Research Engine

Writing a Scientic Journal

Contents

1 List of academic databases and search engines 1

1.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Scientic literature 5
2.1 Types of scientic publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Scientic article . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2.1 Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.2 Clear communication and impact factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.3 Structure and Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Peer review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4 Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.5 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.6 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

3 Scientic journal 9
3.1 Types of articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2 Electronic publishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3 Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.4 Copyright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

4 Scientic writing 14
4.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.2 Writing style guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

5 Academic publishing 16
5.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

i
ii CONTENTS

5.2 Publishers and business aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

5.2.1 Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.2.2 Academic journal publishing reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.3 Scholarly paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.3.1 Categories of papers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.4 Peer review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.5 Publishing process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.6 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.7 Publishing by discipline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.7.1 Natural sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.7.2 Social sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.7.3 Humanities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.8 Open access journals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.9 Academic publishing growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.12 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

6 Abstract (summary) 24
6.1 Purpose and limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.2 Copyright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.3 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.3.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.4 Abstract types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.4.1 Informative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.4.2 Descriptive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.5 Graphical abstracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.6 Abstract quality assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

7 IMRAD 28
7.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
7.1.1 Wine glass model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
7.1.2 IMRAD as the standard format of academic journals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.2 Benets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.3 Caveats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.4 Abstract considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.5 Heading style variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7.6 Other elements that are typical although not part of the acrostic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7.7 Additional standardization (reporting guidelines) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
CONTENTS iii

7.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

8 Impact factor 32
8.1 Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
8.2 Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
8.3 Criticisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
8.3.1 Validity as a measure of importance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
8.3.2 Editorial policies that aect the impact factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
8.3.3 Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
8.4 Closely related indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
8.5 Other measures of impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
8.6 Counterfeit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
8.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
8.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
8.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
8.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

9 International Standard Book Number 38

9.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
9.2 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
9.2.1 How ISBNs are issued . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
9.2.2 Registration group identier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
9.2.3 Registrant element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
9.3 Check digits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
9.3.1 ISBN-10 check digits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
9.3.2 ISBN-10 check digit calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
9.3.3 ISBN-13 check digit calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
9.3.4 ISBN-10 to ISBN-13 conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
9.3.5 Errors in usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
9.3.6 eISBN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
9.4 EAN format used in barcodes, and upgrading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
9.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
9.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
9.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
9.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

10 Open access 46
10.1 Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
10.1.1 Gratis and libre open access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
10.2 Motivations for open access publishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
10.2.1 Stakeholders and concerned communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
iv CONTENTS

10.2.2 Authors and researchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

10.2.3 Research funders and universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
10.2.4 Libraries and librarians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
10.2.5 Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
10.2.6 Low-income countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
10.3 Implementation practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
10.3.1 Journals: gold open access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
10.3.2 Self-archiving: green open access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
10.3.3 Manner of distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
10.3.4 Policies and mandates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
10.3.5 Funding issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
10.4 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
10.4.1 Eorts before Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
10.4.2 Early years of online open access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
10.4.3 2000s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
10.4.4 2010s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
10.5 Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
10.5.1 Journals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
10.5.2 Self-archiving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
10.6 Finding open access research online . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
10.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
10.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
10.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
10.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
10.11Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
10.11.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
10.11.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
10.11.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Chapter 1

List of academic databases and search

engines

This page contains a representative list of major List of open access journals
databases and search engines useful in an academic
setting for nding and accessing articles in academic List of open access projects
journals, repositories, archives, or other collections of List of repositories
scientic and other articles. As the distinction between
a database and a search engine is unclear for these com-
plex document retrieval systems, see:
1.2 References
the general list of search engines for all-purpose
[1] List of EBSCO databases. Ebscohost.com. Retrieved
search engines that can be used for academic pur-
2014-08-05.
poses
[2] Academic Search Complete. Ebscohost.com. Re-
bibliographic databases for information about trieved 2014-08-05.
databases giving bibliographic information about
nding books and journal articles. [3] Aerospace & High Technology Database Archived
November 25, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
Note that free or subscription can refer both to the [4] Rosenberg, Diana (1 January 2002). African
availability of the database or of the journal articles in- Journals Online: improving awareness and ac-
cluded. This has been indicated as precisely as possible cess. Learned Publishing. 15 (1): 5157.
in the lists below. doi:10.1087/095315102753303689. Retrieved 14
November 2011.
This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy
particular standards for completeness. You can help by [5] African Journals Online (AJOL)". Ajol.info. Retrieved
expanding it with reliably sourced entries. 2014-08-05.

[6] AgeLine, EBSCO Publishing. Ebscohost.com. Re-

trieved 2012-08-26.

1.1 See also [7] " " (2014-05-19). AGRICOLA (NAL Catalog)". Agri-
cola.nal.usda.gov. Retrieved 2014-08-05.

Main categories: Scholarly databases and Scholarly [8] Agricola. ProQuest. Archived from the original on
search services 2014-02-27. Retrieved 2014-08-05.
See also: the categories Full text scholarly online
[9] AGRICOLA (Ovid)
databases, and Bibliographic databases and indexes.
[10] Airiti Inc. Airiti.com. Retrieved 2014-08-05.

List of digital library projects [11] Analytical Abstracts. Rsc.org. Retrieved 2014-08-05.

List of educational video websites [12] Analytical Sciences Digital Library. Asdlib.org.
Archived from the original on 2013-06-18. Retrieved
List of neuroscience databases 2014-08-05.

List of online databases [13] Anthropological Index Online.

Aio.anthropology.org.uk. 2014-04-08. Archived
List of online encyclopedias from the original on 2009-12-11. Retrieved 2014-08-05.

1
2 CHAPTER 1. LIST OF ACADEMIC DATABASES AND SEARCH ENGINES
[14] Anthropological Literature. Hcl.harvard.edu. 2014-07-
01. Retrieved 2014-08-05.
[15] Arachne. Arachne.uni-koeln.de. Retrieved 2014-08-
05.
[16] Arnetminer.org. Arnetminer.org. Retrieved 2014-08-
05.
[17] Arts & Humanities Citation Index. Thomson-
reuters.com. 2014-01-27. Retrieved 2014-08-05.
[18] arXiv.org. arXiv.org. Retrieved 2014-08-05.
[19] Association for Computing Machinery. Portal.acm.org.
Retrieved 2014-08-05.
[20] Astrophysics Data System. Adswww.harvard.edu. Re-
trieved 2014-08-05.
[21] ATLA Catalog Archived April 7, 2009, at the Wayback
Machine.
[22] AULIMP. Dtic.mil. Retrieved 2014-08-05.
[23] BASE. Base-search.net. Retrieved 2014-08-05.
[24] Diacronia. Revista Diacronia. Retrieved 2015-08-08.
[25] Information and Support Site. Reaxys. Retrieved 2012-
08-26.
[26] Biological Abstracts at Thomson Reuters Archived Au-
gust 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
[27] An Error Occurred Setting Your User Cookie
[28] Book Review Index Online. Gale.cengage.com. Re-
trieved 2014-08-05.
[29] Books In Print. Books In Print. Retrieved 2014-08-05.
[30] Publishing home | CAB Abstracts. CABI. Retrieved
2012-08-26.
[31] Chemical Abstracts Service. Cas.org. Retrieved 2014-
08-05.
[32] InfoChem. InfoChem.de. Retrieved 2016-02-22.
[33] ChemXSeer. Chemxseer.ist.psu.edu. Archived from
the original on 2014-08-06. Retrieved 2014-08-05.
[34] Chinese Social Science Citation Index (in English)
Archived May 3, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
[35] Cochrane Library. Cochrane Library. Retrieved 2014-
08-05.
[36] CINAHL. Ebscohost.com. Retrieved 2014-08-05.
[37] CiNii. CiNii. 2014-07-15. Retrieved 2014-08-05.
[38] Circumpolar Health Bibliographic Database.
Aina.ucalgary.ca. Retrieved 2014-08-05.
[39] CiteBase. CiteBase. Retrieved 2014-08-05.
[40] CiteSeer. Citeseer.ist.psu.edu. Retrieved 2014-08-05.
[41] CiteSeerX. Citeseerx.ist.psu.edu. Retrieved 2014-08-
05.
[42] Cogprints. Cogprints. Retrieved 2014-08-05.
[43] The Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies.
Liinwww.ira.uka.de. Retrieved 2014-08-05.
[44] Compendex. Ei.org. 2013-11-21. Retrieved 2014-08-
05.
[45] CIS
[46] Current Index to Statistics. Statindex.org. 2013-10-16.
Retrieved 2014-08-05.
[47] Current Contents Archived October 24, 2009, at the
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[48] Directory Of Open Access. Retrieved 2 November
2014.
[49] DOAJ. Directory of Open Access Journals. Doaj.org.
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[50] dblp F.A.Q.: What institution is behind dblp?". Re-
trieved 2015-12-14.
[51] EconBiz. Econbiz.eu. Retrieved 2014-08-05.
[52] EconLit. Aeaweb.org. Retrieved 2014-08-05.
[53] EconLit access providers. Aeaweb.org. Retrieved
2016-08-17.
[54] EMBASE Archived April 16, 2009, at the Wayback Ma-
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[65] Genesis. Londonmet.ac.uk. 2014-07-30. Retrieved
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[67] Hummel J, Strehmel N, Selbig J, Walther D, Kopka J
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Chapter 2

Scientic literature

For a broader class of literature, see Academic of the project, keeping the work on schedule, and
literature. ensuring consistency of style and content

presentations at academic conferences, especially

STM publishing redirects here. For Medical publish-
those organized by learned societies
ing, see Medical literature. For Technical publishing,
see Technical communication. government reports such as a forensic investiga-
For information about journal article databases, and tion conducted by a government agency such as the
abstract and indexing services, see List of academic NTSB
databases and search engines.
scientic publications on the World Wide Web
Scientic literature comprises scholarly publications
that report original empirical and theoretical work in the books, technical reports, pamphlets, and working
natural and social sciences, and within an academic eld, papers issued by individual researchers or research
often abbreviated as the literature. Academic publish- organizations on their own initiative; these are some-
ing is the process of contributing the results of ones times organised into a series
research into the literature, which often requires a peer-
blogs and science forums
review process. Original scientic research published for
the rst time in scientic journals is called the primary
literature. Patents and technical reports, for minor re-The signicance of these dierent components of the lit-
erature varies between disciplines and has changed over
search results and engineering and design work (including
time. As of 2006, peer-reviewed journal articles remain
computer software), can also be considered primary liter-
ature. Secondary sources include review articles (which the predominant publication type, and have the highest
summarize the ndings of published studies to highlight prestige. However, journals vary enormously in their
advances and new lines of research) and books (for largeprestige and importance, and their status can inuence
projects or broad arguments, including compilations of the visibility and impact of the studies they publish. The
articles). Tertiary sources might include encyclopedias signicance of books, also called research monographs,
and similar works intended for broad public consumption.depends on the subject. Generally books published by
university presses are usually considered more prestigious
than those published by commercial presses. The status
of working papers and conference proceedings depends
2.1 Types of scientic publications on the discipline; they are typically more important in the
applied sciences. The value of publication as a preprint
Scientic literature can include the following kinds of or scientic report on the web has in the past been low,
publications: but in some subjects, such as mathematics or high energy
physics, it is now an accepted alternative.
scientic articles published in scientic journals

patents specialized for science and technology (for

example, biological patents and chemical patents) 2.2 Scientic article
books wholly written by one or a small number of For a broader class or articles, see Scholarly ar-
co-authors ticle.
edited volumes, where each chapter is the responsi-
bility of a dierent author or set of authors, while See also: Types of scientic journal articles
the editor is responsible for determining the scope

5
6 CHAPTER 2. SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
2.2.1 Preparation
The actual day-to-day records of scientic information
are kept in research notebooks or logbooks. These are
usually kept indenitely as the basic evidence of the
work, and are often kept in duplicate, signed, notarized,
and archived. The purpose is to preserve the evidence
for scientic priority, and in particular for priority for
obtaining patents. They have also been used in scien-
tic disputes. Since the availability of computers, the
notebooks in some data-intensive elds have been kept as
database records, and appropriate software is commer-
cially available.[1]
The work on a project is typically published as one or
more technical reports, or articles. In some elds both
are used, with preliminary reports, working papers, or
preprints followed by a formal article. Articles are usu-
ally prepared at the end of a project, or at the end of com-
ponents of a particularly large one. In preparing such an
article vigorous rules for scientic writing have to be fol-
lowed.
2.2.2 Clear communication and impact
factor
See also: Impact factor and Copy editing
Often, career advancement depends upon publishing in
high-impact journals, which, especially in hard and ap-
plied sciences, are usually published in English. Conse-
quently, scientists with poor English writing skills are at
a disadvantage when trying to publish in these journals,
regardless of the quality of the scientic study itself.[2]
Yet many international universities require publication in
these high-impact journals by both their students and fac-
ulty. One way that some international authors are begin-
ning to overcome this problem is by contracting with free-
lance medical copy editors who are native speakers of En-
glish and specialize in ESL (English as a second language)
editing to polish their manuscripts English to a level that
high-impact journals will accept.
2.2.3 Structure and Style
Main article: IMRAD
A scientic article has a standardized structure, which
varies only slightly in dierent subjects. Although the
IMRAD structure emphasizes the organization of con-
tent and in scientic journal articles, each section (Intro-
duction, Methods, Results, and Discussion) has unique
conventions for scientic writing style.[3]
Ultimately, it is not the format that is important, but what
lies behind it--the content. However, several key format- Main article: Scholarly peer review
ting requirements need to be met:
1. The title attracts readers attention and informs them
about the contents of the article.[4] Titles are dis-
tinguished into three main types: declarative titles
(state the main conclusion), descriptive titles (de-
scribe a papers content), and interrogative titles
(challenge readers with a question that is answered in
the text).[5] Some journals indicate, in their instruc-
tions to authors, the type (and length) of permitted
titles.
2. The names and aliations of all authors are given.
In the wake of some scientic misconduct cases,
publishers often require that all co-authors know and
agree on the content of the article.[6]
3. An abstract summarizes the work (in a single para-
graph or in several short paragraphs) and is intended
to represent the article in bibliographic databases
and to furnish subject metadata for indexing ser-
vices.
4. The context of previous scientic investigations
should be presented, by citation relevant documents
in the existing literature, usually in a section called
an Introduction.
5. Empirical techniques, laid out in a section usu-
ally called Materials and Methods, should be de-
scribed in such a way that a subsequent scientist,
with appropriate knowledge of and experience in the
relevant eld, should be able to repeat the observa-
tions and know whether he or she has obtained the
same result. This naturally varies between subjects,
and does not apply to mathematics and related sub-
jects.
6. Similarly, the results of the investigation, in a sec-
tion usually called Results, data should be pre-
sented in tabular or graphic form (image, chart,
schematic, diagram or drawing). These display ele-
ments should be accompanied by a caption and dis-
cussed in the text of the article.
7. Interpretation of the meaning of the results is usu-
ally addressed in a Discussion or Conclusions
section. The conclusions drawn should be based on
the new empirical results while taking established
knowledge into consideration, in such a way that any
reader with knowledge of the eld can follow the ar-
gument and conrm that the conclusions are sound.
That is, acceptance of the conclusions must not de-
pend on personal authority, rhetorical skill, or faith.
8. Finally, a References or Literature Cited section
lists the sources cited by the authors.
2.3 Peer review
2.5. HISTORY 7

Though peer review and the learned journal format are Honesty. Honesty and integrity is a duty of each
not themselves an essential part of scientic literature, author and person, expert-reviewer and member of
they are both convenient ways of ensuring that the above journal editorial boards.
fundamental criteria are met. They are essentially a
means of quality control, a term which also encompasses Review process. The peer-review process con-
other means towards the same goal. tributes to the quality control and it is an essential
step to ascertain the standing and originality of the
The quality being referred to here is the scientic one,
research.[8]
which consists of transparency and repeatability of the
research for independent verication, the validity of the
Ethical standards. Recent journal editorials
conclusions and interpretations drawn from the reported
presented some experience of unscrupulous
data, overall importance for advance within a given eld
activities.[9][10]
of knowledge, novelty, and in certain elds applicabil-
ity as well. The lack of peer review is what makes most Authorship. Who may claim a right to
technical reports and World Wide Web publications un- authorship?[7] In which order should the authors be
acceptable as contributions to the literature. The rela- listed?
tively weak peer review often applied to books and chap-
ters in edited books means that their status is also second-
tier, unless an authors personal standing is so high that
prior achievement and a continued stake in ones repu- 2.5 History
tation within the scientic community signals a clear ex-
pectation of quality. See also: Scientic writing History
The emergence of institutional digital repositories where
scholars can post their work as it is submitted to a print- The rst recorded editorial pre-publication peer-review
based journal has taken formal peer review into a state occurred in 1665 by the founding editor of Philosophical
of ux. Though publicizing a preprint online does not Transactions of the Royal Society, Henry Olden-
prevent it from being peer reviewed, it does allow an un- burg.[11][12]
reviewed copy to be widely circulated. On the positive
side this change has led to faster dissemination of novel Technical and scientic books were a specialty of
work within the scientic community; on the negative it David Van Nostrand, and his Engineering Magazine re-
has made it more dicult to discern a valid scientic con- published contemporary scientic articles.
tribution from the unmeritorious.
Increasing reliance on abstracting services, especially on
those available electronically, means that the eective 2.6 Footnotes
criterion for whether a publication format forms part of
the established, trusted literature is whether it is covered [1] Talbott, T.; M. Peterson; J. Schwidder; J.D. Myers
by these services; in particular, by the specialised service (2005). Adapting the electronic laboratory notebook for
for the discipline concerned such as Chemical Abstracts the semantic era. International Symposium on Collabo-
Service, and by the major interdisciplinary services such rative Technologies and Systems. 0. Los Alamitos, CA,
as those marketed by the Institute for Scientic Informa- USA: IEEE Computer Society. pp. 136143. ISBN 0-
tion. 7695-2387-0. doi:10.1109/ISCST.2005.1553305.

[2] Pan, Z; Gao, J (2006). Crossing the language limita-

2.4 Ethics
The transfer of copyright from author to publisher, used
by some journals, can be controversial because many au-
thors want to propagate their ideas more widely and re-
use their material elsewhere without the need for per-
mission. Usually an author or authors circumvent that
problem by rewriting an article and using other pictures.
Some publishers may also want publicity for their jour-
nal so will approve facsimile reproduction uncondition-
ally; other publishers are more resistant.
tions. PLOS Medicine. 3 (9): E410. PMC 1576334 .
PMID 17002510. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030410.
[3] Mogull, Scott A. (2017). Scientic And Medical Com-
munication: A Guide For Eective Practice. New York:
Routledge. ISBN 9781138842557.
[4] Langdon-Neuner, Elise (2007). Titles in medical arti-
cles: What do we know about them?". The Write Stu.
16 (4): 158160. Retrieved 25 February 2013.
[5] Vasilev, Martin. How to write a good title for journal
articles. JEPS Bulletin. European Federation of Psychol-
ogy Students Associations. Retrieved 25 February 2013.

In terms of research publications, a number of key issues [6] Scientic fraud#Responsibility of authors and of coau-
include and are not restricted to:[7] thors
8 CHAPTER 2. SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE

[7] Hubert Chanson (2008). Digital Publishing, Ethics and

Hydraulic Engineering: The Elusive or Boring Bore?. In:
Stefano Pagliara 2nd International Junior Researcher and
Engineer Workshop on Hydraulic Structures (IJREW'08),
Pisa, Italy, Keynote, pp. 3-13, 30 July-1 August 2008.
ISBN 978-88-8492-568-8.

[8] Hubert Chanson (2007). Research Quality, Publications

and Impact in Civil Engineering into the 21st Century.
Publish or Perish, Commercial versus Open Access, In-
ternet versus Libraries ?". Canadian Journal of Civil En-
gineering. 34 (8): 946951. doi:10.1169/L07-027 (inac-
tive 2017-04-28).

[9] D. Mavinic (2006). The Art of Plagiarism. Canadian

Journal of Civil Engineering. 33 (3): iiivi.

[10] Publication Ethical Standards: Guidelines and Pro-

cedures. AIAA Journal. 45 (8): 1794. 2007.
Bibcode:2007AIAAJ..45.1794.. doi:10.2514/1.32639.

[11] Wagner (2006) p. 220-1

[12] Select Committee on Science and Technology. The Ori-

gin of the Scientic Journal and the Process of Peer Re-
view. Parliament of the United Kingdom. Retrieved 5
December 2014.

2.7 See also

Acknowledgment index
Citation index

Digital object identier

Open access (publishing)

Grey literature
UKSG E-Resources Management Handbook

Scientic communication

2.8 References
Robert G. Bartle (1990) A brief history of the
mathematical literature from American Mathemat-
ical Society.
Chapter 3
Scientic journal
For a broader class of journals, see Academic journal.
Science journal redirects here. For the journal named
'Science', see Science (journal). For the defunct maga-
zine named 'Science Journal', see New Scientist.
For a broader coverage related to this topic, see Scientic
literature.
In academic publishing, a scientic journal is a
Cover of the rst issue of Nature, 4 November 1869
periodical publication intended to further the progress of
science, usually by reporting new research. There are
thousands of scientic journals in publication, and many
more have been published at various points in the past
(see list of scientic journals). Most journals are highly
specialized, although some of the oldest journals such
as Nature publish articles and scientic papers across a The standards that a journal uses to determine publication
wide range of scientic elds. Scientic journals contain can vary widely. Some journals, such as Nature, Science,
articles that have been peer reviewed, in an attempt to PNAS, and Physical Review Letters, have a reputation of
9
ensure that articles meet the journals standards of qual-
ity, and scientic validity. If the journals editor consid-
ers the paper appropriate, at least two researchers prefer-
ably from the same eld check the paper for soundness
of its scientic argument, and must agree to publish it.
Although scientic journals are supercially similar to
professional magazines, they are actually quite dier-
ent. Issues of a scientic journal are rarely read casu-
ally, as one would read a magazine. The publication of
the results of research is an essential part of the scientic
method. If they are describing experiments or calcula-
tions, they must supply enough details that an independent
researcher could repeat the experiment or calculation to
verify the results. Each such journal article becomes part
of the permanent scientic record.
The history of scientic journals dates from 1665,
when the French Journal des savans and the English
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society rst began
systematically publishing research results. Over a thou-
sand, mostly ephemeral, were founded in the 18th cen-
tury, and the number has increased rapidly after that.[1]
Articles in scientic journals can be used in research and
higher education. Scientic articles allow researchers to
keep up to date with the developments of their eld and
direct their own research. An essential part of a scien-
tic article is citation of earlier work. The impact of ar-
ticles and journals is often assessed by counting citations
(citation impact). Some classes are partially devoted to
the explication of classic articles, and seminar classes can
consist of the presentation by each student of a classic
or current paper. Schoolbooks and textbooks have been
written usually only on established topics, while the lat-
est research and more obscure topics are only accessible
through scientic articles. In a scientic research group
or academic department it is usual for the content of cur-
rent scientic journals to be discussed in journal clubs.
Academic credentials for promotion into academic ranks
are established in large part by the number and impact of
scientic articles published, and many doctoral programs
allow for thesis by publication, where the candidate is re-
quired to publish a certain number of scientic articles.
10 CHAPTER 3. SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

publishing articles that mark a fundamental breakthrough

in their respective elds. In many elds, a formal or infor-
mal hierarchy of scientic journals exists; the most pres-
tigious journal in a eld tends to be the most selective
in terms of the articles it will select for publication, and
usually will also have the highest impact factor. In some
countries, journal rankings can be utilized for funding
decisions[2] and even evaluation of individual researchers,
although they are poorly suited for that purpose.[3]
It is also common for journals to have a regional focus,
specializing in publishing papers from a particular coun-
try or other geographic region, like African Invertebrates.
Articles tend to be highly technical, representing the latest
theoretical research and experimental results in the eld
of science covered by the journal. They are often incom-
prehensible to anyone except for researchers in the eld
and advanced students. In some subjects this is inevitable
given the nature of the content. Usually, rigorous rules of
scientic writing are enforced by the editors; however,
these rules may vary from journal to journal, especially
between journals from dierent publishers. Articles are
usually either original articles reporting completely new
results or reviews of current literature. There are also
scientic publications that bridge the gap between arti-
cles and books by publishing thematic volumes of chap-
ters from dierent authors.
Cover of the rst volume of the Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society, the rst journal in the world exclusively devoted
3.1 Types of articles to science

