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Strawberries 1

The strawberry cultivated today has resulted Cultivation square yard. Rake off any surplus because Watering and feeding Water regularly for
from the interbreeding of a number of Some gardeners prefer to grow strawberries bulky organics on the surface encourage the first few weeks after planting and when-
Fragaria species, principally the North Ameri- as an annual crop, planting new runners each slugs, snails and millipedes. Once applied, no ever dry conditions occur during the growing
can F. virginiana as well as the South American year. This method produces high quality fruits more organics should be needed for the life season, but try to keep water away from the
F. chiloensis. This intermingling of genetic but a lower yield than that of larger two- or of the bed. Just before planting, lightly fork in ripening berries because this encourages gray
characteristics has resulted in a fruit of great three-year-old plants. a balanced fertilizer such as 10-10-10 at mold {Botrytis cinerea). The risk is less with
variety in taste and color, with a cropping Soil and situation Most soils are suitable for 3 oz per square yard. trickle or drip irrigation because only the soil
ability and season of such versatility that it strawberries, but they should be well drained. Planting and spacing The earlier the plant- is wetted. Damp conditions overnight also
can be grown from the Tropics to the cool On waterlogged land, if a drainage system is ing, the better the maiden crop in the follow- encourage botrytis; water in the morning so
temperate regions of the world. It is no not practicable, grow strawberries on ridges ing year. Plant in early spring after the ground that the plants are dry by nightfall. In mid-
wonder the strawberry is the most popular 2 - 3 in high. They prefer a slightly acid (pH has started to warm up. It is not necessary August each year, apply a balanced fertilizer
soft fruit. 6.0-6.5) light loam in a frost-free, sunny situa- to wait until frost danger has passed. In the at 1/2 oz per square yard along each side of the
For the purposes of cultivation the straw- tion. They will, however, tolerate some shade warmest American climates, however, it is row. No other feeding is necessary unless
berry is divided into three categories: the and because many varieties flower over a better to plant in October. Plant the runners g r o w t h has been poor. In this case apply
ordinary June-fruiting strawberry; the so- long period, the later flowers should escape in moist soil with the crown of the strawberry sulfate of ammonia at 1/2 oz per square yard in
called ever-bearing strawberry that produces spring frosts. Strawberries are readily attacked just level with the soil surface; planting too April, taking care to prevent fertilizer t o u c h -
one crop in the spring and a second crop in by soil-borne pests and diseases and a system deep may result in the rotting of the buds and ing the foliage because it will scorch it.
the fall; and the alpine strawberry (Fragaria of soil rotation should be practiced. Do not planting too shallow may cause drying out. Weed control Weeds compete for nutrients
vesca, subspecies alpina), a mountain form of grow them for more than three or four years Plant with a trowel or hand fork, spreading and water. Keep the rows clean by shallow
wild strawberry (see page 23). in any one site. For this reason, strawberries out the roots well. Replace the soil and firm it. hoeing and tuck any runners into the row to
are best grown with the vegetables rather Space the plants 18 in apart in rows 3 ft apart. fill gaps. Pay particular attention to cleaning
Standard strawberries than w i t h the more permanent fruit plants. On a light soil they can be 15 in apart with up between the rows before mulching.
The ordinary, or June-bearing strawberry, Soil preparation A strawberry bed will be 2k ft between the rows. Plants to be grown Weedkillers may be used (see page 17).
crops once only in the early summer. A few d o w n for three or four years, and the initial for t w o years need only 12 in spacing. In general, shallow cultivation of straw-
do crop again in fall and these are called preparations should be thorough so that the Pollination The flowers are pollinated by bees berries keeps weed growth in check. But care
" t w o crop" varieties, but they are cultivated land is made fertile and free from perennial and such crawling insects as pollen beetles. should be taken to weed strawberry beds
in the same way as the others. The expected weeds. In July dig in well-rotted manure or Imperfect pollination results in malformed each fall, and particular attention should be
yield per strawberry plant is about 8-10 oz. compost at about the rate of 14 lb to the fruits. All modern varieties are self-fertile. paid to the removal of all weeds.

1 In late winter or the 2 About April, plant the 3 For the first few weeks 4 Up to July 15 in the first 5 When the fruits begin to 6 Protect the fruit from
preceding fall, dig in well- strawberries 18 in apart in after planting and during year, pick off all blossoms swell, scatter slug pellets birds. Support nets with
rotted manure or compost rows 3 ft apart. Spread out all succeeding dry spells in to force strength into the along the rows. Cover the posts at least 18 in tall.
at a rate of 14 lb per square the roots, keeping the the growing season, water plants for a big crop next ground beneath the berries Cover posts w i t h jars or
yard. Rake off any surplus crowns level with the soil regularly. Keep water away year. and between rows with pots first.
manure. surface. Firm the soil. from ripening berries. barley or wheat straw.
Strawberries 2
Disbudding During the first season, remove lightweight plastic directly over the plants. It Winter protection
all flowers until mid-July. If the plants are can be folded back when picking is to be done. PROPAGATION
In zones 3-7, as soon as the fall temperature
allowed to set fruit in the first few months, drops to 20*C/68*F, spread straw or salt or
vegetative growth will be retarded and the Harvesting marsh hay over the entire bed. The covering
next year's crop will be small. In succeeding The best time to pick strawberries is in the should be at least 3 in deep between rows;
years, of course, disbudding is unnecessary. morning when the berries are still cool. Pick and enough to conceal the plants themselves.
Mulching When the fruits of two-year-old them complete with stalks; try not to handle The purpose of the covering is to protect the
plants begin to swell and weigh down the the flesh because it bruises easily. plants against frost and other winter injuries.
trusses, scatter slug pellets along the rows. If the temperature does not drop to 20°C/
Then put straw down around the plants. This At the end of the season 68°F before the end of November, the plants
is to keep the fruits clean, so tuck the straw Immediately after cropping, remove the straw should be covered at that time in any case.
right under the berries and also cover the and cut off the old plant leaves (about 3 in The covering is removed in the spring after 1 In June to August, select four or five
ground between the rows to help to keep above the crown) and unwanted runners growth is well started. If it is left on too long, runners from healthy, cropping plants.
down weeds. Do not straw down earlier than using shears or a sickle. Alternatively, a the foliage will yellow.
this because the straw prevents the heat from rotary lawn mower can be run directly over
the earth reaching the flowers, which may the entire bed. Tuck in runners needed to fill Propagation
then be damaged by frost at night. Preferably in any gaps in the row. In the second year, a Strawberries are easily propagated from run-
use barley straw which is soft or, as a second matted row can be grown by allowing run- ners which the parent plant begins to produce
choice, wheat straw. ners to root in the row and reducing the as the crop is coming to an end. The aim is to
Protection from birds The best method of space available, so that the quantity of fruit is obtain well-rooted runners for early planting
protection is to cover the strawberry bed greater but the quality suffers. The space and it is achieved by pegging down the
with a large cage, using 3/4 in or 1 in plastic between the rows is kept clear. Defoliation strongest runners so that they make good
netting, supported by posts and wire or is good horticultural practice because it contact with the soil. In June or July choose 2 With U-shaped wires, peg runners into
string. The height should be at least 18in; rejuvenates the plant and removes leaves and healthy parent plants which have cropped open ground or into 3 in pots buried
about 4 ft is the ideal height for picking in stems, which may be a source of pests and well. From each select four or five strong level and filled with a potting compost.
comfort. Put glass jars or plastic plant pots diseases. But it must be done as soon as crop- runners. Peg them down either into moist
over the posts to prevent them from tearing ping is over to avoid damaging fresh growth open ground or into 3 in pots buried level
the netting. A simpler method is to spread and reducing the crop the next year. with the soil. Pot-grown runners are best be-
cause they are easier to transplant. Fill the
Alternatives to mulching pots with a seed-starting mixture or a 50-50
mixture of loam and peat. Peg close to the
embryo plant but do not sever it from the
parent at this stage. For the pegs, use 4 in
pieces of thin galvanized wire bent to a U-
shape. Straightened out paper clips are ideal.
In four to six weeks there should be a 3 In four to six weeks they should have
good root system. Sever from the parent, lift rooted. Sever from parents close to plants.
and plant out into the new bed. Keep them
well watered.
Planting under mist or in a closed propagat-
ing case are other useful ways of obtaining
very early runners. W i t h these, sever the
embryo plants from the parents at the first
sign of roots—root initials—and peg them
into 11/2-2 in peat pots.

If straw is not available, strawberries can through slits in the plastic at 15-18 in Varieties
also be grown through black polyethylene. intervals. Leave a 6 in bare strip between Strawberries soon become infected with
First, prepare the bed by raising a 3 in plastic strips to enable rain to permeate to virus diseases, so it is important to plant only 4 Lift out the potted runners and knock
high ridge of soil. Water it well. Lay the roots. Black polyethylene sheeting does virus-free stock. It is best to obtain plants out from the pot. Plant out into t h e new
plastic over the ridge, tucking in the edges slow down evaporation, but the soil under from a specialist propagator who guarantees bed and water well.
under the soil. Plant the strawberries it will eventually become dry. healthy stock.
Strawberries 3
Ever-bearing strawberries make an attractive edging plant, having
Ever-bearing strawberries have the charac- masses of small white flowers. They bear dark
teristic of producing fruit in the spring and red fruits continuously or in flushes from June
again in the fall. It is useful to cover the fall until November.
crop with cloches to extend the season,
possibly in late October. It is best to grow Cultivation
ever-bearers for one year only because the Alpine strawberries are usually grown from
size and weight of the crop deteriorate in seed and kept for no more than t w o years
the second year. Replant with new runners before re-sowing. There are a few varieties
each year. that produce runners, but most do not.
Maintaining virus-free stock is difficult.
Cultivation Sowing Sow the seeds in March under glass.
The basic requirements of soil, spacing, Sow into seed boxes containing a moist seed-
mulching and feeding are the same as for starting mixture. Maintain them at a tem-
June-bearing strawberries. The soil should be perature of 18 o -20°C/64 o -68°F. Cover the
highly fertile and moisture-retentive. Be sure boxes w i t h glass and shade until the seeds
to water well in late summer and fall. germinate. W h e n t w o true leaves appear,
Plant in the early spring and remove the prick out the seedlings 1 in apart into flats
first flush of flowers to ensure a good crop or peat pots.
later in the season. Soil preparation, planting and feeding The
In the fall, when cropping is finished, clean soil should be rich, well drained and slightly
up the rows, remove the old straw, surplus acid (pH 6.0-6.5). Just before planting apply
runners and one or two of the older leaves, sulfate of potash at 1/2oz per square yard. 1 In March, sow into seed 2 Cover with glass and 3 W h e n the seedlings have
and burn the debris. Cover with straw or hay Once the danger of frosts is over, but by the boxes of moist seed shade until germination. two true leaves, prick out
in the late fall to protect against winter end of May, plant out the seedlings in the compost. Maintain a temperature of 1 in apart into flats or
damage. prepared, moist soil. Plant in the open or in 18 o -20°C/64 o -68°F. individual peat pots.
Do not fertilize the plants in the spring of light shade. Space the seedlings 1ft apart
the following year, but apply a balanced with 21/2ft between the rows. Water them in
fertilizer immediately after all the spring dry weather (about 3-4 gal per square yard
berries have been picked to encourage a every 7-10 days). For better cropping, when
second, smaller, crop in the fall. Then remove the flowers appear, feed every t w o weeks
plants entirely. with a liquid fertilizer.

Alpine strawberries Harvesting


Several varieties have been selected for Pick carefully. Slight crushing, sugaring, and
garden and commercial cultivation. They overnight soaking brings out the flavor.

PROPAGATION

Some ever-bearing strawberries produce


runners and are propagated in the same
way as are June-bearing strawberries, but
a few varieties do not and these are
propagated by division.
From late August to early September,
dig up a mature plant and break off the
new crowns or buds with as many roots
as possible. Transfer them to the new 4 Just before planting, 5 Once the danger of 6 In dry periods, water the
strawberry bed and plant them immedi- apply sulfate of potash at frosts is over, plant out the plants thoroughly every
ately in the usual way. Do not plant the 1/2 oz per square yard to seedlings in the prepared 7-10 days. For better crops,
crowns too deep or they will rot. moist well-dug soil, forking bed, 1ft apart in rows 21/2ft feed every t w o weeks with
it in lightly. apart. liquid manure.
Raspberries 1
Like the strawberry, the raspberry is one of crop of fruit in early summer and a larger minimum of halt a day's sun, provided they After planting, cut d o w n the canes to a
the quickest fruits to crop, bearing a reason- crop in early fall. All grow in zones 3-7. are not directly under trees and the soil is not bud about 9-12 in above the ground. Later,
able amount in the second year and full Because their cultural requirements differ in too dry. when the new canes appear, cut d o w n the
cropping thereafter. A good average yield is some respects, they are described separ- Soil preparation Prepare the ground in late old stump to ground level before it fruits.
11/2—2 lb per foot run of row. ately (see page 26). fall or late winter by forking out all weeds, This means foregoing a crop in the first sum-
Soil and situation Red raspberries grow best particularly perennials. Then dig a trench mer but it ensures good establishment and
Cultivation on a slightly acid soil of pH 6.0-6.7 that is along the intended row three spades wide by the production of strong new canes in sub-
Most red raspberries (there are also a few moisture-retentive but well drained. They one spade deep. Cover the bottom of the sequent years.
with yellow fruit) flower in late spring and the can be grown in dry, sandy and limy soils of trench with well-rotted manure or compost to
fruits ripen in early to midsummer, depend- low fertility, provided plenty of water is given a depth of 3 - 4 in and fork it into the base so Supporting the canes
ing upon the variety and the weather: such during dry weather and bulky organic man- that it is thoroughly mixed with the soil. W i t h To prevent the canes from bowing over when
varieties are called standard or summer- ures are liberally applied. Raspberries will not double-dug grassland there is no need for this heavy with fruit and to keep the fruits clean
bearing raspberries. tolerate poor drainage, and even temporary operation because the buried turf takes the it is generally advisable to support the canes.
The stems, or canes, are biennial in that waterlogging can lead to the death of the place of the organic manure. Finally fill in the The usual method is a post and wire fence for
they grow vegetatively in their first year, root system and subsequent death of the trench and fork in a balanced fertilizer such which there are various alternative systems.
flower and fruit in their second year and then canes. In alkaline soils above pH 7.0, iron and as 10-10-10 at the rate of 3 oz per square yard. It is easier to erect the fence before planting,
die back to ground level. The root system is manganese deficiencies may occur. See pages Planting and spacing If possible the rows although it may be left until the end of the
perennial and of suckering habit, producing 10-11 for reduction of soil alkalinity and should run north-south so that one row does first summer.
each growing season new replacement canes correction of iron and/or manganese defici- not shade another too much. Single fence: vertically trained canes This is
from adventitious buds on the roots and new encies. In early spring, plant the canes 18 in apart the most popular method and consists of
buds from old stem bases. The site must be sheltered because strong in the rows. If more than one row is planted, single wires stretched horizontally at heights
Some raspberry varieties have the charac- winds damage the canes and inhibit the space the rows 6 f t apart, or 5 ft apart if using of 21/2, 31/2 and 51/2ft. It requires the least space
teristic of flowering on the first year's growth movement of pollinating insects. Preferably, the single fence system. Spread the roots out of the various fencing systems and is ideal for
on the topmost part. These are called ever- they should be planted in full sun, although well and plant them about 3 in deep; deep the small garden. The fruiting canes are tied
bearing raspberries as they produce a small they grow quite well in partial shade with a planting inhibits new canes (suckers). individually to the wires and thus are secure

1 In early fall, take out a trench in prepared 2 Then, fill in the trench and fork in 3 oz 3 From March to April, plant the canes at 4 In late March, apply sulfate of a m m o n i a
ground three spades wide by one spade per square yard of a balanced fertilizer such 18 in intervals. Spread the roots out well at 1/2 oz per square yard. Mulch w i t h a 2 in
deep. Cover the bottom of the trench with as 10-10-10. and plant about 3 in deep. Cut down the layer of garden compost, keeping it well
a 3 - 4 in layer of well-rotted manure or canes to a bud about 9-12 in above the clear of the canes.
compost and fork in thoroughly. ground.
Raspberries 2
against winter winds. They are exposed to the canes are safe within the row. However, there above the top wire. This removes winter
SUPPORT SYSTEMS
sun, which enhances the quality of the fruits is the risk of fungal troubles because of the damage to the tips and encourages the low-
and reduces the incidence of fungal disease. crowded conditions of the canes on the est buds to break. Single post system
The system has the disadvantages that the wires and in the row. If more than one row is For very vigorous varieties grown on the
new canes are at risk of being trampled on planted, space the rows 6 ft apart. single fence system, where tipping would
during picking and of being damaged by Single post system This is a method par- remove a lot of the cane, loop and tie the
strong winds in July unless temporarily sup- ticularly suited to a very small garden. It canes back on to the top wire and then prune
ported by string tied to the lower wires. consists of a single post to which each plant is about 6 in off the tips. This method gives extra
Drive in preserved 71/2 ft posts 18 in into the tied. The posts are 71/2 ft long by 21/2 in top length of canes, hence more crop, but the
ground 12-15 ft apart. Use 14 gauge galvan- diameter, driven 18 in into the ground. top wire must be strong.
ized fence wire.
Erect the end posts first and strut them Initial pruning Feeding and watering
and then drive in the intermediate posts. In the first t w o seasons after planting, the In early spring each year apply 1 oz of sulfate
Finally fix the wires to the posts using strain- number of canes may be few, but thereafter of potash per square yard. Every third year Drive 71/2 ft long 21/2 in dia. posts 18 in
ing bolts at one end and staples on the inter- there should be more than enough. add 2 oz of superphosphate per square into the ground at each planting station.
mediates and at the opposite end. In the second year thin out the weakest yard. In late March apply sulfate of ammonia
Double fence: parallel wires The double canes in the early spring so that the remain- at 1/2 oz per square yard. The fertilizers should Single fence system
fence is erected in a similar way to the single der grow more strongly, and pull out un- be applied as a top dressing covering about
fence but because the top wires are not as wanted canes growing well away from the 18 in each side of the row.
high, the posts are only 61/2 ft tall. Cross bars row. Allow about 8-10 canes to a plant. Also, in late March, mulch with a 2 in layer
21/2 ft long by 2 in across to carry the parallel of garden compost, damp peat or manure,
wires are fixed to the end posts and to the Pruning and training established plants keeping the material just clear of the canes.
intermediate posts. In exposed situations, As soon as fruiting is over, cut down to The mulch helps to conserve moisture in the
double posts should be used instead of cross ground level the old canes which have summer and inhibits weed seeds from ger-
bars. Parallel wires are spaced 2 ft apart at 3 ft fruited. Select the healthiest and strongest of minating.
and 5 ft from the ground. Stretch wire as the young canes, retaining about four to Throughout the growing season keep down
cross ties every 2 ft along the wires to prevent eight per stool. weeds and unwanted suckers by shallow Drive 71/2 ft posts 18 in into t h e ground
the canes falling down in the row. If using the single fence system, tie the hoeing. Be careful not to damage or disturb at 12-15 ft intervals. Stretch 14 gauge
This method has the advantage of enabling canes to the wires, 3 - 4 in apart. Either tie each the roots of the raspberries. If preferred, galvanized wires between the posts at
a larger number of canes to be trained in and one separately with a 6 in twist tie or secure herbicides can be used (see page 17). 21/2, 31/2 and 51/2 ft.
a greater yield to be obtained from much the them to the wires by continuous lacing using In dry weather water the raspberries
same area. Picking the fruits from the center jute or strong string. Tie an occasional knot regularly but, to minimize the risk of fungal Double fence system
is difficult, however, and there is a higher risk as a precaution against the string breaking troubles, keep the water off the canes.
of fungal diseases because of the more later on. Protect the fruit from birds with netting.
crowded conditions. W i t h the Scandinavian system the canes
In an exposed garden the untied canes may are laced around a single wire, equally on Propagation
be damaged on the wires, so the canes should each side. Gently bend them over at the Raspberries are easily propagated by forking
be tied to the wires. point they reach the wire and then twist the up surplus canes with as many roots as
canes around the wire. No tying is necessary. possible in early spring. The canes must be
Scandinavian system (training in a low "V") Do this in late August or early September healthy and strong. Virus-infected plants
This is a double fence system with only one when the canes are still supple. Depending should be dug up and burned.
set of parallel wires spaced 3 ft apart at 3 ft upon the length of the canes, this could mean
from the ground. four or six canes being twisted around each Harvesting
Drive t w o sets of posts 41/2 ft long 18 in into other and the supporting wires like a rope. Pick the fruits without the stalk and core, Drive 61/2 ft posts 18 in into the ground
the ground, 3 ft apart every 12-15 ft in the row. The average number of canes from each plant unless the raspberries are required for show- 12-15 ft apart. Fix 2 in dia. cross bars
The fruiting canes are not tied but woven should be about four to six. ing, when they are harvested with the stalk 21/2 ft long to the end posts and to each
around the wires to form a " V " when viewed , For the single post system the fruiting attached, using scissors. Picking of standard intermediate post. Then, stretch
from the end of the row. The replacement canes are tied to the posts and the replace- varieties continues for about a month. In parallel wires 2 ft apart between the
canes are allowed to grow up the center ment canes looped in as and when necessary. general, pick raspberries when they are fresh, posts at 3 ft and 5 ft from the ground.
unsupported. Tipping the canes (This is not applicable to if possible, for better flavor. Use shallow con- Stretch wires as cross ties every 2 ft
W i t h this method the fruit is presented at a the Scandinavian system). In early spring, tainers to prevent the fruits from crushing along the wires.
low picking height and the replacement 'about March, cut the canes to a bud 6 in each other.
Raspberries 3
Pests and diseases pre-blossom time, or with benomyl every two The first year
If aphids are present, spray with dimethoate, weeks from bud burst to petal fall.
formothion or malathion in spring. An oil Spur blight causes dark purple blotches
spray in winter gets rid of the over-wintering around the buds and shoots wither in early
eggs. To prevent raspberry beetle grubs feed- spring. Cut out and burn affected canes. Spray
ing on the fruits in summer, spray at dusk new canes when they are a few inches high
with malathion or derris when the first pink with benomyl, thiram or captan repeating
berry is seen. two, four and six weeks later.
The most serious diseases of raspberries Prevent gray mold (Botiytis) on ripening
are viruses, which cause the leaves to become fruit by spraying three times with benomyl at
mottled or blotched and the canes to be flowering and at t w o week intervals. Remove
stunted. Seek expert advice before destroying and destroy infected fruits.
canes because the symptoms are similar to
those caused by raspberry leaf mite and bud Selecting healthy plants 1 In spring, when the new canes appear, 2 In June to September, as new canes
mite. New canes should be planted elsewhere. It is important to buy only certified stock, cut down the old stumps to ground level. develop, tie them 4 in apart on to t h e wires.
Canes affected by cane blight in summer wherever possible, to ensure the plants are
will wilt, snap off easily and die. If fruiting spurs virus-free and healthy. Healthy plants should Second and subsequent years
become blighted, cut out and burn affected last at least ten years before starting to de-
canes. Spray new canes with bordeaux generate from virus infection. When this
mixture. occurs, remove the plants and start a new
Cut out and burn canes badly affected by row in soil that has not grown raspberries or
cane spot and prevent it by spraying with other Rubus species before. Alternatively,
liquid copper or thiram at bud burst and re-soil over an area 2 ft wide by 1 ft deep.

EVER-BEARING RASPBERRIES
should be picked as soon as ripe and, if
necessary, every day. The fall crops can be
quite heavy.
The cultural requirements (soil prepar-
ation, planting, spacing, initial pruning and 3 In March, cut the canes to a bud 4 In midsummer, fruit is carried on laterals
feeding) are the same as for the summer- 6 in above the t o p wire. Mulch the plants from last year's canes. Thin out t h e weakest
bearing kind. Use the parallel wire method new growth to leave strong canes 4 in
of support described on page 25. The apart. Pull out new shoots growing away
fruits are produced when the weather is from the row.
becoming cooler, so they are best planted
in the sunniest position possible, other-
wise too few raspberries may ripen before
the first frosts arrive.
Pruning established plants Such ever-
bearers do not produce a large spring crop.
It is better to grow them for fall use only
and to put in standard varieties for sum-
Ever-bearing raspberries bear their fruit on mer use. Each February cut down all canes
the top part of the current season's canes, in the row to ground level. In the following
extending back from the top over 12 in or spring, new canes are produced which
more, depending upon the variety. The crop in the fall. As the canes are not in the
fruits ripen in early summer a little ahead row for more than a year, it is not neces- 5 When fruiting is over, cut the fruited 6 Each year in early spring, apply 1 oz of
of standard varieties and again from the sary to thin them unless they are particu- canes down to ground level. Tie in new sulfate of potash per square yard as a t o p
beginning of September until stopped by larly crowded. Pull out any which are canes 4 in apart. If growth is vigorous loop dressing 18 in each side of the row. Every
the fall frosts. Ever-bearing raspberries growing away from the row. the new canes over to form a series of third year apply 2 oz superphosphate per
arches. square yard.
Raspberries 4
Black and purple raspbemes ,are generally tomatoes, peppers, eggplants or a previous fence system similar to that used for red
known under the name of black raspberry, crop of raspberries have been grown; and be raspberries. II the soil holds moisture well, set
just as red and yellow raspberries are usually sure to plant 300—400ft away from all wild the plants 3 ft apart and 1 in deeper than they
known as red raspberries. They are also brambles and cultivated red and yellow previously grew. In drier soils, increase spac-
closely related to the reds, although they are raspberries. ing between plants to as much as 6 ft.
larger and more productive and greatly The soil, moisture and fertilization require- No pruning is necessary in the first year.
tolerant of heat, although less resistant to ments of black raspberries are essentially Thereafter, in late winter or early spring, cut
cold. similar to those needed by the red raspberry. off all weak canes at the ground, leaving 4 - 6
Plants with black berries, which are also good canes per plant. Remove weak and dead
called blackcaps, ripen earlier than those Propagation laterals, and trim back the remaining laterals
with purple berries, but purple berries have Black and purple raspberries are reproduced on black varieties to 6 - 8 i n ; on purple
bigger fruit with a more distinctive flavor. The by inserting the tips of young canes into the varieties to 10 in. Then in early summer,
berries are not as juicy as red raspberries and soil to a depth of 4 - 6 in. Left to their own before berries start to ripen, nip about 3 in off
are used primarily to make appetizing jams devices, plants tip-layer themselves but do the ends of the upright canes to force the
and jellies. not produce such good plants as can the growth of the laterals.
Both the black and the purple raspberry gardener. The best time to do this is in mid- Finally, as soon as all fruit has been picked,
grow in zones 4 - 8 . summer in loose soil with ample moisture. prune out all the canes that bore fruit to
The plants should be well rooted by late give more light and room to the new canes.
Culture fall and ready for transplanting to the garden Burn all prunings promptly.
Black and purple raspberries are somewhat in early spring. Cut off the old stem at the
more susceptible to disease than red rasp- ground as soon as new growth starts. Harvesting In spring, place medium-length canes 4 f t
berries and a little more care should be taken Black raspberries deteriorate more slowly apart in rows 6 ft apart. Do not plant
in finding a site for them. Do not plant for Training and pruning than reds so it is not necessary to pick them deeply. Cut the canes d o w n to 6 in above
several years in soil in which potatoes, The plants are best grown in a double- so frequently. the ground.

