,
integrating periodic tracing into a RCRA
Corrective Action Plan for a site situated
in karst terrane is commonsense; to the
environmental industry, we believe it is
a first. And the estimated cost of each
trace? Less than the cost of installing
one new bedrock monitoring well!
When streamflow was bypassed for sediment

remediation, DNAPL was discovered seeping from
the karst bedrock into the stream channel.
61
Arcadis worked closely with the Kentucky It was agreed that the groundwater
Department of Environmental Protection dataset would be supplemented with
(KDEP) to develop and implement a surface-water samples to gauge remedial
Corrective Action Plan. Groundwater- effectiveness. Perhaps the best gauge of
related elements of that plan consisted of: effectiveness, however, was continuing
1. Collecting impacted groundwater the program of fish monitoring that had
and DNAPL from the downgradient been an ongoing element of the site
edge of the site, mitigating characterization. It was recognized that,
offsite movement. This was in this karst setting, where uncertainties
accomplished through a specially were somewhat greater that at non-
designed collection trench. karst sites, PCB concentrations in
2. Reducing DNAPL saturations and fish that spent their entire lives in the
the potential for mobility offsite. This stream that received groundwater from
was accomplished in two ways: the karst aquifer would be the best
a. Removing DNAPL accumulating measure of remedial effectiveness.
in the three offsite wells
where it was encountered, Construction of the groundwater remedy
while in turn recognizing that was completed in late 2005, and the
identifying every location in results are convincing. Since remedy
the complicated karstic aquifer completion, PCB concentrations in
where DNAPL might be present surface water have declined dramatically.
was technically impracticable.
b. Constructing and operating
DNAPL/groundwater collection
systems beneath two sections of
the urban stream where DNAPL
was found to be discharging to
Total PCBs (mg/kg)
the stream from the bedrock.

3. Mitigating PCB loading to the
stream. This was accomplished
by capturing and treating flow
from the three springs shown by
tracing to be draining the site.
Arcadis also worked with KDEP to
establish a long-term groundwater and
surface-water monitoring program to Figure 2. Total PCB concentrations in Green
assess the effectiveness of the remedy. Sunfish. Data are for whole-body samples.
During that process, the inherent
challenges posed by monitoring wells Perhaps more importantly, the
were mutually recognized. As such, the concentration of PCBs in fish has followed
number of monitoring wells comprising suit (see Figure 2). Given these results,
the long-term program was reduced from the frequency of fish monitoring was
54 to 17, and the sampling frequency reduced in 2013 from annual to biennial.
was reduced from quarterly to annually.
62
With the groundwater and surface-
water programs now in long-term
operation, maintenance and monitoring,
this project is an excellent example of
how an incredibly complex DNAPL-
in-karst site, where groundwater
clean-up to maximum contaminant
levels is truly technically impracticable,
can be properly managed through
employment of karst-specific
knowledge and strategy formulation.
In closing, it is clear that karst aquifers

cant be understood and addressed by
following the standard playbook that
the environmental industry has honed
over the past half century. Worse yet, we
have seen well-intentioned practitioners
lead sites through the environmental
system without recognizing that
karst is at play. This fatal flaw greatly
increases the chances that risks posed
by contamination wont be properly
understood. No one wants to make
important and costly decisions based
Karst-specific
on incomplete or faulty information
the potential impacts to human health knowledge
and the environment are just too high.
and strategy
formulation is the
Like any other complicated challenge, the
best way to hedge against uncertainty
and maximize return on investment is
to engage the right expertise. A karst
expert can help you sift through the
key to success.
chaff, understand what kind of flow
system you are dealing with and develop
a coherent strategy that supports the
sound decision making needed to achieve
realistic and reasonable outcomes.
Contaminated sites in karst terrane have
a reputation for leading to protracted
studies and less-than-desirable remedial
outcomes. We are pleased to say that
this does not have to be the case.
63
About the author
Author
KEITH WHITE, PG
Keith White, PG, has 28 years of experience as a
hydrogeologist. He leads the Arcadis North America
karst practice and is responsible for seeing that karst sites
are properly identified, characterized and remediated.
He has developed and delivered short courses on karst
contaminant hydrogeology for the National Ground
Water Association and the Alabama Department of
Environmental Management. He presented on this topic
at Alabamas 12th Annual Groundwater Conference. White
is an active member of the Association of Engineering
Geologists Groundwater/Karst Technical Working Group
and the Geological Society of Americas Karst Division.
64
CLICK HERE
AUTHOR
to play audio
Matthew Schnobrich
Innovation as a Mindset:
Achieving Remediation
Endpoints in a Back
Diffusion World
Decades of site remediation have been reliable methods to leverage natural
highly successful in characterizing, microbial ecology for some of our most-
remediating and bringing thousands effective treatment regimens. We have
of contaminated sites to closure. tools to directly target and destroy We now have
Upon close inspection, however, it is recalcitrant nonaqueous-phase liquids the means to
apparent that a large portion of closed (NAPLs) without excavation. We apply better achieve
aggressive
or delisted sites were those with limited new characterization techniques with cleanup
contaminant mass, naturally degradable traditional hydrogeologic principles to set in situ.
contaminants and simple hydrogeologic realistic expectations and guide adaptive
conditions. As a result, were currently designs. We now move through the right
left with some of the most complex remedies with the right benchmarks
sites, as well as new challenges that and cost focus, and with a high degree
have sprung up along the way. of success. Above all, we know that
detailed questions need both detailed
BUT THERES HOPE. answers and the correct interpretation.
Hard-earned technical knowledge More than 30 years ago, our industry
acquired through our successes, trials began to seriously address the challenge
and failures has driven innovation that of chlorinated solvent source zones
arms responsible parties, remediation and their associated plumes. It was an
practitioners and regulators with the emerging contaminant at the time,
tools to finally look with clear eyes and it took more than 10 years for
on the challenges that remain. We us to identify that enhanced solvent
understand that more than 90% of bioremediation strategies were
contamination moves through less feasible, and another decade for these
than 10% of our aquifers. We have remedies to become conventional.
Innovation as a Mindset: Achieving Remediation Endpoints in a Back Diffusion World
65
Concurrently, investigation techniques
evolved to provide increased resolution 1.0
Groundwater Concentration Decline