Further information: Scientic paper
See also: Categories of academic articles
There are several types of journal articles; the exact ter-
minology and denitions vary by eld and specic jour-
nal, but often include:
Letters (also called communications, and not to be
confused with letters to the editor) are short descrip-
tions of important current research ndings that are
usually fast-tracked for immediate publication be-
cause they are considered urgent.
Research notes are short descriptions of current re-
search ndings that are considered less urgent or im-
portant than Letters.
Articles are usually between ve and twenty pages
and are complete descriptions of current original re-
search ndings, but there are considerable variations
between scientic elds and journals 80-page arti-
cles are not rare in mathematics or theoretical com-
puter science.
Supplemental articles contain a large volume of
tabular data that is the result of current research and
may be dozens or hundreds of pages with mostly nu-
merical data. Some journals now only publish this
data electronically on the Internet.
Review articles do not cover original research but
rather accumulate the results of many dierent ar-
ticles on a particular topic into a coherent narrative
about the state of the art in that eld. Review ar-
ticles provide information about the topic and also
provide journal references to the original research.
Reviews may be entirely narrative, or may provide
quantitative summary estimates resulting from the
application of meta-analytical methods.
Data papers are articles dedicated to describe
datasets. This type of article is becoming popu-
lar and journals exclusively dedicated to them have
been established, e.g. Scientic Data and Earth Sys-
tem Science Data.
Video papers are a recent addition to practice
of scientic publications. They most often com-
bine an online video demonstration of a new tech-
nique or protocol combined with a rigorous textual
description.[4][5]
The formats of journal articles vary, but many fol-
low the general IMRAD scheme recommended by the
International Committee of Medical Journal Editors.
Such articles begin with an abstract, which is a one-to-
four-paragraph summary of the paper. The introduction
3.3. COST 11

describes the background for the research including a dis- as electronic only, have come into existence promoting
cussion of similar research. The materials and methods the rapid dissemination capability, and availability, on the
or experimental section provides specic details of how Internet. In tandem with this is the speeding up of peer
the research was conducted. The results and discussion review, copyediting, page makeup, and other steps in the
section describes the outcome and implications of the re- process to support rapid dissemination.[9]
search, and the conclusion section places the research in Other improvements, benets and unique values of elec-
context and describes avenues for further exploration. tronically publishing the scientic journal are easy avail-
In addition to the above, some scientic journals such as ability of supplementary materials (data, graphics and
Science will include a news section where scientic devel- video), lower cost, and availability to more people, es-
opments (often involving political issues) are described. pecially scientists from non-developed countries. Hence,
These articles are often written by science journalists and research results from more developed nations are be-
not by scientists. In addition, some journals will include coming more accessible to scientists from non-developed
an editorial section and a section for letters to the edi- countries.[6]
tor. While these are articles published within a journal, Moreover, electronic publishing of scientic journals has
in general they are not regarded as scientic journal arti- been accomplished without compromising the standards
cles because they have not been peer-reviewed. of the refereed, peer review process.[6][7]
One form is the online equivalent of the conventional
paper journal. By 2006, almost all scientic journals
3.2 Electronic publishing have, while retaining their peer-review process, estab-
lished electronic versions; a number have moved entirely
Main articles: Eprint, Electronic article, and Electronic to electronic publication. In similar manner, most aca-
journal demic libraries buy the electronic version, and purchase
a paper copy only for the most important or most-used
titles.
Electronic publishing is a new area of information
dissemination. One denition of electronic publishing There is usually a delay of several months after an article
is in the context of the scientic journal. It is the pre- is written before it is published in a journal, making pa-
sentation of scholarly scientic results in only an elec- per journals not an ideal format for announcing the latest
tronic (non-paper) form. This is from its rst write-up, research. Many journals now publish the nal papers in
or creation, to its publication or dissemination. The elec- their electronic version as soon as they are ready, without
tronic scientic journal is specically designed to be pre- waiting for the assembly of a complete issue, as is nec-
sented on the internet. It is dened as not being previously essary with paper. In many elds in which even greater
printed material adapted, or re-tooled, and then delivered speed is wanted, such as physics, the role of the jour-
electronically.[6][7] nal at disseminating the latest research has largely been
replaced by preprint databases such as arXiv.org. Al-
Electronic publishing will exist alongside paper publish-
most all such articles are eventually published in tradi-
ing, because printed paper publishing is not expected to
tional journals, which still provide an important role in
disappear in the future. Output to a screen is impor-
quality control, archiving papers, and establishing scien-
tant for browsing and searching but is not well adapted
tic credit.
for extensive reading. Paper copies of selected informa-
tion will denitely be required. Therefore, the article
has to be transmitted electronically to the readers local
printer. Formats suitable both for reading on paper, and 3.3 Cost
for manipulation by the readers computer will need to be
integrated.[6][7] Many journals are electronically available Main article: Academic publishing Publishers and
in formats readable on screen via web browsers, as well business aspects
as in portable document format PDF, suitable for print- See also: Academic journal Costs
ing and storing on a local desktop or laptop computer.
New tools such as JATS and Utopia Documents provide Many scientists and librarians have long protested the cost
a 'bridge' to the 'web-versions in that they connect the of journals, especially as they see these payments go-
content in PDF versions directly to the WorldWideWeb ing to large for-prot publishing houses . To allow their
via hyperlinks that are created 'on-the-y'. The PDF ver- researchers online access to journals, many universities
sion of an article is usually seen as the version of record, purchase site licenses, permitting access from anywhere
but the matter is subject to some debate.[8] in the university, and, with appropriate authorization, by
Electronic counterparts of established print journals al- university-aliated users at home or elsewhere. These
ready promote and deliver rapid dissemination of peer re- may be quite expensive, sometimes much more than the
viewed and edited, published articles. Other journals, cost for a print subscription, although this may reect the
whether spin-os of established print journals, or created number of people who will be using the license - while
12 CHAPTER 3. SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

a print subscription is the cost for one person to receive 3.5 See also
the journal; a site-license can allow thousands of people
to gain access. List of scientic journals
Publications by scholarly societies, also known as not-for-
prot-publishers, usually cost less than commercial pub- Academic authorship
lishers, but the prices of their scientic journals are still
Academic conference
usually several thousand dollars a year. In general, this
money is used to fund the activities of the scientic so- Citation index
cieties that run such journals, or is invested in providing
further scholarly resources for scientists; thus, the money Copyright policies of scientic publishers
remains in and benets the scientic sphere.
Mega journal
Despite the transition to electronic publishing, the serials
crisis persists.[10] Open access journal
Concerns about cost and open access have led to the cre-
Publish or perish
ation of free-access journals such as the Public Library
of Science (PLoS) family and partly open or reduced- Scientic writing
cost journals such as the Journal of High Energy Physics.
However, professional editors still have to be paid, and San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment
PLoS still relies heavily on donations from foundations
to cover the majority of its operating costs; smaller jour-
nals do not often have access to such resources.
3.6 References
Based on statistical arguments, it has been shown that
electronic publishing online, and to some extent open ac- [1] D. A. Kronick, History of Scientic and Technical Period-
cess, both provide wider dissemination and increase the icals, 2nd ed. Scarecrow, 1976
average number of citations an article receives.[11]
[2] http://julkaisufoorumi.fi/en/publication-forum/
background
3.4 Copyright [3] http://julkaisufoorumi.fi/en/evaluations/faq

Traditionally, the author of an article was required to [4] http://www.jove.com/

transfer the copyright to the journal publisher. Publish-
[5] " """. Scientic journal
ers claimed this was necessary in order to protect authors
Videonauka.
rights, and to coordinate permissions for reprints or other
use. However, many authors, especially those active in [6] Heller, Stephen, R. (1998). Electronic Publishing of
the open access movement, found this unsatisfactory,[12] Scientic Manuscripts. Encyclopedia of Computational
and have used their inuence to eect a gradual move to- Chemistry. 02. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 871875. Re-
wards a license to publish instead. Under such a system, trieved 2010-06-16.
the publisher has permission to edit, print, and distribute
[7] Boyce, Peter B.; Heather Dalterio (January 1996).
the article commercially, but the authors retain the other
Electronic Publishing of Scientic Journals (Arti-
rights themselves.
cle available to the public in HTML.). Physics To-
Even if they retain the copyright to an article, most jour- day. American Institute of Physics. 49 (1): 42.
nals allow certain rights to their authors. These rights usu- Bibcode:1996PhT....49a..42B. doi:10.1063/1.881598.
ally include the ability to reuse parts of the paper in the
[8] Pettifer, S.; McDermott, P.; Marsh, J.; Thorne, D.;
authors future work, and allow the author to distribute
Villeger, A.; Attwood, T.K. (2011). Ceci n'est pas
a limited number of copies. In the print format, such un hamburger: modelling and representing the schol-
copies are called reprints; in the electronic format, they arly article. Learned Publishing. 24 (3): 207220.
are called postprints. Some publishers, for example the doi:10.1087/20110309.
American Physical Society, also grant the author the right
to post and update the article on the authors or employers [9] Swygart-Hobaugh, Rob Kling, Amanda J. The Internet
website and on free e-print servers, to grant permission to and the Velocity of Scholarly Journal Publishing. schol-
others to use or reuse gures, and even to reprint the ar- arworks.iu.edu. Retrieved 2016-10-26.
[13]
ticle as long as no fee is charged. The rise of open ac-
[10] Sample, Ian (24 April 2012). Harvard University says it
cess journals, in which the author retains the copyright but can't aord journal publishers prices. The Guardian.
must pay a publication charge, such as the Public Library
of Science family of journals, is another recent response [11] Lawrence, Steve. Online Or Invisible?". NEC Research
to copyright concerns. Institute.
3.7. EXTERNAL LINKS 13

[12] Di Cosmo, Roberto (June 2006). The Role of Public

Administrations in The ICT Era (PDF). UPGRADE: the
European Journal for the Informatics Professional. 7 (3):
418. ISSN 1684-5285.

[13] APS Copyright Policies and Frequently Asked Ques-

tions.

A.J. Meadows, ed. The Scientic Journal. London :

Aslib, c1979. ISBN 0-85142-118-0

R.E. Abel et al. Scholarly Publishing: Books Jour-

nals, Publishers, and Libraries in the Twentieth Cen-
tury N.Y.: Wiley, 2002. ISBN 0-471-21929-0
D.W. King et al. Scientic Journals in the United
States: their Production, Use, and Economics.
Stroudsberg, PA: Hutchinson-Ross, 1981 ISBN 0-
87933-380-4

3.7 External links

The cost of publishing in a scientic journal, some
examples and recommended reading from Open-
WetWare life scientists wiki
Chapter 4

Scientic writing

Not to be confused with Science writing. against use of the passive voice, while some encour-
age it.[4][5] In the mathematical sciences, it is cus-
tomary to report in the present tense.[6]
Scientic writing is writing for science.[1]
Some journals prefer using we rather than I as
personal pronoun. Note that we sometimes in-
4.1 History cludes the reader, for example in mathematical de-
ductions.
See also: Scientic literature History
However, scientic writing is much more nuanced and
shifts of tense and person reect subtle changes in the
Scientic writing in English started in the 14th century.[2] development of a written scientic argument.[7] Further-
The Royal Society established good practice for scientic more, each section of the conventional IMRAD article
[7]
writing. Founder member Thomas Sprat wrote on the has slightly dierent style.
importance of plain and accurate description rather than In the chemical sciences, drawing chemistry is as funda-
rhetorical ourishes in his History of the Royal Society of mental as writing chemistry. The point is clearly made by
London. Robert Boyle emphasized the importance of not 1981 Nobel Prize-winning chemist Roald Homann.[8]
boring the reader with a dull, at style.[1]
Because most scientic journals accept manuscripts only
in English, an entire industry has developed to help non- 4.3 See also
native English speaking authors improve their text before
submission. It is just now becoming an accepted practice Academic publishing
to utilize the benets of these services. This is making it
easier for scientists to focus on their research and still get Academic writing
published in top journals.
Besides the customary readability tests, software tools re- Citation
lying on Natural Language Processing to analyze text help Common English usage misconceptions
writer scientists evaluate the quality of their manuscripts
prior to submission to a journal. SWAN, a Java app writ- EASE Guidelines for Authors and Translators of Sci-
ten by researchers from the University of Eastern Finland entic Articles
is such a tool.[3]
Fast abstract
GLISC
4.2 Writing style guides Impact factor

Publication of research results is the global measure used IMRAD structure (Introduction, Method, Result
by all disciplines to gauge a scientists level of success. and Discussion)
Dierent elds have dierent conventions for writing A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses,
style, and individual journals within a eld usually have and Dissertations, authored by Kate L. Turabian
their own style guides. Some issues of scientic writing (The Chicago Manual of Style)
style include:
Parenthetical referencing
Some style guides for scientic writing recommend Peer review

14
4.4. REFERENCES 15

Scientic article

Scientic journal
Scientic literature

Scientic method
Technical writing

4.4 References
[1] Joseph E. Harmon, Alan G. Gross, On Early English Sci-
entic Writing, The scientic literature

[2] Irma Taavitsainen, Pivi Pahta, Medical and scientic

writing in late medieval English

[3] Scientic Writing Assistant. April 2012.

[4] Day, Robert; Sakaduski, Nancy (30 June 2011). Scientic

English: A Guide for Scientists and Other Professionals,
Third Edition. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-39173-6.

[5] Dawson, Chris (2007). Prescriptions and proscriptions.

The three Ps of scientic writing past, passive and per-
sonal. Teaching Science: The Journal of the Australian
Science Teachers Association. 53 (2): 3638.

[6] Nicholas J. Higham, 1998. Handbook of writing for the

mathematical sciences, Second Edition. Philadelphia: So-
ciety for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. p. 56

[7] Mogull, Scott A. (2017). Scientic And Medical Com-

munication: A Guide For Eective Practice. New York:
Routledge. ISBN 9781138842557.

[8] Homann, Roald (2002). Writing (and Drawing) Chem-

istry. In Jonathan Monroe. Writing and Revising the Dis-
ciplines (PDF). Cornell University Press. pp. 2953. Re-
trieved 2012-12-20.
Chapter 5

Academic publishing

For a broader coverage related to this topic, see Scholarly 5.1 History
communication.

Academic publishing is the subeld of publishing which

distributes academic research and scholarship. Most aca-
demic work is published in academic journal article, book
or thesis form. The part of academic written output that
is not formally published but merely printed up or posted
on the Internet is often called "grey literature". Most sci- The Journal des savans (later spelled Journal des sa-
entic and scholarly journals, and many academic and vants), established by Denis de Sallo, was the earliest
scholarly books, though not all, are based on some form academic journal published in Europe. Its content in-
of peer review or editorial refereeing to qualify texts for cluded obituaries of famous men, church history, and le-
publication. Peer review quality and selectivity standards gal reports.[3] The rst issue appeared as a twelve-page
vary greatly from journal to journal, publisher to pub- quarto pamphlet[4] on Monday, 5 January 1665,[5] shortly
lisher, and eld to eld. before the rst appearance of the Philosophical Transac-
[6]
Most established academic disciplines have their own tions of the Royal Society, on 6 March 1665.
journals and other outlets for publication, although many At that time, the act of publishing academic inquiry
academic journals are somewhat interdisciplinary, and was controversial and widely ridiculed. It was not at
publish work from several distinct elds or subelds. all unusual for a new discovery to be announced as an
There is also a tendency for existing journals to divide anagram, reserving priority for the discoverer, but inde-
into specialized sections as the eld itself becomes more cipherable for anyone not in on the secret: both Isaac
specialized. Along with the variation in review and pub- Newton and Leibniz used this approach. However, this
lication procedures, the kinds of publications that are ac- method did not work well. Robert K. Merton, a sociol-
cepted as contributions to knowledge or research dier ogist, found that 92% of cases of simultaneous discov-
greatly among elds and subelds. ery in the 17th century ended in dispute. The number
Academic publishing is undergoing major changes, as it of disputes dropped to 72% in the 18th century, 59%
makes the transition from the print to the electronic for- by the latter half of the 19th[7]century, and 33% by the
mat. Business models are dierent in the electronic en- rst half of the 20th century. The decline in contested
vironment. Since the early 1990s, licensing of electronic claims for priority in research discoveries can be credited
resources, particularly journals, has been very common. to the increasing acceptance of the publication of papers
Currently, an important trend, particularly with respect to in modern academic journals, with estimates [8]
suggest-
journals in the sciences, is open access via the Internet. ing that around 50 million journal articles have been
In open access publishing, a journal article is made avail- published since the rst appearance of the Philosophical
able free for all on the web by the publisher at the time of Transactions. The Royal Society was steadfast in its not-
publication. It is typically made possible after the author yet-popular belief that science could only move forward
pays hundreds or thousands of dollars in publication fees, through a transparent and open exchange of ideas backed
thereby shifting the costs from the reader to the researcher by experimental evidence.
or their funder. The Internet has facilitated open access Early scientic journals embraced serveral models: some
self-archiving, in which authors themselves make a copy were run by a single individual who exerted editorial con-
of their published articles available free for all on the trol over the contents, often simply publishing extracts
web.[1][2] from colleagues letters, while others employed a group
decision making process, more closely aligned to modern
peer review. It wasn't until the middle of the 20th century
that peer review became the standard.[9]

16
5.3. SCHOLARLY PAPER 17

5.2 Publishers and business as- of their budgets on books compared with 56% on jour-
nals; twelve years later, the ratio had skewed to 28%
pects and 72%.[15] Meanwhile, monographs are increasingly
expected for tenure in the humanities. The Modern
See also: Academic journal Costs, and Scientic Language Association has expressed hope that electronic
journal Cost publishing will solve the issue.[15]
In 2009 and 2010, surveys and reports found that libraries
In the 1960s and 1970s, commercial publishers be- faced continuing budget cuts, with one survey in 2009
gan to selectively acquire top-quality journals which nding that one-third of libraries had their budgets cut by
were previously published by nonprot academic so- 5% or more.[17]
cieties. Due to the inelastic demand for these jour-
nals, the commercial publishers lost little of the mar-
ket when they raised the prices signicantly. Although 5.2.2 Academic journal publishing reform
there are over 2,000 publishers, as of 2013, ve for-prot
companies (Reed Elsevier, Springer Science+Business Main article: Academic journal publishing reform
Media, Wiley-Blackwell, Taylor & Francis, and Sage)
accounted for 50% of articles published.[10][11] (Since
2013, Springer Science+Business Media has undergone a Several models are being investigated such as open publi-
merger to form an even bigger company named Springer cation models or adding community-oriented features.[18]
Nature.) Available data indicate that these compa- It is also considered that Online scientic interaction
nies have high prot margins, especially compared to outside the traditional journal space is becoming more
the smaller publishers which likely operate with low and more important to academic communication.[19] In
margins.[12] These factors have contributed to the "serials addition, experts have suggested measures to make the
crisis" from 1986 to 2005, the number of serials pur- publication process more ecient in disseminating new
chased has increased an average of 1.9% per year while and important ndings by evaluating the worthiness of
total expenditures on serials have increased 7.6% per publication on the basis of the signicance and novelty
year.[13] of the research nding.[20]

Unlike most industries, in academic publishing the two

most important inputs are provided virtually free of
charge.[12] These are the articles and the peer review
process. Publishers argue that they add value to the pub-
lishing process through support to the peer review group,
including stipends, as well as through typesetting, print-
ing, and web publishing. Investment analysts, however,
have been skeptical of the value added by for-prot pub-
lishers, as exemplied by a 2005 Deutsche Bank analysis
which stated that we believe the publisher adds relatively
little value to the publishing process... We are simply ob-
serving that if the process really were as complex, costly
and value-added as the publishers protest that it is, 40%
margins wouldn't be available.[12][14]
5.2.1 Crisis
Main article: Serials crisis
A crisis in academic publishing is widely perceived";[15]
the apparent crisis has to do with the combined pres-
sure of budget cuts at universities and increased costs
for journals (the serials crisis).[16] The university bud-
get cuts have reduced library budgets and reduced sub-
sidies to university-aliated publishers. The humanities
have been particularly aected by the pressure on univer-
sity publishers, which are less able to publish monographs
when libraries can't aord to purchase them. For exam-
ple, the ARL found that in 1986, libraries spent 44%
5.3 Scholarly paper
See also: Scientic paper and Academic journal
Scholarly articles
In academic publishing, a paper is an academic work that
is usually published in an academic journal. It contains
original research results or reviews existing results. Such
a paper, also called an article, will only be considered
valid if it undergoes a process of peer review by one or
more referees (who are academics in the same eld) who
check that the content of the paper is suitable for publica-
tion in the journal. A paper may undergo a series of re-
views, revisions, and re-submissions before nally being
accepted or rejected for publication. This process typi-
cally takes several months. Next, there is often a delay
of many months (or in some subjects, over a year) be-
fore an accepted manuscript appears. This is particularly
true for the most popular journals where the number of
accepted articles often outnumbers the space for print-
ing. Due to this, many academics self-archive a 'pre-print'
copy of their paper for free download from their personal
or institutional website.
Some journals, particularly newer ones, are now pub-
lished in electronic form only. Paper journals are now
generally made available in electronic form as well, both
to individual subscribers, and to libraries. Almost always
these electronic versions are available to subscribers im-
18 CHAPTER 5. ACADEMIC PUBLISHING

mediately upon publication of the paper version, or even
before; sometimes they are also made available to non-
subscribers, either immediately (by open access journals)
or after an embargo of anywhere from two to twenty-four
months or more, in order to protect against loss of sub-
scriptions. Journals having this delayed availability are
sometimes called delayed open access journals. Ellison
has reported that in economics the dramatic increase in
opportunities to publish results online has led to a decline
in the use of peer-reviewed articles.[21]
5.3.1 Categories of papers
See also: Types of scientic journal articles
Perhaps the most widely recognized fail-
ing of peer review is its inability to ensure the
identication of high-quality work. The list
of important scientic papers that were ini-
tially rejected by peer-reviewed journals goes
back at least as far as the editor of Philosoph-
ical Transactions 1796 rejection of Edward
Jenner's report of the rst vaccination against
smallpox.[24]
Conrmatory bias is the unconscious tendency to ac-
cept reports which support the reviewers views and to
downplay those which do not. Experimental studies show
the problem exists in peer reviewing.[25]