1 Fix two parallel wires between T-shaped 2 After first year, in late winter or early 1 In midsummer, dig a hole 4 - 6 in deep 2 Fill in the hole, tamp d o w n the soil, and
supports 5 ft high. The wires should be 18 in spring, cut off all weak canes at the ground, near the mature raspberries in loose soil water well. W h e n the tip has rooted, sever
apart. Place the canes between the wires. leaving 4 - 6 good canes per plant. Remove with ample moisture. Insert the tip of a from the parent plant with 10 in of stem and
weak and dead laterals and trim back the young cane into the bottom of the hole and plant out.
remaining laterals. fix with a staple.
Blackberries 1
The blackberry is a rambling cane fruit found keep the canes off the ground for easy picking A little later, mulch with a 2in layer of available in thorny and thornless varieties.
growing wild in many milder parts of the and to keep the plants tidy. Individual plants garden compost, peat or manure, keeping Boysenberries have very large reddish-
United States. The canes are of arching habit, can either be tied to sturdy stakes, or a wire the material just clear of the canes. In dry black fruits with a dusty bloom. They are soft,
thick, strong and often aggressively thorned, fence trellis can be erected with wires every weather water the plants but, to minimize tartly sweet and have a delicious aroma.
although there are good thornless cultivated 12 in between 3 and 6 ft. Erect the wires before the risk of fungal troubles, avoid the canes. Loganberries have light reddish fruits cov-
varieties. The plants are usually deciduous, planting the canes. ered with fine hairs. They are tarter than
but not always so in mild winters. They grow Training The fruiting canes should be trained Pollination boysenberries.
in zones 5-8. to keep them separate from the young All varieties are self-compatible and only one Youngberries are very similar to boysen-
A good average yield from a well- replacement canes to facilitate picking and to plant is needed. berries, but the fruits are shiny and a little
established blackberry plant is 10-30 lb of reduce the risk of the spread of fungal diseases sweeter.
fruit, depending upon the size of the plant from the old to the new. Harvesting Dewberries are somewhat hardier and
and the variety. The three methods commonly used are Blackberries are ready for picking when they have sweet black berries sometimes meas-
the fan, weaving, and rope system trained are black, plump and sweet. Some varieties uring 11/2 in long. They ripen a week or so
Cultivation one way. The fan is best reserved for less turn black before they are fully ripe. Pick all earlier than blackberries. 'Lucretia' is gener-
Cultivated blackberries are much larger and •vigorous berries. The weaving system takes fruit when it is ripe even if not required, ally considered the best variety.
more luscious than wild varieties. They need full advantage of the long canes of vigorous because this helps the later fruit to achieve a
little preventive spraying and can be planted kinds but there is much handling at pruning good size. Culture
in a spare corner of the garden to which their time. The one-way system keeps handling All of these plants have the same require-
wide-spreading roots should be confined. to a minimum, but wastes space because Pests and diseases ments as blackberries. Because the canes
Soil and situation Blackberries grow in a young rods are trained along the wires only Blackberries are prone to the same pests and run to great length, they should be trained on
wide range of soils and will tolerate slightly to one side of the plant. These fruit the diseases as raspberries (see pages 24-27). a trellis. Cut out those that have fruited after
impeded drainage. If thin dry soils cannot be following year. W h e n new rods appear they harvest in August. Cut back new canes,
avoided, improve their moisture retentive- are trained in the opposite direction. OTHER BERRIES growing on the trellis, to 6 - 8 f t and remove
ness and fertility with bulky organics. Initial pruning In the first summer after Boysenberries, dewberries, loganberries and all but 12-16 of the canes. Early the following
Blackberries flower relatively late, from planting, a number of young canes should youngberries are all closely related to the spring, cut the laterals to 1 ft.
May onwards, and bloom over a long period, spring up from the root system. Tie these blackberry and red raspberry, but generally In areas where the plants are marginally
and so frost is seldom a problem. They are securely to the lower wires in a weaving grow much larger and are of trailing habit. hardy, remove the canes from the trellis in
among the few fruits that can be success- fashion. In the second summer these canes They grow only in warm climates, usually to the fall and cover with straw. This should be
fully grown in a frost pocket, although this should flower and fruit. At the same time new zone 8, but sometimes to zone 7. All are some protection from frost.
should be avoided if possible. They will also growth springs from the base of the plant.
tolerate partial shade but fare better in full This young growth should be secured and PROPAGATION
sun. Because of their rambling habit, they trained in the adopted method.
need some support. W h e n fruiting is over, untie the old canes Blackberries (like black raspberries) are
Planting Prepare the ground in the fall. Fork and cut them d o w n to ground level. W i t h the propagated by tip-rooting. The new canes
out perennial weeds. Then, if the ground fan and weaving systems the young canes are are tip-rooted in August and September.
is poor, apply a 2 - 3 in deep layer of well- then trained in to take their place. W i t h the A 6 in hole is dug with a trowel near the
rotted manure, compost or peat over an area one-way system, the young canes are already plant, and the tip of a young cane is bent
2-21/2 ft square at each planting site and dig tied in. The young growth will fruit in the down into it. The soil is then replaced and
it in thoroughly. Rake in 3 oz of a balanced next year, and so the cycle is repeated. firmed. As new canes are produced, more
fertilizer such as 10-10-10 over the same area. Subsequent pruning Pruning in the third and tips can be buried. In the following spring,
Plant while dormant in early spring. Young subsequent years consists of cutting out the rooted tips are severed from the
plants, in the form of rooted tips or one-year- the canes that have fruited and replacing parent plant with about 10 in of stem, and
old bedded tips, can be obtained from a them with the new canes. If the replacement then dug up and planted out in a new
nursery. Using a hand trowel or fork, dig a canes are few, the best of the old canes position. A few varieties produce suckers,
hole wide and deep enough to take the roots can be used again, but the older growth does which should be lifted with as m u c h root
spread out well. Plant the canes to the nursery not yield the best quality berries. Each April as possible and planted out in the new bed.
depth. After planting, firm the soil and then cut back any winter-damaged tips to a Another method is by leaf bud cuttings
cut down each cane to a bud at about 10 in healthy bud. taken in July and August and rooted in a
above the ground. Feeding and watering In early spring apply cold frame. This method is useful for rapid
Spacing Plant the canes 4 ft apart in rows 2oz of a balanced fertilizer such as 10-10-10 propagation when stock is limited, and
6 ft apart. One plant is often sufficient. as a top dressing over one square yard around when there are other growing restrictions.
Support Support is generally necessary to the base of each plant.
Blackberries 2
Cultivation

1 In fall, clear the ground of perennial 2 In early spring, dig a hole to take the 3 Fork in 3 oz of a balanced fertilizer such 4 Later, apply a 2 in layer of garden
weeds. If the ground is poor, dig in a 2 - 3 in plant with the roots spread out well. Plant as 10-10-10 per square yard around the compost keeping it just clear of the canes.
layer of well-rotted manure over an area to the same depth as it was at the nursery. base of each plant. During dry weather, water the plants but
2-21/2-ft square. Fork in 2 oz of balanced Firm the soil and cut the cane to a bud keep the water off the canes.
fertilizer over the same area. 10 in above the ground.

1 In summer, as the young canes appear, 2 In summer, train the new canes up 3 After fruiting, cut out all fruited canes to 4 At the same time, untie the current
tie them to a strong wire support. Weave through the center of the bush and along base. If there are few new canes, retain the season's canes and weave t h e m round the
them in and out of the bottom three wires. the top wire. Fruit is carried on laterals of best of the old. lower three wires. In fall, remove the weak
last year's canes. tips from the young canes.
Black currants 1
The black currant (Ribes nigrum) is a native Preparing the soil Prepare the ground in by fairly hard-pruning, cutting at or as near before they begin to fall or shrivel.
of central and eastern Europe from Scan- early fall, clearing away all weeds. Apply the base as possible, and by heavy feeding.
dinavia to Bulgaria, also northern and central a 3 in layer of manure or compost over the It is important to be able to distinguish Pests and diseases
Asia to the Himalayas. It can be found grow- whole area. If manure and compost are not the young w o o d from the old. This is fairly The most serious pests of black currants are
ing wild, generally in damp woody places. available, apply a 2 in layer of peat with easy because the bark of the young shoots is aphids, the black currant gall mite, and
Selection in cultivation has given rise to bonemeal at 3 oz per square yard. If the much lighter in color than that of three years red spider mite. Use a systemic insecticide
stronger-growing and highly productive vari- ground is fairly clean single dig the materials old or more. against aphids, benomyl for gall mite, and
eties. Black currants are grown on a stool in, but if rough and weedy double dig the There is no need to limit the number of malathion, dimethoate or derris to control
system—that is, many shoots spring from area. Rake in a balanced fertilizer such as main branches nor to have the center open. red spider mite.
below the ground rather than from a single 10-10-10 at the rate of 3 oz per square yard. However, about a quarter to a third of the Of the diseases, the most troublesome are
stem. A well-grown black currant bush may Planting and spacing Buy two-year-old cer- oldest w o o d should be removed annually. reversion disease, gooseberry mildew, leaf
reach 5-6 ft in height and spread and should tified bushes. Select plants with not less than Cut back to a strong young shoot at or near spot and botrytis. Bushes affected by re-
last 15 years or more before it needs to be three strong shoots. the base or, if there is none, cut out the version should be dug up and burned. Mildew
replaced. A good average yield from an Plant during dormancy in early spring. branch altogether. can be controlled by regular spraying with
established black currant is about 10-12 lb. Space bushes 5 ft apart in the row (6 ft apart Remove any thin mildewed shoots in- benomyl; this will also control leaf spot.
for more vigorous varieties), with 6 ft between cluding those suffering from die-back in the Alternative fungicides are zineb or thiram.
Cultivation rows. center. Leave a working space between one For botrytis use benomyl at flowering time.
The black currant is an alternate host for Dig out a hole wide enough to take the bush and the next.
white pine blister rust, a serious pest that kills roots spread out well. To encourage a strong Feeding and watering Black currants thrive PROPAGATION
those trees. Many of the states in which white stool system plant bushes about 2 in deeper on heavy manuring and high summer mois-
pine grows forbid the planting of black than they were in the nursery—the soil mark ture. Each March apply a balanced fertilizer
currants because of the adverse effect on on the stems gives an indication. Fill in the such as 10-10-10 over the whole plantation at
white pine. hole and firm. 3 oz per square yard. Additionally, in April
Therefore, any gardener considering plant- Initial pruning After planting, cut all shoots apply sulfate of ammonia at 1 oz per square
ing such fruit should first check with the state to within 2 in of soil level. This encourages the yard; on acid soils apply an artificial fertilizer
agricultural extension service or forestry production of strong young shoots from the containing calcium carbonate and ammon-
department before ordering. Some nurseries base, and creates a good stool system for ium nitrate. Follow this with a 3 in thick mulch
will be able to advise if restrictions exist. heavy cropping in the future, although it of manure or compost around each bush.
The black currant is the worst of the several means foregoing a crop in the first summer. In dry weather apply 41/2 gal of water per
alternate host plants of white pine blister If the plants are certified free of disease, the square yard every ten days, but keep the
rust. Consequently, black currants are diffi- pruned shoots may be used as cuttings. They water off the stems as much as possible to
cult to find in American nurseries and only root easily, so buy only half the number of lessen the risk of fungal trouble.
one variety, 'Boskoop Giant', is commonly bushes required and fill the vacant positions Weed control The bushes are shallow-
offered by those nurseries that sell black with t w o to three cuttings to each station. rooted. Do not dig around the plant but keep
currants. After the hard initial pruning the young the weeds down by shallow hoeing or by
Soil and situation Black currants can be bush should produce three or four strong hand weeding or by using herbicides. Black currants are propagated from cut-
grown in a wide range of soils. Ideally it shoots from the base, each shoot being 18 in tings 8-10 in long and about a pencil's
should be slightly acid (about pH 6.5), highly or more in length. If growth is poor, they Pollination width thick, from well-budded healthy
fertile, moisture-retentive and well-drained, should be cut d o w n again in the winter. Black currants are self-compatible and are w o o d of the current year's growth. Take
although black currants will tolerate slightly Assuming a strong bush has been formed, no pollinated mainly by bees. the cuttings in October or November.
impeded drainage. Light soils need plenty of pruning is required at the end of the first Make a sloping cut just above a bud at the
bulky organics. Excessively acid soils should year; the young shoots are left to fruit in the Frost and bird protection top and a straight cut just below a bud at
be limed to bring the pH up to 6.5. following summer. The flowers are extremely vulnerable to the base. Insert the cuttings deeply w i t h
The site should be frost-free and sheltered Pruning an established bush Black currants spring frosts which cause the fruitlets to drop. only two buds showing above the surface
from strong winds so that pollinating insects bear the best fruit on the wood produced in On nights when frosts are likely, drape the in well-drained light soil. Space the cut-
such as bees are not inhibited. Most varieties the previous summer, although they also bushes with burlap or a few layers of bird tings 6 in apart and firm them in the row.
bloom early in the spring and the flowers are crop on the older w o o d . Prune in early netting (see pages 6-7); remove the cover in At the end of the first growing season
extremely vulnerable to frost. In frost-prone fall "or at any time in the dormant season the mornings. Net the fruits against birds dig up and plant the rooted cuttings 12 in
areas, plant late-flowering or more frost- until early April. when the first fruits begin to color. apart. Cut them down to within 1 in of the
tolerant varieties and cover the plants on The objective with an established bush is ground. This hard pruning should create
frosty nights. Black currants will tolerate to stimulate a constant succession of strong Harvesting a stooled bush.
partial shade but prefer a sunny position. young shoots to carry fruit in the next season Pick selectively when the currants ripen but
Black currants 2

1 In early spring, clear the ground of weeds. 2 Dig a hole wide and deep enough to take 3 After planting, cut down all shoots to 4 In the fall, the severe pruning has resulted
Dig in a 3 in layer of manure or compost. the roots spread out well. Plant the bush within 2 in of soil level. in strong new shoots appearing f r o m the
Rake in a balanced fertilizer such as 10-10-10 2 in deeper than it was at the nursery. base. These will fruit the following year.
at 3 oz per square yard. Fill in the hole and firm the soil. No pruning is required.

5 In March, apply a balanced fertilizer 6 In July, the bush fruits best on last year's 7 In winter, thin out weak shoots and any 8 Every winter, remove about one-third of
such as 10-10-10 at 3 oz per square yard. w o o d . New basal growths develop. branches that are too low, broken or the bush. Cut out badly-placed, damaged
A month later, apply 1 oz sulfate of mildewed. w o o d . Cut back fruited branches to a strong
ammonia per square yard shoot.
Red and white currants 1
Red and white currants are basically derived not drip on the plants. They grow in zones
from two European species, Ribes rubrum and , 3-8. A sunny position is best if the berries are
R. spicatum. Red currants sometimes occur as to acquire their full flavor. The site should be
garden escapes from bird-sown seed and sheltered but not a frost pocket.
R. rubrum is also found naturalized in many Soil preparation Prepare the soil in the fall or
areas. late winter by clearing away all weeds. Apply
a light dressing of well-rotted manure or
Cultivation compost about 11/2 in thick over the whole
The fruit buds are produced in clusters at the area. If farmyard manure or compost are not
base of the one-year-old shoots and on short available, apply a 1 in layer of damp peat.
spurs on the older wood. Because of this If the ground is fairly clean, single dig the
fruiting habit there is a permanent framework dressing in; but if weedy, double dig the
of branches, unlike the black currant for area. Rake in a balanced fertilizer, such as
which a succession of young w o o d is needed. 10-10-10, at the rate of 2 oz per square yard
The red currant is usually grown as an and sulfate of potash at 1/2 oz per yard.
open-centered bush on a 4 - 6 in stem or leg, Selection of plants Buy plants from a reliable
rather like a miniature apple tree, with a source because certified stock is not available.
height and spread of about 5 - 6 ft. This One- or two-year-old bushes are usually
method of growth makes cultivation around supplied by the grower. Select a plant with a
the plant easier and keeps the fruit clear of clear stem, or leg, of about 4-6 in with a head
the ground. The red currant is also grown as of about 3 - 6 evenly balanced shoots. The 1 In late winter, dig in a 11/2 in layer of well- 2 In early spring, dig a hole large enough
a single or multiple cordon, and, more single (or multiple) cordon may be t w o or rotted manure. Then, rake in a balanced to take the roots well spread out and plant
rarely, as a standard or fan. A well-grown three years old and should consist of one (or fertilizer, such as 10-10-10, at 2 oz per square the bush to the same depth as it was at the
bush should yield at least 8-10 lb of fruit and more) straight stems with sideshoots. yard and sulfate of potash at 1/2oz per nursery. Delay planting if the ground is
a single cordon about 2 - 3 lb. Plants should Planting and spacing Plant during the dor- square yard. very wet or frozen.
bear well for at least ten years. mant season in March or April, unless the
The smooth-skinned, glistening red berries plants are container-grown, when they can
are attractive and ideal for jelly, pies, juice be planted at any time.
and for wine making. Space bushes 5 ft x 5 ft (5 ft x 6 ft on fertile
Red and white currants are, like black land) and single cordons 15 in apart, or 12 in
currants, alternate hosts to white pine blister apart on light soils. Allow 12 in between each
rust, and so have planting restrictions in stem of a multiple c o r d o n ; for example,
many states. The state agricultural extension double cordons should be planted 24 in apart
service or forestry department should be con- from the main stem at ground level. Cordons
sulted before ordering. should be trained up a vertical cane for
The white currant is a mutation or sport of straight growth and support. If planting cor-
the red currant and for cultural purposes is dons in the open, before planting erect a wire
treated in exactly the same way. The berries, fence with horizontal wires at 2 ft and 4 ft and
of somewhat milder flavor than the red, are tie canes to the wires at each planting station.
also useful for jelly and for wine making. Next, take out a hole large enough to
Soil and situation Ideally, the soil should be contain the roots well spread out, and plant
neutral to slightly acid (about pH 6.7). Red and the bush or cordon to the same depth as it
white currants are less tolerant of poor was in the nursery. Fill in and firm the soil.
drainage than the black currant but, pro- Feeding and watering Each March apply a
vided the soil is reasonably well drained and balanced fertilizer, such as 10-10-10, over the
not deficient in potash, they are tolerant of whole planting at 2 oz per square yard and
a wide range of conditions. sulfate of potash at j o z per square yard. On
The flowers of the red and white currants light soils also apply a mulch of rotted manure, 3 Each March, apply 10-10-10 at 2 oz per 4 During the winter, protect the fruit buds
are hardier than those of the black currant, compost or peat 2 in thick around each bush. square yard and sulfate of potash at with netting against attack by birds and
so it is a useful plant for north-facing walls If manure, compost or peat are not available, 1/2oz per square yard. On light soils also frost at blossom time. Remove it during the
and fences and for shaded areas, provided apply sulfate of ammonia at 1 oz per square apply a 2 in mulch of rotted manure, day at flowering time.
the soil is not dry and over-hanging trees do yard. Water copiously in dry weather. compost or peat around each bush.
Red and white currants 2
Pruning bush currants Second and subsequent years A cordon is Weed control are clear in color. Pick whole clusters to avoid
The objective is to create a goblet-shaped pruned in much the same way as a bush. Red and white currants are shallow rooted. injury to the delicate fruit.
bush with about 8-10 main branches grow- Each summer at the end of June or early in Do not dig around the plants but keep the
ing upwards and outwards on a 4 - 6 in clear July prune the current season's side-shoots weeds down by shallow hoeing or by using Propagation
stem with an open center. Prune in the same to 4 - 5 leaves. Do not carry out summer herbicides. Propagate new red and white currant plants
way as the gooseberry bush (see pages 36-7) pruning earlier than this or secondary growth in the fall from hardwood cuttings, which
except that the leaders are pruned to may be stimulated. The leader is trained and Pollination should be 12 in long or more. Before planting
outward-facing buds, unless the branches are tied to the cane, but not pruned in the sum- Red currants are self-fertile and insect pollin- the cuttings, remove all the buds except the
drooping, when they are pruned to upward- mer until it has reached the required height, ated, so pollination is not a problem. top three or four. Insert into the soil with the
facing buds. usually about 5 - 6 ft. From then on it is third bud within 2 in of the soil surface and
summer-pruned to 4 - 5 leaves. Frost and bird protection label the cuttings. After they have rooted (in
Pruning the single cordon: initial pruning Each winter, cut all the previously summer- Red and white currant flowers are fairly hardy, about a year's time) plant o u t the cuttings.
On planting a one-year-old rooted cutting, pruned laterals to about 1 in at a bud. Prune although they will not tolerate hard frosts. This method produces rooted cuttings with
shorten the central leader by about one-half the leader to a bud leaving 6 in of new growth. Cover them with burlap or two or three four good branches and a short leg.
to an outward-facing bud. Cut back all other Once the leader has reached the required layers of bird netting on frosty nights.
laterals to about 1 in at a bud, and remove any height, it is also pruned to leave one bud of The berries are extremely attractive to birds Pests and diseases
buds lower than 4 in to create a short clear the previous summer's growth. This helps to in the summer, as are the fruit buds in the The most serious pests are aphids and, to a
stem. If planting an older pre-shaped cordon, maintain the cordon at approximately the winter. Net the bushes in the winter and at lesser extent, sawflies and currant fruit flies.
shorten the leader by one-third and prune same height for some years. fruit ripening time. Remove the netting at Control aphids with a systemic insecticide
maiden laterals to one bud. Multiple cordons, such as the double- and flowering time, because it inhibits insect rotenone.
In late June to early July cut back the triple-stemmed cordon, are pruned in exactly pollination. Occasionally anthracnose and cane blight
current season's side-shoots to 4 - 5 leaves. the same way as the single, except that in the can be troublesome. Early season sprays of
Tie the leader to the cane as and when early formative years suitably low placed Harvesting ferbam give satisfactory control of anthrac-
necessary throughout the growing season, laterals are used to form the main stems of Red and white currants are ripe in July or nose. If the canes are blighted, cut back to
but do not prune it. each goblet-shaped bush. August and should be picked as soon as they healthy w o o d and burn the prunings.

The first year: Cordon Second and subsequent years

1 In winter, when planting a one-year-old 2 From late June to early July, cut back the 3 In winter, prune the leader to a bud 4 From late June to early July, prune the
shorten the central leader by about one- current season's side-shoots to 4 - 5 leaves. leaving 6 in of new growth. Cut all current season's side-shoots to 4 - 5 leaves.
half to an outward-facing bud. Cut back Tie the leader to the cane as it extends but previously summer-pruned laterals to 1 in at Tie the leader to the cane as it extends.
all laterals to 1 in at a bud and remove any do not prune it. a bud. In later years, cut the leader back
lower than 4 in. to one bud.
Gooseberries 1
The gooseberry {Ribes uva-crispa) is a decidu- around the stem, a two-year-old about 5-7 Planting and spacing Plant during the dor-
ous thorny shrub growing in zones 3 - 8 . and a three-year-old 6 - 8 primary and second- mant season in March or April, preferably
Like the red currant, the gooseberry bears ary branches. Gooseberries are self-fertile, so when the soil is warm.
its fruit on spurs on the older wood and at they can be planted singly. Dig a hole wide and deep enough to con-
the base of the previous summer's lateral Soil and situation The soil requirements of tain the root system with the roots well spread
growth. For this reason it is grown with a the gooseberry are similar to those of the red out. Before planting, clean off any suckers at
permanent framework of branches, usually currant. The soil should not be allowed to the base of the plants and any shoots too
in the form of an open-centered bush on a become potash-deficient The plant tolerates near the ground, then plant it to leave a clear
short stem, or led, of about 4 - 6 in. It is also a little impeded drainage, provided it occurs stem of 4 - 6 in. Fill in the hole and firm the soil.
widely grown as a cordon in single or multiple below 18 in. The ideal soil, however, is a Space the bushes 5 ft apart, or on highly
form and occasionally as a standard on a slightly acid (pH 6.7), well-drained medium fertile ground 5 ft by 6 ft apart, and single
31/2 ft stem or as a fan. loam. cordons 1ft apart. Allow 1ft space for each
The fruits may be smooth or hairy, yellow, The gooseberry is tolerant of cool, partial stem of a multiple cordon. For straight growth
white, green or red according to variety. shade, but grows best in an open sunny site, and support, train a cordon up a cane. If
A well-grown bush should reach a height which should be sheltered against strong growing cordons in the open, erect a wire
and spread of 5 ft and crop well for 12 years or winds, especially at flowering time in early fence with horizontal wires at 2 ft and 4 ft and
more. A good average yield from a bush is April. Do not plant it in a frost pocket. tie the canes to it.
5 - 6 lb, and from a cordon 1-2 lb. Soil preparation Prepare the soil in the fall Feeding and watering Each March apply a
Like currants, gooseberries are alternate or late winter. It is essential to eliminate balanced fertilizer such as 10-10-10 over the
hosts of white pine blister rust and can be perennial weeds because the gooseberry is whole plot at 2 oz per square yard and sulfate
planted only in areas where this disease is thorny and not easy to weed around. On of potash at 1/2 oz per square yard. Mulch
not a problem. The local state agricultural light soils, dig in a 11/2-2 in layer of well-rotted around the base of the plant with a 2 in layer
extension service or forestry department manure or compost over the whole area. On of well-rotted manure, compost or peat on
should be contacted before ordering plants. rich soils there is less need for bulky organics light soils, but less on medium or fertile soils.
because too much of them encourages soft In the absence of bulky organics apply
Cultivation growth, which is prone to snapping and to sulfate of ammonia at 1 oz per square yard.
One-, two-, or three-year-old bushes' can be mildew. Rake in a balanced fertilizer such as Water copiously in dry weather but do not
bought from a grower. A one-year-old bush 10-10-10 at 2 oz per square yard and sulfate water irregularly or heavily at the ripening
should have about 3-5 shoots evenly placed of potash at 1/2 oz per square yard. stage because this causes the fruit to split.