to understand solvent source zone
architecture, and these have fostered a
renaissance in hydrogeology to enable
far greater insights into contaminant
flux profiles and means to better achieve
A
aggressive clean-up in situ. These
insights have allowed us to open the 0.5
black box and leave us well positioned B
to address even more recalcitrant
contaminants, like 1,4-dioxane and C
poly-/perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS),
that have sprung up along the way.
All of the above have yielded two key 0

concepts that serve as the backbone 0 0.5 1.0
of next-generation remedies: Source Mass Reduction
1. Partial reductions in contaminant
Figure 1. Sample relationships between source mass
source mass can drive significant reduction (i.e., NAPL) and observed groundwater
reductions in groundwater concentration or mass flux reduction. A) Demonstrates
concentrations (Figure 1). that minor reduction in source mass can achieve significant
groundwater concentration declines. B) Demonstrates
2. Large portions of our aquifers
proportional source mass removal and concentration
are relatively clean, and these decline. C) Demonstrates cases where source removal
zones provide significant should be completed to reduce groundwater concentrations.
natural assimilation capacity (Adapted from Falta et al. 2005 and Brusseau 2008)
to deal with the challenges of low drinking water standards in order
back diffusion (Figure 2). to return potable supply aquifers and
The above concepts have fed a dichotomy surface-water bodies to beneficial re-
in site remediation, with levels of use. The awareness that only minor
We now
treatment aggressiveness determined portions of an aquifer contribute to move through
by the value of the contaminated contaminant transport allows us to: the right
remedies
resource. Contamination in non-potable Develop better monitoring strategies with the right
aquifers and without exposure risk can focused on the mass that moves. benchmarks
be effectively pointed toward alternative Deploy highly focused remediation and cost
focus, and a
clean-up standards and acceptable strategies at increased high degree
natural attenuation programs. In certainty and lower cost. of success.
these cases, flux-based remediation Implement dynamic remedies
and orders-of-magnitude reduction tailored to maximize mass
are reasonable strategies and enable recovery or destruction at all
effective long-term liability management. phases of the remedy life-cycle.
Comparatively, where required, these Effectively leverage the assimilative
principles also enable us to achieve capacity of the aquifer to support
treatment and manage long-term risk.
66
Where drinking water clean-up goals 30
are required, we cannot be discouraged 25

SAND
by overly simplistic back diffusion 300 Days
GROUNDWATER FLOW 1 FT/DAY
Elevation above clay interface (cm)

2,000 Days
calculations that suggests restoration

20 5,000 Days
is impossible. True, the challenge is 15
CLAY DIFFUSION
great particularly in fractured rock 10
settings but we have successfully 5
restored contaminated plumes that 0
are miles in length for drinking water

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
TCE (ug/L)
100 50 0
use (Figure 3). As witnessed recently in DISTANCE
California, where drought conditions and Figure 2. The gold standard for demonstrating natural
demand from residential, commercial aquifer assimilation capacity. In this example, a residual
and agricultural users have placed a 50,000-microgram-per-kilogram trichloroethene (TCE)
source is left embedded in low-permeability clays. Following
premium on clean water supplies, the active treatment of the overlying high-permeability sands,
demand for our natural resources will the resulting TCE profiles observed over time are projected
always maintain a high bar for site for the clay-sand interface. Within six years, the average
TCE concentrations at the monitoring well have declined
remediation and this trend will only significantly, with concentrations of approximately 10
increase as our ever-growing population micrograms per liter in spite of residual elevated source mass.
continues to need accessible, inexpensive applicable to fixed-price remediation,
water. We must be committed to but is a philosophy that permeates
overcoming the remaining challenges. Arcadis and drives us to make remedy
decisions with our clients best interests
INNOVATION AS A MINDSET in mind. It fosters creative remedy
In an industry where risk and cost serve as development and drives innovative
yin and yang, we strike a constant balance solutions for each individual site.
between restoration and the protection
A retrospective review of past clean-
of receptors with minimizing costs. This
up performance often indicates
has never been more important than
that remedies fail due to inadequate
today, where market forces and financial
characterization and poor conceptual
pressures require innovative solutions
site models (CSM), which result in
that will be successful within defined
treatment approaches and designs
fiscal limits. Arcadis has always led the
that are inadequate, fall behind the
industry in this regard, having invented
expected pace of performance, or
the guaranteed remediation concept
require long-term operation and
and performance-based remediation.
maintenance.It is the ongoing operation
Now widely adopted by many federal
of these remedies that has resulted in
and private remediation programs, these
the pervasive industry pessimism that
contracting vehicles place our own
more-stringent maximum contaminant
skin in the game, allow us to double
levels (MCLs) cannot be achieved.
down on our technical knowledge and
ability to deliver and carry restoration As part of any cleanup, we need to learn
programs through the clean-up process from both our successes and failures
to closure. This concept is not just and be willing to constantly modify and
67
Click here to
learn more
about the
Former Reese
Air Force
Base clean-
up project
Figure 3. The closure of the 3-mile Reese AFB TCE plume, with groundwater returned to potable
use following eight years of in situ bioremediation and dynamic groundwater recirculation.
update our CSMs we simply must be distribution and the primary transport
unburdened by allegiance to historical pathways that contribute to the majority
precedent or previous interpretation of mass flux. This information feeds
and overturn incorrect understandings remedies that address contaminants in
when new data demand it. This is a real high- and low-permeability lithologies
challenge, as sites that have trudged using combinations of innovative and
through decades of characterization conventional technologies.Where clean We strike
a constant
and remediation likely need to be closure is required, this information allows balance
reassessed and re-evaluated through adoption of remedy-train remediation between
the view of new characterization tools programs with specific technologies restoration
and the
and with new vision. While not every site to address both advective and diffuse protection of
is complex, most sites require unique contamination. But solid remedy receptors with
attention. In order to achieve earlier selection and design are not enough. minimizing
costs.
clean-up off-ramps or stringent clean- Achieving clean closure endpoints
up goals, predictive foresight is required requires a steadfast focus throughout
to plan and implement remedy-train the course of remediation to continually
solutions that can respond to the site refine and focus operations (Figure
data and allow best use of remedial 4). This process, dynamic remedial
capital. We need to expect that our implementation, is ideally suited to: 1)
remedies will change over the course of addressing contaminants migrating
operation, driven by actual site data to via advective transport; 2) maximizing
continuously sharpen the approach. diffusion gradients between advective
and diffusive lithologic strata; and 3)
Smart characterization yields smarter eliminating remedial stagnation.
remediation. We identify source mass, its
68
Figure 4. Evolution of a source area and associated 30+ acre groundwater
plume during less than one year, resulting in a total mass reduction of 97%.
ITS A TIME FOR OPTIMISM