An academic paper typically belongs to some particular 5.5 Publishing process

category such as:[22]
The process of academic publishing, which begins when
Research paper authors submit a manuscript to a publisher, is divided into
two distinct phases: peer review and production.
Case report or Case series
The process of peer review is organized by the journal
editor and is complete when the content of the article, to-
Position paper
gether with any associated images or gures, are accepted
Review article or Survey paper for publication. The peer review process is increasingly
managed online, through the use of proprietary systems,
Species paper commercial software packages, or open source and free
software. A manuscript undergoes one or more rounds
Technical paper of review; after each round, the author(s) of the article
modify their submission in line with the reviewers com-
ments; this process is repeated until the editor is satised
Note: Law review is the generic term for a journal of legal and the work is accepted.
scholarship in the United States, often operating by rules
radically dierent from those for most other academic The production process, controlled by a production edi-
journals. tor or publisher, then takes an article through copy edit-
ing, typesetting, inclusion in a specic issue of a jour-
nal, and then printing and online publication. Academic
copy editing seeks to ensure that an article conforms to
5.4 Peer review the journals house style, that all of the referencing and
labelling is correct, and that the text is consistent and leg-
Main article: Academic peer review ible; often this work involves substantive editing and ne-
gotiating with the authors.[26] Because the work of aca-
demic copy editors can overlap with that of authors edi-
Peer review is a central concept for most academic pub- [27]
lishing; other scholars in a eld must nd a work su- tors, editors employed by journal publishers [26]
often re-
ciently high in quality for it to merit publication. A sec- fer to themselves as manuscript editors.
ondary benet of the process is an indirect guard against In much of the 20th century, such articles were pho-
plagiarism since reviewers are usually familiar with the tographed for printing into proceedings and journals, and
sources consulted by the author(s). The origins of rou- this stage was known as camera-ready copy. With mod-
tine peer review for submissions dates to 1752 when the ern digital submission in formats such as PDF, this pho-
Royal Society of London took over ocial responsibil- tographing step is no longer necessary, though the term is
ity for Philosophical Transactions. However, there were still sometimes used.
some earlier examples.[23] The author will review and correct proofs at one or more
While journal editors largely agree the system is essential stages in the production process. The proof correction
to quality control in terms of rejecting poor quality work, cycle has historically been labour-intensive as handwrit-
there have been examples of important results that are ten comments by authors and editors are manually tran-
turned down by one journal before being taken to others. scribed by a proof reader onto a clean version of the
Rena Steinzor wrote: proof. In the early 21st century, this process was stream-
5.7. PUBLISHING BY DISCIPLINE
lined by the introduction of e-annotations in Microsoft
Word, Adobe Acrobat, and other programs, but it still re-
mained a time-consuming and error-prone process. The
full automation of the proof correction cycles has only
become possible with the onset of online collaborative
writing platforms, such as Authorea, Google Docs, and
various others, where a remote service oversees the copy-
editing interactions of multiple authors and exposes them
as explicit, actionable historic events.
5.6 Citations
Main article: Citation
Academic authors cite sources they have used, in order to
support their assertions and arguments and to help read-
ers nd more information on the subject. It also gives
credit to authors whose work they use and helps avoid
plagiarism.
Each scholarly journal uses a specic format for citations
(also known as references). Among the most common
formats used in research papers are the APA, CMS, and
MLA styles.
The American Psychological Association (APA) style is
often used in the social sciences. The Chicago Man-
ual of Style (CMS) is used in business, communications,
economics, and social sciences. The CMS style uses foot-
notes at the bottom of page to help readers locate the
sources. The Modern Language Association (MLA) style
is widely used in the humanities.
5.7 Publishing by discipline
5.7.1 Natural sciences
Main article: Scientic literature
Scientic, technical, and medical (STM) literature is a
large industry which generated $23.5 billion in revenue;
$9.4 billion of that was specically from the publication
of English-language scholarly journals.[28] Most scientic
research is initially published in scientic journals and
considered to be a primary source. Technical reports, for
minor research results and engineering and design work
(including computer software), round out the primary lit-
erature. Secondary sources in the sciences include arti-
cles in review journals (which provide a synthesis of re-
search articles on a topic to highlight advances and new
lines of research), and books for large projects, broad
arguments, or compilations of articles. Tertiary sources
might include encyclopedias and similar works intended
for broad public consumption or academic libraries.
A partial exception to scientic publication practices is in
19
many elds of applied science, particularly that of U.S.
computer science research. An equally prestigious site
of publication within U.S. computer science are some
academic conferences.[29] Reasons for this departure in-
clude a large number of such conferences, the quick pace
of research progress, and computer science professional
society support for the distribution and archiving of con-
ference proceedings.[30]
5.7.2 Social sciences
Publishing in the social sciences is very dierent in dif-
ferent elds. Some elds, like economics, may have very
hard or highly quantitative standards for publication,
much like the natural sciences. Others, like anthropol-
ogy or sociology, emphasize eld work and reporting on
rst-hand observation as well as quantitative work. Some
social science elds, such as public health or demography,
have signicant shared interests with professions like law
and medicine, and scholars in these elds often also pub-
lish in professional magazines.[31]
5.7.3 Humanities
Publishing in the humanities is in principle similar to pub-
lishing elsewhere in the academy; a range of journals,
from general to extremely specialized, are available, and
university presses issue many new humanities books ev-
ery year. The arrival of online publishing opportunities
has radically transformed the economics of the eld and
the shape of the future is controversial.[32] Unlike science,
where timeliness is critically important, humanities pub-
lications often take years to write and years more to pub-
lish. Unlike the sciences, research is most often an indi-
vidual process and is seldom supported by large grants.
Journals rarely make prots and are typically run by uni-
versity departments.[33]
The following describes the situation in the United States.
In many elds, such as literature and history, several pub-
lished articles are typically required for a rst tenure-
track job, and a published or forthcoming book is now
often required before tenure. Some critics complain that
this de facto system has emerged without thought to its
consequences; they claim that the predictable result is the
publication of much shoddy work, as well as unreasonable
demands on the already limited research time of young
scholars. To make matters worse, the circulation of many
humanities journals in the 1990s declined to almost un-
tenable levels, as many libraries cancelled subscriptions,
leaving fewer and fewer peer-reviewed outlets for publi-
cation; and many humanities professors rst books sell
only a few hundred copies, which often does not pay for
the cost of their printing. Some scholars have called for
a publication subvention of a few thousand dollars to be
associated with each graduate student fellowship or new
tenure-track hire, in order to alleviate the nancial pres-
20
sure on journals.
5.8 Open access journals
Main article: Open access journal
An alternative to the subscription model of journal pub-
lishing is the open access journal model, which typically
involves a publication charge being paid by the author.[34]
Prestige journals typically charge several thousand dol-
lars. Oxford University Press, with over 300 journals, has
fees ranging from 1000-2500, with discounts of 50%
to 100% to authors from developing countries.[35] Wi-
ley Blackwell has 700 journals available, and they charge
a at $US3000 open access fee.[36] Springer, with over
2600 journals, charges US$3000 or EUR 2200 (exclud-
ing VAT).[37]
The online distribution of individual articles and aca-
demic journals then takes place without charge to readers
and libraries. Most open access journals remove all the
nancial, technical, and legal barriers that limit access to
academic materials to paying customers. The Public Li-
brary of Science and BioMed Central are prominent ex-
amples of this model.
Open access has been criticized on quality grounds, as
the desire to maximize publishing fees could cause some
journals to relax the standard of peer review. It may be
criticized on nancial grounds as well because the neces-
sary publication fees have proven to be higher than orig-
inally expected. Open access advocates generally reply
that because open access is as much based on peer re-
viewing as traditional publishing, the quality should be
the same (recognizing that both traditional and open ac-
cess journals have a range of quality). It has also been
argued that good science done by academic institutions
who cannot aord to pay for open access might not get
published at all, but most open access journals permit
the waiver of the fee for nancial hardship or authors
in underdeveloped countries. In any case, all authors
have the option of self-archiving their articles in their
institutional repositories in order to make them open ac-
cess, whether or not they publish them in a journal.
If they publish in a Hybrid open access journal, authors
pay a subscription journal a publication fee to make their
individual article open access. The other articles in such
hybrid journals are either made available after a delay or
remain available only by subscription. Most traditional
publishers (including Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford Univer-
sity Press, and Springer Science+Business Media) have
already introduced such a hybrid option, and more are
following. Proponents of open access suggest that such
moves by corporate publishers illustrate that open access,
or a mix of open access and traditional publishing, can be
nancially viable, and evidence to that eect is emerging.
The fraction of the authors of a hybrid open access jour-
CHAPTER 5. ACADEMIC PUBLISHING
nal that make use of its open access option can, however,
be small. It also remains unclear whether this is practi-
cal in elds outside the sciences, where there is much less
availability of outside funding. In 2006, several funding
agencies, including the Wellcome Trust and several di-
visions of the Research Councils in the UK announced
the availability of extra funding to their grantees for such
open access journal publication fees.
In May 2016, the Council for the European Union agreed
that from 2020 all scientic publications as a result of
publicly funded research must be freely available. It also
must be able to optimally reuse research data. To achieve
that, the data must be made accessible, unless there are
well-founded reasons for not doing so, for example, intel-
lectual property rights or security or privacy issues.[38][39]
5.9 Academic publishing growth
In recent decades there has been a growth in academic
publishing in developing countries as they become more
advanced in science and technology. Although the large
majority of scientic output and academic documents are
produced in developed countries, the rate of growth in
these countries has stabilized and is much smaller than
the growth rate in some of the developing countries.
The fastest scientic output growth rate over the last two
decades has been in the Middle East and Asia with Iran
leading with an 11-fold increase followed by the Repub-
lic of Korea, Turkey, Cyprus, China, and Oman.[40] In
comparison, the only G8 countries in top 20 ranking with
fastest performance improvement are, Italy which stands
at tenth and Canada at 13th globally.[41][42]
By 2004, it was noted that the output of scientic papers
originating from the European Union had a larger share
of the worlds total from 36.6 to 39.3 percent and from
32.8 to 37.5 per cent of the top one per cent of highly
cited scientic papers. However, the United States out-
put dropped 52.3 to 49.4 per cent of the worlds total, and
its portion of the top one percent dropped from 65.6 to
62.8 per cent.[43]
Iran, China, India, Brazil, and South Africa were the only
developing countries among the 31 nations that produced
97.5% of the most cited scientic articles in a study pub-
lished in 2004. The remaining 162 countries contributed
less than 2.5%.[43] The Royal Society in a 2011 report
stated that in share of English scientic research papers
the United States was rst followed by China, the UK,
Germany, Japan, France, and Canada. The report pre-
dicted that China would overtake the United States some-
time before 2020, possibly as early as 2013. Chinas sci-
entic impact, as measured by other scientists citing the
published papers the next year, is smaller although also
increasing.[44]
5.11. REFERENCES
5.10 See also
Academic authorship
Acknowledgment index
arXiv
AuthorAID
Council of Science Editors
European Association of Science Editors
EASE Guidelines for Authors and Translators of
Scientic Articles
IMRAD
Library publishing
List of academic databases and search engines
Monographic series
Preprints
Proceedings
Rankings of academic publishers
Scientic method
Serials, periodicals and journals
5.11 References
[1] Harnad, S., Brody, T., Vallieres, F., Carr, L., Hitchcock,
S., Gingras, Y, Oppenheim, C., Stamerjohanns, H., &
Hilf, E. (2004) The green and the gold roads to Open Ac-
cess. Nature Web Focus.
[2] Jeery, Keith G. (2006) Open Access: An Introduction.
ERCIM News 64. January 2006
[3] The Amsterdam printing of the Journal des savans, Dib-
ner Library of the Smithsonian Institution
[4] Brown, 1972, p. 368
[5] Hallam, 1842, p. 406.
[6] Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society Vol. 1,
Issue 1, is dated March 6, 1665. See also History of the
Journal
[7] Merton, Robert K. (December 1963). Resistance to
the Systematic Study of Multiple Discoveries in Sci-
ence. European Journal of Sociology / Archives Eu-
ropennes de Sociologie. 4 (2): 237282. ISSN 1474-
0583. doi:10.1017/S0003975600000801.
[8] Jinha, A. E. (2010). Article 50 million: An es-
timate of the number of scholarly articles in exis-
tence (PDF). Learned Publishing. 23 (3): 258263.
doi:10.1087/20100308. Archived from the original
(PDF) on 2012-05-23.
21
[9] The History of Scientic Publishing: An interview with
Aileen Fyfe (Podcast). 2016.
[10] Five companies control more than half of academic pub-
lishing. Phys.org. 10 June 2015.
[11] Larivire, Vincent; Haustein, Stefanie; Mongeon,
Philippe (10 June 2015). The oligopoly of aca-
demic publishers in the digital era. PLoS ONE. 10
(6): e0127502. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1027502L.
PMC 4465327 . PMID 26061978.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0127502. Retrieved 12
May 2016.
[12] McGuigan GS, Russell RD. (2008). The Business of Aca-
demic Publishing: A Strategic Analysis of the Academic
Journal Publishing Industry and its Impact on the Future
of Scholarly Publishing. E-JASL: The Electronic Journal
of Academic and Special Librarianship. ICAAP.
[13] Association of Research Libraries, ARL Statistics: 2004-
2005. As cited in McGuigan & Russell 2008.
[14] Is the staggeringly protable business of scientic pub-
lishing bad for science?". The Guardian. 2017-06-27.
ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2017-07-02.
[15] Modern Language Association. Report from the Ad
Hoc Committee on the Future of Scholarly Publishing
Archived 2006-09-23 at the Wayback Machine..
[16] Sample, Ian (24 April 2012). Harvard University says it
can't aord journal publishers prices. The Guardian.
[17] Seeking the New Normal: Periodicals Price Survey 2010
Archived 2010-09-28 at the Wayback Machine.. Li-
braryJournal.com.
[18] Hendler, James (2007). Reinventing Academic Pub-
lishing -Part 1. IEEE Intelligent Systems. 22 (5).
doi:10.1109/MIS.2007.93 (inactive 2017-03-13).
[19] Hendler, James (2008). Reinventing Academic Pub-
lishing -Part 3. IEEE Intelligent Systems. 23 (1): 23.
doi:10.1109/MIS.2008.12.
[20] J. Scott Armstrong (1997). Peer Review for Jour-
nals: Evidence on Quality Control, Fairness, and In-
novation (PDF). Energy & Environment. 3: 6384.
doi:10.1007/s11948-997-0017-3. Archived from the
original (PDF) on 2010-06-20.
[21] Glenn Ellison, Is Peer Review in Decline?" Economic In-
quiry (July 2011) 49#3 pp 635657, doi:10.1111/j.1465-
7295.2010.00261.x
[22] Concept Paper:
Brief: How to Write a Concept Paper (PDF).
Hanover Grants. 2011. Archived from the original
(PDF download) on 2013-06-26. Retrieved 2013-
07-04. Funders often ask for brief 1- to 5-page con-
cept papers (also called white papers in the gov-
ernment contracting sector) prior to submission of
a full proposal.
Format for a Concept paper. The Gerber Foun-
dation. 2012. Archived from the original on 2013-
07-05. Retrieved 2013-07-04.
22
[23] David A. Kronick, Peer review in 18th-century scientic
journalism. JAMA (1990) 263#10 pp: 1321-1322.
[24] Rescuing Science from Politics: Regulation and the Distor-
tion of Scientic ... - Google Books. Books.google.com.
2006-07-24. ISBN 9780521855204. Retrieved 2012-08-
07.
[25] Mahoney, Michael J. Publication prejudices: An experi-
mental study of conrmatory bias in the peer review sys-
tem. Cognitive therapy and research (1977) 1#2 pp: 161-
175.
[26] Iverson, Cheryl (2004). ""Copy editor vs. manuscript
editor vs...: venturing onto the mineeld of titles (PDF).
Science Editor. 27 (2): 3941. Archived from the origi-
nal (PDF) on 3 December 2010. Retrieved 19 November
2013.
[27] de Jager, Marije. Journal copy-editing in a non-
anglophone environment. In: Matarese, Valerie (ed)
(2013). Supporting Research Writing: Roles and chal-
lenges in multilingual settings. Oxford: Chandos. pp. 157
171. ISBN 1843346664.
[28] Ware, Mark and Michael Wabe. (2012) The STM Re-
port: An Overview of Scientic and Scholarly Publish-
ing. Outsell and the International Association of Scien-
tic, Technical and Medical PublishersNovember 2012.
[29] Patterson, David (University of California, Berkeley);
Snyder, Lawrence; Ullma, Jerey (August 1999).
Evaluating Computer Scientists and Engineers For Pro-
motion and Tenure (Free PDF download). Computing
Research News. Computing Research Association. Re-
trieved 2013-07-04.
[30] Grudin, Jonathan (April 27, 2005). Why CHI Frag-
mented. CHI '05 extended abstracts on Human factors in
computing systems. Portland, Oregon: ACM Press. pp.
10831084.
[31] Joel Best, Following the Money Across the Landscape
of Sociology Journals. The American Sociologist (2015):
1-16.
[32] Cathy Davidson, The futures of scholarly publishing.
Journal of Scholarly Publishing (2015).
[33] Toby Miller, Blow Up the Humanities (2012)
[34] For typical policies see UC Berkeley Library, Selective
List of Open Access Fees
[35] See Oxford Open Pricing
[36] See Author Services
[37] See Open Choice
[38] Zaken, Ministerie van Buitenlandse. All European sci-
entic articles to be freely accessible by 2020. en-
glish.eu2016.nl. Retrieved 2016-05-28.
[39] Competitiveness Council, 26-27/05/2016 - Consilium.
www.consilium.europa.eu. Retrieved 2016-05-28.
CHAPTER 5. ACADEMIC PUBLISHING
[40] MacKenzie, Debora (2010-02-18). Iran showing fastest
scientic growth of any country. Science in Society. New
Scientist (online magazine). Retrieved 2012-08-07.
S. M. J. Mortazavi, and Z. Hashemi (June 2011).
Tiger or Rabbit does not Matter: a New Look into
the Recent Great Achievements of Iranian Scien-
tists. Indian Journal of Science and Technology. 4
(6): 716716. Archived from the original on 2014-
01-10.
[41] 2005 OST PSA report (PDF). Archived from the orig-
inal (PDF) on 2012-07-21. Retrieved 2012-10-02.
[42] Bulletin Board - Which nations scientic output is rising
fastest?". IPM. Retrieved 2012-08-07.
[43] David Dickson (2004-07-16). China, Brazil and India
lead southern science output. SciDev.Net. Retrieved
2012-08-07.
[44] China poised to overhaul US as biggest publisher of sci-
entic papers, Alok Jha, Monday 28 March 2011, The
Guardian,
5.12 Further reading
Belcher, Wendy Laura. Writing Your Journal Ar-
ticle in Twelve Weeks: A Guide to Academic Pub-
lishing Success. ISBN 9781412957014
Best, Joel. Following the Money Across the Land-
scape of Sociology Journals. The American Sociol-
ogist (2015): 1-16.
Brienza, Casey (2012). Opening the wrong gate?
The academic spring and scholarly publishing in the
humanities and social sciences. Publishing research
quarterly. 28 (3): 159171. doi:10.1007/s12109-
012-9272-5.
Culler, Jonathan, and Kevin Lamb. Just being di-
cult? : academic writing in the public arena Stanford,
Calif. : Stanford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-
8047-4709-1
Germano, William. Getting It Published, 2nd Edi-
tion: A Guide for Scholars and Anyone Else Seri-
ous About Serious Books. ISBN 978-0-226-28853-
6. Read a chapter.
Greco, Albert N (2015). Academic Libraries
and the Economics of Scholarly Publishing in the
Twenty-First Century: Portfolio Theory, Product
Dierentiation, Economic Rent, Perfect Price Dis-
crimination, and the Cost of Prestige. Jour-
nal of Scholarly Publishing. 47 (1): 143.
doi:10.3138/jsp.47.1.01.
Nelson, Cary and Stephen Watt. Scholarly Books
and Peer Review in Academic Keywords: A Devils
Dictionary for Higher Education. ISBN 0-415-
92203-8.
5.13. EXTERNAL LINKS 23

Tenopir, Carol and Donald King. Towards Elec-

tronic Journals: Realities for Librarians and Pub-
lishers. SLA, 2000. ISBN 0-87111-507-7.

Wellington, J. J. Getting published : a guide for

lecturers and researcher (RoutledgeFalmer, 2003).
ISBN 0-415-29847-4
Yang, Rui. Scholarly publishing, knowledge mo-
bility and internationalization of Chinese univer-
sities. in Tara Fenwick and Lesley Farrell, eds.
Knowledge mobilization and educational research:
Politics, languages and responsibilities (2012): 185-
167.