The second year

1 Clear the soil of perennial weeds. Rake in 2 In early spring, dig a hole wide and deep 3 At the same time, cut back each 4 In winter, shorten the leaders by one-
a balanced fertilizer such as 10-10-10 at enough to take the roots spread out well. framework branch by one-half to an inward- half to inward- and upward-facing buds.
2 oz per square yard and sulfate of potash Plant the bush so that there is a clear stem and upward-pointing bud. Clean off the Select well-placed shoots to form further
at 1/2 oz per square yard. of 4 - 6 in above ground. suckers at the base and any shoots too permanent branches and cut back by
near the ground. one-half. Remove suckers and low stems.
Gooseberries 2
Formative pruning: Bush In the framework to about 2in. thereafter, As the bushes become older and branches Thinning and harvesting the fruits
Most varieties have a tendency to form prune the bush both in the- summer and in less productive or too spreading, leave in For large dessert fruits start thinning the fruits
drooping growth and, in order to maintain the winter. some suitably placed strong, young shoots to in June, removing every other one, and
an erect bush, counteract this habit by prun- replace the old which are then cut out. use the thinnings for cooking.
ing the leaders to inward- or upward-facing Pruning an established bush For small or medium dessert fruits, do not
buds or back to upright laterals. The center of Each summer, in late June to early July, prune The third year thin the fruits but leave t h e m to ripen and
the plant is kept open to make picking and all laterals (that is, the current season's Pruning a single cordon Prune in the same develop their full flavor. Pick gooseberries
spraying easier, to ripen the wood and fruits, growth) back to five leaves. This opens up the way as the red currant cordon (see page 33). for cooking when they are a good size, but
and to improve air circulation (which lessens bush and removes any mildew and aphids at still green, from late June.
the risk of mildew). the tips of the shoots. Do not prune goose- Weed control
When planting a one-year-old bush, cut berries earlier because this might induce As with most bush fruits, the gooseberry is Propagation
back each framework branch by one-half to secondary growth. Do not prune the leaders shallow rooted. Keep the weeds down by Propagate gooseberries using 12 in hardwood
an outward-facing bud if the shoot is upright. unless they are affected by aphids or mildew. light hoeing or with herbicides. cuttings taken from healthy shoots in late
Cut back to an inward-facing bud if the Each winter, cut back the leaders by one- September. First remove the weak tip and all
shoot is weeping. half to a bud facing in the required direction. Protection against frost and birds but four buds from the upper part of the
The second year (or a two-year-old bush) If the branch is weeping badly and there is a The gooseberry flowers early, during April, cutting. This produces a miniature, open-
In late winter, shorten the leaders by one- suitably placed upright lateral on it, then cut and spring frosts can substantially reduce the centered bush on a short leg. Dip the base of
half. Select well-placed shoots to form further back to this. crop. On frosty nights protect the plants the cuttings in a hormone rooting powder.
permanent branches and cut back by one- Next deal with the laterals that were pruned when they are in flower. Cover with burlap Insert the cuttings in the open ground with
half. Remove any suckers or low-growing the previous summer. Where smaller quanti- or t w o or three layers of bird netting, but their lowest buds 2 in above the soil surface.
shoots growing from the stem. ties of large high-quality dessert fruits are remove it during the day to allow in light and Leave the cuttings in the nursery bed for the
The third year (or a three-year-old bush) required, cut all of these laterals back to about give access for pollinating insects. growing season. Lift and replant, exposing
The bush should have developed a main two buds. W h e r e a large amount of fruit is The fruit buds are attractive to bullfinches more of the stem.
framework of about 6 - 8 branches with required, pruning should be moderated ac- and sparrows in the winter and the ripening
well-spaced leading shoots; it is at the start of cordingly. Vigorous varieties should be pruned fruits to blackbirds and thrushes in the sum- Pests and diseases
its cropping life. In winter, shorten the leaders less severely because this could encourage mer. Net the bushes in the winter and when The pests and diseases that plague the goose-
by one-half to a bud facing in the required excessive growth. Cut out dead and diseased the fruits begin to ripen. For further informa- berry are similar to those that attack the
growth direction. Cut out shoots crowding w o o d , and any growth crowding the center tion on netting against birds, see under currants. For example, aphids and anthrac-
the center and shorten those not required of the bush. separate headings (page 17). nose (see page 33).

The third year The established bush

5 In winter, shorten the leaders by one-half 6 When the fruits are large enough for 1 In late June to early July, prune all the 2 In winter, cut back the leaders by one-
to a bud facing in the required growth cooking, thin the fruits by removing every laterals produced that season to five leaves. half. Cut back laterals pruned in the
direction. Cut out shoots crowding the other one. Cover the bush with burlap or This opens up the bush and removes aphids previous summer to about t w o buds. Cut
center. Shorten laterals not required for the bird netting to protect the fruits from birds. at the tips of the shoots. Do not prune the out diseased and dead w o o d and growth
framework to about 2 in. leaders. that crowds the center.
Grapes 1
The art of growing grapes, or viticulture, has a strong sunlight as possible. (Grapes growing they start to leaf out. Dig large, deep holes; Training and pruning
long and illustrious history. The vine grows wild in forests often take root at the foot of spread out the roots; firm them well; and the training and pruning of grapes are matters
wild in the temperate regions of North trees and soon clamber above the trees). water thoroughly. Then cut off all but one of critical importance. The main purposes of
America, western Asia, southern Europe and The location selected for the vines should strong cane and trim this back to eight buds. training are to keep the large, fast-growing
parts of North Africa and it is thought to have have good air drainage. In colder areas, vines under control, to facilitate care and
originated in Asia Minor. protection from winter winds is necessary. Maintenance harvesting, and to expose all parts of the
The vine is a perennial deciduous climber Except for pruning and training, grapes do not plants to the sun. The purposes of pruning
that clings to supports by tendrils. The leaves Soil demand a great deal of attention. are to maintain vigorous growth, to provide
are hand- or heart-shaped and 4 - 8 in in size. The vines are fairly tolerant of a wide range In dry spells, they should be watered new canes for the next year, and to limit the
The grapes most commonly grown by home of soils, although the soils must be deep and deeply, but, as the fruit begins to mature, the number of fruit-producing buds so that the
gardeners in the northern part of the United well drained, and not too sandy. The plants water supply should be reduced somewhat. vines do not produce too much small fruit
States are the so-called American, or bunch, require a soil pH of 5.5-7.0. If there is any This helps the maturation process and also of inferior quality.
grapes, descendants of wild grapes. The possibility that the soil may become badly inhibits succulent growth. In the fall, however, Various training systems are used for all
blue, black, green, red and yellow berries waterlogged, a good drainage system should after the fruit has been picked, one heavy three types of grapes.
usually have slip-skins (separable from the be installed. watering is necessary to help protect the
pulp) and ripen from mid-summer on. They Two or three weeks before actual planting, vines from winter injury. American bunch grapes
are largely self-fruitful. Although American prepare the soil by double-digging to break Unless the plants are doing poorly, they Four-Arm Kniffin system This is the most
bunch grapes can be grown from zones 3-10, up any hard layers and to clear away peren- need little fertilizer. Give each plant 2 - 4 oz popular method of training American bunch
they do best in zones 5-7. nial weeds. Dig in leafmold or well-rotted of ammonium nitrate or a somewhat more grapes since it gives good production and
Muscadine grapes are generally grown in manure at the rate of about one wheel- balanced fertilizer in early spring. This should requires little summer tying of the vines.
the South (zones 7-9). These form much barrow load per 20 square feet. Also rake in carry them through the growing season. The trellis required consists of 4 - 6 in posts
larger vines up to 90 ft long and produce a balanced fertilizer such as 10-10-10 at the Keep encroaching weeds pulled. An appli- and galvanized steel wires. Space the posts
fruits singly or in loose clusters. Several rate of 3 oz per square yard. cation of an organic mulch around the plants 16 ft apart. Sink the end posts 3 ft into the
self-fruitful varieties are available but most discourages weed growth in addition to ground and brace them with diagonal struts
varieties are self-unfruitful. Since the fruit of Planting supplying the necessary nutrients for healthy or guy wires. Sink the intermediate posts 2 ft.
self-fruitful varieties is inferior to that of the Plant one-year-old vines in early spring before growth. The posts normally extend 5 ft above ground,
self-unfruitful varieties, self-fruitful varieties
are best used to pollinate the self-unfruitful Staking and planting The first year
varieties.
Vinifera, or wine, grapes are descended
from European grapes and are best employed
in wine-making. A number of varieties, all
with skins inseparable from the pulp, are
eaten at table and are considered among the
best grapes for this purpose. Some varieties
are also used for raisins. All vinifera grapes
are self-fruitful, producing berries in extremely
large clusters. They grow best in California,
but there are numerous hardy varieties that
can be grown as far north as zone 6. There
are also many new hybrid varieties resulting
from crosses of American and vinifera grapes.
These combine characteristics of the parents
and are therefore difficult to classify.

Cultivation
Grapes are sun-loving plants and must be
grown where they will be exposed to the sun 1 Bore or dig holes and drive 8 ft posts 3 ft 2 In early spring, plant the vine to the 3 For both pruning systems, allow one rod
all day or at least for the greater part of the into the ground, spaced according to the nursery depth between posts in prepared to develop. Pinch back to one leaf any
day. But the base of the plant need not be in pruning system to be followed. Stretch ground. Firm the soil and water well. Cut other shoots. Leave t w o good buds (Kniffen)
full sun although it is essential that the wires between the posts, spaced according back the vine to one cane and eight good or three (Guyot).
upper part of the plant catches as much to the pruning system. buds.
Grapes 2
but increasing the height to 6 ft exposes the a single stem with two or three buds and start between the four fuit bearing canes, on the crossarms on the top edge. Run a third wire
vines to more sunlight and is especially all over again. plant. For each additional pound of wood through the posts 6 - 8 in lower.
recommended for short-season areas. The third year Pick four good canes for the removed, leave eight more buds on vine Train the new vine, as above, to a single
Use 9-gauge wire at the tops of the posts arms; cut them back to approximately 10 vine. (This weighing plan is used not only for trunk extending to the b o t t o m wire. In the
and 11-gauge at 30 in above ground. The buds in length; stretch them out along the the Four-Arm Kniffin training system, but third year, prune it to t w o fruit-bearing canes
wires can be stapled to the posts or run top and bottom wires in both directions from also for all other training systems). and t w o renewal spurs. Tie the canes along
through holes drilled in the posts. Drilled the trunk; and tie them. Cut four other canes All pruning is done in early spring while the the lower wire, and as the young shoots
holes give greater security. If staples are used, back to two or three buds for renewal spurs vines are dormant and after danger of severe develop, drape them over the upper wires,
do not drive them down tight because it may and remove all other canes. freezes has passed. If pruning is done too allowing them to hang d o w n .
be necessary to tighten the wires when Subsequent years Each year cut off the 10- early, heavy frost can compound the winter Each year thereafter replace the arms with
they sag under the weight of the vines. bud fruit-bearing canes of the previous year injury already suffered by the plant, and the the canes from the renewal spurs and replace
Plant the grape vines between posts. If and replace them with the renewal spurs gardener cannot be certain which canes are the spurs.
planted at the base of posts, they may be (which are shortened to approximately 10 alive and which are dead. Pruning late does Modified Chautauqua system This system is
injured by any w o o d preservative in the buds). The renewal spurs are replaced with no serious damage, but there is a good chance used where tender grape varieties need
treated posts, and would undoubtedly be new renewal spurs cut back to two or three that some of the buds meant to be saved winter protection. The trellis is made with
damaged when the posts had to be replaced. buds. All other canes are removed. will be destroyed. If the cut canes "bleed", 4-in posts and three No 9 wires spaced 12, 28
The first year W h e n the two top shoots on The actual number of buds that should be there is no need for worry as this does no and 44 in above ground.
the young plant are about 1 in long, rub off all left on fruit-bearing canes each year depends great harm. In the first year, simply let the vine grow
other shoots. on the variety of grape and the growing Munson system This is an excellent system upward and tie it to the wires. In the fall of
The second year Select the strongest cane conditions. Until the home gardener has for humid climates because the grapes are the same year, select the best cane for the
for the trunk and tie it to the top wire. Cut the raised grapes for some time, the best way to carried well above ground where they are trunk, reduce it to 30 in long, and remove all
cane just above the wire and remove all determine how hard to prune is as follows. exposed to more air currents. other canes. Lay the trunk on the ground
other canes. If no cane reaches the top wire, First rough-prune the vine, leaving a few The trellis consists of sturdy and large posts and cover it with about 8 in of soil for a
tie the strongest one to the bottom wire and more buds than needed. Weigh the w o o d (4 x 6s are recommended) with stout 24 in measure of protection.
extend it to the top wire the next year. If no removed. For the first pound of wood, leave crossarms 5 ft above ground. Brace the cross- In the spring, pull the cane out along the
cane reaches either wire, reduce the vine to 3 0 - 4 0 buds, more or less equally divided arm. Staple t w o No 9 wires to the ends of the b o t t o m wire at an angle and tie it. As new
growth develops, tie to the other wires.
Kniffen system—The second year The third year Fourth and subsequent years Prune the new growth to short two-bud
spurs in the fall. Keep the cane closest to the
end of the trunk to form an extension of the
trunk. Remove the vine from the trellis and
bury it as before.
In following years, repeat this procedure.
Let the trunk grow to a maximum length of
about 7 ft.