Our technical tools will continue to improve, and the
regulatory landscape will continue to evolve. These
developments will have a bearing on how we approach
NAPLs, large plumes and emerging contaminants. The
widespread pessimism surrounding back diffusion isnt Predictive foresight
a reason to give up, because diffusion mechanisms
provided by an aquifers assimilation capacity can is required.
actually aid the process of achieving stringent MCLs. The
most fundamental skill is just knowing the difference:
deploy the right remedy, pay attention and transition
the remedy to the next phase at the right time.
Advancements in characterization and remediation

are supporting the real possibility of large-scale
restoration at a time when clean groundwater is
becoming our most important natural resource.
Achieving this is not accomplished by a new
characterization tool or new remediation technology;
its shepherded by the right people applying
the right information for the best outcome.
69
About the author
Author
MATTHEW SCHNOBRICH
Matthew Schnobrich is the Director of Remediation for
experience in the design, implementation and completion
of a variety of remediation technologies in addition to
the characterization, pilot testing and strategy behind
their development. He continues to develop innovative
approaches and remedial solutions to enhance
existing technologies for future implementation.
70
CLICK HERE
AUTHORS
to play audio
Ian Ross, Jeff Burdick and Erika Houtz
Poly- and Perfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS):

New Tools for
Characterization
and Treatment
The group of chemicals known as PFAS both fluorine-saturated carbons and

(poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances) carbons with hydrogen bonds are Assessing and
remediating
has come under increasing scientific and present. The critical importance of this to PFAS- and
regulatory scrutiny in recent years as understanding the analytical challenge AFFF-
more is understood about their toxicity, and environmental fate of PFAS is impacted
sites present
their environmental persistence and that polyfluorinated compounds are many
their potential to bioaccumulate. PFAS typically not detected by conventional challenges.
are used in a wide range of industrial commercial analytical methods, but
applications and commercial products slowly biotransform in the environment
due to their unique surface tension and to produce extremely persistent
levelling properties. They include stain perfluorinated compounds as dead-
repellents for textiles and carpeting, end daughter products. Tools to assess
grease-proof paper, water- and oil- both polyfluorinated and perfluorinated
resistant coatings, and mist suppressants. compounds are needed to protect
PFAS are also major components human health and the environment.
of the class B (flammable liquid)
firefighting foams known as aqueous Two specific PFAS species have
film forming foam (AFFF) (Figure 1). previously focused concern:
perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS)
PFAS comprise both perfluorinated and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA).
compounds, where all carbons PFOS was added to Annex B of the
are saturated with F atoms, and Stockholm Convention in 2009 as a
polyfluorinated compounds, where persistent organic pollutant because it
Poly- and Perfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS): New Tools for Characterization and Treatment
71
is persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic.
PFOS and PFOA are, to date, the most
commonly found and highest occurring
PFAS in the environment and in tissues of
wildlife species, but there are thousands
of PFAS in total. PFOS and PFOA have
reported human elimination half-lives
of 5.4 and 3.8 years, respectively.
PFOS was a common ingredient of

many 3M AFFF formulations, but there
are also a number of polyfluorinated
compounds found in AFFF formulations
(Figure 1). These polyfluorinated AFFF-
related species have been measured only
semi-quantitatively in academic labs and
cannot be commercially measured.
Polyfluorinated compounds are

often referred to as precursors to
the perfluorinated sulfonic acids
and perfluorinated carboxylic acids,
collectively referred to as perfluoroalkyl
acids (PFAAs). PFAA precursors are so
named because they transform slowly
over time through abiotic and biological
processes to the PFAAs. There is a
natural biological funneling in which
Figure 1. Sample structures of polyfluorinated compounds
PFAA precursor compounds containing found in AFFF formulations. Structures courtesy of
a range of perfluorinated alkyl chain Zwitterionic, Cationic, and Anionic Fluorinated Chemicals
lengths and functional groups aerobically in Aqueous Film Forming Foam Formulations and
Groundwater from U.S. Military Bases by Nonaqueous Large-
biotransform to persistent PFAA products Volume Injection HPLC-MS/MS by Backe et al., 2013.
(Figure 2). PFAAs are known for their
extreme non-reactivity. They have SOLUTIONS FOR PFAS-
never been observed to biotransform, IMPACTED SITES
and they do not react with traditional Assessing and remediating PFAS- and
oxidants like hydroxyl radical. The most AFFF-impacted sites present many
common form of PFAA destruction is challenges. First, there are the typical
incineration at temperatures >900 C. challenges associated with remediating
any site, such as correctly identifying the
72
Aerobic Biotransformation of Precursors
All Polyfluorinated/PFAA
Thousands of PFAA Precoursors Precursor Compounds in
Commerce (Dark Matter)
Hundreds of Common
Intermediate
Transformation Products
Biodegradation of PFAS is
not observed as they
biotransform to produce
PFAAs as dead end Approximately 25
daughter products that PFSAs, PFCAs, PFPAs
exhibit extreme persistence collectively termed PFAAs
Figure 2. Aerobic biotransformation schematic of PFAA precursors.
source zone and the hydrostratigraphy To address the uncommon challenges