5.13 External links

Journal of Scholarly Publishing
Chapter 6
Abstract (summary)
An abstract is a brief summary of a research article,
thesis, review, conference proceeding, or any in-depth
analysis of a particular subject and is often used to help
the reader quickly ascertain the papers purpose.[1] When
used, an abstract always appears at the beginning of a
manuscript or typescript, acting as the point-of-entry for
any given academic paper or patent application. Abstract-
ing and indexing services for various academic disciplines
are aimed at compiling a body of literature for that par-
ticular subject.
The terms prcis or synopsis are used in some pub-
lications to refer to the same thing that other publica-
tions might call an abstract. In management reports,
an executive summary usually contains more information
(and often more sensitive information) than the abstract
does.
6.1 Purpose and limitations
Academic literature uses the abstract to succinctly com-
municate complex research. An abstract may act as a
stand-alone entity instead of a full paper. As such, an
abstract is used by many organizations as the basis for se-
lecting research that is proposed for presentation in the
form of a poster, platform/oral presentation or workshop
presentation at an academic conference. Most literature
database search engines index only abstracts rather than
providing the entire text of the paper. Full texts of scien-
tic papers must often be purchased because of copyright
and/or publisher fees and therefore the abstract is a sig-
nicant selling point for the reprint or electronic form of
the full text.[2]
The abstract can convey the main results and conclusions
of a scientic article but the full text article must be con-
sulted for details of the methodology, the full experimen-
tal results, and a critical discussion of the interpretations
and conclusions. Consulting the abstract alone is inade-
quate for scholarship and may lead to inappropriate med-
ical decisions.[3]
An abstract allows one to sift through copious amounts
of papers for ones in which the researcher can have more
condence that they will be relevant to his or her research.
24
Once papers are chosen based on the abstract, they must
be read carefully to be evaluated for relevance. It is gen-
erally agreed that one must not base reference citations
on the abstract alone, but the content of an entire paper.
According to the results of a study published in PLOS
Medicine, the exaggerated and inappropriate coverage of
research ndings in the news media is ultimately related
to inaccurately reporting or over-interpreting research re-
sults in many abstract conclusions.[4] A study published
in JAMA concluded that inconsistencies in data between
abstract and body and reporting of data and other infor-
mation solely in the abstract are relatively common and
that a simple educational intervention directed to the au-
thor is ineective in reducing that frequency.[5] Other
studies comparing the accuracy of information reported
in a journal abstract with that reported in the text of the
full publication have found claims that are inconsistent
with, or missing from, the body of the full article.[6][7]
6.2 Copyright
Abstracts are protected under copyright law just as any
other form of written speech is protected. However,
publishers of scientic articles invariably make abstracts
freely available, even when the article itself is not. For ex-
ample, articles in the biomedical literature are available
publicly from MEDLINE which is accessible through
PubMed.
6.3 Structure
An academic abstract typically outlines four elements rel-
evant to the completed work:
The research focus (i.e. statement of the prob-
lem(s)/research issue(s) addressed);
The research methods used (experimental research,
case studies, questionnaires, etc.);
The results/ndings of the research; and
The main conclusions and recommendations
6.4. ABSTRACT TYPES
It may also contain brief references,[8] although some
publications standard style omits references from the ab-
stract, reserving them for the article body (which, by def-
inition, treats the same topics but in more depth).
Abstract length varies by discipline and publisher require-
ments. Typical length ranges from 100 to 500 words, but
very rarely more than a page and occasionally just a few
words.[9] An abstract may or may not have the section title
of abstract explicitly listed as an antecedent to content.
Abstracts are typically sectioned logically as an overview
of what appears in the paper, with any of the follow-
ing subheadings: Background, Introduction, Objectives,
Methods, Results, Conclusions. Abstracts in which these
subheadings are explicitly given are often called struc-
tured abstracts by publishers. In articles that follow the
IMRAD pattern (especially original research, but some-
times other article types), structured abstract style is the
norm. (The A of abstract may be added to IMRAD
yielding AIMRAD.) Abstracts that comprise one para-
graph (no explicit subheadings) are often called unstruc-
tured abstracts by publishers. They are often appropri-
ate for review articles that don't follow the IMRAD pat-
tern within their bodies.
6.3.1 Example
Example taken from the Journal of Biology, Volume 3,
Issue 2.:[10]
The hydrodynamics of dolphin drafting
by Daniel Weihs, Faculty of Aerospace En-
gineering, Technion, Israel Institute of Tech-
nology, Haifa 32000, Israel.
Abstract:
Background Drafting in cetaceans is de-
ned as the transfer of forces between individ-
uals without actual physical contact between
them. This behavior has long been surmised
to explain how young dolphin calves keep up
with their rapidly moving mothers. It has re-
cently been observed that a signicant number
of calves become permanently separated from
their mothers during chases by tuna vessels. A
study of the hydrodynamics of drafting, initi-
ated inmechanisms causing the separation of
mothers and calves during shing-related ac-
tivities, is reported here.
Results Quantitative results are shown for
the forces and moments around a pair of
unequally sized dolphin-like slender bodies.
These include two major eects. First, the so-
called Bernoulli suction, which stems from the
fact that the local pressure drops in areas of
high speed, results in an attractive force be-
tween mother and calf. Second is the dis-
placement eect, in which the motion of the
25
mother causes the water in front to move for-
wards and radially outwards, and water behind
the body to move forwards to replace the ani-
mals mass. Thus, the calf can gain a 'free ride'
in the forward-moving areas. Utilizing these
eects, the neonate can gain up to 90% of the
thrust needed to move alongside the mother at
speeds of up to 2.4 m/s. A comparison with ob-
servations of eastern spinner dolphins (Stenella
longirostris) is presented, showing savings of up
to 60% in the thrust that calves require if they
are to keep up with their mothers.
Conclusions A theoretical analysis,
backed by observations of free-swimming
dolphin schools, indicates that hydrodynamic
interactions with mothers play an important
role in enabling dolphin calves to keep up with
rapidly moving adult school members.
2004 Weihs; licensee BioMed Central
Ltd. This is an Open Access article: verba-
tim copying and redistribution of this article
are permitted in all media for any purpose, pro-
vided this notice is preserved along with the ar-
ticles original URL
6.4 Abstract types
6.4.1 Informative
The informative abstract, also known as the com-
plete abstract, is a compendious summary of a papers
substance including its background, purpose, methodol-
ogy, results, and conclusion.[11][12] Usually between 100
and 200 words, the informative abstract summarizes the
papers structure, its major topics and key points.[11]
A format for scientic short reports that is similar to
an informative abstract has been proposed in recent
years.[13] Informative abstracts may be viewed as stan-
dalone documents.[11]
6.4.2 Descriptive
The descriptive abstract, also known as the limited ab-
stract or the indicative abstract, provides a descrip-
tion of what the paper covers without delving into its
substance.[14] A descriptive abstract is akin to a table of
contents in paragraph form.[14]
6.5 Graphical abstracts
During the late 2000s, due to the inuence of computer
storage and retrieval systems such as the Internet, some
scientic publications, primarily those published by
Elsevier, started including graphical abstracts alongside
26
the text abstracts.[15] The graphic is intended to summa-
rize or be an exemplar for the main thrust of the article. It
is not intended to be as exhaustive a summary as the text
abstract, rather it is supposed to indicate the type, scope,
and technical coverage of the article at a glance. The use
of graphical abstracts has been generally well received by
the scientic community.[16][17] Moreover, some journals
also include video abstracts and animated abstracts made
by the authors to easily explain their papers.[18] Many sci-
entic publishers currently encourage authors to supple-
ment their articles with graphical abstracts, in the hope
that such a convenient visual summary will facilitate read-
ers with a clearer outline of papers that are of interest
and will result in improved overall visibility of the respec-
tive publication. However, the validity of this assumption
have not been thoroughly studied, and a recent study sta-
tistically comparing publications with or without graphi-
cal abstracts with regard to several output parameters re-
ecting visibility failed to demonstrate an eectiveness
of graphical abstracts for attracting attention to scientic
publications.[19]
6.6 Abstract quality assessment
Various methods can be used to evaluate abstract quality,
e.g. rating by readers, checklists (not necessary in struc-
tured abstracts), and readability measures (such as Flesch
Reading Ease).[16][20]
6.7 See also
Abstract (law)
Abstract management
Academic conference
Annotation
Executive summary
Fast abstract
List of academic databases and search engines
6.8 References
Books
Finkelstein Jr, Leo (2004). Pocket Book of Techni-
cal Writing for Engineers and Scientists. (2. ed.).
London: McGraw-Hill Education - Europe. ISBN
0072468491.
Notes
CHAPTER 6. ABSTRACT (SUMMARY)
[1] Gary Blake and Robert W. Bly, The Elements of Techni-
cal Writing, pg. 117. New York: Macmillan Publishers,
1993. ISBN 0020130856
[2] Gliner, Jerey A; Morgan, George Arthur (2000-02-01).
Research methods in applied settings. Google Book Search.
ISBN 978-0-8058-2992-1. Retrieved 2009-04-22.
[3] Meta-analysis, decision analysis .... Google Book
Search. Retrieved 2009-04-22.
[4] Amlie Yavchitz; et al. (September 11, 2012).
Misrepresentation of Randomized Controlled Trials in
Press Releases and News Coverage: A Cohort Study.
PLOS Medicine: 89, 11.
[5] Pitkin, Roy M.; Branagan, Mary Ann (July 15, 1998).
Can the Accuracy of Abstracts Be Improved by Provid-
ing Specic Instructions?". JAMA: 267, 268.
[6] Sally Hopewell; et al. (January 22, 2008). CONSORT
for Reporting Randomized Controlled Trials in Jour-
nal and Conference Abstracts:Explanation and Elab-
oration. PLoS Medicine. JAMA. 5: 48, 49.
doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0050020.
[7] Robert Siebers (January 2001). Data Inconsistencies in
Abstracts of Articles in Clinical Chemistry. Clinical
Chemistry: 149.
[8] Journal Paper Submission Guidelines. Docstoc.com.
2008-11-15. Archived from the original on 4 May 2009.
Retrieved 2009-04-22.
[9] Berry; Brunner, N; Popescu, S; Shukla, P (2011).
Can apparent superluminal neutrino speeds be
explained as a quantum weak measurement?".
J. Phys. A: Math. Theor. 44 (49): 2001.
Bibcode:2011JPhA...44W2001B. arXiv:1110.2832
. doi:10.1088/1751-8113/44/49/492001.
[10] Mann, J; Smuts, B. The hydrodynamics of dolphin draft-
ing. Journal of Biology. 3: 8. doi:10.1186/jbiol2. Re-
trieved 2009-04-22.
[11] Finkelstein Jr, pp. 212-214.
[12] Types of Abstracts. Colorado State University. Re-
trieved 30 January 2013.
[13] Hortol, Policarp (2008). An ergonomic format for short
reporting in scientic journals using nested tables and the
Demings cycle. Journal of Information Science. 34 (2):
207212. doi:10.1177/0165551507082590.
[14] Finkelstein Jr, pp. 211-212.
[15] Graphical Abstracts. Elsevier. Retrieved January 24,
2016.
[16] Bui, Lily (March 3, 2015). A Glance at Graphical Ab-
stracts. Comparative Media Studies: Writing. MIT. Re-
trieved January 24, 2016.
[17] Romans, Brian (February 16, 2011). Are graphical ab-
stracts a good idea?". Wired. Retrieved January 24, 2016.
[18] Video Abstracts. Journal of the American Chemical So-
ciety. Retrieved January 24, 2016.
6.8. REFERENCES 27

[19] Pferschy-Wenzig, EM; Pferschy, U; Wang, D; Mocan,

A; Atanasov, AG (Sep 2016). Does a Graph-
ical Abstract Bring More Visibility to Your Pa-
per?". Molecules. 21: 1247. PMID 27649137.
doi:10.3390/molecules21091247.

[20] Ufnalska SB, Hartley J. 2009. How can we evaluate the

quality of abstracts? European Science Editing 35(3):69-
71.
Chapter 7

IMRAD

For a broader coverage related to this topic, see Scientic
article.
In scientic writing, IMRaD (/mrd/) (Introduction,
Methods, Results, and Discussion) refers to a common
organization structure. IMRAD is the most prominent
norm for the structure of a scientic journal article of
the original research type. Although the IMRaD struc-
ture emphasizes the organization of content and in sci-
entic journal articles, each section (Introduction, Meth-
ods, Results, and Discussion) has unique conventions for
scientic writing style.[1]
hypothesis or the purpose of the research?
Methods When, where, and how was the study
done? What materials were used or who was in-
cluded in the study groups (patients, etc.)?
Results What answer was found to the research
question; what did the study nd? Was the tested
hypothesis true?
Discussion What might the answer imply and why
does it matter? How does it t in with what other
researchers have found? What are the perspectives
for future research?

7.1 Overview
7.1.1 Wine glass model

The plot and the ow of the story of IMRaD style writing

are explained by a wine glass model.[2]
Writing, compliant with IMRaD format (IMRaD writ-
ing) typically rst presents (a) the subject that positions
the study from the wide perspective, (b) outline of the
study, develops through (c) study method, and (d) the
results, and concludes with (e) outline and conclusion of
the fruit of each topics, and (f) the meaning of the study
from the wide and general point of view.[2] Here, (a) and
(b) are mentioned in the section of the Introduction, (c)
and (d) are mentioned in the section of the Method and
Result respectively, and (e) and (f) are mentioned in the
section of the Discussion or Conclusion.
Fig.1: Wineglass model for IMRaD structure. The above scheme In this sense, to explain how to line up the information
schematically shows how to line up the information in IMRaD in IMRaD writing, the wine glass model (see the pat-
writing. It has two characteristics, rst one is top-bottom sym- tern diagram shown in Fig.1) will be helpful (see pp 23
metric shape, second one is change of width, that means the of the Hilary Glasman-deal [2] ). As mentioned in above-
top is wide and it narrows towards the middle, and then widens
mentioned textbook,[2] the scheme of wine glass model
again as it goes down toward the bottom. First one, top-bottom
have two characteristic. First one is top-bottom symmet-
symmetric shape represents the symmetry of the story develop-
ment. Second one, the change of the width of above diagram, ric shape and Second one is changing width i.e. the
represents the change of generality of the viewpoint. top is wide and it narrows towards the middle, and then
widens again as it goes down toward the bottom.
Original research articles are typically structured in this The First one, top-bottom symmetric shape, represents
basic order:[2] [3] the symmetry of the story development. Note the shape
of the top trapezoid (representing the structure of Intro-
Introduction Why was the study undertaken? duction) and the shape of the trapezoid at the bottom are
What was the research question, the tested reversed. This is expressing that the same subject in-

28
7.3. CAVEATS
troduced in Introduction will be taken up again in suit-
able formation for the section of Discussion/Conclusion
in these section in the reversed order. (See the relation-
ship between abovementioned (a), (b) and (e), (f).)
The Second one, the change of the width of the schema
shown in Fig.1, represents the change of generality of the
view point. As along the ow of the story development,
when the viewpoints are more general, the width of the
diagram is expressed wider, and when they are more spe-
cialized and focused, the width is expressed narrower.
7.1.2 IMRAD as the standard format of
academic journals 7.3
The IMRAD format has been adopted by a steadily in-
creasing number of academic journals since the rst half
of the 20th century. The IMRAD structure has come
to dominate academic writing in the sciences, most no-
tably in empirical biomedicine.[4][5][6] The structure of
most public health journal articles reects this trend. Al-
though the IMRAD structure originates in the empirical
sciences, it now also regularly appears in academic jour-
nals across a wide range of disciplines. Many scientic
journals now not only prefer this structure but also use
the IMRAD acronym as an instructional device in the
instructions to their authors, recommending the use of
the four terms as main headings. For example, it is ex-
plicitly recommended in the Uniform Requirements for
Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals issued by
the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors
(previously called the Vancouver guidelines):
The text of observational and experimen-
tal articles is usually (but not necessarily) di-
vided into the following sections: Introduction,
Methods, Results, and Discussion. This so-
called IMRAD structure is not an arbitrary
publication format but rather a direct reection
of the process of scientic discovery. Long
articles may need subheadings within some
sections (especially Results and Discussion) to
clarify their content. Other types of articles,
such as case reports, reviews, and editorials,
probably need to be formatted dierently.[7]
The IMRAD structure is also recommended for empirical
studies in the 6th edition of the publication manual of the
American Psychological Association (APA style).[8] The
APA publication manual is widely used by journals in the
social, educational and behavioral sciences.[9]
7.2 Benets
The IMRAD structure has proved successful because it
facilitates literature review, allowing readers to navigate
29
articles more quickly to locate material relevant to their
purpose.[10] But the neat order of IMRAD rarely corre-
sponds to the actual sequence of events or ideas of the
research presented; the IMRAD structure eectively sup-
ports a reordering that eliminates unnecessary detail, and
allows the reader to assess a well-ordered and noise-free
presentation of the relevant and signicant information.
It allows the most relevant information to be presented
clearly and logically to the readership, by summarizing
the research process in an ideal sequence and without un-
necessary detail.
Caveats
The idealised sequence of the IMRAD structure has on
occasion been criticised for being too rigid and simplistic.
In a radio talk in 1964 the Nobel laureate Peter Medawar
even criticised this instructive text structure for not giving
a realistic representation of the thought processes of the
writing scientist: the scientic paper may be a fraud
because it misrepresents the processes of thought that ac-
companied or gave rise to the work that is described in
the paper.[11] Medawars criticism was discussed at the
XIXth General Assembly of the World Medical Associa-
tion in 1965.[12][13] While respondents may argue that it is
too much to ask from such a simple instructional device to
carry the burden of representing the entire process of sci-
entic discovery, Medawars caveat expressed his belief
that many students and faculty throughout academia treat
the structure as a simple panacea. Medawar and others
have given testimony both to the importance and to the
limitations of the device.
7.4 Abstract considerations
In addition to the scientic article itself a brief abstract
is usually required for publication. The abstract should,
however, be composed to function as an autonomous text,
even if some authors and readers may think of it as an
almost integral part of the article. The increasing impor-
tance of well-formed autonomous abstracts may well be
a consequence of the increasing use of searchable dig-
ital abstract archives, where a well-formed abstract will
dramatically increase the probability for an article to be
found by its optimal readership.[14] Consequently, there is
a strong recent trend toward developing formal require-
ments for abstracts, most often structured on the IMRAD
pattern, and often with strict additional specications of
topical content items that should be considered for inclu-
sion in the abstract.[15] Such abstracts are often referred
to as structured abstracts.[16] The growing importance
of abstracts in the era of computerized literature search
and information overload has led some users to modify
the IMRAD acronym to AIMRAD, in order to give due
emphasis to the abstract.
30 CHAPTER 7. IMRAD

7.5 Heading style variations Disclosure of conict of interest (grants

to individuals, jobs/salaries, stock or
Usually, the IMRAD article sections use the IMRAD stock options)
words as headings. A few variations can occur, as fol-
Clinical relevance statements
lows:
Readers theme that is the point of this ele-
Many journals have a convention of omitting the ments existence: Why should I (the reader)
Introduction heading, based on the idea that the spend my time reading what you say? How is
reader who begins reading an article does not need it relevant to my clinical practice? Basic re-
to be told that the beginning of the text is the in- search is nice, other peoples cases are nice,
troduction. This print-era proscription is fading but my time is triaged, so make your case for
since the advent of the Web era, when having an why bother
explicit Introduction heading helps with naviga- Appear either as a display element (sidebar) or
tion via document maps and collapsible/expandable a section of the article body
TOC trees. (The same considerations are true re-
garding the presence or proscription of an explicit Format: short, a few sentences or bullet points
Abstract heading.)
Ethical compliance statements
In some journals, the Methods heading may vary,
Readers theme that is the point of this ele-
being Methods and materials, Materials and
ments existence: Why should I believe that
methods, or similar phrases. Some journals man-
your study methods were ethical?
date that exactly the same wording for this head-
ing be used for all articles without exception; other We complied with the Declaration of
journals reasonably accept whatever each submitted Helsinki.
manuscript contains, as long as it is one of these sen- We got our study design approved by our local
sible variants. institutional review board before proceeding.
The Discussion section may subsume any We got our study design approved by our local
Summary, Conclusion, or Conclusions ethics committee before proceeding.
section, in which case there may or may not We treated our animals in accordance with
be any explicit Summary, Conclusion, our local Institutional Animal Care and Use
or Conclusions subheading; or the Sum- Committee.
mary/Conclusion/Conclusions section may be
a separate section, using an explicit heading on the
same heading hierarchy level as the Discussion
heading. Which of these variants to use as the 7.7 Additional standardization (re-
default is a matter of each journals chosen style, porting guidelines)
as is the question of whether the default style must
be forced onto every article or whether sensible
In the late 20th century and early 21st, the scientic com-
inter-article exibility will be allowed.
munities found that the communicative value of journal
articles was still much less than it could be if best prac-
tices were developed, promoted, and enforced. Thus re-
7.6 Other elements that are typ- porting guidelines (guidelines for how best to report in-
ical although not part of the formation) arose. The general theme has been to cre-
ate templates and checklists with the message to the user
acrostic being, your article is not complete until you have done
all of these things. In the 1970s, the ICMJE (Interna-
Disclosure statements tional Committee of Medical Journal Editors) released
the Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to
Readers theme that is the point of this ele-
Biomedical Journals (Uniform Requirements or URM).
ments existence: Why should I (the reader)
Other such standards, mostly developed in the 1990s
trust or believe what you (the author) say? Are
through 2010s, are listed below. The advent of a need
you just making money o of saying it?
for best practices in data sharing has expanded the scope
Appear either in opening footnotes or a section of these eorts beyond merely the pages of the journal
of the article body article itself.
Subtypes of disclosure: Most researchers cannot be familiar with all of the re-
Disclosure of funding (grants to the porting standards that now exist, but it is enough to know
project) which ones must be followed in ones own work, and to
7.9. SEE ALSO 31

know where to look for details when needed. Several or- [8] American Psychological Association (2010). Publication
ganizations provide help with this task of checking ones Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th
own compliance with the latest standards: ed.). American Psychological Association. ISBN 978-
1-4338-0562-2.

The EQUATOR Network [9] The IMRAD Research Paper Format. Department of
Translation Studies, University of Tampere. Retrieved
The BioSharing collaboration (biosharing.org) 2008-10-22.

[10] Burrough-Boenisch, J (1999). International Reading

Two important webpages on this topic are: Strategies for IMRD Articles. Written Communication.
16 (3): 296316. doi:10.1177/0741088399016003002.
Retrieved 2011-06-17.
NLMs list at Research Reporting Guidelines and
Initiatives: By Organization [11] Medawar, P (1964). Is the scientic paper fraudulent?".
The Saturday Review (August 1): 4243. Retrieved 2012-
The EQUATOR Networks list at Reporting guide- 11-05.
lines and journals: fact & ction
[12] Brain, L (1965). Structure of the scien-
tic paper (PDF). Br Med J (2): 868869.
Relatedly, SHERPA provides compliance-checking doi:10.1136/bmj.2.5466.868. Retrieved 2011-06-
tools, and AllTrials provides a rallying point, for eorts 19.
to enforce openness and completeness of clinical trial
reporting. These eorts stand against publication bias [13] Editorial (1965). Report of Editors Conference (PDF).
and against excessive corporate inuence on scientic Br Med J (2): 870. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.5466.870. Re-
trieved 2011-06-19.
integrity.
[14] Structured Abstract Initiative. Education Resources In-
formation Center. Archived from the original on June 8,
2011. Retrieved 2011-06-17.
7.8 References
[15] Ripple, AM; Mork JG; Knecht LS; Humphreys BL
[1] Mogull, Scott A. (2017). Scientic And Medical Com- (2011). A retrospective cohort study of structured ab-
munication: A Guide For Eective Practice. New York: stracts in MEDLINE, 1992-2006.. J Med Libr Assoc.
Routledge. ISBN 9781138842557. 99 (2): 1603. PMC 3066587 . PMID 21464855.
doi:10.3163/1536-5050.99.2.009.
[2] Hilary Glasman-deal (2009). Science Research Writing:
A Guide for Non-Native Speakers of English. Imperial [16] U.S. National Library of Medicine (2011-06-16).
College Press. ISBN 978-1848163102 Structured Abstracts.

[3] George M. Hall (Editor);"How To Write a Paper, 5th

Edition December 2012, BMJ Books ISBN 978-0-470-
67220-4
7.9 See also
[4] Luciana B. Sollaci & Mauricio G. Pereira (July 2004). Eight-legged essay
The introduction, methods, results, and discussion (IM-
RAD) structure: a fty-year survey. J Med Libr Assoc. Schaer paragraph
J Med Libr Assoc. 2004 July; 92(3): 364371. 92 (3):
Five paragraph essay
3647. PMC 442179 . PMID 15243643.
IRAC
[5] Day, RA (1989). The Origins of the Scientic Paper:
The IMRAD Format (PDF). American Medical Writers literature review
Association Journal. 4 (2): 1618. Archived from the
original (PDF) on September 27, 2011. Retrieved 2011- case report
06-17.
case series
[6] Szklo, Moyses (2006). Quality of scientic articles. Re-
vista de Sade Pblica. 40: 3035. doi:10.1590/s0034- meta-analyses
89102006000400005. Retrieved 2011-06-17.

[7] Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to

Biomedical Journals: Writing and Editing for Biomedical
Publication - IV.A.1.a. General Principles (PDF). Inter-
national Committee of Medical Journal Editors. Archived
from the original (PDF) on July 6, 2010. Retrieved 2010-
03-08.
Chapter 8

Impact factor

This article is about a measure of journal inuence. For less than two years of indexing, based on partial citation
other similar metrics, see Citation impact. data.[3][4] The calculation always uses two complete and
known years of item counts, but for new titles one of the
known counts is zero. Annuals and other irregular pub-
The impact factor (IF) or journal impact factor (JIF)
of an academic journal is a measure reecting the yearly lications sometimes publish no items in a particular year,
aecting the count. The impact factor relates to a specic
average number of citations to recent articles published in
that journal. It is frequently used as a proxy for the rela- time period; it is possible to calculate it for any desired pe-
riod, and the Journal Citation Reports (JCR) also includes
tive importance of a journal within its eld; journals with [5]
higher impact factors are often deemed to be more im- a ve-year impact factor. The JCR shows rankings of
portant than those with lower ones. The impact factor was journals by impact factor, if desired by discipline, such
devised by Eugene Gareld, the founder of the Institute as organic chemistry or psychiatry.
for Scientic Information. Impact factors are calculated
yearly starting from 1975 for those journals that are listed
in the Journal Citation Reports. 8.2 Use
The impact factor is used to compare dierent journals
8.1 Calculation within a certain eld. The Web of Science indexes more
than 11,000 science and social science journals.[6][7]
In any given year, the impact factor of a journal is the It is possible to examine the impact factor of the journals
number of citations received in that year by articles pub-
in which a particular person has published articles. This
lished in that journal during the two preceding years, di-
use is widespread, but controversial. Gareld warns about
vided by the total number of articles published in that the misuse in evaluating individuals because there is
journal during the two preceding years:[1] a wide variation from article to article within a single
Citationsy1 +Citationsy2
IFy = Publicationsy1 +Publicationsy2 journal.[8] Impact factors have a large, but controversial,
inuence on the way published scientic research is per-
For example, Nature had an impact score of 41.456 in ceived and evaluated.
2014:[2]
Some companies are producing false impact factors.[9]
Citations2013 +Citations2012 29753+41924
IF2014 = Publications2013 +Publications2012 = 860+869 =
41.456
This means that, on average, its papers published in 2012 8.3 Criticisms
and 2013 received roughly 41 citations each in 2014.
Note that 2014 impact factors are actually published in Numerous criticisms have been made regarding the use of
2015; they cannot be calculated until all of the 2014 pub- impact factors.[10][11][12] For one thing, the impact factor
lications have been processed by the indexing agency. might not be consistently reproduced in an independent
New journals, which are indexed from their rst pub- audit.[13] There is also a more general debate on the va-
lished issue, will receive an impact factor after two years lidity of the impact factor as a measure of journal im-
of indexing; in this case, the citations to the year prior portance and the eect of policies that editors may adopt
to Volume 1, and the number of articles published in the to boost their impact factor (perhaps to the detriment of
year prior to Volume 1 are known zero values. Journals readers and writers). Other criticism focuses on the ef-
that are indexed starting with a volume other than the fect of the impact factor on behavior of scholars, editors
rst volume will not get an impact factor until they have and other stakeholders.[14][15] Others have criticized the
been indexed for three years. Occasionally, Journal Cita- impact factor more generally on the institutional back-
tion Reports assigns an impact factor to new journals with ground of the neoliberal academia, claiming that what is