Muscadine grapes
Muscadines can be trained by any of the
systems described, but the vine is such a
strong, rampant grower that it is often culti-
vated on arbors. In this case, train the young
vine to a trunk 6 - 7 f t long before allowing it
to branch out to the sides along wires, spaced
about 2 ft apart, forming the arbor roof.
In the Four-Arm Kniffin system, train and
prune the vine to form a trunk and four
strong arms. Do not cut the arms back until
1 In spring, select the strongest cane, tie 2 In spring, select four vigorous canes and 3 In spring, cut off the old fruiting arms. they meet those of the neighbouring vines.
it in and cut off just above the top wire. tie them in to form arms. Prune them to ten Tie in four new canes chosen from the Thereafter, annually prune out deadwood,
Remove all other canes. buds each. Prune four other canes to form renewal spurs. Cut each new cane back to weak canes, and side g r o w t h on the trunk
four renewal spurs for the next year. six buds. Cut four new canes back to two and the tendrils. Cut the remaining canes
buds to form renewal spurs. back to t w o or three buds.
Grapes 3
In the warmest regions, pruning should be Each year, allow three new main stems to (except the first) cut back the arms that bore Muscadine grapes. Viniferas are very heavy
done after the first killing frost in the fall develop. Retain t w o for fruiting and cut back fruit the previous summer to the replacement producers, and thinning is needed to improve
or early winter. Further north, prune in early the others to produce replacement stems for spurs. Do not allow fruit on the plants in the fruit size, thinning of varieties with very
spring. Muscadines pruned at this time bleed the next year. The fruiting canes are trained second year after planting, but allow them in large or compact fruit clusters is done by
great deal, but there is no damage to the close to the ground to take advantage of its the third. Tie down on to the lowest wire one removing individual berries immediately after
plants. radiated w a r m t h . replacement shoot to the left and one to the fruit set. On varieties w i t h loose or straggly
The trellis consists of 4-in posts spaced right. Cut down the remaining spur to three clusters, remove some of the immature
Vinifera grapes 8-10 ft apart. Brace the end posts. Attach a or four buds to provide replacement spurs flower clusters appearing with the new
The Four-Arm Kniffin system is the method No 12 wire to the posts 15 in above the ground for the following year. Cut back the immature growth in the spring.
generally chosen in warm climates, but a and t w o No 14 wires so they cross at each wood on the replacement spur, leaving In addition, with all vinifera varieties, it
modification called the Spur system is used post. about 2-21/2 ft of strong growth either side. helps to remove entire fruit clusters soon
for varieties such as 'Csaba' and 'Cardinal'. The first year At planting, cut the vine down Third and subsequent years From April to after fruit set. The number of clusters left
The Spur system allows the fruit-bearing to about 6 in from ground level if the vine is August, tuck in the vertical fruit-carrying depends on the size and vigor of the vine.
arms to be permanent, that is they are not on its own roots or, if it is a grafted plant, 6 in laterals between the double wires. Cut them Keep about 2 0 - 3 0 .
renewed annually. Each arm has 6 - 8 vertical above the graft union, leaving at least two back to two or three leaves above the top
fruiting spurs and each spur has 2 - 3 buds good buds. During the summer following wires, as necessary, and remove any sub- Harvesting
that produce fruit shoots. planting, train one shoot up the post and laterals. Train the three replacement spurs Even when grapes are fully colored, they are
In cold climates, where tender varieties pinch out all others to one leaf. from the center for the following year up the not ripe because they need a finishing
need winter protection, the Modified Chaut- The second year In the spring, cut the vine post. Pinch back any sub-laterals on the period for sugars to form. This period can
auqua system can be used. down to within 15 in of ground level, leaving replacement spurs to one leaf and remove vary from 4 - 8 weeks. Once picked, grapes
Guyot system This is actually two systems. In three good buds. During the summer, train in any blossom. Remove any surplus spurs do not continue to ripen.
the single Guyot system there is one fruit- three shoots vertically. Pinch back any coming off the main stem.
carrying arm while in the double Guyot system laterals to one leaf as they develop. In the Pests and diseases
there are two fruit-carrying arms. The double next spring, the vine should be pruned as for Thinning Grapes are not greatly bothered by pest and
Guyot system is the more popular and is an established vine (below). Thinning of the fruit is recommended for disease problems. But it is advisable to spray
described below. Pruning an established vine Each spring vinifera grapes, but not for American and the plants in late winter with dormant oil. A
general-purpose fruit spray should be ap-
Double Guyot system—The second year Third and subsequent years plied when the new growth is about 8 in
long, just before bloom and t w o weeks
thereafter.
Mildew should be sprayed with a fungicide
whenever it appears. Spraying w i t h carbaryl
takes care of Japanese beetles, w h i c h have a
particular liking for grape vines. Repeat
treatment as necessary.
It is almost impossible to cover grape vines
securely with nets to protect them from birds.
But the individual fruit clusters can be en-
closed in mesh or with paper bags.
In some years, wasps are even worse than
birds, attacking the fruit just as it is ready to
harvest and quickly destroying entire
bunches. Only paper bags can keep wasps
in check.
Disease or pest infestation should not
prove a hindrance in viticulture if t h e grape
1 In spring, cut the vine d o w n to within 2 From April to August, train three shoots 3 In November, cut out the two arms that vines are tended so that they remain in a
15 in of the ground, leaving three buds. vertically from the center. Pinch back bore fruit in summer to the replacements. healthy condition. Soil balance is the greatest
Train the resulting shoots vertically. any laterals produced on them to 1 in as Tie d o w n one replacement shoot to the determinant influencing grapevine health
Pinch back any laterals to one leaf as they they develop. Tuck in the vertical fruit- left and one to the right. Cut back each while weather is the most unpredictable
develop. carrying laterals through the double wires. to leave 2-21/2 ft of strong shoot. Cut factor. Wet, humid weather usually means
Cut t h e m back to three leaves. down the remaining shoot to three buds. mildewed grape vines.
Melons
Gray-green or ochre-colored melons with about 6 in apart and thin them to stand 2ft
rough, netted skins are known to most apart. In setting out transplants, space them
Americans as cantaloupes, but the true can- 2 ft apart. The rows should be 5 - 6 ft wide. The
taloupe is a hard-shelled European fruit that alternative is to sow seeds or plant seedlings
is rarely grown in the United States. Gardeners in gently rounded mounds (hills) 6 ft wide and
wishing to attempt to grow it usually have to a few inches high at the center spaced 4 ft
order seeds from a foreign supplier. apart. Allow t w o or three plants per hill.
Melons Americans grow fall into two cate- Furrows about 10 in wide can be dug on the
gories: Muskmelons and Winter or late south side of the hills to a depth of about 6 in
melons. Muskmelons mature in roughly 90 to allow watering without wetting the foliage.
days and can be grown in zones 5-10 and Water well, especially during dry spells, but
even into zones 3 and 4, if the quick-maturing do not keep the soil soaked.
varieties are chosen. Winter melons, includ- If nematodes are a problem in the garden,
ing the 'Casaba', 'Crenshaw', 'Honeydew', the soil should be fumigated before planting.
and 'Persian' varieties, are larger fruits with Watering and feeding Melons need plenty
variously colored skins and most of them of moisture throughout the growing season
take about four months to mature, so they and this should be provided by deep weekly
are grown primarily in warmer climates. watering in dry spells. Pull out weeds as they
appear. Mulching the plants with organic
Cultivation matter or black polyethylene film is a good
A popular misconception about melons is idea to hold in moisture and keep down
that they cannot be planted with cucumbers, weeds. W h e n the vines begin to run, side-
squashes or other members of the cucurbit dress t h e m lightly with balanced fertilizer or 1 About four weeks before the expected 2 Plant out under cloches w h e n the danger
family because they are cross-pollinated and nitrate of soda. date of the last spring frost, sow melon of frost is past. Make a hole wide and deep
this changes the flavor and aroma of the For example, apply 4-8-4 balanced fertilizer seeds in peat pots indoors. Harden off enough for the root ball to fit into
melons. This does happen if seeds from carefully at 1/2oz to each mound in a circle gradually before removal to the garden. comfortably.
melons grown the year before are used. But around each mound after thinning the
the use of fresh seed every year eliminates the plants. Keep the fertilizer well clear of the Melons in the open
problem. plants and cover the dressing with nearby
Melons are tender and vulnerable and can- soil. The dressing should ideally be applied
not be sown outdoors until the soil is warm 4 - 6 in away from each plant.
and all danger of frost is past. In short-season
areas, this makes melon-growing by this Harvesting
c o m m o n method impossible. W h e n melons start to turn their characteris-
Soil The soil for melons should be reasonably tic mature color, they are ripening and will
fertile but not too rich, with a pH of 6.7-7.0. soon be ready for picking. In the home gar-
Good drainage is essential. Dig the soil well den, however, actual harvest should not
before planting and mix in considerable start until the fruits pull away from the stem
humus to improve fertility and moisture re- easily. At this time they are in prime eating
tention. Also mix in about 24 oz of 5-10-10 condition. Do not leave them on the vine any
fertilizer per 50 square feet. longer, because they begin to deteriorate
Sowing the seed In the North, therefore, within a couple of days. Ripe melons have a
seeds are sown in flats or peat pots indoors strong, fruity scent.
about 3-4 weeks before the mean date of
the spring freeze. W h e n the plants have t w o Pests and diseases
or three true leaves, they are moved into the Melons are attacked by a few insects, but
garden and grown under cloches or poly- these are not generally very troublesome and
ethylene tunnels, usually about t w o weeks can usually be controlled by spraying with
after the last frost. malathion or carbaryl when they appear. But 1 Dig soil well before planting and 2 Mulch the plants w i t h black polyethylene
Planting Further south, however, direct sow- diseases can be difficult, especially in warm, incorporate humus and 5-10-10 balanced and water well. Train as usual. Check for
ing in the garden is a simpler and better humid weather. The best protection against fertilizer at 24 oz per 50 square foot. dryness at regular intervals thereafter.
method. Sow the seeds in 1/2 in deep drills disease is to plant resistant varieties. M o u n d up the soil. Mulching will help to w a r m cold soil.
Tree fruits
Introduction a range of apple rootstocks to produce dwarf Choice of site least two different compatible varieties must
Tree fruits (also sometimes referred to as top or less vigorous trees which are ideal for the The site should be chosen with care and the be grown close enough for bees to be able to
fruits) form a group comprising all the larger small garden (see page 45). Pears are tra- soil cleared of perennial weeds either with a carry pollen from one to the other. Sweet
growing fruits which, in the natural state at ditionally grafted on to quince rootstocks and selective herbicide (see page 17) or by hand cherries provide the best example of self
least, attain tree form. The exceptions to this this lessens their vigor and ultimate size. A weeding during digging. If some weeds still sterility, but practically all the tree fruits set
are the fig, elderberry, mulberry and quince, dwarfing rootstock for cherries has proved persist, herbicide treatment can be given heavier crops if two or three varieties are
which may have several main stems and be harder to find but a less vigorous one has now again after the tree is planted, but take care to planted together. They must, of course,
more shrub-like in appearance; they are, been produced, although it is not as dwarfing choose one which will not damage the tree. flower at the same time and produce plenty
however, still generally classified as tree fruits. as some of the apple stocks that are now of good pollen.
Botanically, the most familiar' tree fruits widely available. Protection against birds
are members of the rose family (Rosaceae), In areas where bird damage is expected (and Storage
including the apple, pear, plum, cherry, Pruning and training few rural or suburban districts are exempt), If it is decided to plant enough apples and
peach, apricot and quince; the mulberry For all tree fruits, initial training and sub- protection is necessary. For small tree forms, pears to provide fruit for the late fall to winter
and fig are outsiders belonging to the mainly sequent pruning is necessary to keep them in such as dwarf bush trees, cordons or espal- period, storage facilities are necessary. This
tropical family Moraceae. Also included in good shape and productive throughout their iers, this can be provided by a fruit cage, can be provided by a cool but frost-free cellar
the tree fruit section are some of the most lives. Methods of training, particularly pruning, ideally one with tubular steel or metal alloy or shed (see page 90). Late apples and pears
popular nuts, such as almonds, chestnuts, can seem daunting to an amateur but this poles and netting, although 7 ft headroom finish ripening many weeks after they have
filberts, hazelnuts and walnuts. need not be so if the instructions with each is a minimum (see page 17). It is generally been picked, and so they should not be stored
Tree fruits are not difficult to grow provided fruit entry in this book are followed closely. impracticable to protect larger tree fruits with mid-season varieties until this ripening
the soil is well drained but moisture-retentive There is also a companion volume on pruning against bird damage. has taken place because the gases given off
and of a moderate to good depth (see pages in this series. by the earlier varieties shorten the storage life
10-11). The site must be sunny and not prone Pruning terms The terms used frequently in Wall- and fence-trained trees of the later ones. Deep freezing is suitable for
to severe late spring frosts (see pages 6-7). fruit tree pruning are defined as follows. If there is no room in the open garden for these two fruits only if they are to be used in
Unlike growing soft fruits, cultivating tree Maiden describes a one-year-old, for ex- free-standing tree fruits, good use can be cooking when thawed.
fruits in the garden is a long-term project. ample, a maiden tree. A scion is a variety made of walls and fences if restricted tree
Full fruiting capacity is reached by the tree grafted on to a rootstock of another tree; forms such as fans, cordons or espaliers are Fruit under glass
only after several years, but with care it will the union is where the two join. A branch is grown. North-facing walls can be used in this Figs, peaches and nectarines produce lus-
then continue for a lifetime. However, the a limb that arises from the trunk. Primary way for Morello cherries. Some plums are cious fruits under glass in cool areas. Artificial
fruit grower is compensated by the fact that branches are the first formed, and secondary even more successful on walls than in the heat is not required although ripening can be
the fruiting season for tree fruits is much branches arise from the primary ones. A open, ripening well in the sheltered and hastened by its use early in the season. Wall
longer than that of soft fruits. Furthermore, if leader is a main central stem of a tree or a warmer environment. Figs are often best or roof space not less than 10 ft long is needed
fruits such as peaches or figs are grown in a shoot selected to extend a main branch; a grown on a warm wall (see pages 8-9). for a well developed peach or a fig rooted in
greenhouse the season can be prolonged. lateral is a side-shoot. Spurs are short laterals the floor of the greenhouse. Alternatively,
that bear flower buds and which can occur Pollination much smaller trees can be grown in large pots
Rootstocks naturally or be induced by selective pruning Unlike most soft fruits which will produce an and housed in all but the smallest green-
Apples, pears, cherries and plums can all of the laterals. Flower buds, or blossom buds, adequate crop even if only one plant is house. Space outside should be set aside
eventually make sizeable trees if grown on are unopened flowers, often referred to as grown, many tree fruits are totally or par- where hardy potted trees can be kept w i t h
their own roots; some even become too large fruit buds. W o o d buds open to give rise to a tially self-incompatible, or self-unfruitful. This the roots protected during the winter after
for most gardens. For this reason they are shoot, as opposed to a flower. Suckers are means that some varieties cannot produce a the fruit has been picked. For fruit in the
grafted on to rootstocks which control their shoots that grow from below the ground or good crop of fruit if their flowers are fertilized greenhouse, see page 19; for fruit in tubs and
eventual size. Usually apples are grafted on to below the union. with their o w n pollen. In such instances at pots, see pages 80—81.
Pollination
Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the at the same time so that the two varieties pollinate, even when they are in the same and should be grown with t w o diploid
anthers or male parts of the flower to the can fertilize each other. pollination group. This is called cross-incom- varieties to pollinate each other and the
stigmas or female parts of the flower. This patibility. These varieties are divided into triploid.
results in fertilization and the eventual pro- Pollination groups incompatibility groups and will not set fruit Some varieties of pears are known to be
duction of fruit. It is usually carried out by Different varieties of plums, apples, pears and with their own pollen or that of any variety ineffective pollinators. Also some varieties of
bees or other insects or by the wind. Occa- cherries are divided into pollination groups in the same incompatibility group. They will both apples and pears flower only every t w o
sionally, it is necessary to pollinate by hand. according to when their flowers are open and cross-pollinate with varieties in another group years (biennially) or, irregularly. These cannot,
The flowers of most garden fruits contain ripe for pollination. Those varieties in the or in adjacent groups (provided they flower therefore, be relied upon to pollinate other
both anthers and stigmas. Some fruits, such same pollination group will cross-pollinate at the same time). varieties.
as melons and hazelnuts, bear separate male because their flowers are open at the same Many triploids, ineffective pollinators and
and female flowers on the same plant. time. Those in adjacent groups are also Ineffective pollinators irregular flowering varieties are good varieties
Some fruit trees, such as peaches, nec- acceptable because in most years their Some varieties of apples and pears, although in their own right and popular w i t h gardeners.
tarines, apricots and certain plums, are self- seasons of flowering overlap. However, a not strictly cross-incompatible, are ineffective If planting these varieties, remember to plant
compatible—that is they can be fertilized by plant that blossoms very early cannot be pollinators. This can occur for a number of other varieties near t h e m to provide the
their own pollen. Others, such as nearly all counted on to cross-pollinate another plant reasons. necessary pollen.
sweet cherries, elderberries and many vari- that blossoms very late. Most varieties are diploid, that is, they have The following list gives the specific pollina-
eties of apples and pears are self-incompatible the normal number of chromosomes. A few tion nature of a selection of popular garden
(self-unfruitful); they must be grown with Incompatibility groups are triploid, that is they have 11/2 times the tree fruits from apples to sweet cherries.
another variety of the same fruit that flowers Not all varieties of the same fruit can cross- normal number. Triploids are poor pollinators
Specifics
Apples No variety is completely self-com-
patible, so more than one variety should be
grown.
Apricots Usually self-compatible with a few
exceptions (for example, 'Moongold' and
'Sungold' should generally be planted t o -
gether).
Crabapples Self-compatible.
Nectarines Self-compatible.
Peaches The great majority of varieties are
self-compatible.
Pears No variety is fully self-compatible.
Plant t w o or more varieties. Most bloom at
about the same time.
Plums Most varieties are self-incompatible,
and even those that are self-compatible bear
more reliably if planted w i t h another variety.
European plums cannot pollinate Japanese
plums or vice versa. Native plums are pollin-
Some fruits require hand pollination. First ated by other native varieties, sandcherry-
draw the finger-tip over the anthers. A plum hybrids or Japanese varieties, if a native
deposit of yellow grains on the finger variety has been crossed with a Japanese.
indicates pollen is being shed. Pollinate Quinces Self-compatible.
at midday and when the weather has been Sour cherries Self-compatible. Sweet cher-
warm and dry for two or three days. ries are not suitable pollinators for sour
Very gently transfer the pollen from the cherries, but sour cherries can pollinate sweet
anthers to the stigmas by using a soft cherries, although most flower t o o late.
camel-hair brush or a piece of cotton wool Sweet cherries Self-incompatible. Two or
on a matchstick. more varieties are needed. However, some
Carry out hand pollination every day varieties, such as 'Bing', 'Emperor Francis',
until flowering is over. 'Lambert' and 'Napoleon' do not pollinate
one another.
Planting fruit trees
Good establishment, healthy growth and after four or five years, depending on the some, protect the trees with wire netting.
eventual successful cropping of a fruit tree vigor. Before removing the stake, check if the Each year in April, July and October check
depend a great deal on how well it is planted. anchorage is sound by rocking the tree. the tree ties and if necessary loosen to avoid
constriction. Re-tie home-made ties.
Preparation Planting
Before planting prepare the ground in early If the roots are a little dry, soak them for an Planting against a wall
fall as described on pages 10-11. Then, for hour before planting. Keep them covered. The soil at the foot of a wall can become very
each tree, prepare an area 3 ft square by On the day of planting, dig out a hole deep dry and poor, especially if it is protected
single digging clean ground and double and wide enough to take the roots fully from rain-bearing winds or is sheltered by
digging weedy land. Prepare the ground over- spread out. M o u n d the soil in the center. Keep overhanging eaves.
all for closely planted trees such as those on the fertile top-soil separate from the lower Where the soil is poor and the drainage is
dwarfing rootstocks. Apply lime if the pH is layers. Fork the b o t t o m and prick the sides of bad, construct a drywell or a single line of
less than 5.8 (see page 10). the hole to allow the roots to develop out- tiles 3 ft deep to take the water away (see
Just before planting, fork in a balanced wards. Dig in into the base rotted-down sods page 10). Re-soil over an area at least 6 ft x 3 ft
fertilizer, such as 10-10-10, at a rate of 3 oz or a bucketful of well-rotted manure, com- wide x 2 ft deep with a fibrous, medium
per square yard with bonemeal at 2 oz per post or peat. Trim off with shears any broken chalky loam, if possible made from sods
square yard. or long tap roots. If planting a container- stacked for six months before use. A d d
grown tree, gently tease out the soil and roots rubble to the loam in the ratio ten soil to one
Time to plant around the edge of the rootball. rubble. Two weeks before planting thoroughly
Plant in the dormant season from late O c t o - Place the tree on the mound with the stem mix in base fertilizer at the rate of 8 oz per
ber to April; but spring planting is generally 2-3 in away from the stake. Ensure that the 2 gal bucketful of soil.
recommended. Container-grown trees can lowest branches clear the top of the stake. The tree should be planted about 9 in Take out a shallow trench. Unpack the
be planted at any time. Do not plant when Plant the tree to the same depth as it was in from the wall base. During the growing sea- tree and lay it in the trench at an angle.
the soil is frozen hard or very wet. the nursery, indicated by the soil mark. Keep son, water it whenever the soil is dry, apply- Cover the roots with moist, friable soil.
If the tree arrives from the nursery when the union between scion and rootstock at ing 4 gal at a time around the base of the tree.
the soil conditions are not right, heel it in least 4 in above the soil surface to prevent the
in a sheltered part of the garden. If the ground scion from rooting.
is too cold and hard to heel in, keep the tree Fill in the holes; this is easier if one person
in an unheated, frost-free place such as a holds the tree while another fills it in. Sprinkle
cool basement. Unpack the upper parts of a little of the fertile top-soil over the roots first
the tree but keep the roots in damp straw then return the remaining soil a spadeful at a
wrapped in burlap until planting. time. Occasionally shake the tree gently so
that the soil falls among the roots. Finally,
Staking firm the soil and level off the surface.
Mark out the planting position and drive in Next, mulch the tree with well-rotted
a stake to a depth of 18 in on heavy soils and manure compost or peat over an area 18 in
24 in on light. Standard trees require 71/2—8 ft in radius to a depth of 2-3 in, keeping the
posts, semi-dwarfs 6-61/2ft and dwarfs 31/2-4 ft. material 1-2 in clear of the trunk to prevent
Central-leader trees need a stake as long fungal diseases from infecting the base.
as the height of the tree plus the depth into Tie the tree to the stake. A one-year old
the soil. A large-headed standard, such as a can be secured with plastic chainlock strap-
sweet cherry, is best supported by two stakes ping using a figure of eight tie, but older trees
18 in apart with a crossbar (to which the tree need a more substantial tie with a cushion
is tied) nailed just below the stake tops. The between stake and tree to prevent chafing.
top of the stake should be 2 - 3 in clear of There are a number of proprietary makes, or
the tree's head to avoid chafing the lowest one can be made (see pages 12-13).
branches. Stakes come in a variety of Dwarfs require one tie placed 1 in from the 1 If the roots are dry, soak 2 Drive in stake. Dig a hole 3 Set the plant on the
materials (see pages 12-13). top 'of the stake. Semi-dwarfs and standards them for an hour before deep and wide enough to mound 2-3 in away f r o m
Trees on very dwarfing rootstocks, for require two ties, one at the top and one half- planting. Trim off broken or take the roots fully spread the stake w i t h the union at
example apples on Mailing 9, are best staked way down. Nail the ties to the post to prevent long tap roots with out. Mound the soil slightly least 4 in above the soil
permanently. But for trees on more vigorous them slipping d o w n . shears. in the center. surface. Replace the soil,
stocks, the stake can usually be removed Where animals are particularly trouble- firming gently. M u l c h well.
Apples and pears 1
Introduction and rootstocks 24 in deep and slightly acid (pH 6.7). They are,
The domestic apple (Malus domestical is of however, tolerant or a wide range of soils. ROOTSTOCKS
complex hybrid origin but it has evolved, Pears and dessert apples require good drain- Apples stocks, sometimes taking seven to eight
under human influence, from various species, age, whereas cooking varieties can bo grown M7: Semi-dwarfing tree that can be con- years. They are too vigorous for most
all of them belonging to the series Pumilae. in heavy soil and marginally poorer drainage, trolled by training and pruning and grown gardens except where the soil is poor.
It has been estimated that up to 1980 there but the soil must never be waterlogged. to a height of about 15 ft.
were at least 6,000 named varieties of apples Light sandy soils are acceptable provided M9: Very dwarfing One of the most Pears
in the world. bulky organics are incorporated and heavy dwarfing stocks, M9 is widely used, making Pears are usually grafted on to quince
Like the apple, the pear {Pyrus communis) mulching and watering is practiced. Thin soils a tree about 6-10 ft in height and spread. rootstocks, which make them small to
has long been cultivated. It is a native of over limestone are unsuitable because lime- It soon bears fruit, usually from the third medium-sized trees. Some pears have a
Northern Europe. In the United States, apples induced chlorosis and lack of water and year onwards, sometimes even in the weak and spreading habit, and others are
are grown in zones 3-8 and pears in zones nutrients generally occur. Deep soils over second year. It requires good soil con- vigorous and upright, therefore the sizes
5-8. In both cases, however, a very few limestone can support apples and pears quite ditions and will not tolerate neglect, or given below are only an approximation.
varieties will grow further north or further satisfactorily. competition from grass and weeds. The There are three rootstocks: Quince C,
south of these zones. root system is brittle and such a tree Quince A and Pear. Both Quince C and
Soil preparation requires staking throughout its life. An A are suitable for the garden.
Site In late winter, prepare the soil by clearing excellent stock for the small garden. Used Quince C: Moderately vigorous Quince
Ideally, the site should be frost-free, in full away perennial weeds over an area 3 ft for dwarf, dwarf pyramid and cordon. C makes a pear tree about 8-18 ft tall. It
sun, and sheltered from strong winds. Pears square. Fork in a compound fertilizer such as M26: Dwarfing M26 makes a dwarf tree bears fruit in four to seven years. It is
flower in late April to early May and apples in 10-10-10 at 3 oz per square yard. 8-12 ft in height and spread. It tolerates suitable for highly fertile soils and vigorous
the first half of May, when they are at risk average soil conditions. It soon bears fruit, varieties, but not where conditions are
from spring frosts. The gardener in a frost- Planting and staking usually within three or four years of plant- poor. Used for cordon, dwarf pyramid and
prone site should consider growing trees on In early spring, plant the tree to the same ing. It requires staking for the first four or espalier.
dwarfing stocks or using the restricted forms depth as it was at the nursery, spreading the five years, longer on exposed sites. Used Old stocks of Quince C may be in-
whose small size makes it practicable to roots out well (see page 44). for dwarf pyramid, and cordon and oc- fected with a virus, so where possible
protect them by covering the trees on frosty Standard trees and semi-dwarfs require casionally espalier and fan. It is a suitable obtain stock certified as virus-free. If in
nights. With apples, the alternative is to stakes and tree ties. The restricted forms are stock for the small garden. doubt, use Quince A because there is not
plant varieties that flower late, but this is not supported by wall or fence wiring. M27: Extremely dwarfing It is too soon to much difference in vigor between the two.
applicable to pears because even the later comment about its suitability for garden Quince A: Medium vigor Slightly more
varieties flower in the danger period. Selecting the rootstock use but first reports are that it will make vigorous than Quince C, it is the stock
Ample sunshine is important, particularly Apples and pears are not grown on their own an ideal tree for growing in pots and in upon which most pears are grafted. It
for pears, if the fruits are to develop their full roots for a number of reasons. Some will not small gardens. It needs careful feeding and bears fruit in four to eight years. Pears on
color and flavor. Apples will tolerate some root easily, some are prone to root troubles, watering. Quince A make trees between 10-20 ft in
shade, provided they receive at last half a and some make large unproductive trees. MM106: Semi-dwarfing MM106 makes a height and spread. It is used for all forms of
day's sun in the growing season. Where there To overcome these problems, apple and tree 12-18 ft in height and spread. It is pear tree except standards.
is a choice, allocate the sunniest position for pear varieties are grafted by the nursery on to tolerant of a wide range of soils. Trees on Certain pear varieties are not com-
pears and dessert apples, and the less sunny various rootstocks. this stock soon bear fruit—usually within patible with quince and these have to be
positions for cooking apples, for which color The rootstock is the most important three or four years—and can produce double worked by nurseries. This means a
and flavor are not so critical. influence on the eventual size of the tree. An heavily in later years. Such a tree requires piece of pear graftwood compatible with
Shelter is essential because both kinds of apple grafted on to a dwarfing stock, for staking for the first four or five years. Used both the quince rootstock and the pear
fruit are insect pollinated and strong winds example, will stay small, whereas on a vigor- for cordon, espalier and fan. variety, such as 'Beurre Hardy', is used as
inhibit the insects' flight, which results in ous stock it will eventually become large. MM111 and M2: Vigorous The trees on an intermediate between the two. Varieties
poor pollination. Wind-breaks, either living It can also affect how long it is before the these stocks make trees 18-22 ft in height requiring double working include 'Bristol
or artificial, should be provided on exposed tree will fruit and its cropping capacity, so and spread, but their growth varies accord- Cross', 'Dr Jules Guyot', 'Doyenne d'Ete'
sites or, again, choose apples and pears on it is important to know the rootstock on ing to soil and variety. They make large and 'William's Bon Chretien'. If this is not
dwarfing stocks or in restricted form because which the tree is grafted or, when ordering a trees on good loamy soils, but only done, the pear could eventually separate
they are easier to shelter than are taller trees new tree, to indicate to the nursery what size medium-sized trees on poorer sandy soils. at the graft union.
(see pages 6-7). of tree is required so that the appropriate Used by nurseries for half-standard and Pear stock: Very vigorous Pears grafted
rootstock is selected. standard trees, espaliers and occasionally on to pear rootstock make very large
Soil The stocks most widely used are listed cordons and fans. They are slow to fruit standard trees, and, consequently, are
The ideal soil for both apples and pears is a right. The size of the tree quoted under the in comparison with the more dwarfing too big for most gardens.
medium well-drained loam, not less than rootstock is an estimate.
Apples and pears 2
Selecting the tree form full-grown height is roughly midway between trees can be planted in a relatively small area
Just as important as the correct choice of the height of a dwarf and a standard tree. TREES IN THE OPEN: ( lose attention to summer pruning is neces-
rootstock is the choice of tree form. Semi-dwarf apples develop into moder- SPACING AND YIELDS sary, however, to maintain space between
There are two basic types of trees, those ately-sized trees which bear fruit in about Dwarf tree the framework branches and adjoining trees,
that are planted in open ground and pruned three to six years, depending on the rootstock Spacing Plant the trees 8-10 ft apart. otherwise a row of dwarf pyramids can soon
in the winter, and those that are grown in re- used, the variety of the apple, and the Yield A good average yield from an estab- degenerate into an unproductive hedge.
stricted form, usually against a wall or fence, growing conditions. lished tree is about 4 0 - 6 0 lb. Although a restricted form, the dwarf pyra-
and pruned mainly in summer. The restricted Semi-dwarf apples and pears are suitable mid is intended for planting in the open, not
form of tree is not widely available in the for the medium to large garden and can be Semi-dwarf tree against a wall or fence (see pages 54-5).
general market and it may be necessary to planted in a lawn provided the grass does not Spacing Plant 18-20 ft apart.
seek out a nursery specializing in this form. inhibit the young tree's growth. They are not Yield 70-90 lb. Varieties
Where a gardener has plenty of land and suitable as shade trees because the head is The choice of varieties depends upon the
a heavy yield is the main criterion, the too low. Standard tree personal preferences of the gardener. Never-
unrestricted winter-pruned trees planted in Standard The standard has a clean stem of Spacing Plant 30-35 ft apart. theless, when making the final selection,
the open are the best choice. Where the 6-7 ft, and, in the case of a few varieties, may Yield A good average yield from a well ensure that the varieties will pollinate each
gardener has little room, or prefers the neat reach an ultimate height of 40 ft. But they grown standard apple is 60-120 lb and other (see page 43).
look of well-trained summer-pruned trees, should be kept much smaller by pruning, from a pear 40-100 lb. Many triploid varieties are very vigorous
or wants to fill a blank space on a wall or about 2 0 f t . a t most. The gardener needs a and are not suitable for growing in restricted
fence with fruit trees, then the restricted long ladder for picking fruit and a powerful form unless grafted on to the dwarfing root-
forms should be chosen. sprayer for pest and disease control. Vigor- for stone fruits such as peaches, cherries and stocks Mailing 26 for apples and Quince C
ous trees are slow to bear fruit but, because plums, and for this reason it is described only for pears.
Trees in the open of their large size, they eventually yield heavy on those pages. The description of the apple and pear
The tree forms commonly grown in the open crops. The dwarf pyramid The dwarf pyramid is a varieties gives the season w h e n the fruit is
are the dwarf, semi-dwarf and standard. small tree, pyramidal or Christmas tree-like in mature and fit to eat or cook. The picking
These are all open-centered trees and they Restricted tree forms shape and kept this way by summer pruning. date and maturity are not necessarily the
differ only in the length of stem or trunk The restricted tree forms are used where If, like the cordon, it is closely spaced, many same and this varies from locality to locality.
before the first permanent branch and in the trees have to be contained in some way, for
size of the head, or framework. example, against a wall or fence. They are
Dwarf tree The dwarf tree has an open center ideal for the small garden or where space is
and is goblet-shaped with a short stem of limited. However, because they are restricted,
about 18-24 in. It is used only for apples the yield in comparison with trees in the open
because there is as yet no truly dwarfing stock is relatively small.
for pears. Dwarf apples are grafted on to a The main restricted tree forms for apples
Mailing 9 rootstock or the equivalent and, and pears are the cordon, the espalier and
because of their small size, are suitable for any the dwarf pyramid. The fan is occasionally
garden. The soil must be very fertile, however, used.
and the trees have to be fed and watered The cordon is intended for a low fence. If
regularly or they will be stunted. Gardeners closely planted, many varieties can be grown
with less fertile soils should choose trees on in a relatively small space and the gardener
more vigorous rootstocks. can more easily meet the cross pollination
Dwarf trees are easy to prune, spray and requirements (see pages 50-1).
pick, and they soon bear fruit, but obviously The espalier may be planted against a low
their cropping capacity is not as great as that or high fence, depending upon the number of
of larger trees. It is best not to plant dwarf arms it is intended to have. Its long horizontal
bush apples in a lawn because they cannot arms require more room than the cordon. It
compete with grass but if this is unavoidable, is a handsome form (see pages 52-3).
maintain a grass-free area for at least 2 ft The fan requires a high wall, the height
around the base by mulching and water the depending on the kind of fruit grown (see
tree regularly. pages 8-9). Unlike the cordon or espalier it The dwarf tree (a) is made up of the top, stem of 6 - 7 ft grafted onto a vigorous
Semi-dwarfs The semi-dwarf tree has a clear cannot be planted against a low fence unless an inter-stem of 18-24 in, and the root- rootstock. The cordon (c) is planted and
stem or trunk of about 20-30 in before the the gardiner is prepared to increase the stock. The standard tree (b) has a clear trained obliquely. The fan (d) is shaped.
first primary branch is reached, and its total height with trellis work. The fan is used mainly
Apples and pears 3
Trees in the open Pruning off under the weight of the crop later on. buds. Shoots crowding the crotch of the
The dwarf, semi-dwarf and standard tree Prune in late winter, but not when the air Notice the effect of apical dominance, that tree should be removed. The center should
forms are commonly grown in the open. temperature is below freezing. is, the topmost shoot is the most upright and be open, but not completely barren of
The first winter The work of forming the head it is often unsuitable because it is too central growth. Growth from the main stem lower
Selecting the tree begins with the maiden tree. and forming a narrow angle with the stem. than the primary branches should be cut off
A nursery can supply one-year-old, t w o - Unfeathered At planting, shorten the maiden If this is so, cut it out, heading back to the to maintain the clean leg. Protect the cuts
year-old or three-year-old trees. Trees older tree to 24 in for a dwarf bush or to 30 in if next branch. Next, shorten the selected w i t h a tree paint.
than this are not recommended because they a standard is to be formed. Cut back to just primary branches by one-half and shorten The fourth winter The tree is entering the
may not establish well. above a bud, making a sloping cut away from the less vigorous ones by two-thirds. Cut each cropping phase of its life, but a little more
A one-year-old, or maiden, tree consists the bud and ensuring there are three or four to an outward-facing bud. The remaining formative pruning is still necessary, as des-
of a straight stem with or without laterals. good buds beneath it. This cut stimulates the shoots are removed altogether. Protect the cribed for the third winter. Weak varieties
A maiden with laterals, sometimes called a formation of primary branches the next year. cuts. may need further formative pruning for the
feathered maiden, is a better choice because Feathered Cut back the main stem to a During the summer, the branch growth next t w o or three winters.
if the laterals are suitably placed they can be lateral at about 24 in for a dwarf or 30 in for a following the hard pruning should be strong, Winter pruning the cropping tree By the
used as primary branches, and a year is saved standard, ensuring there are two or three with secondary branches forming. fourth or fifth year the tree should start bear-
in the formative pruning stage. The maiden is suitably placed laterals just beneath it. Re- In the third winter (or the three-year-old ing fruit. From then the pruning guidelines
the least expensive type, but it requires initial move all others flush with the main stem. tree) Select about four more widely-spaced are flexible, exactly how m u c h is pruned
shaping and takes longer to bear fruit. Shorten the selected laterals by about t w o - branches. The framework now consists of depends on the condition of the tree.
Trees of two and three years old will have thirds to an outward-facing bud. about eight branches. Shorten these by one- Before pruning an older tree, remember
already been partly shaped by the nursery The second winter (or the two-year-old tree) half or, if weak, by two-thirds, cutting back that the harder the tree is pruned, the more
and, being older, bear fruit sooner. In the dormant season, select three or four to outward-facing buds. Prune back to about growth is obtained, but in consequence the
strong leaders to form the primary branches, four buds those laterals not required for less fruit is produced. Thus, a heavily pruned
Soil preparation and planting taking care to select those that are evenly secondary branches and those competing tree will be vigorous but unfruitful, whereas
Prepare the soil in the late winter (see page spaced and have formed wide angles with the with the leaders. If the tree is growing a lightly pruned tree may crop heavily, but
44). Plant the tree while dormant, in March or main stem. The wide angles ensure a stronger vigorously, some laterals on the outer part of the fruit will be small and the framework
April, driving in a stake first. joint; a narrow-angled branch may break the tree can be left unpruned to form flower weak and badly shaped.