that drives plume distribution. Second, of remediating AFFF-impacted sites for Polyfluorinated
measuring PFAS is more challenging PFAS, Arcadis is bringing unique solutions compounds
slowly
than measuring other contaminants, to site characterization and treatment. biotransform
such as 1,4-dioxane and trichlorethene, Arcadis has commercialized methods in the
because commercial methods measure for measuring precursor mass (the environment
to produce
only a small portion of the relevant PFAS total oxidizable precursor [TOP] assay) extremely
species that may be present. A significant and total organic fluorine as surrogate persistent
portion of PFAS mass will be overlooked metrics for quantifying the total PFAS perfluorinated
compounds.
if only the PFAAs are measured, but mass in soil and groundwater. Arcadis
constructing a comprehensive analytical is also the first to develop an in situ
method to measure each individual chemical method,-Smart Combined In
PFAS species is impractical to impossible. Situ Oxidation Reduction (ScisoR), which
Finally, the options for remediation is capable of mineralizing PFOS, PFOA
are extremely limited. Pump and treat and other PFAS. This technology has
with granular activated carbon (GAC) been demonstrated to degrade PFOS and
is the current best practice for treating PFOA in multiple treatability studies using
groundwater, but significant amounts of AFFF-impacted site soil and groundwater.
GAC are needed to treat PFOS or PFOA,
and GAC cannot effectively retain many
short-chain PFAS species. Excavation of
source soils and subsequent landfilling
and incineration are extremely costly.
73
AFFF
Source Zone Hidden Cationic Dark Matter Direction of groundwater flow
Cationic/Zwitterionic less mobile PFAA precursors bound via ion exchange to negatively
O charged fine gran soils (e.g. silts & clays) in anaerobic zone created by hydrocarbons limiting
S precursor biotransformation rates provides in situ secondary source of anionic PFAAs
C8F17
O
N
H
Hydrocarbon LNAPL Short Hydrocarbon Plume Anionic precursor biotransformation increases as aerobic conditions develop
Hidden anionic mobile PFAA precursors Dark Matter
C8 C7 C6 C4 C5 C3? C2?
C8 C7 C6 C4 C5 C3? C2?
Anionic PFAA dead end daughters
Increasing mobility of shorter perfluralkyi chain PFAS
-300mV -200mV REDOX ZONATION -100mV 0mV 100mV 200mV
Figure 3. Diagrammatic conceptual site model for an AFFF-impacted firefighter training area.
CONCEPTUAL SITE precursors will biotransform very slowly

MODEL DEVELOPMENT to simpler, anionic PFAA precursors and
USING ADVANCED PFAS PFAAs under these redox conditions.
CHARACTERIZATION TOOLS Anionic PFAAs and PFAA precursors will
migrate away from the source as they
AFFF formulations are composed of
enter the redox recharge zone where
many PFAS that are PFAA precursors
conditions become increasingly aerobic,
(Figure 1). Unlike the PFAAs, these
thus promoting in situ generation of
species are not strictly anionic because
detectable PFAAs from the hidden
some contain multiple charges
anionic PFAA precursors.
(zwitterionic) and some are positively
PFAAs will not break
charged (cationic). These zwitterionic,
down further, and they
anionic and cationic PFAA precursors are
will continue to migrate
currently undetected by conventional
as a plume, with shorter-
analytical tools and are thus termed
chain PFAAs generally
dark matter. A significant mass of PFAA
migrating farther.
precursors in addition to the PFAAs have
been detected in both AFFF-impacted
soil and groundwater. A conceptual
ADVANCED PFAS
site model describing PFAS fate and
CHARACTERIZATION
transport at a firefighter training area
TOOLS
is hypothesized and presented on To characterize PFAS-
Figure 3, and a description follows. impacted soils, sediments
and groundwater, a Figure 4. Range of PFAAs
Cationic PFAA precursors (and some fundamental concern detected before and after
zwitterions) will be retained in the soils at is how to identify, application of TOP assay in
the source zone via strongly binding ion A) groundwater and B) soil.
quantitatively measure Increases occurred from the
exchange processes. The source zones will and assess the toxicology oxidation of PFAA precursors.
be anaerobic as a result of the presence of of this wide range of
residual hydrocarbons used in firefighter PFAS compounds and the range of
training, so these strongly sorbing cationic recalcitrant PFAAs that they form.
74
The commercially available analytical A
50
method for measuring PFAS is EPA
(organofluorine)
40
Method 537, which measures 14 PFAS,
AOF g/L
30
including PFOS and PFOA, with reporting
20
limits ranging from 0.005 to 0.020 y = 0.7791x + 1.7479
10 R2 = 0.77024
microgram per liter (g/L). However,
this method does not currently report 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
the results for the full range of the
LC-MS/MS Post TOP
more simple PFAAs, or many common
Sum PFAS (organofluorine equivalent)
fluorotelomer intermediates found
at AFFF sites, or the many thousands
of other PFAS that biotransform in B
(organofluorine equivalent)
50
the environment to produce PFAAs.
40
To fully understand the potential
extent of PFAS contamination in the 30
environment, additional laboratory PIGE g/L 20

y = 0.2661x + 10.163
techniques are being developed, including 10
R2 = 0.57152
expanding the range of analytes for 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
EPA Method 537 (and similar LC-MS/
MS methods) to include more PFAS LC-MS/MS Post TOP
Sum PFAS (organofluorine equivalent)
compounds. Other, more advanced
techniques and alternative approaches
are now being developed and used C
commercially for the first time 40
(organofluorine equivalent)
30
Arcadis is assessing a number of more
PIGE g/L
comprehensive analytical techniques 20