32
8.3. CRITICISMS 33

needed is not just its replacement with more sophisticated A.E. Cawkell, sometime Director of Research at the
metrics but a democratic discussion on the social value of Institute for Scientic Information remarked that the
research assessment and the growing precariousness of Science Citation Index (SCI), on which the impact fac-
scientic careers.[16][17][18] tor is based, would work perfectly if every author
meticulously cited only the earlier work related to his
theme; if it covered every scientic journal published
8.3.1 Validity as a measure of importance anywhere in the world; and if it were free from economic
constraints.[33]
It has been stated that impact factors and citation analy-
sis in general are aected by eld-dependent factors[19]
which may invalidate comparisons not only across disci- 8.3.2 Editorial policies that aect the im-
plines but even within dierent elds of research of one pact factor
discipline.[20] The percentage of total citations occurring
in the rst two years after publication also varies highly A journal can adopt editorial policies to increase its im-
among disciplines from 13% in the mathematical and pact factor.[34][35] For example, journals may publish a
physical sciences to 58% in the biological sciences.[21] larger percentage of review articles which generally are
Thus impact factors cannot be used to compare journals cited more than research reports.[36] Thus review articles
across disciplines. can raise the impact factor of the journal and review jour-
Because citation counts have highly skewed nals will therefore often have the highest impact factors
in their respective elds.[15] Some journal editors set their
distributions,[22] the mean number of citations is
potentially misleading if used to gauge the typical impact submissions policy to by invitation only to invite exclu-
sively senior scientists to publish citable papers to in-
of articles in the journal rather than the overall impact of
the journal itself.[23] For example, about 90% of Nature's crease the journal impact factor.[15]
2004 impact factor was based on only a quarter of its Journals may also attempt to limit the number of
publications, and thus the actual number of citations for citable itemsi.e., the denominator of the impact fac-
a single article in the journal is in most cases much lower tor equationeither by declining to publish articles that
than the mean number of citations across articles.[24] are unlikely to be cited (such as case reports in medical
Furthermore, the strength of the relationship between journals) or by altering articles (e.g., by not allowing an
impact factors of journals and the citation rates of the abstract or bibliography in hopes that Journal Citation Re-
papers therein has been steadily decreasing since articles ports will not deem it a citable item). As a result of
began to be available digitally.[25] negotiations over whether items are citable, impact fac-
Indeed, impact factors are sometimes used to evaluate not tor variations of more than 300% have been observed.[37]
only the journals but the papers therein, thereby devalu- Items considered to be uncitableand thus are not incor-
ing papers in certain subjects.[26] The Higher Education porated in impact factor calculationscan, if cited, still
Funding Council for England was urged by the House of enter into the numerator part of the equation despite the
Commons Science and Technology Select Committee to ease with which such citations could be excluded. This
eect is hard to evaluate, for the distinction between ed-
remind Research Assessment Exercise panels that they
are obliged to assess the quality of the content of indi- itorial comment and short original articles is not always
obvious. For example, letters to the editor may refer to
vidual articles, not the reputation of the journal in which
they are published.[27] The eect of outliers can be seen either class.
in the case of the article A short history of SHELX, Another less insidious tactic journals employ is to pub-
which included this sentence: This paper could serve lish a large portion of its papers, or at least the papers ex-
as a general literature citation when one or more of the pected to be highly cited, early in the calendar year. This
open-source SHELX programs (and the Bruker AXS ver- gives those papers more time to gather citations. Several
sion SHELXTL) are employed in the course of a crystal- methods, not necessarily with nefarious intent, exist for
structure determination. This article received more than a journal to cite articles in the same journal which will
6,600 citations. As a consequence, the impact factor of increase the journals impact factor.[38][39]
the journal Acta Crystallographica Section A rose from Beyond editorial policies that may skew the impact fac-
2.051 in 2008 to 49.926 in 2009, more than Nature (at tor, journals can take overt steps to game the system.
31.434) and Science (at 28.103).[28] The second-most For example, in 2007, the specialist journal Folia Pho-
cited article in Acta Crystallographica Section A in 2008niatrica et Logopaedica, with an impact factor of 0.66,
only had 28 citations.[29] It is also important to note that
published an editorial that cited all its articles from 2005
impact factor is a journal metric and should not be used to 2006 in a protest against the absurd scientic situation
to assess individual researchers or institutions.[30][31]in some countries related to use of the impact factor.[40]
Journal rankings constructed based solely on impact fac- The large number of citations meant that the impact fac-
tors only moderately correlate with those compiled from tor for that journal increased to 1.44. As a result of the
the results of expert surveys.[32] increase, the journal was not included in the 2008 and
34 CHAPTER 8. IMPACT FACTOR

2009 Journal Citation Reports.[41] eLife, EMBO Journal, The Royal Society, Nature (jour-
Coercive citation is a practice in which an editor forces nal) and Science (journal) proposed citation distributions
[48][49][50]
an author to add extraneous citations to an article before metrics as alternative to impact factors.
the journal will agree to publish it, in order to inate the
journals impact factor. A survey published in 2012 indi-
cates that coercive citation has been experienced by one 8.4 Closely related indices
in ve researchers working in economics, sociology, psy-
chology, and multiple business disciplines, and it is more Some related values, also calculated and published by the
common in business and in journals with a lower impact same organization, include:
factor.[42] However, cases of coercive citation have occa-
sionally been reported for other scientic disciplines.[43]
Cited half-life: the median age of the articles that
were cited in Journal Citation Reports each year. For
example, if a journals half-life in 2005 is 5, that
8.3.3 Responses means the citations from 2001-2005 are half of all
the citations from that journal in 2005, and the other
Because the impact factor is not always a reliable instru- half of the citations precede 2001[51]
ment, in November 2007 the European Association of
Science Editors (EASE) issued an ocial statement rec- Aggregate impact factor for a subject category: it is
ommending that journal impact factors are used only calculated taking into account the number of cita-
and cautiouslyfor measuring and comparing the inu- tions to all journals in the subject category and the
ence of entire journals, but not for the assessment of sin- number of articles from all the journals in the sub-
gle papers, and certainly not for the assessment of re- ject category
searchers or research programmes.[11]
Immediacy index: the number of citations the arti-
In July 2008, the International Council for Science cles in a journal receive in a given year divided by
(ICSU) Committee on Freedom and Responsibility in the number of articles published.
the Conduct of Science (CFRS) issued a statement on
publication practices and indices and the role of peer re- CiteScore: metrics for serial titles in Scopus
view in research assessment, suggesting many possible launched in December 2016 by Elsevier.[52][53]
solutionse.g., considering a limit number of publica-
tions per year to be taken into consideration for each sci-
As with the impact factor, there are some nuances to
entist, or even penalising scientists for an excessive num-
this: for example, ISI excludes certain article types (such
ber of publications per yeare.g., more than 20.[44]
as news items, correspondence, and errata) from the
In February 2010, the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft denominator.[54][55][56]
(German Research Foundation) published new guidelines
to evaluate only articles and no bibliometric informa-
tion on candidates to be evaluated in all decisions con-
cerning performance-based funding allocations, post-
8.5 Other measures of impact
doctoral qualications, appointments, or reviewing fund-
ing proposals, [where] increasing importance has been Main article: Citation metrics
given to numerical indicators such as the h-index and the Further information: Scientometrics
impact factor.[45] This decision follows similar ones of
the National Science Foundation (US) and the Research Additional journal-level metrics are available from other
Assessment Exercise (UK). organizations. The measures above apply only to jour-
In response to growing concerns over the inappropriate nals, not individual scientists, unlike author-level metrics
use of journal impact factors in evaluating scientic out- such as the H-index. Article-level metrics measure im-
puts and scientists themselves, the American Society for pact at an article level instead of journal level. Other more
Cell Biology together with a group of editors and publish- general alternative metrics, or "altmetrics", may include
ers of scholarly journals created the San Francisco Dec- article views, downloads, or mentions in social media.
laration on Research Assessment (DORA). Released in
May 2013, DORA has garnered support from thousands
of individuals and hundreds of institutions,[46] including 8.6 Counterfeit
in March 2015 the League of European Research Univer-
sities (a consortium of 21 of the most renowned research Fake impact factors are produced by companies not af-
universities in Europe),[47] who have endorsed the docu- liated with Journal Citation Reports.[9] These are often
ment on the DORA website. used by predatory publishers;[57] Jerey Beall maintains
Universit de Montral, Imperial College London, PLOS, a list of such misleading metrics.[58] Consulting Journal
8.8. REFERENCES
Citation Reports master journal list can conrm if a pub- [14] Wesel, M. van (2016). Evaluation by Citation: Trends in
lication is indexed by Journal Citation Reports, which is
a necessary (but not sucient) condition for obtaining an
IF. [59]
8.7 See also
Citation impact
Scientometrics
8.8 References
[1] Journal Citation Reports: Impact Factor. Retrieved
2016-09-12.
[2] Nature. 2014 Journal Citation Reports. Web of Science
(Science ed.). Thomson Reuters. 2015.
[3] blogs.rsc.org. "RSC Advances receives its rst partial im-
pact factor", June 24, 2013. Retrieved on May 21st 2015.
[4] news.cell.com. "Our rst (partial) impact factor and our
continuing (full) story", July 30th, 2014. Retrieved on
May 21st 2015.
[5] JCR with Eigenfactor. Retrieved 2009-08-26.
[6] Web of Knowledge > Real Facts > Quality and Quantity.
Retrieved 2010-05-05.
[7] Thomson Reuters Master Journal List. Thomson
Reuters. Retrieved 2013-06-20.
[8] Eugene Gareld (June 1998). The Impact Factor and Us-
ing It Correctly. Der Unfallchirurg. 101 (6): 413414.
PMID 9677838.
[9] Jalalian M (2015). The story of fake impact factor com-
panies and how we detected them. Electronic Physician.
7 (2): 106972. PMC 4477767 . PMID 26120416.
doi:10.14661/2015.1069-1072.
[10] Time to remodel the journal impact factor. Nature. 535
(466). 2016. doi:10.1038/535466a.
[11] European Association of Science Editors (EASE) State-
ment on Inappropriate Use of Impact Factors. Retrieved
2012-07-23.
[12] Callaway, Ewen (2016-07-14). Beat it, impact fac-
tor! Publishing elite turns against controversial met-
ric. Nature. 535 (7611): 210211. PMID 27411614.
doi:10.1038/nature.2016.20224.
[13] Rossner, M.; Van Epps, H.; Hill, E. (17 December
2007). Show me the data. Journal of Cell Biology.
179 (6): 10912. PMC 2140038 . PMID 18086910.
doi:10.1083/jcb.200711140.
35
Publication Behavior, Evaluation Criteria, and the Strive
for High Impact Publications. Science and Engineering
Ethics. 22 (1): 199225. doi:10.1007/s11948-015-9638-
0.
[15] Moustafa, Khaled (2015). The disaster of the im-
pact factor. Science and Engineering Ethics. 21
(1): 139142. ISSN 1471-5546. PMID 24469472.
doi:10.1007/s11948-014-9517-0.
[16] Brembs, B.,; Button, K.; Munaf, M. (2013). Deep
impact: Unintended consequences of journal rank..
Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 7 (291): 112.
doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00291.
[17] Kansa, E. (2013, December 11). Its the neolib-
eralism, stupid: Why instrumentalist arguments for
open access, open data, and open science are not
enough. http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/
2014/01/27/its-the-neoliberalism-stupid-kansa/
[18] Cabello, F.; Rascn, M.T. (2015). The Index and the
Moon. Mortgaging Scientic Evaluation.. International
Journal of Communication. 9: 18801887 http://ijoc.org/
index.php/ijoc/article/view/3629/1407.
[19] Bornmann, L.; Daniel, H. D. (2008). What do cita-
tion counts measure? A review of studies on citing be-
havior. Journal of Documentation. 64 (1): 4580.
doi:10.1108/00220410810844150.
[20] Anauati, Maria Victoria and Galiani, Sebastian and
Glvez, Ramiro H., Quantifying the Life Cycle of
Scholarly Articles Across Fields of Economic Research
(November 11, 2014). Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.
com/abstract=2523078
[21] Erjen van Nierop (2009). Why Do Statistics Journals
Have Low Impact Factors?". Statistica Neerlandica. 63
(1): 5262. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9574.2008.00408.x.
[22] Callaway, Ewen (14 July 2016). Beat it, impact fac-
tor! Publishing elite turns against controversial met-
ric. Nature. 535 (7611): 210211. PMID 27411614.
doi:10.1038/nature.2016.20224. Retrieved 10 December
2016.
[23] Joint Committee on Quantitative Assessment of Research
(12 June 2008). Citation Statistics (PDF). International
Mathematical Union.
[24] Not-so-deep impact. Nature. 435 (7045): 10031004.
23 June 2005. PMID 15973362. doi:10.1038/4351003b.
[25] Lozano, George A.; Larivire, Vincent; Gingras, Yves
(2012). The weakening relationship between the impact
factor and papers citations in the digital age. Journal of
the American Society for Information Science and Tech-
nology. 63 (11): 21402145. doi:10.1002/asi.22731.
[26] John Bohannon (2016). Hate journal impact fac-
tors? New study gives you one more reason. Science.
doi:10.1126/science.aag0643.
[27] House of Commons Science and Technology Tenth
Report. 2004-07-07. Retrieved 2008-07-28.
36
[28] Grant, Bob (21 June 2010). New impact factors yield
surprises. The Scientist. Retrieved 31 March 2011.
[29] "What does it mean to be #2 in Impact?", Thomson
Reuters Community.
[30] Seglen, P. O. (1997). Why the impact factor of journals
should not be used for evaluating research. BMJ. 314
(7079): 498502. PMC 2126010 . PMID 9056804.
doi:10.1136/bmj.314.7079.497.
[31] EASE Statement on Inappropriate Use of Impact Fac-
tors. European Association of Science Editors. Novem-
ber 2007. Retrieved 2013-04-13.
[32] Serenko, A.; Dohan, M. (2011). Comparing the ex-
pert survey and citation impact journal ranking meth-
ods: Example from the eld of Articial Intelligence
(PDF). Journal of Informetrics. 5 (4): 629648.
doi:10.1016/j.joi.2011.06.002.
[33] Cawkell, Anthony E. (1977). Science perceived through
the Science Citation Index (PDF). Endeavour. 1 (2): 57
62. doi:10.1016/0160-9327(77)90107-7.
[34] Monastersky, Richard (14 October 2005). The Number
Thats Devouring Science. The Chronicle of Higher Ed-
ucation.
[35] Arnold, Douglas N.; Fowler, Kristine K. (2011). Nefari-
ous Numbers. Notices of the American Mathematical So-
ciety. 58 (3): 434437. Bibcode:2010arXiv1010.0278A.
arXiv:1010.0278 .
[36] Gareld, Eugene (20 June 1994). The Thomson Reuters
Impact Factor. Thomson Reuters.
[37] PLoS Medicine Editors (6 June 2006). The
Impact Factor Game. PLoS Medicine. 3 (6):
e291. PMC 1475651 . PMID 16749869.
doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030291.
[38] Agrawal, A. (2005). Corruption of Journal Impact Fac-
tors (PDF). Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 20 (4):
157. PMID 16701362. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2005.02.002.
[39] Fassoulaki, A.; Papilas, K.; Paraskeva, A.; Patris, K.
(2002). Impact factor bias and proposed adjustments for
its determination. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica.
46 (7): 9025. PMID 12139549. doi:10.1034/j.1399-
6576.2002.460723.x.
[40] Schuttea, H. K.; Svec, J. G. (2007). Reaction of Fo-
lia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica on the Current Trend
of Impact Factor Measures. Folia Phoniatrica et Lo-
gopaedica. 59 (6): 281285. PMID 17965570.
doi:10.1159/000108334.
[41] Journal Citation Reports Notices. Archived from the
original on 2010-05-15. Retrieved 2009-09-24.
[42] Wilhite, A. W.; Fong, E. A. (2012). Coercive Cita-
tion in Academic Publishing. Science. 335 (6068):
5423. Bibcode:2012Sci...335..542W. PMID 22301307.
doi:10.1126/science.1212540.
CHAPTER 8. IMPACT FACTOR
[43] Smith, Richard (15 February 1997). Journal ac-
cused of manipulating impact factor. BMJ. 314
(7079): 461. PMC 2125988 . PMID 9056791.
doi:10.1136/bmj.314.7079.461d. Retrieved 10 Decem-
ber 2016 via www.bmj.com.
[44] International Council for Science statement. Icsu.org.
2014-05-02. Retrieved 2014-05-18.
[45] DFG press release <http://www.dfg.de/en/service/press/
press_releases/2010/pressemitteilung_nr_07/index.
html>
[46] Cabello, F. and Rascon, M.T. (2015) The Index and
the Moon. Mortgaging Scientic Evaluation. Interna-
tional Journal of Communication <http://ijoc.org/index.
php/ijoc/article/view/3629/1407>
[47] Original LERU press release <http:
//www.leru.org/index.php/public/news/
not-everything-that-can-be-counted-counts->
[48] Veronique Kiermer (2016). Measuring Up: Impact Fac-
tors Do Not Reect Article Citation Rates. PLOS.
[49] Ditching Impact Factors for Deeper Data. Retrieved
2016-07-29.
[50] Scientic publishing observers and practitioners blast the
JIF and call for improved metrics.. Retrieved 2016-03-
08.
[51] Impact Factor, Immediacy Index, Cited Half-life.
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. Archived
from the original on 23 May 2008. Retrieved 30 Octo-
ber 2016.
[52] Elsevier. Metrics - Features - Scopus - Solutions | Else-
vier. www.elsevier.com. Retrieved 2016-12-09.
[53] Van Noorden, Richard. Controversial impact factor
gets a heavyweight rival. Nature. 540: 325326.
doi:10.1038/nature.2016.21131.
[54] Bibliometrics (journal measures)". Elsevier. Retrieved
2012-07-09. a measure of the speed at which content in a
particular journal is picked up and referred to
[55] Glossary of Thomson Scientic Terminology. Thomson
Reuters. Retrieved 2012-07-09.
[56] Journal Citation Reports Contents -- Immediacy Index
((online)). Clarivate Analytics. Retrieved 2012-07-09.
The Immediacy Index is the average number of times an
article is cited in the year it is published. The journal Im-
mediacy Index indicates how quickly articles in a journal
are cited. The aggregate Immediacy Index indicates how
quickly articles in a subject category are cited.
[57] Jerey Beall. Scholarly Open-Access - Fake impact fac-
tors. Archived from the original on 2016-03-21.
[58] Misleading Metrics
[59] Thomson Reuters Interllectual Property & Science Mas-
ter Journal List.
8.10. EXTERNAL LINKS 37

8.9 Further reading

Gareld, E. (2006). The History and Meaning of
the Journal Impact Factor. JAMA. 295 (1): 903.
PMID 16391221. doi:10.1001/jama.295.1.90.

Gareld, E (1999). Journal impact factor: a brief

review. Canadian Medical Association Journal.
161: 979980.

McVeigh, M. E.; Mann, S. J. (2009). The

Journal Impact Factor Denominator. JAMA.
302 (10): 11079. PMID 19738096.
doi:10.1001/jama.2009.1301.

Hubbard, S. C.; McVeigh, M. E. (2011). Cast-

ing a wide net: The Journal Impact Factor nu-
merator. Learned Publishing. 24 (2): 133137.
doi:10.1087/20110208.

Gilbert, Natasha (2010). UK science will be

judged on impact. Nature. 468 (7322): 357.
Bibcode:2010Natur.468..357G. PMID 21085146.
doi:10.1038/468357a.

Groesser, Stefan N. (2012). Dynamics of Journal

Impact Factors. Systems Research and Behavioral
Science. 29 (6): 624644. doi:10.1002/sres.2142.
Marcus, Adam and Ivan Orasnky, Whats Behind
Big Science Frauds?, The New York Times, May 22,
2015.

8.10 External links

List of ranking (by eld) and impact factor by Sci-
ence Watch
Journal Citation Reports. Clarivate Analytics.
Retrieved 2017-02-01.
Does the 'Impact Factor' Impact Decisions on
Where to Publish?, American Physical Society. Ac-
cessed: 2010-07-10.
Chapter 9

International Standard Book Number

For reader help on ISBNs, see Help:ISBN. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and
The International Standard Book Number (ISBN) is was published in 1970 as international standard ISO
2108.[3][4] The United Kingdom continued to use the 9-
a unique[lower-alpha 1][lower-alpha 2] numeric commercial book
identier. digit SBN code until 1974. ISO has appointed the In-
ternational ISBN Agency as the registration authority for
An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation (ex- ISBN worldwide and the ISBN Standard is developed un-
cept reprintings) of a book. For example, an e-book, der the control of ISO Technical Committee 46/Subcom-
a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book mittee 9 TC 46/SC 9. The ISO on-line facility only refers
would each have a dierent ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits back to 1978.[8]
long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, and 10 digits
long if assigned before 2007. The method of assigning an An SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prexing the
ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, digit 0. For example, the second edition of Mr. J. G.
often depending on how large the publishing industry is Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN
within a country. 340 01381 8 340 indicating the publisher, 01381 their
serial number, and 8 being the check digit. This can be
The initial ISBN conguration of recognition was gen- converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8; the check digit does
erated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book not need to be re-calculated.
Numbering (SBN) created in 1966. The 10-digit ISBN
format was developed by the International Organization Since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits,
a format that is compatible with "Bookland" European
for Standardization (ISO) and was published in 1970 as [9]
international standard ISO 2108 (the SBN code can be Article Number EAN13s.
converted to a ten digit ISBN by prexing it with a zero).
Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN
if it is printed privately or the author does not follow
9.2 Overview
the usual ISBN procedure; however, this can be rectied
later.[1] An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation (except
reprintings) of a book. For example, an ebook, a paper-
Another identier, the International Standard Serial back, and a hardcover edition of the same book would
Number (ISSN), identies periodical publications such as each have a dierent ISBN.[10] The ISBN is 13 digits long
magazines; and the International Standard Music Number if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, and 10 digits long
(ISMN) covers for musical scores. if assigned before 2007. An International Standard Book
Number consists of 4 parts (if it is a 10 digit ISBN) or 5
parts (for a 13 digit ISBN):
9.1 History
1. for a 13-digit ISBN, a prex element a GS1 pre-
The Standard Book Numbering (SBN) code is a 9- x: so far 978 or 979 have been made available by
digit commercial book identier system created by GS1,[11]
Gordon Foster, Emeritus Professor of Statistics at Trinity
College, Dublin,[2] for the booksellers and stationers 2. the registration group element, (language-sharing
WHSmith and others in 1965.[3] The ISBN conguration country group, individual country or territory)[12]
of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United King-
3. the registrant element,
dom by David Whitaker[4] (regarded as the Father of
the ISBN[5] ) and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay[4] 4. the publication element,[11] and
(who later became director of the U.S. ISBN agency R.R.
Bowker).[5][6][7] 5. a checksum character or check digit.[11]