Pruning a feathered maiden The second year The third year Fourth and subsequent years
V

1 In late winter, prepare the soil and drive 2 In late winter, select four of the primary 3 In late winter, select a further four well- 4 In late winter, the branch framework has
in a stake. Plant a maiden tree to the same branches that have formed wide angles to placed new growths to form permanent now been formed and leader pruning can
depth as it was at the nursery. Tie to the the stem. Cut back vigorous ones by one- branches. Cut back vigorous ones by two- cease, unless growth is weak. Leave laterals
stake. Cut the main stem back to a bud or half and less vigorous ones by two-thirds. thirds. Prune to outward-facing buds. on the outer parts of the tree unpruned. Cut
lateral at about 24 in for a dwarf, 30 in for a Prune to outward-facing buds. Remove back laterals on the inside to a b o u t 4 in.
standard. unwanted branches.
Apples and pears 4
Pruning the cropping tree Renewal pruning of spur-bearers This also should directly over-shade another by less of them altogether. Increase the amount of
Before pruning apple or pear trees that are depends upon the tendency of many apple than 18 in, nor should branches be closer renewal pruning.
past the formative stage, it is important to and pear varieties to produce flower buds on than 18 in when side by side. Laterals should Pruning of tip-bearers In the winter, prune
distinguish between the spur-bearing and the unpruned two-year-old laterals. It is best be spaced about 18 in apart and spurs not lightly on the regulatory system (see above).
tip-bearing varieties. A spur-bearing variety reserved for the strong laterals on the outer less than 9 in along the framework of Leave any maiden shoots less than 9 in long
produces fruit buds on the two-year-old as part of the tree, where there is room for such branches. unpruned because they have fruit buds at
well as on the older wood, where they are growth. If in later years, as a result of light pruning, their tips. Prune longer laterals back to four
carried on short stubby shoots called spurs. The renewal system of pruning is a method the tree over-crops (with consequent small buds. This induces short shoots in the follow-
Where these shoots become very branched, that encourages regular cropping by the fruit) and growth is weak, adopt a policy of ing summer with fruit buds at their tips—
typically on old wood, they are called spur removal of fruiting laterals that have passed harder pruning to reduce the number of spur pruning in effect.
systems. The spur-bearer is the most c o m - their peak in growth. Young laterals are flower buds and to stimulate new growth. Always prune the leaders of tip-bearing
mon type of apple and pear tree. trained to take the place of the old laterals. Simplify some of the over-long spur systems, varieties because this induces more laterals
A tip-bearing variety produces fruit buds This system is only effective when done by and where they are crowded cut out some to bear fruit in the following year.
at the tips of slender shoots made in the experienced gardeners and so should be
previous summer. A few spurs are also pro- practiced with great care.
duced on the older wood, but considerably In the winter, select a proportion of strong,
fewer than on a spur-bearer. The tip-bearer well-placed laterals on the outer part of the
has a more gaunt appearance in comparison. tree and leave them unpruned. Prune the
There are also partial tip-bearers, which others as described in spur pruning. During
produce spurs on the older wood as well as the following growing season, the terminal
fruit buds at their tips. For pruning purposes bud on each unpruned lateral extends to
they are treated as spur-bearers. produce a further maiden shoot, while
There are three basic pruning techniques: most of the remaining buds develop into
spur pruning, renewal pruning, and regulatory flower buds.
pruning. In the second winter, cut back the laterals
Spur pruning As mentioned above, spur- to the topmost flower bud. In the following
bearing varieties form spurs naturally, but summer the cut-back laterals produce fruit.
they can also be induced to form spurs. In the third winter, half the laterals that
Each winter cut back a proportion of maiden have fruited can be retained as an elongated
laterals to four or five buds. Choose those spur system. The others are cut back to
that have insufficient room to extend as leave a 1 in stub. This severe shortening
secondary branches. stimulates the production of a new lateral
In the following summer, a lateral so from the stub, and so the cycle is repeated.
pruned produces one or two shoots from the To sum up, at any one time the tree carries
uppermost buds, but usually the lower buds a number of one-year-old laterals unpruned,
develop into flower buds by the end of the two-year-old laterals pruned back to a
growing season. flower bud, and three-year-old laterals which
In the second winter, cut back the laterals are stubbed back to 1 in after fruiting—or left
to the topmost flower bud, thus removing if there is room.
the previous summer's growth. However, Regulatory pruning This applies to the tree
where there is room and no risk of the spur as a whole rather than to specific parts of it as
overlapping an adjoining branch, extend the in spur or renewal pruning. Basically it
spur system by cutting back to three or four entails keeping the center open by removing
wood buds on the previous summer's growth. crowding and crossing branches and cutting
After some years, a spur system may out dead, diseased and broken w o o d . There
become crowded and complicated and, as is no need to prune the leaders after the
a result, the fruits are too numerous and early formative years except with poorly
therefore small. Then spur thinning is under- growing varieties, which require the stimulus
taken by reducing the length of the spur of hard pruning.
systems, cutting away the weakest buds The framework branches, laterals and
and those buds growing on the undersides spurs also should not be crowded. As a
of the branches. rough guide, in an old tree no main branch
Apples and pears 5
The central-leader tree Pruning and tying down in the first year (or thick string secured to 9 in long wire pegs Pruning the cropping tree
The success of this form, which is not com- the one-year-old tree) pushed into the ground. Remove any upright In the third and subsequent years a similar
mon in the United States, depends upon pro- During the dormant season from November laterals and those directly beneath the central procedure is followed. The central leader is
ducing wide-angled branches off the central to February, select three or four laterals to leader. pruned by one-quarter (if weak by one-
leader. Depending on the training method, it form the first tier of branches starting at not third) to induce the lower buds to produce
is referred to as a vase shape or modified- less than 24 in from the ground. Choose Pruning in the second winter new laterals. The more vigorous the leader
leader form. Therefore buy a feathered strong, well placed laterals coming off the Cut back the central leader by about one- is, the lighter it is pruned. Branches are
maiden, because the laterals on such a tree main stem at a wide angle. Prune these back third of the previous summer's growth to a allowed to grow from the central stem at
are naturally formed at the correct angle. by one-half to an outward-facing bud. Re- bud on the opposite side to that of the regular intervals, choosing those with a wide
Such a form may be used if the gardener does move the rest of the laterals entirely. Cut previous year. The technique of cutting to angle. Narrow-angled laterals are removed.
not desire maximum fruit production, but back the central leader to the third bud above an opposite bud is called "zig-zagging" and The higher placed branches must be kept
only wants a specimen of beauty. the topmost selected lateral. helps to maintain the more or less straight shorter than those beneath to allow sun-
By August the original laterals will have growth essential in the central leader. Remove light to reach the lower parts. After the
Soil preparation and planting extended and possibly new laterals will have any upright laterals and those competing laterals at the very top have fruited, they
Prepare the soil in the early fall (see page 44). been produced. A new central leader will with the leader. Prune each remaining lateral must be pruned on the renewal system (see
This form requires a long stake to support have grown on. Tie the leader to the stake by one-quarter to a downward-facing bud. page 48). Tying d o w n is discontinued once
the central leader. The stake should be 8-81/2| ft using a figure of eight tie with soft thick Check the string ties to ensure there is no the branches have set at the required angle.
long by 11/2—2 in top diameter. string. Choose three or four good laterals that constriction and remove any where the Each winter cut back the extension growth
Drive the stake in first, 18 in deep on a form a wide angle with the main stem and branch has set at about 30 degrees. of the central stem to a weaker side branch
heavy soil and 2 ft deep on a light soil. Plant gently tie the extension growth of each down In August, again tie down suitable new once it has reached a height of 7 - 8 ft. Tie up
the tree and tie it to the stake. to 30 degrees above the horizontal with soft laterals to form branches. the side branch to the stake as the new leader.

1 In November to March, 2 At the same time, select 3 Then, cut back the 4 By August, the original 5 In winter, cut back the 6 Every year, check the
prepare the ground and three or four laterals to central leader to the third laterals will have extended central leader by one-third string ties. Remove the ties
drive in a stake. Plant the form the first tier of bud above the topmost and a new central leader of the previous year's where the branch has set
feathered maiden tree to the branches at about 24 in selected lateral. Protect the will have grown on. Tie the growth to an opposite- at 30 degrees. In August,
same depth as it was at the from the ground. Prune pruning cuts with a wound leader to the stake. Tie facing bud. Remove any tie d o w n new laterals. Cut
nursery. Tie it to the stake. them back by one-half to an paint. down the extension growth upright laterals. Prune back the leader to a
outward-facing bud. Remove to 30 degrees above the remaining laterals by weaker lateral. Tie it up as
remaining laterals entirely. horizontal using soft string. one-quarter to a bud. the new leader.
Apples and pears 6
Restricted tree forms: The cordon Support system planted at any time. Against walls and solid warm climates. Prune seven to ton days
A cordon consists of a single straight stem Cordons may be planted against a wall or fences, the cordon should be planted 6 - 9 i n laterals arising from existing side-shoots or
furnished with side-shoots or fruit spurs fence or out in the open on a wire fence. On away from the structure to allow room for all mature shoots of the current season's
which are kept short by summer pruning walls and wooden fences erect horizontal the growth of the trunk. Set the cordon at growth that are growing directly from the
and sometimes by winter pruning. It may be wires every 2 ft as described on pages 8-9. an angle of 45 degrees with the union be- main stem. Cut back those mature sub-
planted and trained vertically or obliquely, O u t in the open drive in wooden posts every tween stock and scion uppermost, and then laterals arising from existing side shoots or
usually the latter because it requires less 12 ft to hold the wires. The posts may be securely tie the cordons to the cane using spurs to one leaf beyond the basal cluster or
height and its growth is more easily con- 21/2 in x 21/2 in oak or 31/2 in top diameter in thick soft string or plastic chainlock strap- rosette of leaves. Mature shoots have a stiff
trolled. There are also multiple cordons, with other woods. Set the posts 2ft deep or 3 ft ping in a figure of eight. If the one-year-old woody base, dark leaves and are 9 in or more
two or more stems. in sandy soils. The end posts should be tree has laterals, shorten those over 6 in long long. Leave immature shoots until mid-
The single stem apple cordon is not difficult strutted. Alternative materials include iron, to four buds. Thereafter, prune each summer. September. Do not prune shoots that are
to care for and is an ideal way for the amateur steel or concrete posts. Erect the wires at Do not prune the leader. shorter than 9 in because they usually have
gardener to experiment. 2 ft, 4 ft and 6 ft and use 10 gauge wire for the It is not wise to allow a cordon to crop in the fruit buds at their tips.
The cordon is a form that, perhaps more upper wire and 12 gauge for the other two. first year after planting, so in the spring re-
than any other, is suited to the small garden. Securely tie 8 ft bamboo canes to the wires move any flowers, taking care not to cut the Pruning the cropping tree
It is closely planted, so many varieties can at an angle of 45 degrees, with the tops growing shoot just behind the blossom. Each May, once the cordon has passed the
be grown in a relatively small space and the pointing towards the north if the rows run top wire and reached the required height
gardener can more easily meet the cross- north-south, or to the east if they run east- Summer pruning: Modified Lorette System (usually 7 ft), cut back the extension growth
pollination requirements of apples and pears. west. Space the canes at 21/2—3 ft intervals to Summer pruning is necessary to confine the to its origin. Each July subsequently, cut the
Cordons can be grown against walls and correspond w i t h the planting stations. growth to the limited space available. It leader to 1 in. From mid-July onwards the
fences or out in the open on a wire fence. also induces the production of fruit spurs remaining shoots on the cordon are pruned
Planting and training oblique cordons close to the main stem. The Modified Lorette on the Modified Lorette System (see above).
Choice of rootstock Prepare the soil in the early fall (see page 44). System is the simplest method. If, later on, there are secondary growths
For apple cordons, the dwarfing rootstock Plant in the dormant season, unless using Summer prune in about mid-July for pears from shoots pruned in July, cut t h e m back to
Mailing 9 is the most suitable where space is container-grown plants, which can be and in the third week of July for apples in mature w o o d just before leaf-fall. In areas
very limited and the cordons are to be kept
down to a height of 5-6 ft. The soil must be The first year Second and subsequent years
fertile, however, if in doubt about the soil,
obtain trees on a slightly more vigorous stock.
For pears, the cordons must be grafted
on to Quince A or C rootstocks.
An apple cordon crops high quality fruit
early and heavily because it is raised on
dwarfing rootstock. Other fruits that can be
grown on the cordon system include goose-
berries, red currants, sweet cherries, and
white currants.

Selecting the tree


Cordons of one, two or three years old can
be planted. If selecting a maiden tree, prefer-
ably choose one with plenty of laterals
because these are the foundation of the fruit
spurs to come. Two- or three-year-old cor-
dons will be quicker to bear fruit, but they
must be well furnished with spurs and
laterals. 1 In late winter, plant the maiden tree 2 In spring, after a further year's growth 3 In late July, cut back laterals longer than
with the union uppermost, against a cane spurs will have formed on the cut-back 9 in arising directly from the main stem to
Spacing secured to wire supports at about feathers. Remove any flowers as they appear, three good leaves from the base, ignoring
Space the cordons 21/2 ft apart on medium to 45 degrees. Do not prune the leader. Cut leaving intact the growing shoot behind the basal cluster. Cut back sub-laterals
good soils or 3 ft apart on poor, shallow or back any feathers to four buds. the blossom. from existing spur systems to one leaf
sandy soils with the rows 6ft apart. beyond the basal cluster.
Apples and pears 7
where secondary growth is prolific after
pruning, for example in high rainfall regions, LOWERING THE CORDON
delay pruning until later in the summer. If W h e n the cordons reach the top wire
much secondary growth still occurs, then they may be lowered to obtain a longer
stop summer pruning altogether and prune stem. Lowering also helps to check the
in the winter instead, pruning to one bud vigor of an overvigorous cordon. Lower
from existing spurs and three buds on laterals carefully five degrees at a time and not
arising directly from the main stem. lower than 35 degrees, so that there is no
risk of breaking the stem. Lowering the
Winter pruning angle slows d o w n the movement of sap
Normally neither the leader nor the side- and limits extension growth while en-
shoots are pruned in the winter except when couraging fruit bud protection.
a tree makes too much secondary growth, or
makes poor growth, or to renovate it.
When a young cordon does not produce
sufficient side-shoots, resulting in bare areas
of stem, laterals may be induced by pruning
the leader (previous summer's growth) by up
to one-third of its length. Treat newly planted Cordons may also be formed with two, multiple cordon is treated as a single
tip-bearers in the same way. three or more arms, trained either verti- cordon. Vertically trained cordons are
Neglected cordons can be brought back cally or at an angle. The training of a generally more vigorous and often less
into shape by winter pruning. Thereafter multiple cordon is initially similar to the fruitful than those trained at an angle of
prune them in the summer. Overlong or formation of the first horizontal arms of about 45 degrees. The angle can be re-
complicated spur systems should be reduced an espalier. Thereafter each stem of the duced further (see Lowering the cordon).
to two or three fruit buds.

Secondary growths The fruiting cordon OVERCROWDED SPUR SYSTEMS

As the tree matures thin out in the winter


Just before leaf-fall, if further growth has 1 In May, when the leader has passed the 2 Each July, cut back the leader to 1 in. by reducing overlong overlapping or com-
developed from pruned shoots, cut it back top wire and reached the required height Cut back to three leaves all mature laterals plicated spur systems to t w o or three
to mature w o o d . In high rainfall areas, of about 7 ft, cut back the extension longer than 9 in growing directly away from fruit buds. Remove buds that are weak
where much secondary growth occurs, stop growth to its origin. the main stem and those from existing side- on the underside and shaded parts of the
summer pruning and prune from November shoots and spurs to one leaf beyond the branches.
to March instead. basal cluster.
Apples and pears 8
Restricted tree forms: The espalier espaliers and further arms can be trained in tree. The formative pruning steps in the lust, coincide with the next wire, the intention is
An espalier consists of a central stem from if required. A formed espalier is much more second, and subsequent years are described to promote a further three growths one to
which horizontal fruiting arms (tiers) grow at expensive but crops sooner. below in as much detail as possible. continue the central axis and the othet t w o
about 15—18 in intervals. The tree is trained in The first year Plant an unfeathered maiden to form a second tier of side branches
one plane and makes a handsome boundary Support system tree in late winter or early spring. Cut back the Shorten surplus laterals from the main stem
marker or can be used to cover walls or fences. On walls and fences erect the horizontal stem to within 15 in of ground level, making to three buds. Prune the t w o horizontal
wires to coincide with the espalier arms (as sure that room for a short leg is left, together leaders to downward-pointing buds, remov-
Choice of rootstock and spacing described on pages 8-9); usually each tier is with three good topmost buds. The two lower ing about one-third of each shoot. If growth
If a small espalier apple is required, for 15-18 in apart. O u t in the open, drive in posts ones should point in opposite directions. has been particularly satisfactory, perhaps
example, against a low fence, the tree should to hold the wires every 12-18 ft, depending In spring carefully direct the shoot from because of a good growing season, the
be on the Mailing 9 rootstock. This means ob- upon the spacing of the espaliers. The end the top bud vertically up a cane and the leaders can be left unpruned.
taining a maiden tree and shaping it, because posts should be strutted. Plant the espaliers others to the right and the left. It is difficult to Second and subsequent years The next years
pre-formed espaliers on this stock are not centrally between the posts. Use 10 gauge obtain horizontal shoots in the first year are a repetition of the first, w i t h subsequent
usually available. For more than one espalier, galvanized wires and strain tight with strain- without a check to growth and it is best to tiers of branches being trained in. In late
plant 10 ft apart. ing bolts on the end posts. train the t w o shoots initially at angles of winter lower the side branches to the horizon
Where more vigorous trees are required, about 45 degress to the main stem. This can tal and secure them to the wire support!
to clothe a large wall for example, they should Soil preparation and planting be achieved by tying them to canes secured Cut back the central leader to within 18 in
be on vigorous rootstock and spaced 15-18 ft In late winter, prepare the soil (see page 45). to the wire framework. of the last tier of arms at the next wire
apart. Pears should be on Quince A or C Plant in March or April. To allow room for the During summer the angle can be varied so Cut back unwanted laterals from the main
rootstock. trunk to grow when sited against a wall or that a weaker shoot is encouraged to catch stem to three buds. The horizontal leaders.
fence, the espalier should be planted 6 in up by raising it a little towards the vertical. should be cut back by one-third, cutting In
Selecting the tree away. In November, at the end of the first grow- downward-pointing buds, if growth has been
The number of horizontal arms or tiers ing season, lower the two side branches to the quite poor.
required depends upon the height of the Formative pruning horizontal and tie them to the wire supports. Cut back competing growths from the
wall or fence. Most nurseries that sell trees Formed espaliers may be obtained or the Prune back the central leader to within 18 in main stem to three leaves during the summer
for espaliering supply two-tier and three-tier gardener may prefer to start off with a maiden of the junction, with the lower arms to from July to September.

The first year

1 In late winter, plant an unfeathered 2 From June to September, train the shoot 3 At the end of the growing season, lower with soft string. Cut back surplus laterals on
maiden tree. Cut back the stem to within from the top bud vertically up a cane. the t w o side branches to the horizontal the main stem to three buds.
15 in of ground level. Leave room for a short Train the shoots from the two lower buds and tie them carefully to the wire supports
leg and select three good upper buds for at an angle of 45 degrees to the main stem.
training. Tie them to canes fixed on the wire support.
Apples and pears 9
There is a tendency for vertical shoots to in the same way as before. This regime of allotted space, from then onwards cut back on the Modified Lorette System in exactly
grow from the horizontal arms. These laterals winter and summer pruning should continue the new terminal shoots to their origin each the same way as for cordons. Regard each
are pruned in summer, cutting each back to until the desired number of tiers has been May and summer prune subsequent growth. arms as a horizontal cordon (see pages 50-1).
three leaves above the basal cluster. Do not built in. Winter After a few years of fruiting, the
tie the extension growth of the horizontal The number of tiers finally achieved de- The fruiting stage spur systems may become complicated and
arms until the end of the summer because pends on soil, site and inherent vigor, but Each summer The fruits are carried on spur should be simplified by removing clusters
early tying checks growth. In winter train and four or five is usual. Eventually both the systems on the horizontal arms. The spurs of weak buds and by cutting back some
prune both the horizontal and vertical leaders central axis and the horizontal arms fill their are formed by the summer pruning of laterals of the spurs to t w o or three fruit buds.

Second and subsequent years

4 At the same time, cut back the central horizontal arms. If growth is weak, prune 5 From July to September, train the second three leaves. Cut back laterals from the
leader to within 18 in of the lower arm at back the horizontal leaders by one-third, tier of branches in the same way as in the horizontal arms to three leaves above the
the next wire, leaving three good buds to cutting to downward-pointing buds. previous years (see caption 2). Cut back basal cluster.
form the central leader and two new competing growths from the main stem to

6 In winter, cut back the central leader back surplus laterals on the main stem to 7 In May, when the final number of tiers is of the vertical and horizontal arms to their
to within 18 in of the lower arm, leaving 3 buds. Tie d o w n the extension growth of produced and the tree has filled its allotted origins. From now on prune t h e m each
three good buds to form the new central each arm to the horizontal. If growth is space, cut back the new terminal growths summer as if they were cordons.
leader and two new horizontal arms. Cut poor, prune back the leaders by one-third.
Apples and pears 10
The dwarf pyramid planted and compact tree under control. This Planting and staking apart, and apples on M26 rootstocks and
The dwarf pyramid was evolved by commer- control is exerted by a combination of sum- In early fall, prepare the soil (see page 45). pears 5-6 ft apart. Allow the wider spacing
cial fruit growers as an easier method of mer pruning, early cropping, the complete Plant in the dormant season from November on fertile soils. The rows should be 7ft apart.
producing apples and pears intensively. The removal of any vigorous upright shoots, and to March. Individual stakes are not necessary
pear, in particular, when grown on Quince the choice of a rootstock capable of sustain- unless planting only one or two trees. W i t h a Pruning and training
rootstock, responds well to this method of ing the required balance between steady row of trees, support them by erecting two The first year A start is made with a maiden
training and in recent years the technique cropping and the renewal of bearing wood. posts at the ends of the row, and stretch two tree, w h i c h is cut back to about 20 in on
has been extended to plums. W i t h apples and horizontal wires between them, one at 18 in planting during the dormant season in early
pears the aim is to produce a central-leader Choice of rootstock and the other at 36 in. Tie the trees to these, spring. Prune to a bud on the opposite side
tree some 7ft high with a total branch spread Mailing 9 and Mailing 26 rootstock are suit- using string or strapping. to the graft. The result of this initial pruning
of about 4 ft through the tree, tapering to the able for apples in most gardens and either is the production of four or five strong shoots.
top to form a pyramid. Quince A or the re-cloned Quince C (when Spacing The uppermost shoot, w h i c h will become the
It is essential to keep such a closely generally available) can be used for pears. Space apples on M9 rootstocks at 4-5 ft leader, grows vertically.

The first year The second year

1 In early spring, at planting cut back the 2 From July to August, four or five strong 3 In late winter, cut back the central leader 4 In late winter, cut back laterals not
maiden to a bud within 20 in of ground shoots will have been produced. No to leave 9 in of new growth. Cut to a bud required for the framework to three leaves
level. pruning is necessary. that points in the opposite direction to the or 3-4 in and sub-laterals to one leaf beyond
last pruning. Cut back side branches to the basal cluster. Leave leaders unpruned.
downward-pointing buds to leave 8 in of
the maiden extension.
Apples and pears 11
The second year In the following winter evenly spaced around the tree, are pinned Do not prune the leaders in summer. each side branch as if it were a cordon.
prune the central leader to leave about 9in back to within 8 in of the maiden extension, Third and subsequent years Prune the cen- Prune the branch leaders to six leaves.
new growth, taking care to cut to a bud that cutting each to a downward-pointing bud to tral leader in winter. Aim to leave about 9 in W h e n the tree reaches 7ft, further exten-
points in the opposite direction to the last maintain the horizontal direction. of new growth, cutting to a bud that is point- sion growth should be stopped by cutting
pruning. This is aimed at keeping the succes- During the following summer begin sum- ing in the opposite direction from the bud back the leader to its origin each May. Prune
sive stages of the central stem as straight as mer pruning, starting in mid-July for pears to which the stem was pruned in the previous any other shoots that need restriction, such
possible, in a series of zig-zags. It would be and about the end of July for apples. Cut winter. This stimulates the production of as vigorous upright shoots at the top or
easier not to prune the leader at all because back laterals (the current season's growth) new side branches. Cut back any secondary branch leaders growing into adjacent trees.
the stem would be straighter if left un- longer than 9 in arising directly from the side growth that may have occurred as a result of In winter it is occasionally necessary to
touched, but such pruning is necessary to branches to three leaves, and laterals from summer pruning to a mature bud. shorten branches to a downward-pointing
stimulate the annual production of side existing spurs to one leaf beyond the basal Every summer, prune the current season's shoot in an attempt to maintain the essential
branches during the formative stages. These cluster. Leave immature shoots until Septem- growth on the side branches using the Modi- horizontal position of the fruiting arms.
side branches, perhaps four in number and ber and then prune them in the same way. fied Lorette System (see page 56), treating Trim overcrowded spurs at t h e same time.