to assess PFAS concentrations on 10
y = 0.3031x + 10.535
R2 = 0.74955
several sites impacted with AFFF:
0
Total Oxidizable Precursor (TOP) 0 10 20 30 40
Assay AOF g/L
To measure the total mass of (organofluorine)
precursors to the PFAAs, the TOP
assay was commercialized for analysis
of soil and groundwater. Samples are Figure 5. Correlations of organofluorine equivalent
oxidized with hydroxyl radical using concentrations measured in AFFF-impacted
thermal activation of persulfate under groundwater between LC-MS/MS-Post TOP and AOF,
PIGE and LC-MS/MSPost-TOP, and PIGE and AOF.
highly basic conditions. Precursors
are converted to a mixture of PFAAs
after treatment with TOP assay.
Prepared samples are measured by
LC-MS/MS before and after oxidation.
The amount of PFAAs produced
is roughly equivalent to the total
75
PFOS Destruction Fluoride Released from
During ScisoR PFOS During ScisoR
120% 120%
100% 100%
80% 80%
60% 60%
Arcadis is
assessing
40% 40%
a number
of more
comprehensive
20% 20% analytical
techniques to
assess PFAS
0% 0% concentrations
Average % PFOS Average % Fluoride at sites
Released from PFOS
Remaining
Post ScisoR
impacted
Post ScisoR with AFFF.
Figure 6. PFOS loss (left) and corresponding fluoride generation (right)

after ScisoR treatment of PFOS in triplicate aqueous reactors.
concentration of PFAA precursors in the organic constituents are sorbed to an

sample. Detection limits are in the low activated carbon matrix, the matrix
nanogram-per-liter range. In composite is combusted, and resultant fluoride
groundwater and soil samples from an is measured via ion chromatography.
AFFF-impacted source zone, 75% and Detection limits are around 1 g/L.
240% more PFAS were revealed upon
application of TOP assay (Figure 4A-B). These new analytical techniques allow
assessment of the hidden PFAS mass
Particle Induced Gamma Emission
(dark matter). Best agreement in AFFF-
Spectroscopy (PIGE)
This method is performed to measure impacted groundwater occurs between
total organic fluorine in groundwater LC-MS/MS post-TOP assay and AOF (Figure
samples. Groundwater samples are 5A), while rough agreement also occurs
extracted using a weak anionic exchange between PIGE and LC-MS/MS post-TOP
solid-phase extraction cartridge prior assay (Figure 5B) and PIGE and AOF
to analysis. Detection limits of total (Figure 5C). LC-MS/MS post-TOP appears
fluorine are in the low g/L range. to detect more PFAS than AOF, possibly
Adsorbable Organic Fluorine (AOF) because it can better capture short-chain
This method is also performed to PFAS. All three methods detect more PFAS
measure the total organic fluorine as organofluorine than EPA Method 537.
in groundwater. PFAS and other
76
ScisoR REMEDIATION
The Arcadis-developed ScisoR technology
has been demonstrated to degrade
PFOS and PFOA in multiple treatability
studies using AFFF-impacted site soil and
groundwater. Recent characterization
of impacted matrices using advanced
analytical tools such as the TOP assay and
PIGE has revealed significant decreases
in sum PFAS, including PFAA precursors.
Continued research has focused on

proving that the ScisoR technology is
mineralizing PFOS by quantitatively
measuring fluoride evolved during
destruction of 10-milligram-per-
liter PFOS in aqueous solutions
while demonstrating that PFOS was
simultaneously removed from solution.
The fluoride mass balance results from
triplicate analyses (Figure 6) show
that PFOS was mineralized during
the trials as fluoride concentrations
These new analytical

corresponding to those present in
mineralized PFOS were evolved into
solution. These trials demonstrate
that perfluorinated sulfonates such as
PFOS can be effectively mineralized
techniques allow
using the ScisoR technology.
assessment of the
Arcadis is now preparing for a field
demonstration of ScisoR at an hidden PFAS mass.
AFFF-impacted site. Comprehensive
characterization of PFAS content
and groundwater and soil conditions
will be conducted throughout
the trial to demonstrate ScisoRs
efficacy in situ along a plume.
77
About the authors
Author
IAN ROSS, PhD
Ian Ross, PhD, is a biochemist and remediation technical
expert with 23 years of experience. In 2011, he won a
Brownfield Briefing award in the UK for designing and
implementing the worlds first in situ remediation of carbon
disulfide using activated persulfate. In 2012, he won another
Brownfield Briefing award for designing a combined soil
washing and chemical oxidation project for a contaminated
landfill. Ross recent focus has been on developing in
situ remedial solutions for poly- and perfluorinated alkyl
substances (PFAS). He was involved in the development of
the CONCAWE PFAS guidance document published in 2015.
Co-Author
JEFF BURDICK
Jeff Burdick has 24 years of experience as a hydrogeologist
for Arcadis and currently serves as the lead for the
Arcadis North America Chemical/Pharmaceutical and
PFAS teams. He spent six years as a technical director
for Arcadis in Europe and 10 years as a technical lead
for PFAS-related investigations, risk assessments and
restoration. This included research and development
on PFAS chemistry and destruction technologies that
are being used for both federal and industrial clients.
Co-Author
ERIKA HOUTZ, PhD
Erika Houtz, PhD, has seven years of experience
analyzing poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)
and characterizing their fate in the environment.
Houtz developed the total oxidizable precursor
(TOP) assay to measure PFAS compounds.
78
CLICK HERE
AUTHORS
to play video
Craig Divine, John Horst and Suthan Suthersan
Our Perspective:
The Future of Site
Investigation and
Remediation
The remediation industry, now more

than three decades old, continues to
evolve. This is driven by many factors:
technological developments, a need
to address emerging contaminants,
regulatory changes and sustainability
considerations. These factors
No sheens
have created both challenges and
along OBB
opportunities at different stages
of the industrys evolution.
Todays problems are getting larger Seeps and sheens

and more complicated, and addressing adjacent to OBB
these challenges will require significant
advances in investigation and remediation
technologies. Furthermore, economic
pressures will push practitioners to
do more with less and to prioritize the
generation of value from impaired
assets. In this article, we highlight what Figure 1. Pilot testing of an oleophillic biobarrier,
we see as some of the most significant a technical innovation for sheen management that
Arcadis is developing in partnership with others.
trends and innovations that will drive
the evolution of remediation.
Our Perspective: The Future of Site Investigation and Remediation
79
RISK WILL DRIVE LNAPL Underground Storage Tank
Oxygen Transport
Observed NSZD
MANAGEMENT AND Oxygen Transport Contribution
REMEDIATION GOALS Biodegradation