38
9.2. OVERVIEW 39

not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at

no cost with the stated purpose of encouraging Canadian
culture.[14] In the United Kingdom, United States, and
some other countries, where the service is provided by
non-government-funded organisations, the issuing of IS-
BNs requires payment of a fee.
Australia: ISBNs are issued by the commercial library
services agency Thorpe-Bowker,[15] and prices range
from $42 for a single ISBN (plus a $55 registration fee
for new publishers) to $2,890 for a block of 1,000 ISBNs.
Access is immediate when requested via their website.[16]
Brazil: National Library of Brazil, a government agency,
is responsible for issuing ISBNs, and there is a cost of
R$16 [17]
Canada: Library and Archives Canada, a government
agency, is responsible for issuing ISBNs, and there is
no cost. Works in French are issued an ISBN by the
Bibliothque et Archives nationales du Qubec.
Colombia: Cmara Colombiana del Libro, a NGO, is
responsible for issuing ISBNs. Cost of issuing an ISBN
is about USD 20.
Hong Kong: The Books Registration Oce (BRO), un-
der the Hong Kong Public Libraries, issues ISBNs in
Hong Kong. There is no fee.[18]
India: The Raja Rammohun Roy National Agency for
ISBN (Book Promotion and Copyright Division), under
The parts of a 10-digit ISBN and the corresponding EAN13 and
barcode. Note the dierent check digits in each. The part of the Department of Higher Education, a constituent of the
EAN13 labeled EAN is the Bookland country code. Ministry of Human Resource Development, is responsi-
ble for registration of Indian publishers, authors, univer-
sities, institutions, and government departments that are
A 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts (prex el- responsible for publishing books.[19] There is no fee as-
ement, registration group, registrant, publication and check sociated in getting ISBN in India.[20]
digit), and when this is done it is customary to separate the Italy: The privately held company EDISER srl, owned by
parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts (regis- Associazione Italiana Editori (Italian Publishers Associ-
tration group, registrant, publication and check digit) of a ation) is responsible for issuing ISBNs.[21] The original
10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces. national prex 978-88 is reserved for publishing compa-
Figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN num- nies, starting at 49 for a ten-codes block[22] while a new
ber is complicated, because most of the parts do not use prex 979-12 is dedicated to self-publishing authors, at a
a xed number of digits.[13] xed price of 25 for a single code.
Maldives: The National Bureau of Classication (NBC)
9.2.1 How ISBNs are issued is responsible for ISBN registrations for publishers who
are publishing in the Maldives.
ISBN issuance is country-specic, in that ISBNs are is- Malta: The National Book Council (Maltese: Il-
sued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsi- Kunsill Nazzjonali tal-Ktieb) issues ISBN registrations in
ble for that country or territory regardless of the publi- Malta.[23][24][25]
cation language. The ranges of ISBNs assigned to any
particular country are based on the publishing prole of Morocco: The National Library of Morocco is responsi-
the country concerned, and so the ranges will vary de- ble for ISBN registrations for publishing in Morocco and
pending on the number of books and the number, type, Moroccan-occupied portion of Western Sahara.
and size of publishers that are active. Some ISBN regis- New Zealand: The National Library of New Zealand is
tration agencies are based in national libraries or within responsible for ISBN registrations for publishers who are
ministries of culture and thus may receive direct fund- publishing in New Zealand.[26]
ing from government to support their services. In other
Pakistan: The National Library of Pakistan is respon-
cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by or-
sible for ISBN registrations for Pakistani publishers, au-
ganisations such as bibliographic data providers that are
40 CHAPTER 9. INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BOOK NUMBER

thors, universities, institutions, and government depart- each of its books. In most countries, a book publisher
ments that are responsible for publishing books. is not required by law to assign an ISBN; however, most
South Africa: The National Library of South Africa is bookstores only handle ISBN bearing publications.
responsible for ISBN issuance for South African publish- A listing of more than 900,000 assigned publisher codes
ing institutions and authors. is published, and can be ordered in book form (1399,
United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland: The pri- US$1959). The web site of the ISBN agency does not
oer any free method of looking up publisher codes.[33]
vately held company Nielsen Book Services Ltd, part of
Nielsen Holdings N.V., is responsible for issuing ISBNs Partial lists have been compiled (from library cata-
in blocks of 10, 100 or 1000. Prices start from 120 (plus logs) for the English-language groups: identier 0 and
VAT) for the smallest block on a standard turnaround of identier 1.
ten days.[27] Publishers receive blocks of ISBNs, with larger blocks al-
United States: In the United States, the privately held lotted to publishers expecting to need them; a small pub-
company R.R. Bowker issues ISBNs.[4] There is a charge lisher may receive ISBNs of one or more digits for the
that varies depending upon the number of ISBNs pur- registration group identier, several digits for the regis-
chased, with prices starting at $125.00 for a single num- trant, and a single digit for the publication element. Once
ber. Access is immediate when requested via their that block of ISBNs is used, the publisher may receive
website.[28] another block of ISBNs, with a dierent registrant ele-
ment. Consequently, a publisher may have dierent al-
Publishers and authors in other countries obtain IS- lotted registrant elements. There also may be more than
BNs from their respective national ISBN registration one registration group identier used in a country. This
agency. A directory of ISBN agencies is available on the might occur once all the registrant elements from a partic-
International ISBN Agency website. ular registration group have been allocated to publishers.
By using variable block lengths, registration agencies are
able to customise the allocations of ISBNs that they make
9.2.2 Registration group identier
to publishers. For example, a large publisher may be
given a block of ISBNs where fewer digits are allocated
The registration group identier is a 1- to 5-digit number
for the registrant element and many digits are allocated
that is valid within a single prex element (i.e. one of
for the publication element; likewise, countries publish-
978 or 979).[11] Registration group identiers have pri-
ing many titles have few allocated digits for the regis-
marily been allocated within the 978 prex element.[29]
tration group identier and many for the registrant and
The single-digit group identiers within the 978 prex
publication elements.[34] Here are some sample ISBN-10
element are: 0 or 1 for English-speaking countries; 2
codes, illustrating block length variations.
for French-speaking countries; 3 for German-speaking
countries; 4 for Japan; 5 for Russian-speaking countries;
and 7 for Peoples Republic of China. An example 5- Pattern for English language ISBNs
digit group identier is 99936, for Bhutan. The allocated
group IDs are: 05, 600621, 7, 8094, 950989, 9926 English-language registration group elements are 0 and 1
9989, and 9990199976.[30] Books published in rare lan- (2 of more than 220 registration group elements). These
guages typically have longer group identiers.[31] two registration group elements are divided into registrant
Within the 979 prex element, the registration elements in a systematic pattern, which allows their length
[35]
group identier 0 is reserved for compatibility with to be determined, as follows:
International Standard Music Numbers (ISMNs), but
such material is not actually assigned an ISBN.[11] The
registration group identiers within prex element 979 9.3 Check digits
that have been assigned are 10 for France, 11 for the
Republic of Korea, and 12 for Italy.[32]
A check digit is a form of redundancy check used for
The original 9-digit standard book number (SBN) had no error detection, the decimal equivalent of a binary check
registration group identier, but prexing a zero (0) to a bit. It consists of a single digit computed from the other
9-digit SBN creates a valid 10-digit ISBN. digits in the number. The method for the ten digit code is
an extension of that for SBNs, the two systems are com-
patible, and SBN prexed with 0 will give the same
9.2.3 Registrant element check-digit as without the digit is base eleven, and can
be 0-9 or X. The system for thirteen digit codes is not
The national ISBN agency assigns the registrant element compatible and will, in general, give a dierent check
(cf. Category:ISBN agencies) and an accompanying se- digit from the corresponding 10 digit ISBN, and does not
ries of ISBNs within that registrant element to the pub- provide the same protection against transposition. This is
lisher; the publisher then allocates one of the ISBNs to because the thirteen digit code was required to be com-
9.3. CHECK DIGITS 41

patible with the EAN format, and hence could not contain 9.3.2 ISBN-10 check digit calculation
an X.
Modular arithmetic is convenient for calculating the
check digit using modulus 11. Each of the rst nine digits
9.3.1 ISBN-10 check digits of the ten-digit ISBNexcluding the check digit itself
is multiplied by a number in a sequence from 10 to 2,
The 2001 edition of the ocial manual of the and the remainder of the sum, with respect to 11, is com-
International ISBN Agency says that the ISBN-10 check puted. The resulting remainder, plus the check digit, must
digit[36] which is the last digit of the ten-digit ISBN equal a multiple of 11 (either 0 or 11). Therefore, the
must range from 0 to 10 (the symbol X is used for 10), check digit is (11 minus the remainder of the sum of the
and must be such that the sum of all the ten digits, each products modulo 11) modulo 11. Taking the remainder
multiplied by its (integer) weight, descending from 10 to modulo 11 a second time accounts for the possibility that
1, is a multiple of 11. the rst remainder is 0. Without the second modulo oper-
For example, for an ISBN-10 of 0-306-40615-2: ation the calculation could end up with 11 0 = 11 which
is invalid. (Strictly speaking the rst modulo 11 is un-
needed, but it may be considered to simplify the calcula-
s = (0 10) + (3 9) + (0 8) + (6 7) + (4 6) +tion.)(0 5) + (6 4) + (1 3) + (5 2) + (2 1)
= 0 + 27 + 0 + 42 + 24 + 0 + 24 + 3 + 10 + 2 For example, the check digit for an ISBN-10 of 0-306-
= 132 = 12 11 40615-? is calculated as follows:
Formally, using modular arithmetic, we can say:
s = (11 (((0 10) + (3 9) + (0 8) + (6 7) + (4 6) + (0 5
= (11 (0 + 27 + 0 + 42 + 24 + 0 + 24 + 3 + 10) mod 11) mod 11
(10x1 +9x2 +8x3 +7x4 +6x5 +5x6 +4x7 +3x8 +2x9 +x10 ) 0 (mod 11).
= (11 (130 mod 11)) mod 11 = (11 (9)) mod 11 = (2) mod 11 =
It is also true for ISBN-10s that the sum of all the ten
Thus the check digit is 2, and the complete sequence is
digits, each multiplied by its weight in ascending order
ISBN 0-306-40615-2. The value x10 required to satisfy
from 1 to 10, is a multiple of 11. For this example:
this condition might be 10; if so, an 'X' should be used.
It is possible to avoid the multiplications in a software
s = (0 1) + (3 2) + (0 3) + (6 4) + (4 5) + (0 6) + (6 7)
implementation (1 two
by+using 8) + (5 9) + (2 Repeatedly
accumulators. 10)
= 0 + 6 + 0 + 24 + 20 + 0 + 42 + 8 + 45 + 20 adding t into s computes the necessary multiples:
= 165 = 15 11 // Returns ISBN error syndrome, zero for a valid ISBN,
non-zero for an invalid one. // digits[i] must be between
Formally, we can say:
0 and 10. int CheckISBN(int const digits[10]) { int i, s =
0, t = 0; for (i = 0; i < 10; i++) { t += digits[i]; s += t; }
return s % 11; }
(x1 +2x2 +3x3 +4x4 +5x5 +6x6 +7x7 +8x8 +9x9 +10x10 ) 0 (mod 11).
The two most common errors in handling an ISBN (e.g., The modular reduction can be done once at the end, as
typing or writing it) are a single altered digit or the trans- shown above (in which case s could hold a value as large
position of adjacent digits. It can be proved that all possi- as 496, for the invalid ISBN 99999-999-9-X), or s and
ble valid ISBN-10s have at least two digits dierent from t could be reduced by a conditional subtract after each
each other. It can also be proved that there are no pairs of addition.
valid ISBN-10s with eight identical digits and two trans-
posed digits. (These are true only because the ISBN is
less than 11 digits long, and because 11 is a prime num- 9.3.3 ISBN-13 check digit calculation
ber.) The ISBN check digit method therefore ensures that
it will always be possible to detect these two most com- The 2005 edition of the International ISBN Agencys of-
mon types of error, i.e. if either of these types of error cial manual[38] describes how the 13-digit ISBN check
has occurred, the result will never be a valid ISBN the digit is calculated. The ISBN-13 check digit, which is the
sum of the digits multiplied by their weights will never last digit of the ISBN, must range from 0 to 9 and must
be a multiple of 11. However, if the error occurs in the be such that the sum of all the thirteen digits, each mul-
publishing house and goes undetected, the book will be tiplied by its (integer) weight, alternating between 1 and
issued with an invalid ISBN.[37] 3, is a multiple of 10.
In contrast, it is possible for other types of error, such Formally, using modular arithmetic, we can say:
as two altered non-transposed digits, or three altered dig-
its, to result in a valid ISBN number (although it is still
unlikely). (x1 +3x2 +x3 +3x4 +x5 +3x6 +x7 +3x8 +x9 +3x10 +x11 +3x12 +x13 ) 0
42 CHAPTER 9. INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BOOK NUMBER

The calculation of an ISBN-13 check digit begins with the 9.3.5 Errors in usage
rst 12 digits of the thirteen-digit ISBN (thus excluding
Publishers and libraries have varied policies about the use
the check digit itself). Each digit, from left to right, is
alternately multiplied by 1 or 3, then those products are of the ISBN check digit. Publishers sometimes fail to
summed modulo 10 to give a value ranging from 0 to 9. check the correspondence of a book title and its ISBN
Subtracted from 10, that leaves a result from 1 to 10. A before publishing it; that failure causes book identication
problems for libraries, booksellers, and readers.[39] For
zero (0) replaces a ten (10), so, in all cases, a single check
digit results. example, ISBN 0-590-76484-5 is shared by two books
Ninja gaiden : a novel based on the best-selling game by
For example, the ISBN-13 check digit of 978-0-306-
Tecmo (1990) and Wacky Laws (1997), both published
40615-? is calculated as follows:
by Scholastic.
s = 91 + 73 + 81 + 03 + 31 + 03 + 61 + 43 +
Most libraries and booksellers display the book record
01 + 63 + 11 + 53 = 9 + 21 + 8 + 0 + 3 + 0 + 6 +
for an invalid ISBN issued by the publisher. The Library
12 + 0 + 18 + 1 + 15 = 93 93 / 10 = 9 remainder 3 10
of Congress catalogue contains books published with in-
3=7
valid ISBNs, which it usually tags with the phrase Can-
Thus, the check digit is 7, and the complete sequence is celled ISBN.[40] However, book-ordering systems such
ISBN 978-0-306-40615-7. as Amazon.com will not search for a book if an invalid
In general, the ISBN-13 check digit is calculated as fol- ISBN is entered to its search engine. OCLC often indexes
lows. by invalid ISBNs, if the book is indexed in that way by a
member library.
Let

9.3.6 eISBN
( ( ) )
r = 10 x1 +3x2 +x3 +3x4 + +x11 +3x12 mod 10 .
Only the term ISBN should be used; the terms eISBN
and e-ISBN have historically been sources of confusion
Then
and should be avoided. If a book exists in one or more
digital (e-book) formats, each of those formats must have
{ its own ISBN. In other words, each of the three separate
r ; r < 10 EPUB, Amazon Kindle, and PDF formats of a partic-
x13 = ular book will have its own specic ISBN. They should
0 ; r = 10.
not share the ISBN of the paper version, and there is no
generic eISBN which encompasses all the e-book for-
This check system similar to the UPC check digit for-
mats for a title.[41]
mula does not catch all errors of adjacent digit transpo-
sition. Specically, if the dierence between two adja-
cent digits is 5, the check digit will not catch their trans-
position. For instance, the above example allows this sit- 9.4 EAN format used in barcodes,
uation with the 6 followed by a 1. The correct order con- and upgrading
tributes 36+11 = 19 to the sum; while, if the digits are
transposed (1 followed by a 6), the contribution of those
Currently the barcodes on a books back cover (or inside a
two digits will be 31+16 = 9. However, 19 and 9 are
mass-market paperback books front cover) are EAN-13;
congruent modulo 10, and so produce the same, nal re-
they may have a separate barcode encoding ve digits for
sult: both ISBNs will have a check digit of 7. The ISBN-
the currency and the recommended retail price.[42] For 10
10 formula uses the prime modulus 11 which avoids this
digit ISBNs, the number 978, the Bookland country
blind spot, but requires more than the digits 0-9 to express
code, is prexed to the ISBN in the barcode data, and
the check digit.
the check digit is recalculated according to the EAN13
Additionally, if the sum of the 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th, 10th, formula (modulo 10, 1x and 3x weighting on alternate
and 12th digits is tripled then added to the remaining dig- digits).
its (1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, 11th, and 13th), the total will
Partly because of an expected shortage in certain ISBN
always be divisible by 10 (i.e., end in 0).
categories, the International Organization for Standard-
ization (ISO) decided to migrate to a thirteen-digit ISBN
(ISBN-13). The process began 1 January 2005 and was
9.3.4 ISBN-10 to ISBN-13 conversion planned to conclude 1 January 2007.[43] As of 2011, all
the 13-digit ISBNs began with 978. As the 978 ISBN
The conversion is quite simple as one only needs to pre- supply is exhausted, the 979 prex was introduced. Part
x 978 to the existing number and calculate the new of the 979 prex is reserved for use with the Musicland
checksum using the ISBN-13 algorithm. code for musical scores with an ISMN. 10 digit ISMN
9.6. NOTES
codes diered visually as they began with an M letter;
the bar code represents the M as a zero (0), and for
checksum purposes it counted as a 3. All ISMNs are now
13 digits commencing 979-0; 979-1 to 979-9 will be used
by ISBN.
Publisher identication code numbers are unlikely to be
the same in the 978 and 979 ISBNs, likewise, there is
no guarantee that language area code numbers will be
the same. Moreover, the ten-digit ISBN check digit gen-
erally is not the same as the thirteen-digit ISBN check
digit. Because the GTIN-13 is part of the Global Trade
Item Number (GTIN) system (that includes the GTIN-
14, the GTIN-12, and the GTIN-8), the 13-digit ISBN
falls within the 14-digit data eld range.[44]
Barcode format compatibility is maintained, because
(aside from the group breaks) the ISBN-13 barcode for-
mat is identical to the EAN barcode format of existing
10-digit ISBNs. So, migration to an EAN-based system
allows booksellers the use of a single numbering system
for both books and non-book products that is compat-
ible with existing ISBN based data, with only minimal
changes to information technology systems. Hence, many
booksellers (e.g., Barnes & Noble) migrated to EAN bar-
codes as early as March 2005. Although many Ameri-
can and Canadian booksellers were able to read EAN-13
barcodes before 2005, most general retailers could not
read them. The upgrading of the UPC barcode system to
full EAN-13, in 2005, eased migration to the ISBN-13 in
North America.
9.5 See also
ASIN (Amazon Standard Identication Number)
CODEN (serial publication identier currently used
by libraries; replaced by the ISSN for new works)
DOI (Digital Object Identier)
ESTC (English Short Title Catalogue)
ETTN (Electronic Textbook Track Number)
ISAN (International Standard Audiovisual Number)
ISMN (International Standard Music Number)
ISWC (International Standard Musical Work Code)
ISRC (International Standard Recording Code)
ISSN (International Standard Serial Number)
ISTC (International Standard Text Code)
ISWN (International Standard Wine Number)
LCCN (Library of Congress Control Number)
List of group-0 ISBN publisher codes
43
List of group-1 ISBN publisher codes
OCLC number (Online Computer Library Center
number[45] )
Registration authority
BICI (Book Item and Component Identier)
SICI (Serial Item and Contribution Identier)
Special:Booksources, Wikipedias ISBN search
page
VD 16 (Verzeichnis der im deutschen Sprachbere-
ich erschienenen Drucke des 16. Jahrhunderts)(in
English: Bibliography of Books Printed in the Ger-
man Speaking Countries of the Sixteenth Century)
VD 17 (Verzeichnis der im deutschen Sprachraum
erschienenen Drucke des 17. Jahrhunderts)(in En-
glish: Bibliography of Books Printed in the German
Speaking Countries of the Seventeenth Century)
9.6 Notes
[1] Occasionally, publishers erroneously assign an ISBN to
more than one titlethe rst edition of The Ultimate Al-
phabet and The Ultimate Alphabet Workbook have the
same ISBN, 0-8050-0076-3. Conversely, books are pub-
lished with several ISBNs: A German second-language
edition of Emil und die Detektive has the ISBNs 87-
23-90157-8 (Denmark), 0-8219-1069-8 (United States),
91-21-15628-X (Sweden), 0-85048-548-7 (United King-
dom) and 3-12-675495-3 (Germany).
[2] In some cases, books sold only as sets share ISBNs. For
example, the Vance Integral Edition used only two ISBNs
for 44 books.
9.7 References
[1] Bradley, Philip (1992). Book numbering: The impor-
tance of the ISBN (PDF). (245KB). The Indexer. 18 (1):
2526.
[2] Foster, Gordon (1966). INTERNATIONAL STAN-
DARD BOOK NUMBERING (ISBN) SYSTEM orig-
inal 1966 report. informaticsdevelopmentinstitute.net.
Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved
20 April 2014.
[3] ISBN History. isbn.org. 20 April 2014. Archived from
the original on 20 April 2014. Retrieved 20 April 2014.
[4] Manwal ghall-Utenti tal-ISBN (PDF) (in Maltese) (6th
ed.). Malta: Kunsill Nazzjonali tal-Ktieb. 2016. p. 5.
ISBN 978-99957-889-4-0. Archived from the original
(PDF) on 17 August 2016.
[5] Information Standards Quarterly (PDF), 8 (3), ISO, July
1996, p. 12
44 CHAPTER 9. INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BOOK NUMBER
[6] US ISBN Agency. Bowker.com Products. Com-
merce.bowker.com. Retrieved 2015-06-11.
[7] Gregory, Daniel. ISBN. PrintRS. Retrieved 2015-06-
11.
[8] ISO 2108:1978 (PDF), ISO
[9] TC 46/SC 9, Frequently Asked Questions about the new
ISBN standard from ISO, CA: LACBAC
[10] See paragraph 5.2 of ISBN Users Manual International
edition (2012)" (PDF). (548 KB)
[11] International ISBN Agency (2012). ISBN Users man-
ual (PDF). isbn-international.org (Sixth International ed.).
pp. 7, 23. ISBN 978-92-95055-02-5. Archived (PDF)
from the original on 29 April 2014. Retrieved 29 April
2014.
[12] Some books have several codes in the rst block: e.g. A.
M. Yagloms Correlation Theory..., published by Springer
Verlag, has two ISBNs, 0-387-96331-6 and 3-540-96331-
6. Though Springers 387 and 540 codes are dierent for
English (0) and German (3); the same item number 96331
produces the same check digit: 6. Springer uses 431 as
their publisher code for Japanese (4) and 4-431-96331-
? would also have check digit ? = 6. Other Springer
books in English have publisher code 817, and 0-817-
96331-? would also get check digit ? = 6. This suggests
special considerations were made for assigning Springers
publisher codes, as random assignments of dierent pub-
lisher codes would not lead the same item number to get
the same check digit every time. Finding publisher codes
for English and German, say, with this eect amounts to
solving a linear equation in modular arithmetic.
[13] The international ISBN agencys ISBN Users Manual says:
The ten-digit number is divided into four parts of vari-
able length, which must be separated clearly, by hyphens
or spaces although omission of separators is permitted
for internal data processing. If present, hyphens must be
correctly placed; see ISBN hyphenation denition. The
actual denition for hyphenation contains more than 220
dierent registration group elements with each one bro-
ken down into a few to several ranges for the length of the
registrant element (more than 1,000 total). The document
dening the ranges, listed by agency, is 29 pages.
[14] Canada, Library and Archives. ISBN Canada. www.
bac-lac.gc.ca. Retrieved 2016-01-19.
[15] About the U.S. ISBN Agency.
[16] Bowker -- ISBN. Thorpe-Bowker. 5 Jan 2009. Re-
trieved 29 March 2012.
[17] TABELA DE PREOS DOS SERVIOS. Biblioteca
Nacional, Government of Brazil. Retrieved 8 September
2015.
[18] Introduction to Books Registration. Hong Kong Public
Libraries. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
[19] Union HRD Minister Smt. Smriti Zubin Irani Launches
ISBN Portal.
[20] How to get ISBN in India.
[21] ISBN Chi siamo e contatti [ISBN Who we are and
contacts] (in Italian). EDISER srl. Retrieved 3 January
2015.
[22] ISBN Tarie Servizi ISBN [ISBN Service Taris] (in
Italian). EDISER srl. Retrieved 3 January 2015.
[23] ISBN. Kunsill Nazzjonali tal-Ktieb. 2016. Archived
from the original on 23 October 2016.
[24] Manwal ghall-Utenti tal-ISBN (PDF) (in Maltese) (6th
ed.). Malta: Kunsill Nazzjonali tal-Ktieb. 2016. pp. 1
40. ISBN 978-99957-889-4-0. Archived from the origi-
nal (PDF) on 17 August 2016.
[25] Gazzetta tal-Gvern ta' Malta (PDF). Government
Gazette. 23 January 2015. p. 582. Archived from the
original (PDF) on 23 November 2016.
[26] ISBNs, ISSNs, and ISMNs. National Library of New
Zealand. New Zealand Government. Retrieved 19 Jan-
uary 2016.
[27] Nielsen UK ISBN Agency. Nielsen UK ISBN Agency.
Retrieved 2 January 2015.
[28] Bowker -- ISBN. RR Bowker. 8 March 2013. Re-
trieved 8 March 2013.
[29] ISBN Ranges. isbn-international.org. 29 April 2014.
Select the format you desire and click on the Generate
button. Archived from the original on 29 April 2014. Re-
trieved 29 April 2014.
[30] See a complete list of group identiers. ISBN.org some-
times calls them group numbers. Their table of identiers
now refers to ISBN prex ranges, which must be assumed
to be group identier ranges.
[31] Hailman, Jack Parker (2008). Coding and redundancy:
man-made and animal-evolved signals. Harvard Univer-
sity Press. p. 209. ISBN 978-0-674-02795-4.
[32] International ISBN Agency (5 December 2014).
International ISBN Agency Range Message (pdf
sorted by prex)" (PDF). isbn-international.org. p. 29.
Retrieved 15 December 2014.
[33] See Publishers International ISBN Directory
[34] Splane, Lily (2002). The Book Book: A Complete Guide
to Creating a Book on Your Computer. Anaphase II Pub-
lishing. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-945962-14-4.
[35] ISBN Ranges. isbn-international.org. International
ISBN Agency. 15 September 2014. Retrieved 15
September 2014.
[36] ISBN Users Manual 4. Structure of ISBN. Isbn.org.
Archived from the original on 22 May 2013. Retrieved
2013-05-27.
[37] For example, Isaka: a sketch grammar of a language of
north-central New Guinea. Pacic Linguistics. ISBN 0-
85883-554-4.
[38] ISBN Users Manual International edition (2012)"
(PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 April
2014. (284 KB)
9.8. EXTERNAL LINKS 45

[39] Lorimer, Rowland; Shoichet, Jillian; Maxwell, John W.