Third and subsequent years THE MATURE TREE

W h e n the tree has reached the required


5 From November to February, prune the 6 From July to August, throughout summer 7 In late winter, prune the central leader height of about 7 ft, cut back the leader to
central leader to leave about 9 in of new cut back laterals to three leaves or 3 - 4 in to leave 9 in of new growth. Remove its origin each May. Thin fruiting spurs as
growth, cutting to a bud on the opposite and sub-laterals to one leaf beyond the entirely any over-vigorous shoots. Shorten necessary. Maintain the central stem
side to the previous pruning. basal cluster. Prune the leaders of the side branches to downward-pointing buds as and retain the pyramid shape by close
branches to six leaves. necessary to maintain the horizontal pruning and removal of vigorous shoots.
position of the fruiting arms.
Apples and pears 12
Cultivation Watering To ensure good establishment and fruits. In heavy cropping years if the fruits are should be spaced on average 4-6 in apart
Feeding and mulching Apply fertilizers as a strong growth, young trees (especially newly not thinned, the resultant crop will consist of with about one fruit per cluster and occasion-
top dressing over the rooting area, which is planted ones) need to be watered in the small, medium to poor quality apples or pears ally two where there is a good show of
roughly equivalent to the spread of the tree growing season whenever the soil is dry. As and, as with lack of water, the strain imposed supporting leaves. Cooking apples should be
and slightly beyond. Inorganic fertilizers can a guide, apply 4 gal per square yard every ten upon the tree might put it into a biennial spaced on average 6 - 9 in apart.
scorch grass, therefore brush well in and days throughout dry periods. habit. M u c h depends upon the condition of W i t h apples, sometimes the " k i n g " or
water the grass if the weather is dry. If the soil Cropping trees also respond to irrigation the trees: trees with healthy foliage and a " c r o w n " fruit produced in the center of a
tends to be acid, with a pH lower than 6.7, by producing heavier crops of larger and strong framework can carry more fruit than cluster is virtually stalkless and malformed.
sulfate of ammonia should not be applied better quality fruit. Lack of water may induce can weaker trees. Young trees should not be If this is the case, remove it, but if the apple is
because it makes the soil more acid. Instead a biennial bearing pattern (see page 58). The allowed to crop so heavily that the branches well shaped, leave it because the king fruit
use an artificial fertilizer containing calcium total amount of water needed is about 4 in are bowed d o w n and the tree cannot make can be the best in the cluster.
carbonate and ammonium nitrate. It does (18 gal per square yard) in July, 3 in (131/2 gal the essential strong growth needed for its Pears need less thinning than do apples.
not affect the pH. per square yard) in August and 2 in (9 gal per framework. Start thinning after the natural d r o p in late
In early March, mulch newly planted and square yard) in September. Some varieties naturally shed some of June, but not until the fruitlets t u r n d o w n -
young trees with well-rotted manure, c o m - Obviously, in cool wet regions these totals their fruitlets in late June or early July which wards. Thin to t w o fruits per cluster and
post or peat to a depth of 2 in over a radius will be met by natural rainfall, but in dry areas is called the June drop, but this may not be occasionally to one where the foliage is poor
of about 18 in, but keep the mulch just clear some water must be applied, the actual sufficient. Start lightly thinning before this in or sparse.
of the stem. amount depending upon the rainfall. Apply mid-June by removing the malformed fruits, Supporting heavily laden branches Prop up
Dessert apples In mid-winter apply sulfate of 2 in (9 gal per square yard) at a time under the and then complete the task after the June heavily laden branches well before there is a
potash at 3/4 oz per square yard. Every three trees, starting in early July. Use a slow-running drop in about mid-July. risk of the branches breaking. Use forked
years, in mid-winter apply superphosphate hose as a soaker and keep the water on the Cooking varieties should be thinned harder poles or stakes but place a cushion of soft
at 2 oz per square yard. In late winter apply ground rather than on the foliage, irrigating than the dessert fruits. material such as a piece of rubber tire be-
sulfate of ammonia or the fertilizer mentioned over the rooting area. Use sharp scissors or press the fruitlet with tween the prop and the branch.
above, at 1 oz per square yard. Fruit thinning The main purpose of fruit thin- the t h u m b and finger, leaving the stalk be- Weak branches can be tied to stronger
Dessert apples in grass See cooking apples. ning is to obtain larger and better quality hind. In the final thinning, dessert apples ones with rope or webbing. Small trees can
Cooking apples The same rates and timings
given for dessert apples apply except that Manuring Mulching Watering
extra nitrogen is necessary, so double the
application of sulfate of ammonia or the
fertilizer mentioned above. This also applies
to dessert apples grown in grass.
During heavy rainfall in spring and summer,
and in high rainfall areas, some apple varieties
suffer from magnesium deficiency (see pages
14-16). At the first signs, apply three foliar
sprays at 14-day intervals, using 8 oz mag-
nesium sulfate in 21/2 gal water, plus a spreader
(1/4 fl oz washing-up liquid). To avoid a recur-
rence, apply the magnesium sulfate as a top
dressing in April, at 2 oz per square yard over
the rooting area.
Pears, dessert and cooking Pears benefit
from additional nitrogen, but if too much is
given, vigorous growth is encouraged which,
in turn, encourages fire blight. In the first
year, therefore, apply only a few handfuls of
balanced fertilizer such as 10-10-10. From the
second year until the tree starts to bear,
apply 8 oz of ammonium nitrate. Then in-
crease the application to 16 oz and then, 1 In mid-winter, apply sulfate of potash at 2 In early March, mulch newly planted and 3 In summer, apply 4 gal per square yard
when the tree is about 10 years old, apply the recommended rates. In late winter young trees with a 2 in layer of well-rotted every ten days in dry periods.
24 oz. Thereafter, apply 32 oz per year. apply sulfate of ammonia. manure or compost over a radius of 18 in.
Apples and pears 13
be supported by "maypoling". This involves a guide, the earliest varieties of apples are sometime after pic king, depending upon the under cool conditions (3°-7 0 C/37°-45°F).
driving a tall stake into the ground near the ready for picking in late July to early August. variety. Most should be off the tree by about Late pears should be left on the tree until
stem of the tree and tying rope or thick Apples A good test for ripeness is to lift the the third week of October, but there are a they leave the spur easily; the first sign of
string from its top to each branch that will fruit in the palm of the hand and if it leaves few varieties which keep better and acquire windfalls is an indication. The fruits are hard
benefit from support. the spur easily with its stalk intact, it is ready. more flavor if left on as long as possible, birds at this stage but will mellow in storage. Keep
Another sign is the first windfalls (discounting and winter gales permitting. These include them under cold conditions and bring the
Protection from wasps and birds drops from strong winds and codling moth 'Granny Smith'. pears into room temperature to finish ripen-
Apples and pears (especially the early vari- attack). W i t h the later ripening varieties, the Store only sound fruits (see page 90 for ing whenever required. (See page 82 for
eties) sometimes need protection against color of the pips is an indication. They should details of storage). details of storage).
wasps and birds. The trees can be netted or be beginning to change color from white Pears The correct time for picking pears is
collars placed around the fruit stalks against to straw-coloured and eventually to brown. harder to assess than it is for apples. The best Pests and diseases
birds (see page 17) but wasps are more diffi- W i t h dessert apples in particular the skin of test of readiness is to lift the pear in the palm Apples The most troublesome diseases are
cult to combat. O n e remedy is to find and the fruits becomes more brightly colored. of the hand and with a slight twist and tug, it scab, mildew and canker and the most
destroy the wasps' nests. They can also be Early varieties are best picked when slightly should leave the spur with its stalk intact. troublesome pests are aphids, leaf-eating
trapped in jam jars partly filled with beer and immature because they soon go mealy. Pick There is also an almost imperceptible change caterpillars, sawfly and codling m o t h larvae.
sugar. However, these t w o methods guaran- those apples that have colored rather than in the ground color of the skin from dark Scab and mildew can be controlled by
tee only partial control, and the most posi- clearing all the apples in one go. Usually green to lighter green. regular spraying with benomyl or captan
tive (if tedious) protection against wasps is to those apples in full sun are ready first and Early and early mid-season pears (August starting at bud burst and finishing in July. If
enclose each fruit, or cluster of fruits, in a those in the middle of the tree last. Handle to September) must not be left on the tree canker occurs, cut out the rotting wood and
muslin bag or piece of nylon stocking. the fruits very gently because bruised fruits until they are fully ripe otherwise they may paint the clean wounds w i t h a canker paint.
do not keep. Put the fruits carefully into a go "sleepy", that is very soft, mealy and In bad attacks also apply liquid copper sprays
Harvesting and storing picking container lined with soft material brown at the center. Pick them when they after harvest and at 50 per cent leaf-fall, and
The time for picking apples and pears varies and transfer t h e m just as gently into their are almost ready but still firm, and then let the following year at bud burst. Check that
according to the season and the locality so it final container. them mellow in storage. Their storage life can the soil is not badly drained (see pages 10-11).
is not possible to give exact picking dates. As Late apples reach maturity in storage be extended considerably by keeping them Use a systemic aphicide against aphids.

Thinning Maypoling Grassing down the orchard

4 In mid-June, thin the fruits using sharp In mid-July, thin again to leave one or two 5 On small trees, to support branches with 6 After four or five years, sow grass in the
scissors or press the fruitlets off with the dessert apples per cluster 4-6 in apart, a heavy crop, drive a tall stake into the orchard. Sow a fine lawn mixture at 2 oz
thumb and finger, leaving the stalk behind cooking apples 6-9 in apart. Pears need less ground near the stem of the tree. Tie a per square yard, leaving a grass-free area
thinning; leave t w o fruits per cluster. rope from its top to each branch. of 2 ft radius around the base of each tree.
Apples and pears 14
Spraying with dimethoate one week after
petal fall controls sawfly larvae. Use a general- BIENNIAL BEARING
purpose fruit spray against codling m o t h
caterpillars in mid-June and again at the end
of June.
Pears The most troublesome disease of pears
is scab and the most troublesome pests are
aphids and leaf-eating caterpillars.
For scab spray with captan or benomyl at
bud burst, repeating every two weeks as
necessary until late July.
The whole business of pest control can be
greatly simplified if a general-purpose fruit
spray containing an insecticide and fungicide
is used on a systematic schedule throughout
the growing season.
In winter, during dormancy, spray with a
dormant oil. Then use the general-purpose
spray (1) just before blossoms open, (2) when
three-fourths of the flower petals have fallen,
(3) t w o weeks after petal fall, and (4) every
10-14 days thereafter until about three weeks
before harvest.
Adding a "sticker" (a gluey liquid) to the
spray keeps it from being rapidly diluted by 1 In spring, before a heavy crop year, 2 Each March, apply 4 oz per square 3 In late August, apply a further 2 oz
the rain. If the "sticker" is not used, it may be rub one-half to three-quarters of the yard of a balanced fertilizer, such as per square yard of sulfate of ammonia.
necessary to increase the frequency of spray fruit buds from the spurs, leaving one or 10-10-10, and sulfate of ammonia at In dry weather water copiously, giving
in wet or very humid weather to every seven two per spur. 2 oz per square yard. Mulch small at least 1 in of water (41/2 gal per square
days. trees with a 2 in layer of well-rotted yard) over the rooting area every ten
manure over a radius of 2 ft. days until rain restores the balance.
Propagation
Apples and pears do not come true from seed
nor are they satisfactory from cuttings, so gardener can try w h i c h sometimes improve rotted manure or compost to a depth of 2 in ticular year must be rigorously deblossomed.
they are propagated by budding or grafting the situation. over a radius of 2 ft but keep the material clear At first this deblossoming represents quite a
on to suitable rootstocks, a task normally In early spring before an expected heavy of the stem. task, especially with a large tree, but after the
performed by the fruit tree nursery. crop year, half to three-quarters of the fruit In late August apply a further 2 oz per third or fourth year it should be f o u n d that
buds are rubbed off the spurs, leaving about square yard of sulfate of ammonia. Through- the branches have accepted this alternate
Biennial bearing one or t w o per spur. This lessens the burden out the growing season, whenever the con- pattern and very little blossom removal is
Biennial bearing or the carrying of a heavy of too heavy a crop in that year and may ditions are dry, the tree should be irrigated necessary. However, a careful w a t c h should
crop one year and little or none in the next, is enable the tree to develop fruit buds for the copiously by applying at least 1 in of water be kept to see that the tree does not slip
a common problem with apples and pears. next year. (41/2 gal per square yard) over the rooting area back into the full biennial cropping. As with
Certain varieties are prone to it, although In conjunction with bud rubbing, a policy every ten days until rain restores the balance. the first technique, generous feeding is
almost any variety can fall into this habit. It of more generous feeding and watering If bud rubbing does not work, an alternative recommended.
is more likely to happen to trees which are should be adopted in " o n " and "off" years. technique is to induce the tree to crop
starved or receiving insufficient moisture, But remember the danger of over-feeding biennially over half the tree by removing half Grassing the orchard
which makes them unable to carry a heavy pears. the blossom. Alternate branches are selected After four or five years, sow grass seed through-
crop and at the same time develop fruit buds First, clear away grass or weeds from the and marked in some way. Half the branches out the orchard. Grass checks the vigor of the
for the following year. Frost destroying the base of the tree over a radius of at least 2 ft. are designated to crop in the even years trees and promotes color in the fruits, so
blossom one spring can sometimes be the Each March apply a balanced fertilizer such (1980,1982, and so on) and half the branches grass down dessert fruits, but not cooking
start of biennial bearing. Once the tree is into as 10-10-10 at 4 oz per square yard and sul- are designated to crop in the odd years apples or cooking pears for which size is more
this cropping pattern it is difficult to correct, fate of ammonia at 2 oz per square yard. (1981, 1983, and so on). Each spring, those important than color. Delay grassing if the
although there are certain techniques the Small trees should also be mulched with well- branches not selected to crop in that par- trees are growing poorly.
Plums 1
A classification of plums larger than the European plum, and grows in noted in the lists of varieties (above). A encourages suckering. Plum varieties on
Plums grow in varieties of color, shape, and zones 5 - 9 . Native plums, the best of which general safeguard, however, is to plant any vigorous rootstocks can be surrounded with
size and are known by different names in are for the most part hybrids, are the results of variety of plum in the proximity of another grass, but a clean area 2 ft square should be
various parts of the world. Understandably, crosses with Japanese plums. The fruits are variety to ensure a good set of fruit. But maintained right around the base of the tree.
therefore, confusion often occurs among red or yellow and fairly small. These trees it should be realized that European and Plums flower early, and so a sheltered, frost-
gardeners and botanists over names in the grow in zones 3-7. Japanese plums cannot pollinate each other. free site must be chosen because this is
plum family. All plums can be canned or made into jams Native plums are pollinated either by other essential to avoid irregular cropping. Japanese
The plum is a deciduous tree ranging in or jellies, but not all are ideal for immediate native varieties, by sandcherry-plum hybrids plums, w h i c h bloom very early, should be
height from 15-30 ft when mature. It bears consumption. The Japanese plum is generally or, in the case of crosses between native and planted on a north-facing slope or the north
small fruit and is popular with gardeners. For the best of the many plums available for Japanese plums, by Japanese varieties. side of a building or wall in order to retard
reasons of simplification, the plum can be eating w h e n ripe and fresh, but many of the blooming and thus protect the plums from
classified into three broad categories or European plums are also excellent eating. Cultivation late frosts.
groups: European, Japanese and native. But Since the plum does not form a very large The cultivation of all the various types of
there are several other fruits which are also tree, it is generally grown as a free-standing plums is broadly the same. The major varia- Soil preparation In the fall or early spring,
called plums, and these will be described tree in the open. Standard, semi-dwarf and tions are in pruning. prepare the ground by thoroughly clearing
briefly at the end of this section. dwarf specimens are available. Some of the Yield A good average yield from a fully- away perennial weeds over an area 3 ft
The European plum, primarily a blue fruit European varieties can be fan-trained against grown plum tree in the open ranges from 30 square. Fork in a balanced fertilizer such as
growing in zones 5-7, is further sub-classified a warm wall or a fence, or as a pyramid, a very to 120 lb. 10-10-10 at 3 oz per square yard and bone-
simply as plum, or as, for example, gage, good form for the small garden. It is not Soil and situation Plums require a deep, meal at 2 oz per square yard just before
damson, or bullace. These fruits are recog- suited to such restricted forms as the cordon moisture-retentive, well-drained soil with a planting. If the soil is light, also fork in well-
nized in the United States as plums, but a or espalier. pH from 6.5 to 7.2. Shallow soils over light, rotted manure or compost at one 2-gal
varietal name, such as green gage plum, sandy subsoils are unsuitable. The plums bucketful per 2 square feet.
damson plum, or Stanley prune plum, is Pollination grow best in clean soil. Control grass and Planting and spacing Plant bare-root trees in
appended for more precise identification. As a rule of t h u m b , plums are self-unfruitful. weeds around the tree by shallow hoeing. March or April while the tree is dormant. Con-
The Japanese plum is a red fruit somewhat The numerous exceptions to this rule are Avoid too deep cultivation because this tainer-grown trees can be planted at any

1 In autumn, prepare the ground, clearing 2 For trees in the open, drive in a stake. 3 In February, apply a balanced fertilizer at 4 Thin the fruits w h e n they are the size of
away perennial weeds. Lightly fork in 3 oz For fan-trained trees construct a system of 4 oz per square yard. One month later, hazelnuts and once the stones have formed
of a balanced fertilizer and 2 oz of bonemeal wires on the wall. Plant the tree and tie it to apply sulphate of ammonia at 1 oz per within the fruits. Repeat w h e n the fruits are
per square yard. the stake or to the wall wires. square yard. Mulch the tree with a 1-2 in twice this size to leave t h e m 2-3 in apart on
layer of compost or manure. the branches.
Plums 2
time. Dig a hole wide and deep enough to tree on for another year to acquire the growth to outward-facing buds. I cave shoots In the early years, extend the framework, as
take the roots fully extended. For trees in the needed height for a standard before cutting on the outer parts of the head not required with the peach, to fill in the wall space; then
open, before planting drive in a stake to reach it back. Shorten all laterals to about 3 in to for leaders. Prune back unpruned laterals on follow the steps below.
just below the lowest branch. For fan-trained help thicken the stem. the inside of the tree to 3-4 in. In the spring of later years, cut out a pro-
trees, construct a system of supporting, In July or August, select four to five evenly Little pruning of European plums is neces- portion of the old, worn-out w o o d back to
horizontal wires spaced 6 in apart (see pages spaced primary branches around the stem at sary in subsequent years. Generally, all that is young replacement branches. Paint the
8-9). Plant the tree to the same depth as it the top. Pinch out the growing points of all needed is to cut out dead, broken, rubbing wounds.
was in the nursery. Return the soil and firm it others at four or five leaves, including those and crossing branches and to thin out the
well. Tie to the stake with a tree tie and lower down the main stem. head when it becomes crowded. Japanese Feeding and watering
cushion or tie in the branches of a fan to the The second year In late winter, select four and native plums require the same general In early spring, apply a balanced fertilizer,
wall wires. Water well. Trees in the open branches that have formed wide angles with treatment, but, as noted above, may need such as 10-10-10, at 4 oz per square yard.
require staking for the first t w o or three years. the stem. Cut back each leader of those some heading back. Mulch young trees with a 1-2 in layer of well-
Space trees grown in the open 20 ft apart. selected by one-half to outward-facing buds. Pruning the fan-trained tree Starting with a rotted manure or compost over a radius of
Fan-trained trees are spaced 15-20 ft apart. Remove the remainder, including the lower maiden tree, the framework of a fan-trained 18 in, keeping the mulch clear of the stem.
laterals of the last year to thicken the stem. plum is built up in the same way as a fan- Water well and regularly in dry weather
Pruning In the summer, remove any suckers that trained peach (see pages 67-9). Thereafter, during the growing season, applying 1 in of
Since Japanese and native plums grow more appear from the ground as well as shoots on the pruning is different because, unlike the water (41/2 gal per square yard) every ten days
vigorously than European varieties, they the main stem below the head. peach, the plum fruits on short spurs on until rain corrects the balance. A v o i d irregular
require more pruning. This includes cutting The third year Repeat the procedures three- and four-year-old w o o d as well as on heavy watering because this can cause
back the head to some extent almost every adopted in the previous spring and summer, growth made in the previous summer. How- splitting of the fruits, especially near the
year. but allow more secondary branches to ever, the older w o o d tends to become bare ripening stage.
The first year In late winter, cut back the develop to fill the increased space, providing with age and from damage by frost or birds.
central stem of the maiden tree to a bud at up to eight strong, well-placed outward- The aim in pruning is to encourage spur Thinning the fruits
about 2 - 3 ft for a dwarf, or 4 - 5 ft for a growing branches. In late winter, cut these formation and, when necessary, to replace Thin the fruits (if the tree carries a heavy crop)
standard. It may be necessary to grow the back by one-half to two-thirds of the maiden worn-out branches. after the stones have formed within t h e fruits

The pyramid plum: the first year Second and subsequent years

1 In March, cut back the leader to 5 ft. 2 In fate July, shorten the new growth of 3 In March, shorten the central leader by 4 In late July, shorten the current season's
Cut back to the stem all laterals up to 18 in the branch leaders to 8 in to downward- two-thirds of the previous summer's growth growth of each branch leader to eight
from the ground. Cut back the remaining facing buds. Shorten the current season's until the tree has reached about 9ft, then leaves. Shorten the laterals to six leaves.
laterals by one-half. laterals on the branches to 6 in. Do not shorten the central leader to 1 in each May Cut out any vigorous shoots at the t o p of
prune the central leader. to keep the tree at this height. the tree.
Plums 3
to avoid loss of flavor and the possibility of a Protection against birds Pests and diseases Cultivation
biennial pattern of bearing. I bin once when The fruit buds of the plum are susceptible to Spray trees with dormant oil in late winter. The sandcherry-plums are g r o w n like plums
the fruits are about the size of hazelnuts, and bird damage in winter and the ripe fruit is Then apply a general-purpose fruit tree spray and in dry regions require a b o u t as much
again when they are twice this size. On most also at risk in the summer. Where necessary when the petals fall and at 10-14 day inter- space. In wetter areas, however, spacing can
European and native plums, fruits left on the and practicable, protect the tree with netting vals until approximately a month before be reduced considerably. The best fruit is
tree to ripen should be 2-3 in apart; however, (see page 17). harvest. Brown rot is a problem if the weather borne on young growth, so the plants must be
allow 4 in in the case of very large varieties. is warm and humid at time of bloom or in pruned rather hard every year. A good pro-
Japanese plums should be thinned to 3 - 4 in Harvesting and storing the three-week period before harvest. To cedure is to remove entire branches after
apart. Do not tug the fruits off because this Plums ripen from midsummer on. They do not control it, spray with captan at 3 - 4 day they have fruited for about three years. The
may tear away the following year's fruit buds; ripen simultaneously and it is necessary to go intervals. plants are self-unfruitful; plant t w o or more
cut the fruit stalk with scissors or shears. over the tree several times. Pick fruits in- varieties.
tended for canning, jam and cooking while Sandcherry-plum hybrids
Supporting the branches still slightly under-ripe. Pick all fruits with the These small (1/2 in to 11/4 in diameter) plums are Beach plums
It is essential to support very heavily laden stalks intact. also known as cherry plums. They are the The beach plum is generally associated with
branches because they may break and spoil Plums cannot be stored for prolonged result of crossing native sandcherries with Cape Cod, where it grows wild in profusion,
the shape of the tree. Such wounds also periods, but they will keep for t w o to three plums, usually native but sometimes but it can be grown t h r o u g h o u t zones 6 - 8
increase the risk of bacterial infection. Sup- weeks if picked when a little under-ripe and Japanese. Accordingly, the deciduous plants near the ocean.
port individual branches with a clothes prop kept in a cool place, at about 6°-7 0 C/42°- range from shrubs no more than 4 ft high to
or forked stake driven into the ground at an 45°F. trees about 25 ft high. The fruits have purple, Cultivation
angle. Wrap the branch with burlap where it red or green skins and yellow to purple flesh. The beach plum grows in indifferent soil so
meets the crotch of the support. Alterna- Propagation Sandcherry-plum hybrids are most com- long as it is well-drained, but needs full sun. A
tively, the branches of dwarf trees can be Plums are propagated by budding or grafting, monly grown in zones 2 - 6 , where true plums little balanced plant f o o d can be applied in
supported with ropes tied to a central stake a task normally carried out by the nursery. For do not thrive. early spring, the plants can be mulched with
in maypole fashion (see illustration 5 on details see the companion volume in this The many varieties all fruit from mid- leaves, and then pretty well forgotten. Water-
page 57). series, Plant Propagation. August to September. ing is required only in long dry spells.