90 to 99%
Methane Offgasing Volatilization
Driven by the growing recognition that
Mobile or Residual LNAPL
most light nonaqueous-phase liquid Electron Electron Dissolved
(LNAPL) plumes are stable and pose little
Dissolution and Biodegradation
Acceptor Acceptor Plume 1 to 10%
Flux Depletion
or no risk, it is increasingly recognized Groundwater Flow
that the rate of contaminant treatment
Adapted from ITRC 2009
Figure 2. Conceptual model of LNAPL depletion mechanisms

by natural processes often greatly
that depict natural source zone depletion (NSZD). The
exceeds the performance of active NSZD depletion rates in both the saturated and vadose
LNAPL removal approaches. Arcadis zones are quantified as part of a comprehensive NSZD
has been very active in the Interstate assessment. At sites where the authors have completed
NSZD evaluations, the contribution of vadose zone
Technology Regulatory Council, which depletion was greater than 90% of the total NSZD rate.
has led the development of the technical
basis, evaluation methods and training
EMERGING CONTAMINANTS
of LNAPL mobility to the remediation WILL DRAMATICALLY CHANGE
community. We are developing several OUR FOCUS AND ENERGIES
technical innovations that support this The definition and terminology associated
trend in LNAPL management, including: with emerging contaminants has
LNAPL tracer testing to directly evolved rapidly in the past few years. The
current term contaminant of emerging Addressing
measure LNAPL flux.
concern (CEC) is being applied to todays
Use of down-hole nuclear magnetic challenges
resonance (NMR) geophysical tools compounds where the risk to human will require
to measure LNAPL saturation in situ. health and the environment is not entirely significant
understood, and is thus emerging. advances in
Thermal in situ sustainable investigation
remediation to enhance natural As such, this term may represent new and
attenuation of NAPL. compounds that were not previously remediation
known and are found to be present in technologies.
Oleophillic biobarriers to more
effectively control LNAPL sheens on the environment, compounds that were
surface-water bodies (Figure 1). known to exist but whose environmental
occurrence was not fully understood,
In the near future, the characterization of and old contaminants for which there
mobility and recoverability will be widely is new information on environmental
used to establish LNAPL remediation and human health risks. Regardless of
objectives that are site specific and how they are identified, the realization
risk based. Furthermore, remediation that CECs represent an ever-growing list
strategies will rely heavily on natural of compounds, some with widespread
source zone depletion (Figure 2). presence and limited options for
treatment, has driven a significant
amount of industry focus and investment
80
to find cost-effective solutions. This has
also been fueled in part by individual
states developing drinking water and
other health-based standards that vary
widely, are very low and change over
Groundwater Flow
time, as opposed to the EPA establishing
a federal maximum contaminant level.
This results in a patchwork of standards
that are both difficult to understand
and a challenge for compliance. Notable
historical examples of CECs include
perchlorate, methyl tertiary butyl
ether, polybrominated diphenyl ether
flame retardants and pesticides. More
recent additions include 1,4-dioxane, A B
1,2,3-trichloropropane, per-/polyfluoro Injection Well Extraction Well
alkylated substances (PFAS) and
dechlorination/disinfection by-products Figure 3. DGR conceptual layouts.
all of which persist in the environment.
developing ways of managing 1,4-dioxane
The challenges associated with and PFAS more cost effectively. Because
emerging contaminants, such as of the large unknown risk, organizations
1,4-dioxane and PFAS, might seem will increasingly rely on structured risk
insurmountable given the low standards management programs that consider
being promulgated, coupled with their the dynamic uncertainties associated
persistence in the environment and with regulatory standards, toxicology To successfully
perceived resistance to treatment. and treatment technologies as the basis restore an
However, we have developed methods for their strategies to address CECs. aquifer, we
believe it is
for real-time Smart characterization to necessary to
understand contaminant flux as part of PUMP-AND-TREAT SYSTEM create dynamic
the conceptual site model so that we DESIGNS WILL EVOLVE TO hydraulic
conditions to
can focus restoration efforts and tailor DYNAMIC GROUNDWATER accelerate the
remedies to match the conditions and RECIRCULATION APPROACHES removal of
risks at the source and in downgradient/ contaminants.
Groundwater extraction (e.g., pump and
distal portions of a plume. Similarly,
treat) is arguably the first groundwater
advances in analytical methods and the
remediation technology and continues
science behind remediation technology
to be in widespread use as a strategy to
support faster development of more
control plume migration and protect
cost-effective options for characterization
critical resources. Conventional pump
and treatment. This includes methods
and treat is a brute-force approach
for evaluating natural attenuation and
that focuses on controlling rather than
optimizing biological degradation, both
remediating a plume. This strategy,
of which should accelerate the pace of
81
while often effective, inherently results and conventional pump and treat is the
in excess groundwater pumping a use of site data to develop an appropriate
shortcoming, stemming from a flawed flushing framework, a dynamic operation
conceptual model of the process, that plan and an approach for continuous
has long been recognized but never adaption based on remedial performance.
thought to be critical. An appropriate After implementation, the goal of DGR
and useful analog for these processes system operation is simple: maximize
is how a breeze moves through a house contaminant mass removal by extracting
with open windows. Interior walls, doors contaminants within the plume core while
and hallways act as baffles and preferred injecting clean water at strategic locations
pathways, with their configuration along the plume periphery to enhance
altering the air flow from room to flushing and direct contaminants toward
room. The direction of the prevailing extraction wells (Figure 3). The key to
wind further influences how air moves success is dynamic system operation:
throughout the house. In an aquifer use performance data to frequently
system, high-permeability zones are the optimize the system by varying pumping/
rooms and hallways of the house, where injection rates and locations in response The key to
success is
groundwater flow will be focused, while to changes in concentration data to dynamic
the low-permeability zones act as baffles maximize mass removal rates while system
deflecting/altering flow. The dynamics maintaining hydraulic control of the operation.
of variable flow directions across the plume. For many old plumes, evolving
seasons eventually spread contaminants to a DGR framework will result in much
across all permeable portions of an more efficient and accelerated cleanup.
aquifer downgradient of the source. This
is further enhanced by concentration BIG DATA WILL RESULT IN
gradients between the high- and low- FASTER UNDERSTANDING AND
permeability materials in real soils that, OPTIMIZED CONTAMINATED
over time, drive diffusion of contaminants SITE PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT
into the less-permeable zones.
Since the invention of the world wide
To successfully restore an aquifer, we web 25 years ago, a lot of data sources
believe it is necessary to create dynamic collected in the past, and currently
hydraulic conditions by adaptively being collected, have been digitized and
changing system operation, essentially become easily accessible. Today, it is easy
mimicking, even exaggerating, the natural to locate, collect and analyze digitized
variability to accelerate the removal data and information that would have
of contaminants. The process is the taken weeks or months in the past. The
basis for the concept we call enhanced expanding access to huge data sets and
groundwater flushing, and the technology emergence of powerful and real-time
to implement this concept is known as technologies represent opportunities
dynamic groundwater recirculation (DGR). for analysis that were never possible in
The primary distinction between DGR the past thus leading to the term big
data. In a digitized world, big data refers
82
Global Level Uses
Site Regulatory Policy
Site Level Uses Data Development
Background Determination Improved Remediation
CSM Developement Industry Solutions
Remedial Design Technology Focus
Adaptive Management of Portfolio Contaminant Focus
Operations Site Data Industry Focus
Data Site
Compliance Reporting Data
Performance Evaluation
Closure Strategy Global
Data
Portfolio Level Uses
Technical Improvements
Site Site Reduction in Irrelevant Data
Data Data Collection
Financial and Regulatory Risk
Management
Site Programmatic Streamlining
Data
Industry/Sector Trend
Identification
Figure 4. Scales of environmental data sets and uses from data analysis.
to the things one can do at a large scale chlorinated solvents from data collected
that cannot be done at a smaller one, from thousands of sites. In the future,
to extract new insights or create new insights gained from data points across
forms of value in ways that can change many sites will be realized much faster
markets, organizations, the relationships and more reliably. Big data also offers
Big data has
between various stakeholders and more. the opportunity to incorporate data been heralded
It has been transformative within many from technical performance, regulatory as the next
industrial sectors and has been heralded frameworks and real estate markets to frontier for
innovation and
as the next frontier for innovation assist with the optimized management of
competitiveness.
and competitiveness. Large volumes contaminated site portfolio management.
of data have accumulated within the For example, Arcadis is currently engaged
remediation industry, primarily driven in a partnership to develop an IBM
by the requirements of regulatory Watson-powered cognitive application
compliance and risk management, to leverage big data to improve
and all stakeholders stand to benefit prioritization of monies and focus to
from their application (Figure 4). For reduce liability uncertainty and maximize
example, in the past, we learned slowly the value of asset restoration efforts.
and gradually about natural attenuation
of petroleum hydrocarbons and
83
2004
2012
Figure 5. Complete cleanup of a 3-mile-long large plume in less than 10 years.
MANY VERY LARGE PLUMES chemically or biologically under