(2005). Book Publishing I. CCSP Press. p. 299. ISBN
978-0-9738727-0-5.

[40] 020 International Standard Book Number (R) MARC

21 Bibliographic Full. Library of Congress.

[41] The Myth of the eISBN: Why Every eBook Edition

Needs a Unique Number Publishing services for self
publishing authors and businesses. Publishing services
for self publishing authors and businesses. 2013-06-28.
Retrieved 2017-01-16.

[42] Frequently asked questions, US: ISBN, 12 March 2014

including a detailed description of the EAN-13 format.

[43] ISBN, ISO TC49SC9 (FAQ), CA: Collections

[44] Are You Ready for ISBN-13?", Standards, ISBN

[45] xISBN (Web service)". Xisbn.worldcat.org. Retrieved

2013-05-27.

9.8 External links

ISO 2108:2005

Books at DMOZ
Are You Ready for ISBN-13?". R.R. Bowker LLC.

International ISBN Agencycoordinates and su-

pervises the worldwide use of the ISBN system.

Numerical List of Group Identiers List of lan-

guage/region prexes
Free conversion tool: ISBN-10 to ISBN-13 &
ISBN-13 to ISBN-10 from the ISBN agency. Also
shows correct hyphenation & veries if ISBNs are
valid or not.
RFC 3187 Using International Standard Book Num-
bers as Uniform Resource Names (URN)
Implementation guidelines (PDF). (51.0 KB) for
the 13-digit ISBN code.
Chapter 10

Open access

This article is about open access to research literature. open access, which is online access free of charge, and
For other uses, see Open access (disambiguation). libre open access, which is online access free of charge
Open access (OA) refers to online research outputs that plus various additional usage rights.[4] These additional
usage rights are often granted through the use of vari-
ous specic Creative Commons licenses.[5] Libre open
access is equivalent to the denition of open access in
the Budapest Open Access Initiative, the Bethesda State-
ment on Open Access Publishing and the Berlin Decla-
ration on Open Access to Knowledge in the Sciences and
Humanities.
There are multiple ways authors can provide open ac-
cess to their work. One way is to publish it and then
self-archive it in a repository where it can be accessed
for free,[6][7] such as their institutional repository,[8][9] or
a central repository such as PubMed Central. This is
known as 'green' open access. Some publishers require
delays, or an embargo, on when a research output in a
repository may be made open access.[10] Several initia-
tives provide an alternative to the American and English
language dominance of existing publication indexing sys-
tems, including Index Copernicus, SciELO and Redalyc.
A second way authors can make their work open access
is by publishing it in such a way that makes their research
output immediately available from the publisher.[11] This
is known as 'gold' open access,[12] and within the sciences
this often takes the form of publishing an article in either
an open access journal,[13] or a hybrid open access jour-
nal. The latter is a journal whose business model is at
least partially based on subscriptions, and only provide
Gold open access for those individual articles for which
their authors (or their authors institution or funder) pay a
Open access logo, originally designed by Public Library of Sci-
specic fee for publication, often referred to as an article
ence. Whilst no ocial open access logo exists, organisations are processing charge.[14] Pure open access journals do not
free to select the logo style that best supports their visual language. charge subscription fees, and may have one of a variety
Other logos are also in use. of business models. Many, however, do charge an article
processing fee.[15]
are free of all restrictions on access (e.g. access tolls) and
Widespread public access to the World Wide Web in the
free of many restrictions on use (e.g. certain copyrightlate 1990s and early 2000s fueled the open access move-
and license restrictions).[1] Open access can be appliedment, and prompted both the green open access way (self-
to all forms of published research output, including peer-
archiving of non-open access journal articles) and the cre-
reviewed and non peer-reviewed academic journal arti- ation of open access journals (gold way). Conventional
cles, conference papers, theses,[2] book chapters,[1] and
non-open access journals cover publishing costs through
monographs.[3] access tolls such as subscriptions, site licenses or pay-per-
Two degrees of open access can be distinguished: gratis view charges. Some non-open access journals provide

46
10.2. MOTIVATIONS FOR OPEN ACCESS PUBLISHING
open access after an embargo period of 612 months or
longer (see delayed open access journals).[14] Active de-
bate over the economics and reliability of various ways
of providing open access continues among researchers,
academics, librarians, university administrators, funding
agencies, government ocials, commercial publishers,
editorial sta and society publishers, as open access grad-
ually gains in acceptance.[16]
10.1 Denitions
The term open access itself was rst formulated in three
public statements in the 2000s: the Budapest Open Ac-
cess Initiative in February 2002, the Bethesda Statement
on Open Access Publishing in June 2003, and the Berlin 10.2 Motivations for open access
Declaration on Open Access to Knowledge in the Sci-
ences and Humanities in October 2003,[17] and the initial
concept of open access refers to an unrestricted online ac-
cess to scholarly research primarily intended for scholarly Main article: Academic journal publishing reform
journal articles.
The Budapest statement dened open access as follows:
There are many degrees and kinds of wider
and easier access to this literature. By 'open ac-
cess to this literature, we mean its free avail-
ability on the public internet, permitting any
users to read, download, copy, distribute, print,
search, or link to the full texts of these articles,
crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to
software, or use them for any other lawful pur-
pose, without nancial, legal, or technical bar-
riers other than those inseparable from gaining
access to the internet itself. The only constraint
on reproduction and distribution, and the only
role for copyright in this domain, should be to
give authors control over the integrity of their
work and the right to be properly acknowl-
edged and cited.[18]
The Bethesda and Berlin statements add that for a work
to be open access, users must be able to copy, use,
distribute, transmit and display the work publicly and
to make and distribute derivative works, in any digital
medium for any responsible purpose, subject to proper
attribution of authorship.
Despite these statements emerging in the 2000s, the idea
and practise of providing free online access to journal ar-
ticles began at least a decade before the term open ac-
cess was formally coined. Computer scientists had been
self-archiving in anonymous ftp archives since the 1970s
and physicists had been self-archiving in arxiv since the
1990s. The Subversive Proposal to generalize the prac-
tice was posted in 1994.
47
10.1.1 Gratis and libre open access
In order to reect actual practice in providing two dif-
ferent degrees of open access, the further distinction be-
tween gratis open access and libre open access was added
in 2006 by two of the co-drafters of the original BOAI
denition.[4] Gratis OA refers to free online access, and
libre OA refers to free online access plus some additional
re-use rights.[4] The Budapest, Bethesda, and Berlin def-
initions had corresponded only to libre OA. The re-use
rights of libre OA are often specied by various specic
Creative Commons licenses;[5] these almost all require
attribution of authorship to the original authors.[4][17]
publishing
See also: Open access journal Debate
Open access itself (mostly green and gratis) began to be
sought and provided worldwide by researchers when the
possibility itself was opened by the advent of Internet
and the World Wide Web. The momentum was further
increased by a growing movement for academic journal
publishing reform, and with it gold and libre OA. Elec-
tronic publishing created new benets as compared to pa-
per publishing but beyond that, it contributed to causing
problems in traditional publishing models.
The premises behind open access publishing are that
there are viable funding models to maintain traditional
peer review standards of quality while also making the
following changes:
Rather than making journal articles accessible
through a subscription business model, all academic
publications could be made free to read and pub-
lished with some other cost-recovery model, such as
publication charges, subsidies, or charging subscrip-
tions only for the print edition, with the online edi-
tion gratis or free to read.[19]
Rather than applying traditional notions of copyright
to academic publications, they could be libre or free
to build upon.[19]
The open access movement is motivated by the problems
of social inequality caused by restricting access to aca-
demic research, which favor large and wealthy institutions
with the nancial means to purchase access to many jour-
nals, as well as the economic challenges and perceived
unsustainability of academic publishing.[19][20]
48 CHAPTER 10. OPEN ACCESS

10.2.1 Stakeholders and concerned com- conrmed, with varying degrees of methodological rigor,
munities that an open access article is more likely to be used and
cited than one behind subscription barriers.[27] For ex-
The intended audience of research articles is usually other ample, a 2006 study in PLoS Biology found that arti-
researchers. Open access helps researchers as readers by cles published as immediate open access in PNAS were
opening up access to articles that their libraries do not three times more likely to be cited than non-open ac-
subscribe to. One of the great beneciaries of open ac- cess papers, and were also cited more than PNAS arti-
cess may be users in developing countries, where cur- cles that were only self-archived.[28] This result has been
rently some universities nd it dicult to pay for sub- challenged as an artifact of authors self-selectively pay-
scriptions required to access the most recent journals.[21] ing to publish their higher quality articles in hybrid open
Some schemes exist for providing subscription scientic access journals,[29] whereas a 2010 study found that the
publications to those aliated to institutions in develop- open access citation advantage was equally big whether
ing countries at little or no cost.[22] All researchers benet self-archiving was self-selected or mandated.[30]
from open access as no library can aord to subscribe to Scholars are paid by research funders and/or their univer-
every scientic journal and most can only aord a small sities to do research; the published article is the report of
fraction of them this is known as the "serials crisis".[23] the work they have done, rather than an item for com-
Open access extends the reach of research beyond its im- mercial gain. The more the article is used, cited, applied
mediate academic circle. An open access article can be and built upon, the better for research as well as for the
[31][32]
read by anyone a professional in the eld, a researcher researchers career. Open access can reduce publi-
in another eld, a journalist, a politician or civil servant, cation delays, an obstacle which led some research elds
or an interested layperson. Indeed, a 2008 study revealed such as high-energy physics to adopt widespread preprint
[33]
that mental health professionals are roughly twice as likely access.
to read a relevant article if it is freely available.[24] Some professional organizations have encouraged use of
open access: in 2001, the International Mathematical
Union communicated to its members that Open access
10.2.2 Authors and researchers to the mathematical literature is an important goal and
encouraged them to "[make] available electronically as
much of our own work as feasible to "[enlarge] the reser-
ADDENDUM TO PUBLICATION AGREEMENT voir of freely available primary mathematical material,
1. THIS ADDENDUM hereby modifies and supplements the attached Publication Agreement concerning the following
Article:
_________________________________________________________________________
particularly helping scientists working without adequate
(manuscript title)
_________________________________________________________________________
(journal name) library access.[34]
2. The parties to the Publication Agreement as modified and supplemented by this Addendum are:

____________________________________(corresponding author)
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
(Individually or, if one than more author, collectively, Author)
_______________________________________
(Publisher)
10.2.3 Research funders and universities
3. This Addendum and the Publication Agreement, taken together, allocate all rights under copyright with respect to all
versions of the Article. The parties agree that wherever there is any conflict between this Addendum and the Publication
Agreement, the provisions of this Addendum are paramount and the Publication Agreement shall be construed accordingly.

4. Authors Retention of Rights. Notwithstanding any terms in the Publication Agreement to the contrary, AUTHOR and
PUBLISHER agree that in addition to any rights under copyright retained by Author in the Publication Agreement, Author
See also: Policies and mandates
retains: (i) the rights to reproduce, to distribute, to publicly perform, and to publicly display the Article in any medium for non-
commercial purposes; (ii) the right to prepare derivative works from the Article; and (iii) the right to authorize others to make
any non-commercial use of the Article so long as Author receives credit as author and the journal in which the Article has been
Further information: Open-access mandate Instances
published is cited as the source of first publication of the Article. For example, Author may make and distribute copies in the
course of teaching and research and may post the Article on personal or institutional Web sites and in other open-access digital
repositories.

5. Publisher's Additional Commitments. Publisher agrees to provide to Author within 14 days of first publication and at no
charge an electronic copy of the published Article in a format, such as the Portable Document Format (.pdf), that preserves final
page layout, formatting, and content. No technical restriction, such as security settings, will be imposed to prevent copying or Research funding agencies and universities want to en-
printing of the document.

6. Acknowledgment of Prior License Grants. In addition, where applicable and without limiting the retention of rights
above, Publisher acknowledges that Authors assignment of copyright or Authors grant of exclusive rights in the Publication
sure that the research they fund and support in vari-
Agreement is subject to Authors prior grant of a non-exclusive copyright license to Authors employing institution and/or to a
funding entity that financially supported the research reflected in the Article as part of an agreement between Author or Authors
employing institution and such funding entity, such as an agency of the United States government.
ous ways has the greatest possible research impact.[35]
7. For record keeping purposes, Author requests that Publisher sign a copy of this Addendum and return it to Author.
However, if Publisher publishes the Article in the journal or in any other form without signing a copy of this Addendum, such
As a means of achieving this, research funders are be-
publication manifests Publishers assent to the terms of this Addendum.

AUTHOR PUBLISHER
ginning to expect open access to the research they sup-
___________________________________________ ____________________________________
(corresponding author on behalf of all authors)
port. Many of them (including all seven UK Research
_______________________________________(Date) ___________________________________(Date)
Neither Creative Commons nor Science Commons are parties to this agreement or provide legal advice. Please visit www.sciencecommons.org for more information and
specific disclaimers.
SPARC (the Scholarly Publishing and Academic Resources Coalition) and the Association of Research Libraries (ARL) are not parties to this
Councils) have already adopted green open access self-
archiving mandates, and others are on the way to do so
Addendum or to the Publication Agreement. SPARC and ARL make no warranty whatsoever in connection with the Article. SPARC and ARL
will not be liable to Author or Publisher on any legal theory for any damages whatsoever, including without limitation any general, special,
incidental or consequential damages arising in connection with this Addendum or the Publication Agreement.

SPARC and ARL make no warranties regarding the information provided in this Addendum and disclaims liability for damages resulting from
the use of this Addendum. This Addendum is provided on an as-is basis. No legal services are provided or intended to be provided in
connection with this Addendum.
(see ROARMAP).
Access-Reuse 1.0
www.sciencecommons.org SPARC Author Addendum 3.0
www.arl.org/sparc/

Universities

authors may use form language like this to request an open access A growing number of universities are providing insti-
license when submitting their work to a publisher tutional repositories in which their researchers can de-
posit their published articles. Some open access advo-
The main reason authors make their articles openly ac- cates believe that institutional repositories will play a very
cessible is to maximize their research impact.[25] A study important role in responding to open access mandates
in 2001 rst reported an open access citation impact from funders.[36] EnablingOpenScholarship (EPS) pro-
advantage,[26] and a growing number of studies[27] have vides universities with OA policy-building.[37]
10.2. MOTIVATIONS FOR OPEN ACCESS PUBLISHING 49

In May 2005, 16 major Dutch universities cooperatively that open access promises to remove both the price barri-
launched DAREnet, the Digital Academic Repositories, ers and the permission barriers that undermine library ef-
making over 47,000 research papers available to anyone forts to provide access to the scholarly record,[45] as well
with internet access.[38] From 1 January 2007, at the com- as helping to address the serials crisis. Many library as-
pletion of the DARE programme, KNAW Research In- sociations have either signed major open access declara-
formation has taken over responsibility for the DAREnet tions, or created their own. For example, the Canadian
portal. On 2 June 2008, DAREnet has been incorporated Library Association endorsed a Resolution on Open Ac-
into the scholarly portal NARCIS.[39] At the end of 2009, cess in June 2005.[46]
NARCIS provided access to 185,000 open access publi-
Librarians also lead education and outreach initiatives to
cations from all Dutch universities, KNAW, NWO and a faculty, administrators, and others about the benets of
number of scientic institutes.
open access. For example, the Association of College and
In 2011, a group of universities in North America Research Libraries of the American Library Association
formed the Coalition of Open Access Policy Institutions has developed a Scholarly Communications Toolkit.[47]
(COAPI).[40] Starting with 21 institutions where the fac- The Association of Research Libraries has documented
ulty had either established an open access policy or were the need for increased access to scholarly information,
in the process of implementing one, COAPI now has and was a leading founder of the Scholarly Publishing and
nearly 50 members. These institutions administrators, Academic Resources Coalition (SPARC).[48][49]
faculty and librarians, and sta support the international At most universities, the library manages the institutional
work of the Coalitions awareness-raising and advocacy repository, which provides free access to scholarly work
for open access. Members agree to the following COAPI by the universitys faculty. The Canadian Association of
Principles: Research Libraries has a program[50] to develop institu-
tional repositories at all Canadian university libraries.
1. The immediate and barrier-free online dissemina- An increasing number of libraries provide hosting ser-
tion of scholarly research resulting in faster growth vices for open access journals. A 2008 survey by the
of new knowledge, increased impact of research, Association of Research Libraries[51] found that 65% of
and improved return on public research investments surveyed libraries either are involved in journal publish-
ing, or are planning to become involved in the very near
2. Developing and implementing institutional open ac-
future.[52]
cess policies
In 2013, open access activist Aaron Swartz was posthu-
3. Sharing experiences and best practices in the devel- mously awarded the American Library Associations
opment and implementation of Open Access Poli- James Madison Award for being an outspoken advo-
cies with individuals at institutions interested in cul- cate for public participation in government and unre-
tivating cultures of open access stricted access to peer-reviewed scholarly articles.[53][54]
In March 2013, the entire editorial board and the editor-
4. Fostering a more open scholarly communication sys- in-chief of the Journal of Library Administration resigned
tem through cultural and legislative change at the lo- en masse, citing a dispute with the journals publisher.[55]
cal, national, and international levels[41] One board member wrote of a crisis of conscience about
publishing in a journal that was not open access after the
[56][57]
In 2012, the Harvard Open Access Project released death of Aaron Swartz.
its guide to good practices for university open-access The pioneer of the open access movement in France and
policies,[42] focusing on rights-retention policies that al- one of the rst librarians to advocate the self-archiving
low universities to distribute faculty research without approach to open access worldwide is Hlne Bosc.[58]
seeking permission from publishers. Her work is described in her 15-year retrospective.[59]
In 2013 a group of nine Australian universities formed
the Australian Open Access Support Group (AOASG) to
advocate, collaborate, raise awareness, and lead and build 10.2.5 Public
capacity in the open access space in Australia.[43] In 2015,
the group expanded to include all eight New Zealand uni- Open access to scholarly research is argued to be impor-
versities and was renamed the Australasian Open Access tant to the public for a number of reasons. One of the
Support Group.[44] arguments for public access to the scholarly literature is
that most of the research is paid for by taxpayers through
government grants, who therefore have a right to access
10.2.4 Libraries and librarians the results of what they have funded. This is one of the
primary reasons for the creation of advocacy groups such
As information professionals, librarians are vocal and ac- as The Alliance for Taxpayer Access in the US.[60] Ex-
tive advocates of open access. These librarians believe amples of people who might wish to read scholarly lit-
50
erature include individuals with medical conditions (or
family members of such individuals) and serious hobby-
ists or 'amateur' scholars who may be interested in spe-
cialized scientic literature (e.g. amateur astronomers).
Additionally, professionals in many elds may be inter-
ested in continuing education in the research literature of
their eld, and many businesses and academic institutions
cannot aord to purchase articles from or subscriptions
to much of the research literature that is published under
a toll access model.
Even those who do not read scholarly articles benet indi-
rectly from open access.[61] For example, patients benet
when their doctor and other health care professionals have
access to the latest research. As argued by open access
advocates, open access speeds research progress, produc-
tivity, and knowledge translation.[62] Every researcher in
the world can read an article, not just those whose library
can aord to subscribe to the particular journal in which
it appears. Faster discoveries benet everyone. High
school and junior college students can gain the informa-
tion literacy skills critical for the knowledge age. Critics
of the various open access initiatives claim that there is
little evidence that a signicant amount of scientic liter-
ature is currently unavailable to those who would benet
from it.[63] While no library has subscriptions to every
journal that might be of benet, virtually all published
research can be acquired via interlibrary loan.[64] Note
that interlibrary loan may take a day or weeks depend-
ing on the loaning library and whether they will scan and
email, or mail the article. Open access online, by contrast
is faster, often immediate, making it more suitable than
interlibrary loan for fast-paced research.
10.2.6 Low-income countries
In developing nations, open access archiving and publish-
ing acquires a unique importance. Scientists, health care
professionals, and institutions in developing nations often
do not have the capital necessary to access scholarly liter-
ature, although schemes exist to give them access for lit-
tle or no cost. Among the most important is HINARI,[65]
the Health InterNetwork Access to Research Initiative,
sponsored by the World Health Organization. HINARI,
however, also has restrictions. For example, individual
researchers may not register as users unless their institu-
tion has access,[66] and several countries that one might
expect to have access do not have access at all (not even
low-cost access) (e.g. South Africa).[66]
Many open access projects involve international collabo-
ration. For example, the SciELO (Scientic Electronic
Library Online),[67] is a comprehensive approach to full
open access journal publishing, involving a number of
Latin American countries. Bioline International, a non-
prot organization dedicated to helping publishers in de-
veloping countries is a collaboration of people in the UK,
Canada, and Brazil; the Bioline International Software is
used around the world. Research Papers in Economics
CHAPTER 10. OPEN ACCESS
(RePEc), is a collaborative eort of over 100 volun-
teers in 45 countries. The Public Knowledge Project in
Canada developed the open source publishing software
Open Journal Systems (OJS), which is now in use around
the world, for example by the African Journals Online
group, and one of the most active development groups is
Portuguese. This international perspective has resulted in
advocacy for the development of open-source appropri-
ate technology and the necessary open access to relevant
information for sustainable development.[68][69]
10.3 Implementation practices
There are various ways in which open access can be pro-
vided, with the two most common methods usually cate-
gorised as either gold or green open access.
10.3.1 Journals: gold open access
Main article: Open access journal
One option for authors who wish to make their work
openly accessible is to publish in an open access journal
(gold open access). There are many business models
for open access journals.[70] Open access can be provided
by traditional publishers, who may publish open access as
well as subscription-based journals, or open access pub-
lishers such as Public Library of Science (PLOS), who
publish only open access journals. An open access jour-
nal may or may not charge a publishing fee; open ac-
cess publishing does not necessarily mean that the au-
thor has to pay. Traditionally, many academic journals
levied page charges, long before open access became a
possibility. When open access journals do charge pro-
cessing fees, it is the authors employer or research fun-
der who typically pays the fee, not the individual author,
and many journals will waive the fee in cases of nan-
cial hardship, or for authors in less-developed countries.
Some no-fee journals have institutional subsidies. Exam-
ples of open access publishers[13] include BioMed Central
and the Public Library of Science.
Roughly 30%[1] of gold open access journals have author
fees to cover the cost of publishing (e.g. PLoS fees vary
from $1,495 to $2,900[71] ) instead of reader subscription
fees. Advertising revenue and/or funding from founda-
tions and institutions are also used to provide funding.
10.3.2 Self-archiving: green open access
Main article: Self-archiving
Self-archiving, also known as green open access, refers
to the practice of depositing articles in an open access
10.3. IMPLEMENTATION PRACTICES 51

repository, this can be an institutional or a disciplinary to provide open access to their peer-reviewed re-
repository such as arXiv. search articles by self-archiving them in an open access
[82]
Green open access journal publishers [72]
endorse im- repository. Some publishers and publisher[83][84][85]
associations
mediate open access self-archiving by their authors. have lobbied against introducing mandates.
Open access self-archiving was rst formally proposed The idea of mandating self-archiving was mooted at least
in 1994[73][74] by Stevan Harnad in his "Subversive Pro- as early as 1998.[86] Since 2003[87] eorts have been fo-
posal". However, self-archiving was already being done cused on open access mandating by the funders of re-
by computer scientists in their local FTP archives in the search: governments,[88] research funding agencies,[89]
1980s,[75] later harvested into CiteSeer. What is de- and universities.[82]
posited can be either a preprint, or the peer-reviewed The Registry of Open Access Repository Mandatory
postprint either the authors refereed, revised nal draft
Archiving Policies (ROARMAP) is a searchable interna-
or the publishers version of record. tional database charting the growth of open access man-
To nd out if a publisher or journal has given a green dates. As of May 2014, mandates have been adopted by
light to author self-archiving, the author can check the over 200 universities (including Harvard, MIT, Stanford,
Publisher Copyright Policies and Self-Archiving list[76] University College London, and University of Edinburgh)
on the SHERPA/RoMEO web site. The EPrints site also and over 80 research funders worldwide.[8]
provides a FAQ[77] on self-archiving. Extensive details
and links can also be found in the Open Access Archivan-
gelism blog[78] and the Eprints Open Access site.[79] 10.3.5 Funding issues