The plum fan Fourth and subsequent years

1 For the first three years, follow the 2 Each spring, as growth begins, rub out 3 From late June to late July, as new shoots 4 After cropping, between mid-August and
formative pruning steps for the peach fan shoots growing directly towards the wall are made, pinch out the growing points of mid-September, cut back the pinched-out
(see pages 69-70), extending the framework and breastwood. shoots not wanted for the framework when shoots to three leaves to encourage fruit
to fill in the wall space. Prune only in spring they have made six or seven leaves. This buds to form at the bases of t h e
or summer. begins to form the fruit-bearing spur system. pinched-out shoots the following year.
Sweet and Duke cherries 1
The cultivated sweet, or dessert, cherry is a high. In the open it is grown as a standard. By 2 oz per square yard. maiden tree is well feathered use t w o strong
hybrid between Prunus avium and P. cerasus. using the less vigorous rootstock Colt, it Planting and spacing Plant when dormant in laterals, one to the left and one to the right
It is a hardy deciduous tree which is cultivated could be grown as a pyramid. Treat Duke March or April. Container-grown trees can at the first wire to form the initial ribs. Tie
in many areas of Europe and western Asia. It cherries in the same way as sweet cherries. be planted at any time. Dig a hole wide and these to canes fixed to the wires at 3.5 degrees.
bears clusters of attractive, white flowers in Yield The yield from the different kinds of deep enough to take the roots fully extended.
spring and bears fruits, ranging in color from cherry can vary enormously depending, of For trees in the open, before planting drive Pruning dwarf, semi-dwarf or standards
yellow and pink to almost jet black, from course, on the size, age and form of the tree in a stake to reach just below the lowest The first year: the maiden tree Prune in the
June onwards in cool temperate areas. It and the climate. A good average from a fan branches. Standard cherries require two early spring just as the buds begin to open.
grows in zones 6 and 7, and in protected is about 30 lb and from a well-grown stan- stakes and a crossbar. For fan-trained trees, The head is formed by cutting back to three
locations in zone 5. dard 100 lb. erect a system of horizontal wires on the wall or four suitably placed buds in the same way
The Duke cherry is thought to be a cross Soil and situation Cherries grow in any good, using 14 gauge wire and spaced 6 in or t w o as for the apple (see page 47). The objective
between the sweet and sour cherry and it is well-drained soil but it must be deep, ideally brick courses apart (see pages 8-9). is to obtain three or four well-placed primary
intermediate in character between the two. more than 21/2 ft. The pH should be between Plant the tree to the same depth as it was branches by the end of the summer. Pinch
'May Duke', 'Olivet', 'Reine Hortense' and 6.7 and 7.5. Light, sandy and shallow soils are at the nursery. Return the soil and firm it well. out any flowers that are produced. Shoots
'Royal Duke' are good varieties, but are not suitable. Tie to the stake with a tree tie and cushion, or lower d o w n on the main stem should be
difficult to find. Cherry blossom is susceptible to frost and tie in the branches of a fan to the wall wires. pinched back to four leaves. These help to
young trees to wind damage so the site Space fan-trees 18-25 ft apart; half-stand- stiffen the stem and should not be removed
Cultivation should be sheltered from winds, in full sun ards and standards at 3 0 - 4 0 ft apart and until the cherry is four years old. Protect the
Although this delicious fruit merits a place in and not in a frost pocket. dwarfs 25-35 ft apart. pruning cuts.
any garden, it has one serious drawback—its Soil preparation In the spring clear away The second year In spring, prune each leader
extreme vigor. Despite the introduction of weeds over an area 3 ft square, single digging Pruning the fan-trained tree by one half to an outward-facing bud. Sum-
increasingly dwarfing rootstocks, the cherry clear ground and double digging weedy The sweet cherry fan is pruned as shown in mer prune the pinched-back shoots on the
remains quite vigorous and is therefore not ground. Just before planting, fork in a bal- the step-by-step instructions below. Prune in main stem by pinching out the growing
suitable for a small garden. It is often grown anced fertilizer such as 10-10-10 at the rate spring as the buds burst and not in winter points. Weak or diseased branches should
as a fan on a wall, but the wall must be fairly of 3 oz per square yard with bonemeal at because of the risk of bacterial canker. If the be entirely removed.

Pruning the fan-trained tree: the first year The second year

1 In spring, prepare the soil. Dig a hole 2 Each April, apply a top dressing of 1 In spring, tie t w o strong laterals to canes 2 In spring, select suitable buds and
wide and deep enough to take the roots balanced fertilizer at a rate of 3 oz per fixed to wires at 35 degrees. Head the center shorten each leader to about 12 in. This
fully extended. Plant the tree against a square yard over the rooting area. Mulch stem back to the uppermost of the selected encourages shoots to develop in the
wired wall for fan-training (or with two with a 2-3 in layer of well-rotted manure laterals. Remove all other laterals and summer which are used as the ribs of the
stakes and a crossbar for standards). over a radius of 18 in. protect the cuts. fan.
Sweet and Duke cherries 2
The third year by the third spring six to nine the soil around trained trees must be kept tree accustomed to moist soil conditions. Do using scissors or shears: if fruits are pulled
well-spaced leaders should have been clear by maintaining a 3 ft wide border along not suddenly give heavy applications of off and the stalk is left hanging it encourages
formed. Prune them lightly, leaving about the length of the wall over the spread of the water after the soil has become dry because brown rot. Cherries should be eaten as soon
24 in of the previous summer's growth. tree. The border may then be planted to grass this may cause the fruits to split and so spoil as possible after picking as they can deterior-
Prune laterals competing with the leaders if the tree is developing in a satisfactory the subsequent crop. ate quite quickly.
back to three buds. Upright laterals in the manner.
center should be cut out because these may Dwarf and standard trees should also be Pollination Propagation
grow too vigorously and spoil the shape of grassed d o w n after five years. For the grass W i t h one exception (the variety 'Stella') Cherries are propagated by budding, or by
the tree. Where there is room, leave other mixture (see page 57). Keep the grass clear of sweet cherries are not self-compatible, in grafting on to rootstocks, tasks normally
laterals unpruned. the trunk of the tree, as not to do so will fact, cross-incompatibility occurs. Most Duke carried out by the nursery but w h i c h can be
Fourth and fifth years No more leader prun- encourage pests or diseases. cherries are self-compatible and can be done by keen amateurs if great care is taken
ing should be necessary. In the fourth spring Feeding and watering In March or April apply planted singly but a few are not. in the exercise.
clean up the trunk by removing the pinched- a balanced general fertilizer, such as 10-10-10,
back shoots. Protect the wounds by sealing at 3 oz per square yard as a top dressing over Protection against frost and birds Pests and diseases
them with bituminous paint. the rooting area. Young trees, both fan- It is feasible to protect the blossom of a fan- Tent caterpillars, cherry slugs, and brown rot
trained and in the open, should also be mul- trained tree against frost, but hardly practic- are the most troublesome problems. Cherry
Pruning an established tree ched to a depth of 2 - 3 in over an overall radius able with a tall standard. Drape the fan with slug and tent caterpillar as well as most other
Very little pruning is necessary while the of 18 in. burlap or netting (see page 7). Other birds problems can be controlled by a regular spray
tree is well furnished with cropping w o o d Cherries against walls require watering in destroy the buds in the winter while starlings program. The program should include the
and of manageable height. Each year cut out dry spells during the growing season. Once and blackbirds eat the ripe fruits. Protect the application of a dormant oil in late winter or
dead, broken, crowded or crossing branches, a good set of cherries has been achieved, tree by covering it with adequate netting. early spring followed by consistent use of a
cutting them flush to avoid any snags. Prune water the border soil copiously in times of general-purpose fruit spray after petal fall. To
in the spring and protect the wounds by drought. Apply 1 in (41/2 gal per square yard) Harvesting prevent brown rot, spray the plants with
sealing them with bituminous paint. over the rooting area every seven days (ten Leave the cherries on the tree until ripe unless captan during periods of w a r m and humid
Grassing down For the first four or five years for the sour cherry) until rain falls. Keep the they start cracking. Pick with the stalk on weather conditions.

The third year Fourth and subsequent years

3 In spring, cut back all leaders to suitable '4 In spring, when most of the wall space 5 In late July, cut back to six leaves any 6 At the end of September, cut back to
buds, leaving 18-21 in of new growth. has been filled, rub or cut out any laterals not wanted for the framework. three leaves the laterals that were pinched
breastwood or laterals growing directly When growth reaches the top of the wall, out in July to encourage fruit buds to form
towards the wall. cut back to a weak lateral just below. Or, at the base of the shoots in the following
bend and tie down the shoots. year.
Sour cherries
The sour cherry is a culinary fruit derived Pruning the cropping tree is based on the Fan-trained tree Fourth and subsequent years
from Prunus cerasus. It is a hardy deciduous fact that the sour cherry fruits almost solely
tree that is much less vigorous than the on the growth made in the previous sum-
sweet cherry and can be grown in a small mer. As with the peach, the aim is to obtain a
garden. There are two types of sour cherry: constant supply of strong new shoots to
the Morello with dark red, almost black fruits carry the next season's cherries.
and red juice; and the Amarelle, with red In spring and early summer, thin out the
fruits and colorless juice. Both are self- new shoots to about 4-6 in apart along the
compatible and can be planted singly in framework branches. Leave one replacement
zones 4-7. shoot at the base of each fruit-carrying
lateral. Tie the young shoots to the wires
Cultivation while they are still flexible. Do not pinch out
Usually grown as a small tree in the open, or the growing points of the young shoots, but
as a fan on a wall, the sour cherry can also let them extend where there is room. 1 For the first three years, follow the eight 2 In spring and early summer, thin out new
be grown as a central leader tree in pyramid After harvesting in mid-summer, cut out steps for formative pruning of a peach fan shoots to 4-6 in apart along the framework
form. the laterals that have fruited back to the (see pages 67-70), cutting the leaders back branches. Tie in young shoots to the wires.
The sour cherry begins to bear fruit in its young replacement shoots. hard).
third or fourth year. A maiden tree can be Some sour cherries are relatively weak
planted but a few years are gained if a t w o - growing and the fruiting laterals do not
or three-year-old tree already partly shaped readily produce replacement shoots near
by the nursery is obtained. the base. If these fruiting laterals are left
Soil and situation Provided the soil is well unpruned and no replacements form, they
drained, the sour cherry is tolerant of a wide become extremely long with the base and
range of soils but it prefers one that is neutral center of the fan bare and the crop carried
to slightly alkaline (pH 7.0). only on the perimeter. W h e n this happens, in
The sour cherry flowers early in spring and March, cut out a proportion of the three- and
so should not be planted in a frost pocket. It four-year-old branches back to younger
will tolerate partial shade and can be grown laterals to stimulate the development of new
as a fan on a north-facing wall. growth.
Planting and spacing Plant the tree when
dormant in early spring. Prepare the soil and Pruning the bush and pyramid 3 After harvesting, cut out the laterals 1 For the first three years, follow the steps
plant, stake and tie as for the sweet cherry The initial training for these forms is the same that have fruited back to the young for the initial pruning of a pyramid plum. Cut
(see page 62). Bush and central-leader trees as for the open-centered bush and pyramid replacement shoots. back the leaders in early spring.
should be staked for the first four or five plum. The leaders are cut back in early spring
years. For fan-trained trees, erect a support as growth begins to establish the framework. The mature tree
system of horizontal wires on the wall be- Mature trees bear fruit along young wood
fore planting. Use 14 gauge wire and stretch formed in the previous season. In March cut
the wires at every 6 in or two brick courses back a proportion of the older shoots to one-
(see page 9). year-old laterals or young shoots so that the
Space trees grown in the open 20-25 ft old growth is continually replaced.
apart. Fans are spaced 12-15 ft. As the trees become older, the center may
Control weeds and grass by shallow hoeing become bare and unproductive. Each year
or use weedkillers (see page 17). Leave a after harvesting, cut back one-third of the
border of uncultivated soil around the tree. main branches to within about 3 ft of the
head to produce vigorous young replace-
Pruning the fan-trained tree ment branches. Protect the cuts with a
The formative-pruning and training is the wound paint.
same as for a peach fan (see page 67),
taking care to cut the leaders back hard in Routine cultivation
the first three years of training so that a head For feeding, watering, protection, thinning, 2 In March, cut back some of the older 3 After harvesting, if the tree is bare and
with plenty of ribs arising close to one harvesting, propagation, pests and diseases shoots to one-year-old laterals or young unproductive, cut back one-third of the
another is formed. see Sweet and Duke cherries (pages 62-3). shoots to replace the older growth. main branches to within 3 ft of the head,
Peaches and almonds 1
especially in zone 9. It does best in the hot spaced to form the first ribs of the fan. from the main stem. I his will induce new
Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys of Planting Plant during the dormant season, shoots in the coming summer. Protect the
California. usually in March or April. If planting a con- cuts with w o u n d paint.
tainer-grown tree, it can be planted generally In summer, select four strong shoots from
Cultivation at any time. In the prepared soil, dig a hole each arm. O n e to extend the existing rib, two
The peach and the nectarine are self-compat- wide and deep enough to take the roots fully equally spaced on the upper side and one on
ible and single trees can be planted. The spread out. Plant the tree to the same depth the lower side of the branch to give the tree a
almond is only partly self-compatible and t w o as it was at the nursery. Give each tree grown total of eight ribs by the end of the season.
or more varieties should be planted. in the open a space of about 20 ft in diameter. Pinch back all other shoots as they develop
A fan must be planted 6-9 in away from the to one leaf.
Yield The yield from a peach or a nectarine wall or fence to allow for growth, with the Carefully train each new shoot to a cane
can vary enormously depending upon the stem inclined slightly towards its support to extend the wings of the fan. Keep the
size of the tree and the environment. A good structure (see page 44). center open at this stage.
average, yield from a fan is about 30 lb and After planting, apply a 2-3 in mulch of The third year In March, shorten each leader
form a bush 30-100 lb. well-rotted manure, compost, peat or mush- by about one-third, cutting to a downward-
room compost for 18 in around the tree. pointing w o o d bud. Paint the wounds.
Soil and situation The peach is tolerant of a A system of horizontal wires is necessary In the summer, allow the leading shoot on
wide range of soils but it is essential that they to support the fan. Fix the wires to the wall or each of the eight ribs to extend. Also select
are well drained. To improve the drainage of fence every 6 in or two brick courses apart, three more shoots on each branch and train
a heavy soil place brick and stone rubble and starting at 12 in above the ground (see pages these outwards, tying t h e m to canes on the
chopped sods in the bottom of the planting 8-9). Tie canes to the wires where needed wires, to fill in the remaining space on the
hole. The ideal soil is a medium to heavy, with thin wire. wall or fence. Rub out buds growing directly
moderately limey loam, not less than 18 in towards the structure and breastwood. Of the
in depth with a pH of 6.7-7.0. Pruning and training remaining buds, allow young shoots to grow
The peach is quite hardy, preferring a cold Stone fruits such as the peach are pruned in every 4 in on the upper and lower sides of the
winter and a sunny dry spring rather than a late winter or early spring. ribs. Pinch back to one leaf any surplus
warm, wet winter which causes the buds to shoots. Repeat this process as and when
Peaches, nectarines and almonds (outdoors) open only to be damaged by subsequent The fan-trained tree necessary throughout the summer. W h e n the
The peach (Prunus persica) is a small deci- frosts. The site must be in full sun and shel- The first year In March, starting with the selected laterals have made 18 in of growth,
duous tree with long, tapering light green tered from cold winds and ideally not in a feathered maiden tree, cut back to a lateral pinch out the growing points, unless they are
leaves and attractive pink flowers borne frost pocket. The peach flowers very early so at about 24 in above the ground, ensuring required as part of the framework. In late
singly in the early spring. Despite its name, it is ideally grown as a fan on a wall or fence that there are t w o good buds, or laterals, summer tie t h e m to canes on the wires. Fruit
the peach did not originate in Persia, but with a southerly aspect where it can be pro- beneath it, one to the left and one to the right. will be borne on these laterals in t h e following
almost certainly in China where it was tected against frost at flowering time and Cut all remaining laterals to one bud. If there summer.
cultivated for many centuries before being benefit from the warmth of the structure. is not suitable lateral, cut back to a wood bud Fourth and subsequent years From this point
introduced to Europe. The peach is grown W h e n planted in the open, as it generally is, which is slender and pointed. If in doubt, cut onwards the tree must be regarded as a crop-
throughout the warm temperate regions of the peach can be placed on a northern slope to a triple bud which consists of t w o round ping tree. The wall or fence should now be
the world (zones 6-8). or the north side of a building so that it will flower buds and one wood bud. more or less completely covered w i t h frame-
The nectarine is a smooth-skinned sport, bloom late after frost danger is past. In the early summer select three strong work branches on w h i c h every 4 in are fruit-
or mutation, of the peach. Generally the Soil preparation Where there are poor soils shoots. Train the topmost shoot vertically bearing laterals.
fruits are smaller than peaches and often at the base of a wall, it is worth while pre- and of the other two, train one to the left and The peach carries its fruits on shoots made
considered to have a better flavor. For most paring the border specially (see page 44). one to the right, choosing those that come during the previous summer so pruning is
cultural purposes, however, it is treated in On good soils, however, it is sufficient to from just below the bottom wire. Remove all aimed at a constant and annual renewal of
exactly the same way as the peach. fork in a balanced fertilizer such as 10-10-10 other buds or shoots entirely. young shoots. It follows also t h a t the shoots
The almond tree is similar in size, habit, at the rate of 3 oz per square yard with As the t w o side-shoots lengthen, tie them which have borne fruits are cut out to make
leaf form and flower to the peach, but it bonemeal at 3 oz per square yard over an to canes at an angle of 45 degress. W h e n room for the new young ones.
blossoms even earlier and therefore in cooler , area of t w o square yards. both these shoots are about 18 in long, in Each late spring, about May, remove shoots
areas the blooms are frequently destroyed by Selecting the tree For a tree to grow in the June or July, cut out the central shoot growing directly towards and away from the
frost or affected by cold. For this reason in open buy a well-feathered maiden tree. For a entirely. Protect the w o u n d with a wound wall or fence but leave one or t w o leaves or
northern latitudes (zone 7) it is grown largely fan obtain a fan that is already partly formed. paint to prevent disease or pest infection. shoots which have flower buds at the base.
for its beautiful blossoms. The almond tree Choose one with 5-12 shoots (depending The second year In March, cut back the two Next deal with the previous summer's laterals
is a reliable producer of nuts in zone 8 and upon the age of the tree) that are evenly side-shoots to a wood or triple bud at 12-18 in which should be carrying b o t h blossom and
Peaches and almonds 2
side-shoots. Select one side-shoot at the base
as the replacement, one in the middle as a
reserve and one at the top to extend the
fruit-carrying lateral. Pinch back the remain-
ing side-shoots to two leaves. W h e n the
basal side-shoot and the reserve lateral are
18 in long and the fruit-carrying lateral has a
further six leaves, pinch out the growing
points of each.
Pruning the standard tree The formative
pruning is the same as for an apple (see page
47).
In the cropping years the objective is to
encourage plenty of strong new growth each
year to carry fruit in the next summer. This
new growth is then cut back 50 per cent or
more in the early spring of the year if it is to
bear fruit. Long branches at the t o p of the
tree should be removed at the same time. It
is occasionally necessary to cut back some of
the older wood which has become bare to
young healthy replacements. Avoid, how-
ever, making large wounds because peaches 1 Before planting, fork in 3 oz per square 2 In March or April, plant during the 3 After planting, mulch to a d e p t h of
are susceptible to bacterial canker. yard of a balanced fertilizer, such as dormant season. A fan should be 6-9 in 2-3 in with manure or compost for 18 in
Feeding and watering In early spring each 10-10-10, with 3 oz bonemeal. Repeat away from the wall or fence with the stem around the tree. Replenish every year in
year apply a balanced fertilizer such 10-10-10 every March. inclined towards it. late winter.
at the rate of 3 oz per square yard as a top
dressing over the rooting area. Replenish the
mulch if necessary.
Trees over the age of three years need
nothing more than nitrate of soda or a m m o n -
ium sulfate unless a soil test indicates the soil
has a potassium or phosphorus deficiency.
Keep the soil moist at all times until just
before the fruit begins to ripen. Ample water
is essential to good production. But it is also
important to keep the tree accustomed to
moist soil conditions at all times. In other
words, do not suddenly apply a lot of water
near ripening time because there is the risk
of splitting the fruits. Because the soil at
the base of a wall tends to dry out rapidly,
fan-trained peaches must be watered with
special care. Direct water at the base of the
tree so that moisture gets to the roots. Do
not wet the foliage.
Frost protection
Protection of the blossom against frost is
also essential from pink bud stage until the 4 In March, spray with a copper fungicide 5 From early May to July, thin the fruits, 6 From August onwards, pick the fruit when
danger of frost has passed. Drape the fan- or Bordeaux mixture against peach leaf starting when they are the size of large the flesh feels soft at the stalk end. Hold
trained tree with burlap or bird netting (see curl. Also spray with dormant oil. peas. the fruit in the palm of the hand, lift and
page 17). Remove during the day. twist it slightly.
Peaches and almonds 3
Thinning number of diseases and insects but this need The fan-trained tree: the first year
To obtain good-sized fruits it is essential to not cause worry if a consistent spray program
thin the fruits. Thin over a period, starting is followed faithfully. A dormant oil can be
when the fruitlets are the size of large peas sprayed on in late winter. Then, after about 75
and stopping when they are the size of per cent of the petals have fallen, apply a
walnuts. Peaches should be 9 in apart and general fruit-tree spray and continue with this
nectarines 6 in apart after the final thinning. at about two-week intervals for the next wo
months, or even up to within a month of har-
Harvesting peaches and nectarines vest. Such treatment will take care of most
The fruit is ripe when it has a reddish flush problems.
and the flesh feels soft near the stalk end. To control brown rot, especially trouble-
Hold the peach in the palm of the hand, lift some on nectarines and, in some years, just
and twist it slightly. It should part easily from about as bad on peaches, spray with captan.
the tree. Store the fruits in a cool place until Do this every three days if there is a spell
they are to be eaten. They will keep for only of hot, humid weather at the time of bloom.
up to a week and for long-term storage they Captan spraying can also be carried out in
must be canned or frozen without the stones. the three-week period prior to harvest as
well as during a hot and humid spell.
Pruning the fan-trained tree after harvesting Leaf curl causes first leaves to thicken
Immediately after cropping, not later than the and curl as well as tinting them red and
end of September, cut out the laterals which yellow. To control this, apply a liquid cop-
carried the fruits back to the replacement per fungicide before the buds open in the
shoots. Tie in the young shoots and cut out spring. Bordeaux mixture can also be em- 1 In March, cut back a feathered maiden 2 In early summer, select three shoots.
any dead or broken branches. ployed, and, if so, it is mixed and applied with peach to a lateral about 24 in above the Train the topmost vertically, and one to
Once the peach has reached the required dormant oil. Almonds require regular spray- ground, leaving one good bud on each side the left and one to the right. Remove all
height and spread, remove any unwanted ing with a general-purpose fruit spray. beneath it. Cut remaining laterals to one bud. other buds or shoots.
extension growth by cutting to a lateral
further back along the branch. Cut out bare The second year
wood back to strong young replacements.
Protect the wounds with a wound paint.

Harvesting and storage of almonds


Harvest the nuts when the husks split and the
nuts fall naturally. Remove the nuts from the
husks and dry them thoroughly in well-venti-
lated conditions: in sunshine is ideal, or in an
airing cupboard. Keep the nuts off the ground
by laying them on wire netting to allow air
circulation. Once dry they should be kept in
cool and dry conditions.
If squirrels are troublesome, harvest the
nuts slightly earlier and dry both husk and
nut initially before splitting them open.

Propagation
Peaches, nectarines and almonds are pro-
pagated by budding or grafting, a task nor-
mally carried out by the nursery, but it can
be performed by the keen amateur. 3 In June or July, tie the lengthening side- 4 In March, cut back the t w o side-shoots 5 In summer, select four shoots on each
shoots to canes set at an angle of 45 to a w o o d or triple bud at 12-18 in from the arm, one to extend the existing rib, t w o
Pests and diseases degrees. Later that summer, cut out central main stem. Protect the cuts with w o u n d spaced equally on the upper side and one
Peaches and nectarines are attacked by a shoot and protect cut with w o u n d paint. paint. on the lower. Stop other shoots at one leaf.
Peaches and almonds 4
The third year

6 In March, shorten each leader by one- 7 In summer, allow the leading shoots on 8 In late summer, when the selected tie them to canes on the wires. These
third by cutting to a downward-pointing each rib to extend. Train three shoots on laterals have made 18 in of new growth, laterals will bear fruit the following
wood bud. Protect the cuts. each branch outwards, tying them to pinch out the growing points of each and summer.
canes. Allow shoots to grow every 4 in.