CAN BE CLEANED UP natural aquifer conditions.
3. Large plumes occur when
Large plume is a term that covers
contaminant compounds dont
a wide range of contaminated
interact chemically with the aquifer
aquifer scenarios, but they all share matrix either the aquifer matrix
four common characteristics: has limited sorptive capacity or
1. Large plumes occur in productive the contaminant cant be sorbed
aquifers with high rates of due to its molecular structure.
groundwater flow and the 4. For most contaminants, there must
potential to transport dissolved be a large source mass to generate
contaminants over large distances. a large volume of groundwater
2. Large plumes comprise compounds that exceeds regulatory criteria.
that are not quickly degraded
84
The conventional approach to large INNOVATION WILL
plumes has been groundwater pumping. CONTINUE TO
In the early years of pump and treat, there HAVE A PROFOUND
was an expectation that the process EFFECT ON THE
would lead to site closures. Since the REMEDIATION
mid-1990s, it has been understood that INDUSTRY FOR
conventional pump and treat approaches THE FORESEEABLE
can contain large plumes, but cannot FUTURE
be expected to drive them to closure.
Recall that, within the
Through the reconstituted science of past decade, innovations
remediation hydrogeology (introduced in site characterization
in Arcadis 2008 book, Remediation techniques have greatly
Hydraulics), we learned that, because of transformed our ability Figure 6. Laboratory
to map and target high testing setup for in situ
the wide range of hydraulic conductivities
LNAPL detection using
of the sediments in even the simplest contaminant flux zones, down-hole nuclear magnetic
geologic settings, groundwater flow in resulting in CSMs that are resonance techniques.
aquifers occurs in a very small fraction more accurate and robust,
of the total aquifer volume. At typical and remediation system designs that are
sites, we saw that more than 90% of the more efficient and effective. There have
contaminant flows through less than 10% been significant advances in all general
of the aquifer. By improving our mapping classes of in situ remediation categories.
of contaminant transport zones, we could In some cases, approaches based on
reduce the scope of remedial action to completely new chemistry or targeted for
a small fraction of what is needed for a a new contaminant have been developed
classic remedial method. In many cases, (e.g., the use of soluble phosphate to
Arcadis is
closure of large-plume sites is technically immobilize uranium and other metals); demonstrating
feasible and may be the best business in others, dramatic improvement in lower-cost
the application and performance of techniques
case. In other cases, a refreshed review that quickly
of the conceptual site model (CSM) long-established techniques has been capture plume
and remediation operation can result in achieved (e.g., incorporating a variety of and aquifer
electron donor types and utilizing key characteristics
performance improvements that greatly
for NAPL sites.
reduce the near- and long-term project performance data to optimize enhanced
risks and costs. The environmental reductive dechlorination approaches).
remediation community has been too
Great insights are born when innovation
pessimistic regarding the prospects
is at the core of an organizations vision
for cost-effectively managing large,
and operation. That is why Arcadis
dilute plumes. Insights related to plume
invests in hundreds of new concepts
structure and solute transport processes
each year through our global innovation
at the remediation system scale now
program to bring new ideas to the
provide the opportunity to move from
remediation industry. For more than
merely plume management to successful
25 years, Arcadis has led the way in site
remediation with shorter time frames for
remediation, with concepts such as in
closure of many large plumes (Figure 5).
85
situ anaerobic reactive zone remediation
for metals, chlorinated solvents and
nitrates in groundwater. We are now using
advances in materials and technology
to improve environmental clean-up
decision making through highly accurate
subsurface characterization, enhanced
in situ remediation alternatives and
advanced data analysis platforms. As
part of a current pipeline of more than
40 new innovation concepts, Arcadis is
demonstrating lower-cost techniques
that quickly capture plume and aquifer
characteristics for NAPL sites (Figure
6), improving the safety of direct-push
subsurface investigations, using thermally
enhanced in situ remediation to speed
site closure, and applying horizontal wells
filled with reactive media to passively
treat recalcitrant contaminants in situ.
While there can be higher performance
uncertainty associated with the early
adoption of new technologies, we believe
that organizations that build innovation
into their remediation projects can reliably
Great insights are
count on overall long-term improved
performance and cost avoidance.
born when innovation
is at the core of an
organizations vision
and operation.
86
About the authors
Author
CRAIG DIVINE, PhD, PG
Craig Divine, PhD, PG, leads Arcadis North America Site
Evaluation and Restoration technical services and is the
Environment Business Line representative for Satellite,
Arcadis global innovation development program. He has
20 years of experience in hydrogeology, geochemistry,
subsurface characterization and groundwater remediation.
Co-Author
JOHN HORST, PE
John Horst, PE, is the Executive Director of Technical
Knowledge and Innovation for Arcadis North America.
He is an expert in the development, application and
optimization of new and innovative environmental
restoration technologies. Horst has published
on remediation topics ranging from restoration
geochemistry to specific treatment technologies and
has presented courses on in situ bioremediation.
Co-Author
SUTHAN SUTHERSAN, PhD, PE
Suthan Suthersan, PhD, is Chief Technical Officer and
Executive Vice President at Arcadis. He has more than
35 years of experience in environmental remediation
and has worked on projects in the U.S., Canada, Europe,
Latin America and Asia. Suthersan is the author of
Remediation Engineering, Natural and Enhanced
Remediation Systems and In Situ Remediation Engineering.
He has been awarded 20 patents (and more pending)
for remediation technology applications. His column,
Advances in Remediation Solutions, is regularly
featured in Ground Water Monitoring and Remediation.
87
For more information on how Arcadis
has driven advances in remediation,
email us at askus@arcadis.com.
www.arcadis.com
We are Arcadis. Arcadis
Improving the quality of life. Arcadis North America
@ARCADIS_US