See also: Open access journal Financing

10.3.3 Manner of distribution

See also: Scientic journal Electronic publishing The "article processing charges" which are often used for
open access journals shift the burden of payment from
readers to authors (or their funders), which creates a new
Like the self-archived green open access articles, most
set of concerns.[15] One concern is that if a publisher
gold open access journal articles are distributed via the
makes a prot from accepting papers, it has an incentive
World Wide Web,[1] due to low distribution costs, in-
to accept anything submitted, rather than selecting and
creasing reach, speed, and increasing importance for
rejecting articles based on quality. This could be reme-
scholarly communication. Open source software is some-
died, however, by charging for the peer-review rather
times used for open access repositories,[80] open access
than acceptance.[90] Another concern is that institutional
journal websites,[81] and other aspects of open access pro-
budgets may need to be adjusted in order to provide fund-
vision and open access publishing.
ing for the article processing charges required to publish
Access to online content requires Internet access, and this in many open access journals (e.g. those published by
distributional consideration presents physical and some- BioMed Central[91] ). It has been argued that this may re-
times nancial barriers to access. Proponents of open duce the ability to publish research results due to lack of
access argue that Internet access barriers are relatively sucient funds, leading to some research not becoming
low in many circumstances, that eorts should be made a part of the public record.[92]
to subsidize universal Internet access, whereas pay-for-
Unless discounts are available to authors from countries
access presents a relatively high additional barrier over
with low incomes or external funding is provided to cover
and above Internet access itself.
the cost, article processing charges could exclude authors
The Directory of Open Access Journals lists a number from developing countries or less well-funded research
of peer-reviewed open access journals for browsing and elds from publishing in open access journals. How-
searching. Open access articles can also often be found ever, under the traditional model, the prohibitive costs
with a web search, using any general search engine or of some non-open access journal subscriptions already
those specialized for the scholarly and scientic literature, place a heavy burden on the research community; and if
such as OAIster and Google Scholar. green open access self-archiving eventually makes sub-
scriptions unsustainable, the cancelled subscription sav-
ings can pay the gold open access publishing costs without
10.3.4 Policies and mandates the need to divert extra money from research.[93] More-
over, many open access publishers oer discounts or pub-
Main article: Open access mandate lishing fee waivers to authors from developing countries
See also: Research funders and universities or those suering nancial hardship. Self-archiving of
non-open access publications provides a low cost alterna-
[94]
Many universities, research institutions and research fun- tive model.
ders have adopted mandates requiring their researchers Another concern is the redirection of money by major
52
funding agencies such as the National Institutes of Health occupations of literary property. This was to facilitate
and the Wellcome Trust from the direct support of re-
search to the support open access publication. Robert
Terry, Senior Policy Advisor at the Wellcome Trust, has
said that he feels that 12% of their research budget will tribute electronic data at no cost, the arguments for open
change from the creation of knowledge to the dissemina-
tion of knowledge.[95]
Research institutions could cover the cost of open ac- of the online distribution.
cess by converting to a open access journal cost-recovery
model, with the institutions annual tool access subscrip-
tion savings being available to cover annual open access
[96]
publication costs. A 2017 study by the Max Planck So-
ciety the annual turnovers of academic publishers amount
to approximately EUR 7.6 billion. It is argued that
this money comes predominantly from publicly funded
scientic libraries as they purchase subscriptions or li-
censes in order to provide access to scientic journals
for their members. The study was presented by the Max
Planck Digital Library and found that subscription bud-
gets would be sucient to fund the open access publica-
tion charges.[97]
10.4 History
See also: Open access journal History nature of the JCI allows consideration of a truly novel so-
10.4.1 Eorts before Internet
Even before the advent of the Internet various models
were proposed to increase access to academic research.
One early proponent of the publisher-pays model was the
physicist Le Szilrd. To help stem the ood of low- the article is separable from the minimal marginal cost of
quality publications, he jokingly suggested in the 1940s
that at the beginning of his career each scientist should
be issued with 100 vouchers to pay for his papers. Closer
to the present, but still ahead of its time, was Common
Knowledge. This was an attempt to share information
for the good of all, the brainchild of Brower Murphy,
formerly of The Library Corporation. Both Brower and
Common Knowledge are recognised in the Library Mi-
crocomputer Hall of Fame.[98] One of Mahatma Gandhi's
earliest publications, Hind Swaraj published in Gujarati
in 1909 is recognised as the intellectual blueprint of In-
dias freedom movement. The book was translated into
English the next year, with a copyright legend that read
No Rights Reserved.[99]
The modern open access movement (as a social move-
ment) traces its history at least back to the 1950s, with
the Letterist International (LI) placing anything in their
journal Potlatch in the public domain. As the LI merged
to form the Situationist International, Guy Debord wrote
to Patrick Straram All the material published by the Sit-
uationist International is, in principle, usable by every-
one, even without acknowledgement, without the pre-
CHAPTER 10. OPEN ACCESS
detournement.[100] It became much more prominent in
the 1990s with the advent of the Digital Age. With the
spread of the Internet and the ability to copy and dis-
access gained new importance. The xed cost of produc-
ing the article is separable from the minimal marginal cost
10.4.2 Early years of online open access
Probably the earliest book publisher to provide open ac-
cess was the National Academies Press, publisher for the
National Academy of Sciences, Institute of Medicine,
and other arms of the National Academies. They have
provided free online full-text editions of their books
alongside priced, printed editions since 1994, and assert
that the online editions promote sales of the print edi-
tions. As of June 2006 they had more than 3,600 books
up online for browsing, searching, and reading.
While Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Clinical Investi-
gation, Ajit Varki made it the rst major biomedical jour-
nal to be freely available on the web in 1996.[101] Varki
wrote, The vexing issue of the day is how to appropri-
ately charge users for this electronic access. The nonprot
lution not to charge anyone at all!"[102]
An explosion of interest and activity in open access jour-
nals has occurred since the 1990s, largely due to the
widespread availability of Internet access. It is now possi-
ble to publish a scholarly article and also make it instantly
accessible anywhere in the world where there are comput-
ers and Internet connections. The xed cost of producing
the online distribution.
These new possibilities emerged at a time when the tra-
ditional, print-based scholarly journals system was in a
crisis. The number of journals and articles produced had
been increasing at a steady rate; however the average cost
per journal had been rising at a rate far above ination
for decades, and budgets at academic libraries have re-
mained fairly static. The result was decreased access
ironically, just when technology has made almost unlim-
ited access a very real possibility, for the rst time. Li-
braries and librarians have played an important part in
the open access movement, initially by alerting faculty
and administrators to the serials crisis. The Association
of Research Libraries developed the Scholarly Publishing
and Academic Resources Coalition (SPARC), in 1997,
an alliance of academic and research libraries and other
organizations, to address the crisis and develop and pro-
mote alternatives, such as open access.
The rst online-only, free-access journals (eventually to
be called open access journals) began appearing in the
late 1980s and early 1990s. These journals typically used
pre-existing infrastructure (such as e-mail or newsgroups)
10.4. HISTORY 53

and volunteer labor and were developed without any in- In 1999, Harold Varmus of the NIH proposed a jour-
tent to generate prot. Examples include Bryn Mawr nal called E-biomed, intended as an open access elec-
Classical Review, Postmodern Culture, Psycoloquy, and tronic publishing platform combining a preprint server
The Public-Access Computer Systems Review.[103] with peer-reviewed articles.[113] E-biomed later saw light
[114]
The rst free scientic online archive was arXiv.org, in a revised form as PubMed Central, a postprint
started in 1991, initially a preprint service for physi- archive.
cists, initiated by Paul Ginsparg. Self-archiving has It was also in 1999 that the Open Archives Initiative
become the norm in physics, with some sub-areas of and its OAI-PMH protocol for metadata harvesting was
physics, such as high-energy physics, having a 100% self- launched in order to make online archives interoperable.
archiving rate. The prior existence of a preprint culture
in high-energy physics is one major reason why arXiv
has been successful.[104] arXiv now includes papers from
related disciplines including computer science, mathe- 10.4.3 2000s
matics, nonlinear sciences, quantitative biology, quanti-
tative nance, and statistics. However, computer scien- In 2000, BioMed Central, a for-prot open access pub-
tists mostly self-archive on their own websites and have lisher, was launched by the then Current Science Group
been doing so for even longer than physicists. arXiv now (the founder of the Current Opinion series, and now
[115]
includes postprints as well as preprints.[105] The two ma- known as the Science Navigation Group). In some
jor physics publishers, American Physical Society and ways, BioMed Central resembles Harold Varmus' orig-
Institute of Physics Publishing, have reported that arXiv inal E-biomed proposal more closely than does PubMed
[116]
has had no eect on journal subscriptions in physics; even Central. As of October 2013 BioMed Central pub-
[117]
though the articles are freely available, usually before lishes over 250 journals.
publication, physicists value their journals and continue In 2001, 34,000[118] scholars around the world signed
to support them.[106] An Open Letter to Scientic Publishers, calling for
Computer scientists had been self-archiving on their the establishment of an online public library that would
own FTP sites and then their websites since even ear- provide the full contents of the published record of re-
lier than the physicists, as was revealed when Citeseer search and scholarly discourse in medicine and the life
began harvesting their papers in the late 1990s. Cite- sciences in a freely accessible, fully searchable, inter-
seer is a computer science archive that harvests, Google- linked form.[119] Scientists signing the letter also pledged
style, from distributed computer science websites and not to publish in or peer-review for non-open access jour-
institutional repositories, and contains almost twice as nals. This led to the establishment of the Public Li-
many papers as arXiv. The 1994 "Subversive Pro- brary of Science, an advocacy organization. However,
posal"[107] was to extend self-archiving to all other dis- most scientists continued to publish and review for non-
ciplines; from it arose CogPrints (1997) and eventually open access journals. PLoS decided to become an open
the OAI-compliant generic GNU Eprints.org software in access publisher aiming to compete at the high quality
2000.[108] end of the scientic spectrum with commercial publish-
ers and other open access journals, which were beginning
In 1997, the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM)
to ourish.[120] Critics have argued that, equipped with a
made Medline, the most comprehensive index to medi-
$10 million grant, PLoS competes with smaller open ac-
cal literature on the planet, freely available in the form
cess journals for the best submissions and risks destroying
of PubMed. Usage of this database increased a tenfold
what it originally wanted to foster.[121]
when it became free, strongly suggesting that prior lim-
its on usage were impacted by lack of access. While in- The rst major international statement on open ac-
dexes are not the main focus of the open access move- cess was the Budapest Open Access Initiative in Febru-
[80]
ment, Medline is important in that it opened up a whole ary 2002, launched by the Open Society Institute.
new form of use of scientic literature by the public, This provided the rst denition of open access, and
[122]
not just professionals.[109] The Journal of Medical Inter- has a growing list of signatories. Two further state-
net Research (JMIR), [110]
one of the rst open access jour- ments followed: the Bethesda Statement on Open Access
[123]
nals in medicine, was created in 1998, publishing its rst Publishing in June 2003 and the Berlin Declaration
issue in 1999. on Open Access to Knowledge in the Sciences and Hu-
manities in October 2003. Also in 2003, the World Sum-
In 1998, the American Scientist Open Access Forum[111]
mit on the Information Society included open access in its
was launched (and rst called the September98 Forum).
Declaration of Principles and Plan of Action.[124]
One of the rst humanities journals published in open ac-
In 2006, a Federal Research Public Access Act was in-
cess is CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture[112]
troduced in US Congress by senators John Cornyn and
founded at the University of Alberta in 1998 with its rst
Joe Lieberman.[125][126] The act continues to be brought
issue published in March 1999 and since 2000 published
up every year since then, but has never made it past
by Purdue University Press.
committee.[127]
54 CHAPTER 10. OPEN ACCESS

The year 2007 recorded some backlash from non-OA 297 libraries and institutions worldwide participated
publishers.[128] in 'unlatching' the collection of 28 titles. 61 of these
In 2008, Ajit Varki worked with David Lipman to create participating institutions were university libraries in
the rst viable model for a major Open Access textbook England eligible for the HEFCE [139]
grant of 50% towards
hosted at NCBI, the 2nd. Edition of the Essentials of Gly- the $1195 participation fee.
cobiology.[129] The Indian Council of Agricultural Research had adopted
an Open Access policy[140] for its publications on 13
Perhaps the rst dedicated publisher of open access
monographs in the humanities was re.press who published September 2013[141] and announced that each ICAR in-
their rst title in that 2006. Two years later in 2008 Open stitute would set-up an open access institutional reposi-
Humanities Press, another publisher of humanities mono- tory. One such repository is eprints@cmfri, an open ac-
graphs, was launched. Most recently, the Open Library cess institutional repository of the Central Marine Fish-
of Humanities launched in September 2015. eries Research Institute which was set-up on 25 February
2010 well before the policy was adopted.[142] However,
In 2008, USENIX, the advanced computing systems as- since March 2010, the ICAR is making available its two
sociation, implemented an open access policy for their agship journals under Open Access[143] on its website
conference proceedings. In 2011 they added audio and and later through an online platform called Indian Agri-
video recordings of paper presentations to the material to cultural Research Journals using Open Journal Systems.
which they provide open access.[130]
In 2014, the Department of Biotechnology and
Department of Science and Technology, under Ministry
of Science and Technology, Government of India jointly
10.4.4 2010s announced their open access policy.[144]
In May 2016 the European Union announced that all sci-
In 2013, John Holdren, Barack Obama's director of the
entic articles in Europe must be freely accessible as of
Oce of Science and Technology Policy, issued a mem-
2020[145] and that the Commission will develop and en-
orandum directing United States Federal Agencies with
courage measures for optimal compliance with the pro-
more than $100 million in annual R&D expenditures to
visions for open access to scientic publications under
develop plans within six months to make the published
Horizon 2020".[146] Some ask such measures to include
results of federally funded research freely available to
the usage of free and open-source software.[147]
the public within one year of publication.[131][132] As of
March 2015, two agencies had made their plans public:
the Department of Energy[133] and the National Science
Foundation.[134] 10.5 Growth
In 2013, the UK Higher Education Funding Council for
England (HEFCE) proposed adopting a mandate that in See also: Academic publishing Growth
order to be eligible for submission to the UK Research A study published in 2010 showed that roughly 20%
Excellence Framework (REF) all peer-reviewed journal
articles submitted after 2014 must be deposited in the
authors institutional repository immediately upon accep-
tance for publication, regardless of whether the article
is published in a subscription journal or in an open ac-
cess journal. HEFCE expresses no journal preference,
places no restriction on authors choice and requires the
deposit itself to be immediate, irrespective of whether
the publisher imposes an embargo (for an allowable em-
bargo period that remains to be decided) on the date at
which access to the deposit can be made open.[135][136]
The HEFCE/REF mandate proposal complements the re-
cent Research Councils UK (RCUK) mandate that re-
quires all articles resulting from RCUK funding to be Open access by discipline 2009
made open access by 6 months after publication at the
latest (12 months for arts and humanities articles).[137] of the total number of peer-reviewed articles published
HEFCE also provided grants to universities in in 2008 could be found openly accessible.[148] Another
England[138] wishing to participate in the Pilot Col- study found that by 2010, 7.9% of all academic jour-
lection of Knowledge Unlatched, a not-for-prot nals with impact factors were gold open access journals
organisation enabling humanities and social sciences and showed a broad distribution of Gold Open Access
monographs to become open access. The Pilot Col- journals throughout academic disciplines.[149] 8.5% of
lection ran from October 2013 to February 2014 and the journal literature could be found free at the pub-
10.6. FINDING OPEN ACCESS RESEARCH ONLINE
lishers sites (gold open access), of which 62% in full
open access journals, 14% in delayed-access subscription
journals, and 24% as individually open articles in other-
wise subscription journals. For an additional 11.9% of
the articles, open access full text copies were available
via green open access in either subject-based repositories
(43%), institutional repositories (24%) or on the home
pages of the authors or their departments (33%). These
copies were further classied into exact copies of the pub-
lished article (38%), manuscripts as accepted for publish-
ing (46%) or manuscripts as submitted (15%).[148]
In the 2010 study, of all scientic elds chemistry had the
lowest overall share of open access (13%), while Earth 10.5.2
Sciences had the highest (33%). In medicine, biochem-
istry and chemistry gold publishing in open access jour-
nals was more common than author self-archiving. In all
other elds self-archiving was more common.
In August 2013, a study done for the European Commis-
sion reported that 50% of a random sample of all articles
published in 2011 as indexed by Scopus were freely ac-
cessible online by the end of 2012.[150][151][152] A 2017
study by the Max Planck Society put the share of gold
access articles in pure open access journals at around 13
percent of total research papers.[97]
Development of open access
10.5.1 Journals
Main category: Open access journals
A study on the development of publishing of open ac-
cess journals from 1993 to 2009 [153] published in 2011
suggests that, measured both by the number of journals
as well as by the increases in total article output, direct
gold open access journal publishing has seen rapid growth
particularly between the years 2000 and 2009. It was
estimated that there were around 19,500 articles pub-
lished open access in 2000, while the number has grown
to 191,850 articles in 2009. The journal count for the
year 2000 is estimated to have been 740, and 4769 for
2009; numbers which show considerable growth, albeit
at a more moderate pace than the article-level growth.
These ndings support the notion that open access jour-
nals have increased both in numbers and in average an-
nual output over time.
55
The development of the number of active open access
journals and the number of research articles published in
them during the period 19932009 is shown in the g-
ure above. If these gold open access growth curves are
extrapolated to the next two decades, the Laakso et al.
(Bjrk) curve would reach 60% in 2022, and the Springer
curve would reach 50% in 2029 as shown in the gure be-
low (the reference provides a more optimistic interpreta-
tion which does not match with the values shown in the
gure).[154]
Self-archiving
ROAR Growth map of repositories and contents, 1 August 2011
The Registry of Open Access Repositories (ROAR)
indexes the creation, location and growth of open
access open access repositories and their contents.[8]
As of December 2015, over 3,500 institutional and
cross-institutional repositories have been registered in
ROAR.[155]
10.6 Finding open access research
online
There are various open access aggregators that index open
access journals or articles. ROAD synthesizes informa-
tion about open access journals and is a subset of the
ISSN registry. Users may browse to nd open access
journals by country or by subject. SHERPA/RoMEO
lists international publishers that allow the published ver-
sion of articles to be deposited in institutional reposito-
ries. The Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ)
contains over 8,000 open access journals of varying open
access policies that scholars can search and browse.[156]
The Open Archives Initiative (OAI) lists 2937 conform-
ing repositories. Searching each open access repository
individually is impractical. The resources in these repos-
itories can be harvested, using the OAI Protocol and ag-
gregated into online systems which in-turn provide access
to millions of resources from a single online location.[157]
56
10.7 See also
Access to knowledge movement
Altmetrics
Digital rights
FUTON bias
Guerilla Open Access
List of open access journals
List of open-access projects
Open access monograph
Open Access Movement in India
Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association
Open Access Week
Open data
Open publishing (dierent from open access pub-
lishing)
Right to Internet access
Sci-Hub, a guerilla open-access website providing
access to pirated paywalled academic papers
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point'". Press Releases. europa.eu. Retrieved 2013-08-
25.
[151] Proportion of Open Access Peer-Reviewed Papers at
the European and World Levels20042011 (PDF).
Science-Metrix. August 2013. Retrieved 2013-08-25.
[152] Van Noorden, Richard (2013). Half of 2011 pa-
pers now free to read. Nature. 500 (7463): 386
7. Bibcode:2013Natur.500..386V. PMID 23969438.
doi:10.1038/500386a.
CHAPTER 10. OPEN ACCESS
Bjrk, B. C.; Hedlund, T. (2011). Hermes-Lima,
Marcelo, ed. The Development of Open Access Jour-
nal Publishing from 1993 to 2009. PLoS ONE. 6
(6): e20961. PMC 3113847 . PMID 21695139.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0020961.
Open and Shut June 19, 2011
ries. Retrieved 20 May 2014.
to: openaccess.xyz, base-search.net, core.ac.uk and
oaister.worldcat.org.
10.9 Further reading
Suber, Peter (2012). Open access (The MIT
Press Essential Knowledge Series ed.). Cambridge,
Mass.: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-51763-8. Re-
trieved 2015-10-20.
Willinsky, John. The Access Principle: The Case
for Open Access to Research and Scholarship (MIT
Press, 2006)
Kirsop, Barbara, and Leslie Chan. (2005)
Transforming access to research literature for devel-
oping countries. Serials Reviews, 31(4): 246255.
Laakso, Mikael; Welling, Patrik; Bukvova, Helena;
Nyman, Linus; Bjrk, Bo-Christer; Hedlund, Turid
(2011). The Development of Open Access Jour-
nal Publishing from 1993 to 2009. PLoS ONE. 6
(6): e20961. PMC 3113847 . PMID 21695139.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0020961.
Hajjem, C.; Harnad, S; Gingras, Y. (2005). Ten-
Year Cross-Disciplinary Comparison of the Growth
of Open Access and How It Increases Research Ci-
tation Impact. IEEE Data Engineering Bulletin.
28 (4): 3947. Analyzed 1,307,038 articles pub-
lished across 12 years (19922003) in 10 disci-
plines; OA articles have consistently more citations
(25%250% varying with discipline and year).
Okerson A. & O'Donnell J. (1995) (Eds.) Scholarly
Journals at the Crossroads; A Subversive Proposal
for Electronic Publishing. Washington, DC: Asso-
ciation of Research Libraries.
Ttsy; de Zepetnek, S.; Joshua, Jia (2014). Elec-
tronic Journals, Prestige, and the Economics of
Academic Journal Publishing. CLCWeb: Com-
parative Literature and Culture. 16 (1): 2014.
doi:10.7771/1481-4374.2426.
10.10. EXTERNAL LINKS 61

Open and Shut?" Blog on open access by Richard

Poynder, a freelance journalist, who has done a
series of interviews with a few of the leaders of the
open access movement.
Mietchen, Daniel (15 January 2014). Wikimedia
and Open Access a rich history of interactions.
Wikimedia Blog. Wikimedia Foundation. Retrieved
10 January 2015.
Glyn Moody (June 17, 2016). Open access: All
human knowledge is thereso why cant everybody
access it?". Ars Technica. Retrieved June 20, 2016.

10.10 External links

OAD: Open Access Directory, an open-access,
wiki-based, community-updated encyclopedia of
OA factual lists (started by Peter Suber and Robin
Peek)
OATP: Open Access Tracking Project, a crowd-
sourced tagging project providing real-time alerts
about new OA developments and organizing knowl-
edge of the eld (started by Peter Suber)
GOAP: UNESCO's Global Open Access Portal,
providing status of open access to scientic infor-
mation around the world
62 CHAPTER 10. OPEN ACCESS

10.11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

10.11.1 Text
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64 CHAPTER 10. OPEN ACCESS

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