Fourth and subsequent years

9 Each year in about May, remove shoots wall or fence. Leave shoots with flower 10 Select t w o replacement laterals on each reserve laterals are 18 in long and t h e
growing directly towards and away from the buds at their base one or t w o leaves. leader: one at the base and a reserve in the extension has six leaves, pinch out t h e
middle. Allow a lateral to extend the growing points. After harvesting, cut the
fruit-carrying lateral. W h e n the basal and fruited laterals back to their replacements.
Apricots
The apricot (Prunus armeniaca) is a hardy de- crop. Every four to six years, cut out the older A three-year-old fan-trained tree
ciduous tree. It is a native of China and is shoots that have fruited to make room for
widely grown in California and Washington, new young ones. This means cutting out
but can be raised successfully elsewhere in some of the lateral and sub-lateral branches
zones 5-8. of a fan-trained tree. Retain and tie in the
same number of new shoots to replace them.
Cultivation Do not prune or pinch back these shoots
A dwarf tree is best for the garden where until the second season, but only if required.
space is limited. Even this can reach a height Thinning Thin the fruits at intervals from the
of 8 ft and a span of 15 ft. Buy a t w o - or three- time they are the size of cherries until they
year-old tree. are almost full size. First remove misshapen
Soil and situation The apricot needs a well- fruits and those growing towards the wall.
drained but moisture-retentive and slightly Later, thin pairs and clusters so that those left
alkaline soil with a pH range of 6.5-8.0. Light, to ripen have 3-4 in between them.
sandy soils are not suitable. Feeding Root dryness is a c o m m o n problem 1 In early spring, in prepared ground dig a 2 Erect supporting horizontal wires 9 in
W a r m t h in summer is essential and, al- with wall-trained trees. Water generously hole large enough for the roots. Plant at the apart on the wall or fence. Tie in the young
though the apricot can be grown in the open until the root area is soaked, especially if the same depth as at the nursery. Mulch well. branches to the canes on the wall wires.
in warm temperate areas, it thrives best fan- weather is dry when the fruit is setting or
trained against a south- or west-facing wall in when it starts to swell. The first year
the cooler regions. It can also be grown suc- In late winter, sprinkle an artificial fertilizer
cessfully in containers. containing calcium carbonate and am-
Shelter the tree from frost and wind to monium nitrate around the tree at a rate of
encourage pollinating insects and to protect 1 oz per square yard and apply a general
the ripening fruit. Keep the soil around the fertilizer, such as 10-10-10, at a rate of 2 oz per
tree clear of weeds and grass so that ample square yard. Every four years, if necessary,
moisture can reach the roots. apply ground limestone to maintain the pH
Planting In all but the mildest climates, where at a little above 7.0. In late spring, mulch the
fall planting is safe, apricots should be planted root area to 1 in.
only in the spring. To prepare the ground, Pollination Most apricots are self-compatible
clear away perennial weeds over an area but, because the flowers open early in spring
3 ft square. Dig in well-rotted manure or when few insects are about, hand pollination
compost at a rate of one 2-gal bucketful per is sometimes necessary (see page 43). The new 3 In March, shorten each leader by one- 4 In July/August, select and tie in three
square yard. Plant the tree, water well, and and very hardy 'Moongold' and 'Sungold' are third, leaving about 30 in of growth. additional shoots from each pruned leader.
mulch lightly. not self-fruitful and must be planted to- Pinch out all remaining shoots.
Plant fan-trained trees 15 ft apart and 6 in gether.
from the wall or fence. Plant bush trees Protecting the blossom The apricot is highly The second and subsequent years
15-20 ft apart. susceptible to frost damage. Protect it with
Formative pruning and training The forma- polyethylene or netting (see pages 6-7).
tive pruning of the fan-trained apricot is the
same as that of the fan-trained peach. The Harvesting
formative pruning of the bush apricot is the Depending on the variety, apricots ripen from
same as that of the bush plum, but prune it in midsummer to early fall. Pick the ripe fruit
early spring before growth begins. carefully and try not to break the skin.
Pruning the croppingtree Mature fan-trained
apricots are pruned in the same way as are Pests and diseases
fan-trained plums. Mature bush apricots are Spray trees on the same schedule and with
pruned in the same way as sour cherries (see the same materials as peach trees. The trees
page 64). are very susceptible to brown rot if the
The apricot carries the best quality and weather is humid and warm at the time of
most abundant crops on short spurs on two- bloom and in the three weeks before harvest 5 In spring, rub out buds pointing towards 6 Early in July, pinch off the tips of side-
and three-year-old w o o d . Extensive pruning starts. To control this, spray frequently with or away from the wall or fence. Prune the shoots at six leaves. After cropping, cut
is not necessary because it results in a poor captan during these periods. leaders by one-quarter. back these laterals by one-half.
Mulberries
The common or large black mulberry (Morus lowest branches. For wall- or fence-trained Prune wall-trained mulberries in summer. cut just above the proposed top bud and a
nigra) is a deciduous tree native to western trees, construct a system of supporting hori- Train in the main branches 15-18 in apart to horizontal cut about 6 in below it. Dip the
Asia. In the United States it grows from zone zontal wires, spaced every 9 in (see pages 8-9). cover the wall. Tie down the leaders at the basal cut only in rooting hormone. Heel in
6 southward. The red-black fruits resemble Dig a hole wide and deep enough to take end of the summer and once they have several cuttings, in bundles of ten, into a
loganberries and have a sharp but sweet the roots fully extended. The roots are brittle reached the required length stop them by sandbox almost to their full d e p t h . Label
flavor particularly suitable for cooking. and so take care not to damage them at cutting back each leader to one bud on the them and leave for the winter.
planting. Never dig near a mulberry tree. previous year's growth in April. Prune side- Just before the dormant buds break in
Cultivation Plant the tree to the same depth as in the shoots to four or five leaves in late July to spring, dig the propagation bed thoroughly.
The mulberry is long-lived and decorative. nursery, spreading the roots out well. Return encourage fruit spurs to form. Make a furrow 5 in deep. Lift the cuttings and
It is self-compatible and so will fruit if grown the soil and firm it carefully. Tie the tree to the The branches of mature trees become plant vertically 4-6 in apart. Firm back the
as a single plant. W h e n mature it reaches a stake with a tree tie and cushion. For wall- crooked and brittle and may need supporting soil leaving about 1 in of the cutting exposed.
height of 20-30 ft. trained trees, tie in the branches to the wall with a forked stake. W r a p the branch with The following fall, lift and transplant the
Soil and situation The mulberry is tolerant of wires. Water well and mulch with well-rotted burlap where it meets the crotch. rooted cutting.
a variety of soils but thrives best planted in manure or compost. Watering and feeding Watering is necessary
rich, fertile well-drained but moisture-reten- Pruning and training The mulberry is slow in extremely dry weather. Harvesting
tive soil with a pH of 5.5-7.0. growing, taking eight to ten years to begin In April, apply a balanced fertilizer, such The fruit ripens from late August over a
It should be planted in a sheltered, warm cropping, so a three- to five-year-old tree as 10-10-10, at a rate of 2 oz per square yard. period of about three weeks. Pick fruit for
and sunny position. In the coldest areas it already shaped at the nursery is best. In spring, mulch with well-rotted manure or cooking when it is slightly unripe. Fruit for
is best grown against a south-facing wall or Prune mulberries grown in the open in compost. eating is almost black.
fence. winter. Cut back to four or five buds any
Planting In early spring prepare the ground strong laterals longer than 12 in that are not Propagation Pests and diseases
thoroughly, clearing away perennial weeds required as framework branches. Remove or Propagate from cuttings. In early October, The mulberry is generally free of pests and
over an area 3 ft square. For planting in the shorten any which spoil the shape of the after leaf-fall, remove a one-year-old stem diseases but protect the ripening fruit against
open, drive in a stake to reach just below the head. Protect the cuts with a w o u n d paint. with all the year's growth. Make a sloping birds (see page 17).

Trees in the open Wall-trained trees

1 In spring, clear the 2 Plant the tree, spreading 3 In winter, cut back to four 1 In summer, train in the main branches 2 In April, once the leaders have reached
ground of perennial weeds. the roots out. Return and or five buds laterals longer 15-18 in apart. Tie down the leaders at the the required length, stop them by c u t t i n g
Dig a hole wide and deep firm the soil. Tie the tree to than 12 in not required for end of summer. Cut out breastwood and back to one bud on the previous year's
enough to take the roots. the stake. Water well. Mulch the framework. Cut out any branches growing into the wall. growth. In late July, prune the side-shoots
Drive in a stake. with manure or compost. branches spoiling the head. to four or five leaves.
Elderberries
The common elder (.Sambucus nigra) is a Pruning After planting, cut out weak and The first year
deciduous tree native to Europe, western damaged growth and cut back main shoots
Asia and parts of northern Africa and now by a few inches to a good, outward-facing
grows wild over much of the USA and bud. This ensures that during the first grow-
Canada. The shiny purple-black blue or red ing season the plant's energy is concentrated
berries are widely used in preserves, and both on producing a strong basic framework of
the fruit and flowers are popular for making branches. Cut back any unwanted suckers to
wine. The plant grows as a large shrub or small ground level. Little flower is produced in the
tree and is often considered too wild and first year.
vigorous for the garden. Its new woody In subsequent years, in late winter, cut out
growth gives off an unpleasant smell and was dead and congested branches to maintain
used in the past as a fly-repellent. In the a good shape. Cut out about a quarter of the
northern USA, the American or sweet elder (5. old w o o d back to base each year to encour-
canadensis) is widely grown and several im- age new growth. Cut back unwanted suckers
proved clones are available. They have an to ground level and protect the cuts with a
extremely high Vitamin C content. Depend- w o u n d paint.
ing on the variety, they grow from zones 3-9, Feeding In dry spring and summer weather
but are not c o m m o n in zones 5-8. water well and mulch the root area with
well-rotted manure or compost. If growth
Cultivation is weak or slow, feed with a balanced 1 Four weeks before 2 In spring, plant the 3 After planting, cut out all
Only elders with black berries are grown for fertilizer at a rate of 2 oz per square yard. planting, clear away weeds elder at the same depth weak growth and cut back
their fruit. The red-fruited kinds are inedible. A 5-20-10 balanced fertilizer or ammonium over an area 3 ft square. Fork as it was in the nursery, the main shoots a few inches
Soil and situation The elder is tolerant of a nitrate can be applied each spring. A m - in a general fertilizer at 3 oz spreading the roots out. to a good outward-facing
wide variety of soils, including those with monium nitrate may be applied at 1 oz per per square yard. Firm the soil. Water well. bud. Mulch well.
bad drainage, and a wide range of soil pH. It year of shrub age up to a maximum of
is lime-tolerant. 16 oz, and 5-20-10 fertilizer at 16 oz per year Second and subsequent years
The elder will grow in most situations but up to a maximum of 64 oz.
it fruits most freely in a sunny position. Com-
mon elder is hardy to zone 6; S. canadensis Propagation
in zone 3. In late October take a 9-12 in cutting from a
Planting The elder may be grown as a stan- sturdy one-year-old stem. Plant in open
dard on a single stem but it is more usually ground 6 in deep. Alternatively, in July, take
grown as a large rounded bush with a number 4-6 in cuttings of semi-hard wood stems.
of branches from near ground level. Insert them 2 in deep in a cold frame 4-6 in
Plant a one- or two-year-old tree in early apart. In October in the following year, lift the
spring. Four weeks before planting prepare rooted cuttings and re-plant them in a
the ground, clearing away perennial weeds permanent position.
over an area 3 ft square. Fork in a balanced
fertilizer, such as a brand of 10-10-10 at a Harvesting
rate of 3 oz per square yard. Pick fruits when dark in color with a notice-
Dig a hole wide and deep enough to take able bloom. It is preferable to use them as
the roots fully extended. For standards, drive soon as possible, but they will keep in a
in a stake to reach just below the lowest refrigerator for about two weeks.
branches. Place the plant in the hole at the
same depth as at the nursery and then fill in Pests and diseases
the soil gradually, firming it at the same time. The elder is generally free of pests and
Tie the standard to the stake with a tree tie diseases, except for the elder borer, which
and cushion. The bush does not need staking. deposits its eggs under the bark of old
The American elder is not self-compatible. canes. This pest can be controlled by burning 4 In April, if growth is slow, feed with a 5 In winter, cut out dead and congested
For cross-pollination to occur there should be annual prunings. If mites become trouble- balanced fertilizer at a rate of 2 oz per branches. Cut out about a quarter of the old
a minimum of t w o varieties, planted about some, spray w i t h a miticide. Plants may need square yard. w o o d back to base. Seal t h e cuts w i t h a
10ft apart. to be netted to keep off birds. w o u n d paint.
Quinces 1
The true quince (Cydonia oblonga) is a native very light pink and most attractive, re- fruits to ripen properly. Quinces can be
of central to south-western Asia. It has been sembling the wild dog-rose. It has a pale grey raised from seed but this is a lengthy process
cultivated since ancient times. It is related bark and dark green oval leaves with downy so buy a plant from a nursery or garden
to the pear, for which it is often used as a white undersides. centre and ask advice.
rootstock to induce a more dwarfing effect Quince fruits are apple- or pear-shaped, Soil and situation The quince succeeds in
on the vigor of the pear tree. The true quince mostly with a grayish-white down on the skin; most soils but grows best in a deep, light
is often confused with its distant relatives the when ripe they are pale or deep, clear, golden- fertile and moisture-retentive soil.
oriental quinces (Chaenomeles spp), referred yellow. The flavor is acid and astringent, and It does well planted near a pond or stream.
to as "Japonicas", which are grown as garden the texture rather gritty—they are too harsh, In warmer areas, it can be grown in the open,
shrubs. "Japonicas" have light pink to deep in fact, to be eaten raw when grown in nor- but in a sunny, sheltered position. In more
red flowers, spines and edible fruits. thern climates. W h e n grown in warmer, sun- northerly areas, extra protection is needed,
The true quince is a low, deciduous, thorn- nier areas (such as Turkey), the fruits become the best situation being a sunny corner where
less tree with a crooked irregular mode of much sweeter and are eaten raw. Quinces two walls meet, with the plant grown as a fan
growth. W h e n fully grown it is about 15 ft in are not grown commercially in cool tem- or bush tree.
height and spread, although it can be half as perate areas, but they can be cultivated Planting and spacing Since it grows rather
tall again on fertile soils. It may also be grown fairly easily by the amateur, providing an crooked, the quince tree needs support for
as a fan against a warm wall in much the same interesting alternative to the more conven- the first three or four years of its life until
way as a pear. This method is particularly tional tree fruits. the stem has acquired sufficient strength to
suitable for more northerly areas where it Quinces make a delicious orange-colored support the head.
would not thrive in the open. jelly, marmalade or preserve; and a slice or Plant in early spring during the dormant
The tree's natural form is attractive and it two of quince in an apple pie provides a period. Container-grown plants can be
can serve an ornamental purpose in the subtle aromatic taste to the dish. planted at any time of the year. Prepare the
garden. It often lives to a great age and, once ground thoroughly in the fall before planting,
established, requires little attention. It comes Cultivation clearing away perennial weeds over an area
into cropping in the fourth to fifth year. The The tree is hardy in zones 5-8, but, as men- 3 ft square. Fork in 4 oz per square yard of a
flowers are large (11/2—2 in), solitary, white to tioned above, warmth is necessary for the balanced fertilizer such as 10-10-10 and a

Planting the tree

1 Between November and March, prepare 2 Fork in 4 oz of a balanced fertilizer such 3 Prepare a stake by coating it with 4 Dig the planting hole deep and wide
the ground, clearing away perennial weeds as 10-10-10 and a handful of bonemeal over bituminous paint. Drive it about 11/2--2 ft enough to accommodate the tree's w h o l e
over an area roughly 3 ft square. Choose the the area where the tree is to be planted. into the ground. Be sure it is not loose. root system with tendrils well spread out.
planting position carefully.
Quinces 2
handful of bonemeal. Drive the supporting summer's growth, to an outward-facing bud. Harvesting and storing
stake in first so that it will just clear the lowest Prune back to two or three buds any side The fruits should be left on the tree as long as STORING
branches. Dig a hole deep and wide enough shoots that compete with the leaders and possible to develop their full characteristic
to take the whole root system with the roots those crowding the center. Leave other side flavor, provided there is no danger of frosts.
spread well out. Plant with the main stem shoots unpruned to fill in the framework They usually ripen from the middle of Sep-
about 2 in away from the stake and the tree at where there is room. Twist off any suckers tember on, depending on the locality. Once
the same depth as it was in the nursery, around the base and cut off unwanted shoots gathered, they should be stored in trays or
ensuring that the union between the root- on the main stem back to their point of apple boxes in a cool dark place and allowed
stock and scion (grafted stem) is not less than origin. After the fourth year, little pruning is to mellow for about a month before use.
4 in above soil level. Firm the soil well. Tie necessary apart from the removal of shoots Quinces are strongly aromatic and should be
the tree to the stake with a tree tie and that cause crowding, low-lying branches, or stored by themselves because their aroma
cushion. suckers at the base. The quince bears its fruit will affect the taste of any other fruits stored
Dwarf trees should be spaced about 10-12 on spurs and on the tips of the previous in the same container.
ft apart, semi-dwarfs at about 15 ft, and summer's growth, therefore prune only to
standards about 20 ft apart. keep the head tidy. Cut back any vigorous or Pests and diseases
Pruning and feeding The quince is a difficult badly placed laterals but do not prune every Many of the insect pests such as aphids, cod-
tree to train in the first year, and so it is best lateral otherwise a large number of fruit buds ling moth, slugworm and various caterpillars
to obtain a tree already partly shaped by the will be lost. that attack apples and pears also attack
nursery. Buy a two-year-old for a dwarf tree Each March apply a general fertilizer such quinces. If these pests prove troublesome, a
or a three-or four-year-old for a standard or as 10-10-10 at 3 oz per square yard, and in spray program similar to that for apples and
semi-dwarf. early April apply sulfate of ammonia at 1 oz pears may be used. O n c e the quince fruits are gathered, store
The aim is to achieve a goblet-shaped tree per square yard. On poor soils, mulch the The only diseases that may occur are leaf them in trays or apple boxes. The recep-
with an open but by no means barren center. trees in the early spring with well-rotted man- blight {Entomosporium maculatum) and brown tacle should be put away in a cool and
Prune during winter for the first three or four ure or compost. Maintain a weed-free area rot of the fruit. To prevent them, spray with dark storage area so the quinces can
years by cutting back the leaders of the main over an 18 in radius around the base of the Bordeaux mixture in mid-June and again t w o mellow.
framework branches by one-half the previous tree. or three weeks later.

The first winter after planting In the second and third years

5 Then, plant the tree to the same depth as 6 Tie the tree to the stake using a tree tie 7 Cut back the leaders of the main frame- 8 In winter, cut back the leaders of the
it was at the nursery, about 2 in away from and cushion. In the second year, it may be work branches by about one-third, pruning main framework branches by about one-
the stake, firming well during planting. necessary to prop the tree up if the crop is each to an outward-facing bud. Cut back to third to an outward-facing b u d . Cut back
heavy. 2 - 3 buds weak lateral shoots. weak lateral shoots to 2 - 3 buds.
Hazelnuts
Botanical authorities have recently decreed For good crops, keep the ground clean back vigorous laterals to three or four buds. Propagation
that the small shrubby nut trees belonging between the trees. Fork the soil in fall and hoe Do not prune the laterals that bear the tiny The most usual methods are by layering or by
to the Corylus genus should all be called regularly in spring and summer. red female flowers (these are usually carried removing suckers.
filberts. To many people, however, they are Planting Plant t w o - to three-year-old trees. on the weaker shoots). Pull out suckers. For layering, select a young vigorous stem
still, and always will be, hazels or hazelnuts. In the Northwest, planting is done in early In August, break off by hand strong lateral in spring and mark its position on the soil
They are frequently found growing wild in winter; elsewhere in early spring. growths to about half their length (six to 9 in behind its tip. Dig a hole with one straight
the Northeast of the United States. Cultiva- Before planting, prepare the ground thor- eight leaves from the base) and leave them side 4-6 in deep. Peg the stem d o w n against
tion is most c o m m o n in zones 8 and 9 in oughly, clearing away perennial weeds over hanging. This is called brutting and allows air the straight side, and return and firm the soil.
the Northwest; but the plants do fairly well an area 3 ft square. Lightly fork in lime at the and light into the tree to help ripen fruit buds. Keep the soil moist.
in zones 6 and 7 more or less everywhere. rate of 7 oz per square yard. It is the brutted side-shoots which are usually In late fall, after leaf-fall, sever the layered
In the Northwest, most filberts grown are Dig a hole wide and deep enough to take shortened back a further 2-3 in in winter. stem from the parent plant. In the early
European varieties. American varieties are the roots fully extended. Drive in a stake Feeding In March, apply a balanced fertili- spring, cut off the growing tip. Lift and
hardier, but produce smaller nuts and smaller to reach just below the lowest branch. Plant zer, such as 10-10-10, at a rate of 3 oz per transplant the layered stem.
crops. Consequently, filberts grown in the the tree to the same depth as at the nursery. square yard. In April, apply an artificial fertilizer
eastern and central United States are crosses Return the soil, and firm it in. Tie the tree to containing calcium carbonate and am- Harvesting
between American and European filberts. the stake with a tree tie and cushion and monium nitrate to old trees making poor Filberts come into production about three
Soil and situation The trees will grow on water well. If planting more than one tree, growth, at a rate of 1 oz per square yard. years after planting. Harvest the nuts from
almost any soil from light gravel to heavy allow 15 ft between them. In fall, on light soils, lightly fork in well- the ground after they drop, and remove
loam, but they require moderately good Pruning The filbert is best grown in bush tree rotted manure or compost at the rate of one husks that remain. Spread the nuts out in a
drainage. They are lime-tolerant and do best form with a 15 in tall stem and six or seven 2-gal bucketful per square yard. cool place to dry.
on a medium loam over limestone with a pH good main branches, giving a cup shape. Every third winter, on acid soils, to keep the
of 7.5-8.0. Rich soils tend to cause vigorous Prune during the latter part of flowering soil alkaline, lightly fork in lime at a rate of Pests and diseases
leafy growth at the expense of the nut yield. (about late February). For the first four to six 7 oz per square yard. Spray with derris to combat nut weevil t w o
As these are woodland plants by nature, years, cut back the leaders by about half to At all times maintain a heavy organic or three times in May and early June. Spray
they tolerate light shade but usually produce an outward-facing bud. Keep the trees at a mulch, not only to control weeds and hold in in late summer with Bordeaux mixture to
heavier crops in an open sunny position. height of 6-7 ft and, if necessary, cut back moisture, but also to improve the fertility of control filbert blight. Hazelnut trees are on
Plant them out of the wind. to a lateral at the required height. Cut the surrounding soil. the whole disease-free.

The first four to six years In subsequent years

1 After preparing the soil, 2 In late February, cut 3 In March, apply a 4 In August, break off by hand strong 5 In February, cut back previously brutted
dig a hole large enough to back the leaders by about balanced fertilizer at a lateral growths to about half their length laterals to three or four buds. Do not prune
take the roots spread out half to an outward-fadng rate of 3 oz per square yard. (six to eight leaves from the base) and leave laterals carrying female flowers. Twist out
well. Drive in a stake. Plant bud. Cut back vigorous Every third winter, on acid them hanging. suckers around the base and cut out dead
the tree, firming the soil. laterals to three or four soils, fork in lime at a rate and crowded growths.
Tie the tree to the stake. buds. Twist and pull out of 7 oz per square yard.
suckers.
Chestnuts/ Walnuts
Chestnuts clay, waterlogged, and alkaline soils are pruned laterals flush with the stem. Repeat in 20 years and a final height of 60-70 It. It is
Big, productive American chestnut trees have unsuitable. this training process each year until the therefore suited only to large gardens. It is
been wiped out by blight, and although there required length of clear trunk has been slow to crop, taking five to ten years before
is some hope that agricultural scientists have Planting Prepare the ground thoroughly, produced. beginning to bear fruit.
finally come up with a solution to the prob- clearing away perennial weeds over an area Little pruning is required after the main Soil and situation The walnut grows well on
lem, it will undoubtedly be a long time before 4-5 ft square. Dig in well-rotted manure or branch system has been formed. Where there a wide variety of soils provided they are deep,
this once-prized tree is again widely grown. other humus at a rate of about one 2-gai is congestion, cut out thin shoots in summer. fertile and well-drained. The ideal soil is a
The sweet Spanish chestnuts that are cul- bucketful per square yard. Dig a hole wide Prune lightly in winter. heavy loam, at least 2 ft deep, over limestone,
tivated throughout Europe for both nuts and and deep enough to take the roots fully with a pH of about 7.0.
timber are equally susceptible to chestnut extended and drive in a stake to reach just Pests and diseases An open position w i t h shelter from spring
blight and therefore are not grown in the below the lowest branches. To control chestnut weevils, the worst pests, frosts is best because both the y o u n g growths
United States. Grafted trees are generally preferred to spray three or four times in August with and flowers are prone to frost damage.
This leaves the Oriental varieties. Of these, those grown from seed because they produce carbaryl. Planting For fruiting purposes, it is best to
the Chinese chestnut is the most reliable. bigger nuts at an earlier age. In any case, plant obtain a three- or four-year-old grafted tree
An attractive deciduous tree growing to plant the trees to the same depth as at the Harvesting of a named variety. Before planting, lightly
50 ft and spreading just as wide, it is resistant nursery, spreading the roots out well. Firm Nuts are borne in the current season's growth. fork in ground lime at a rate of 7 oz per square
to the blight and produces masses of good the tree to the stake, and water well. Crafted specimens start bearing after 4-5 yard on acid soils. Clear away perennial
nuts. It grows in zones 5-8. Because it is years; seedlings take a little longer. Harvest weeds over an area 4-5 ft square. Fork in a
essentially self-unfruitful, two varieties must Feeding and pruning nuts when they fall to the ground after the balanced fertilizer, such as 10-10-10, at the
be planted together to assure nut production. Fertilize the trees after they are established burrs surrounding them open. Since the nuts rate of 3 oz per square yard.
in early spring with about 1 lb of balanced deteriorate if left on the ground in the sun, Dig a hole wide and deep enough to take
Cultivation fertilizer per inch of trunk diameter. If grafted gather them daily and place them in open the roots fully extended. Drive in a stake to
Although chestnuts bloom late, the swollen specimens are used, however, cut the appli- trays in a dry, airy place to cure until they reach just below the lowest branches. Plant
buds may be killed by frost, so locate the cation in half until it is certain the tree will feel a little soft. The nuts can be stored for the tree at the same depth as at the nursery.
trees accordingly. Allow plenty of space for survive the winters. a long time if mixed with slightly damp peat Return the soil. Tie the tree to t h e stake with a
them and, since the branches hang low, do Cut back by half the laterals produced in plastic bags and kept under cover at just tree tie and cushion. Water well.
not plant them near a terrace or in other during the first growing season when they above freezing. If planting more than one tree, allow a
areas where headroom is needed. reach 9-12 in. A few of the upper laterals space of 4 0 - 5 0 ft between t h e m .
The chestnut does well in light, well- produced later in the season may be left Walnuts Pruning O n c e the head of the tree has for-
drained soils with a pH of 5.5-6.5, but shallow, unpruned. In early winter, cut back the Despite its name, the English walnut (juglans med, very little pruning is required. Cut out
regia) is native to China, Iran, the Himalayas any dead or awkwardly placed branches in
The first year Second and third years and south-western Europe and is more August. Protect the cuts w i t h a w o u n d paint.
properly called the Persian walnut. It is
hardy in zones 8-10 and most widely grown Pests and diseases
in central California valleys. To control walnut blight on English and
The rather widely advertised Carpathian Carpathian walnuts spray w i t h Bordeaux
walnut is an unusually hardy strain of Persian mixture when leaves begin to develop, after
walnut and grows in zones 5-8. In actual fact, pollination and during spells of w e t weather.
however, it is likely to be a disappointment For anthracnose on black walnut, spray with
in all zones except 6. zineb when leaves are 12 in long and three
The eastern black walnut (J. nigra) is times after that at t w o week intervals. Use
widely grown in the eastern and central parts malathion or carbaryl to discourage such
of the United States. It is hardier and bigger insect pests as may appear.
than the English walnut. It grows in zones 4-8.
The nuts have a distinctive rich flavor. All Harvesting
walnuts are self-fruitful, but nut production is English and Carpathian walnuts start bearing
more reliable if two different varieties of the in 4-5 years; black walnuts take a little
1 In prepared ground, dig a 2 Cut back by half all 3 In late fall or early same species are planted together. longer. Harvest the nuts as they drop. Re-
hole large enough for the lower laterals produced winter, cut back the pruned move the husks (wear rubber gloves so the
extended roots. Drive in a during the first growing laterals flush with the stem. Cultivation hands are not indelibly stained); wash the
stake and plant the tree. season when they reach Usually grown as a central-leader standard, nuts; and spread out in a dry place to dry
Tie to the stake. 9-12 in. the walnut reaches a height of about 25 ft for a few days before storing.

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