Advances in Remediation-eBook

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Advances in Remediation-eBook

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

2016

At Arcadis, our scientists and engineers

Leading the Way:

Targeting the Sources that Matter Most:

Dynamic Groundwater Recirculation:

Understanding NAPL Seepage:

An Improving Picture for Site Owners:

Focusing on the Mass that Matters:

Tackling the In Situ Treatment of Metals:

Knowledge, Engineering and Partnership:

Winning with Karst:

Leading the Way:

Leading the Way: Transforming Remediation through Arcadis Innovation

DISRUPTING CONVENTIONAL (%pore vol.)

SITE CHARACTERIZATION Fresh Diesel 10% 7.3% 0.73

APPROACHES WITH FASTER, Fresh Diesel

CHEAPER AND BETTER TOOLS Fresh Diesel 5% 2.2% 0.44

logging tools are commonly used in

reservoir flow and storage parameters

Leading the Way: Transforming Remediation through Arcadis Innovation

ScisoR: IN SITU TREATMENT OF 30000

POLY- AND PERFLUORINATED

These compounds have had multiple

heating in order to increase degradation

Enhanced physical recoverability 1400

Reduced costs/carbon footprint

TREATMENT WELLS: NEW,

REMEDIATION CONCEPT 400

The Horizontal Reactive Media

Treatment (HRX) well concept is a new

Arcadis-developed in situ remediation

technology (U.S. Patent No. 8,596,351) Date

that provides sustained passive treatment

Leading the Way: Transforming Remediation through Arcadis Innovation

Aquifer outlet (behind tank)

Figure 5. Left) Conceptual depiction of HRX well installation and performance.

Captured groundwater passively flows The concept has been significantly

Leading the Way: Transforming Remediation through Arcadis Innovation

Leading the Way: Transforming Remediation through Arcadis Innovation

Targeting the Sources that Matter Most:

Plume size based on conventional methods

Actual plume based on Smart characterization approach

Dynamic Groundwater Recirculation:

Groundwater extraction, or pump and

from room to room. The direction of the fundamental weakness

Be continuously assessed from former source areas. The

Understanding NAPL Seepage:

and natural depletion, hydrogeology, WITH LOW WATER

Figure 1. Sheens can be generated when NAPL seepage

Understanding NAPL Seepage: A Robust CSM Leads to Cost-Effective Sheen Mitigation

NAPL SEEPAGE AND

Understanding NAPL Seepage: A Robust CSM Leads to Cost-Effective Sheen Mitigation

Seeps and sheens

Figure 5. Use of OBB to control sheen

Understanding NAPL Seepage: A Robust CSM Leads to Cost-Effective Sheen Mitigation

Understanding NAPL Seepage: A Robust CSM Leads to Cost-Effective Sheen Mitigation

An Improving Picture for Site Owners:

An Improving Picture for Site Owners: Bringing Large-Plume Sites to Closure

adsorbed dissolved-phase absorbed

Figure 1. Arcadis transport and storage conceptual model for contaminants

An Improving Picture for Site Owners: Bringing Large-Plume Sites to Closure

An Improving Picture for Site Owners: Bringing Large-Plume Sites to Closure

An Improving Picture for Site Owners: Bringing Large-Plume Sites to Closure

Focusing on the Mass that Matters: