Contents

Section 1 - Steam/Condensate and Water Engineering Data

Section 2 - Steam Consumption and Heating

Section 3 - Humidification

Section 4 - Metering

Section 5 - Controls

Section 6 - Standards and Materials

Section 7 - Sundries

Section 8 - Compressed Air Engineering Data

Index
SECTION 1 - Steam/Condensate and Water Engineering Data
Steam tables
Quantity of flash steam
Table of saturated steam pipeline capacities at specific velocities

Steam pipeline sizing chart (velocity method)

Steam pipeline sizing chart (pressure drop method)
Condensate pipeline sizing table (frictional resistance method)

Steam pressure reduction and potential for superheat

Condensate pipeline sizing (flash steam velocity method)
Steam mains consumption

Warming up losses
Running losses
Masses of steel pipe

Heat emission from single horizontal steel pipes freely exposed in

surroundings at 20oC
One hour warm up/running loads (kg/h) per 50m of steam main

Pressure powered pump/float trap combination

Stall chart
Sizing the pressure powered pump/float trap combination

Steam/energy wastage through leaks

Energy requirements of steam traps
Water and water treatment

pH value
Hardness
pH chart

External (to the boiler) water treatment (ion exchange)

Softening
Dealkalization

Demineralization
Internal (in the boiler) water treatment
Boiler water TDS measurement

Calculating the boiler blowdown rate

Controlling the total dissolved solids level
SECTION 2 - Steam Consumption and Heating
Comparison of steam, high temperature hot water and high temperature
oil systems
Categories of hot water heating systems
Steam consumption.
Tanks and vats
Air heater batteries
Heating calorifiers
Hot water storage calorifiers
Air heating pipes
Drying cylinders
Steam loads
Estimating steam tracer loads
Estimating steam flowrates for water heating
Specific heats and relative densities of various materials
Specific heats and relative densities of liquids

Specific heats of gases and vapours

Space heating information
Units
Rule of thumb heat loss
Heat losses
U values, definitions and symbols
U values
Typical HWS storage and boiler power
System characteristics
- Pumps
- Effects of various condition alterations to pump characteristics
- The flow of fluids in pipes and ducts
- The flow of water at 75oC in black steel pipes
- Values of velocity head factor for pipe fittings
and equipment
SECTION 3 - Humidification
Psychrometric chart
The psychometric chart explained.
Calculating humidification loads

Chart showing relationship of effective temperature, wet-bulb/dry bulb

temperatures and relative humidity
Relative humidity in percentage terms

Steam .v. water humidification

SECTION 4 - Metering
Steam meter terminology
Density compensation
Errors due to absence of density compensation
SECTION 5 - Controls
Controls terminology
Typical mix of process control devices with system elements
Flow coefficients (Capacity indices Av, Kv and Cv)

Conversion factors
Kv sizing formulae
Table DN. v. Kvs for control valves

Kv steam (saturated and superheated) sizing chart

Kv water sizing chart
Valve authority

Control valve characteristics

Inherent valve characteristics
Installed valve characteristics

Rangeability
Valve leakage rates
Control modes.
On/off control
Proportional control (P control)
Floating control
Integral control (I control)
Derivative control (D control)
Combinations of basic modes
- P + I control
- P + I + D control
Summary of control mode characteristics
Matching control modes and plant characteristics
PN controls-combinations of valve and actuator actions

Safety valve selection and sizing

Relationship of system design pressure to safety valve set pressure etc
SECTION 6 - Standards and Materials
Relevant national, european and international standards
Products section
- Steam traps
- Pressure vessels (blowdown/flash vessels and separators)
- Control valves
- Isolating valves
- Pressure gauges and thermometers
- Safety valves
General section
- Quality systems
- Boilers
- Water treatment
- Piping systems
- Enclosures
Relevant guidance notes
End connections
Flanges
- Size
- Pressure
- Flange facings
- Dimensions
- Steel
- Cast iron
- Sg (ductile) iron
- Copper alloy
Screwed
Welded ends
- Socket weld
- Butt weld
Quick reference materials comparison
Typical mechanical properties - SG iron, gunmetal, cast steel and cast iron
Stainless steels - properties and composition
Austenitic steels - comparison table
Product limitations (pressure/temperature)
Pressure/temperature rating
Pressure/temperature rating for group B austenitic steel flanges
SECTION 7 - Sundries
Cost of steam
Calorific value of various fuels
Reasonable average steam produced per unit of fuel

Area of circles
SI system of units
Base and supplementary quantities and units.
Derived units
Prefixes

Conversion tables

Summary table of approximate conversion factors

IP classification of enclosures (BS EN 60 529)
Graphical symbols

Valves actuating methods

Valves specific types
Trap functions

Pipeline flexibility
Pipeline features and general equipment

Electrical circuit symbols and notations

Conductors
Switches, fuses and contacts

Circuit components
Thermal expansions of pipes
Corrosion resistance of metals and elastomers
SECTION 8 - Compressed Air Engineering Data
Power required to compress air
Discharge of air through an orifice
Condensation in the compressed air system

Ratio of compression
Air receiver sizing
Distribution system (mains and interconnecting pipework)
Drainage
Separators
Sizing
- Velocity method
- Pressure drop method
Volume of compressed air carried by medium grade steel pipes
to BS 1387 at given velocities
Resistance of pipe fittings in equivalent length terms
Interconnecting pipework
Pressure drop in steel pipes 15 - 100mm (nomogram)

Pressure drop in pipes and tubes 2.5 - 15mm (nomogram)

Pipe carrying capacities at varying velocities (nomogram)
Standard pipe/tube dimensions

Typical air consumption of pneumatic tools and appliances at 5.5 bar g

Typical compressed air installation
Steam/Condensate
& Water
Engineering Data
Steam tables
Specific Enthalpy Specific
Pressure Temperature Volume
Water (hf) Evaporation (hfg ) Steam (hg ) Steam
o
bar kPa C kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg m3/kg
absolute
0.30 30.0 69.10 289.23 2336.1 2625.3 5.229
0.50 50.0 81.33 340.49 2305.4 2645.9 3.240
0.75 75.0 91.78 384.39 2278.6 2663.0 2.217
0.95 95.0 98.20 411.43 2261.8 2673.2 1.777
gauge
0 0 100.00 419.04 2257.0 2676.0 1.673
0.10 10.0 102.66 430.2 2250.2 2680.2 1.533
0.20 20.0 105.10 440.8 2243.4 2684.2 1.414
0.30 30.0 107.39 450.4 2237.2 2687.6 1.312
0.40 40.0 109.55 459.7 2231.3 2691.0 1.225
0.50 50.0 111.61 468.3 2225.6 2693.9 1.149
0.60 60.0 113.56 476.4 2220.4 2696.8 1.083
0.70 70.0 115.40 484.1 2215.4 2699.5 1.024
0.80 80.0 117.14 491.6 2210.5 2702.1 0.971
0.90 90.0 118.80 498.9 2205.6 2704.5 0.923
1.00 100.0 120.42 505.6 2201.1 2706.7 0.881
1.10 110.0 121.96 512.2 2197.0 2709.2 0.841
1.20 120.0 123.46 518.7 2192.8 2711.5 0.806
1.30 130.0 124.90 524.6 2188.7 2713.3 0.773
1.40 140.0 126.28 530.5 2184.8 2715.3 0.743
1.50 150.0 127.62 536.1 2181.0 2717.1 0.714
1.60 160.0 128.89 541.6 2177.3 2718.9 0.689
1.70 170.0 130.13 547.1 2173.7 2720.8 0.665
1.80 180.0 131.37 552.3 2170.1 2722.4 0.643
1.90 190.0 132.54 557.3 2166.7 2724.0 0.622
2.00 200.0 133.69 562.2 2163.3 2725.5 0.603
2.20 220.0 135.88 571.7 2156.9 2728.6 0.568
2.40 240.0 138.01 580.7 2150.7 2731.4 0.536
2.60 260.0 140.00 589.2 2144.7 2733.9 0.509
2.80 280.0 141.92 597.4 2139.0 2736.4 0.483
3.00 300.0 143.75 605.3 2133.4 2738.7 0.461
3.20 320.0 145.46 612.9 2128.1 2741.0 0.440
3.40 340.0 147.20 620.0 2122.9 2742.9 0.422
3.60 360.0 148.84 627.1 2117.8 2744.9 0.405
3.80 380.0 150.44 634.0 2112.9 2746.9 0.389
4.00 400.0 151.96 640.7 2108.1 2748.8 0.374
4.50 450.0 155.55 656.3 2096.7 2753.0 0.342
5.00 500.0 158.92 670.9 2086.0 2756.9 0.315
5.50 550.0 162.08 684.6 2075.7 2760.3 0.292
6.00 600.0 165.04 697.5 2066.0 2763.5 0.272
6.50 650.0 167.83 709.7 2056.8 2766.5 0.255
7.00 700.0 170.50 721.4 2047.7 2769.1 0.240
7.50 750.0 173.02 732.5 2039.2 2771.7 0.227
8.00 800.0 175.43 743.1 2030.9 2774.0 0.215
8.50 850.0 177.75 753.3 2022.9 2776.2 0.204
9.00 900.0 179.97 763.0 2015.1 2778.1 0.194
9.50 950.0 182.10 772.5 2007.5 2780.0 0.185
10.00 1000.0 184.13 781.6 2000.1 2781.7 0.177
10.50 1050.0 186.05 790.1 1993.0 2783.3 0.171
11.00 1100.0 188.02 798.8 1986.0 2784.8 0.163

EDB/1 1.01
Steam tables
Specific Enthalpy Specific
Pressure Temperature Volume
Water (hf ) Evaporation (hfg) Steam (hg ) Steam
o
bar gauge kPa C kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg m3/kg
11.50 1150.0 189.82 807.1 1979.1 2786.3 0.157
12.00 1200.0 191.68 815.1 1972.5 2787.6 0.151
12.50 1250.0 193.43 822.9 1965.4 2788.8 0.146
13.00 1300.0 195.10 830.4 1959.6 2790.0 0.141
13.50 1350.0 196.62 837.9 1953.2 2791.1 0.136
14.00 1400.0 198.35 845.1 1947.1 2792.2 0.132
14.50 1450.0 199.92 852.1 1941.0 2793.1 0.128
15.00 1500.0 201.45 859.0 1935.0 2794.0 0.124
15.50 1550.0 202.92 865.7 1928.8 2794.9 0.119
16.00 1600.0 204.38 872.3 1923.4 2795.7 0.117
17.00 1700.0 207.17 885.0 1912.1 2797.1 0.110
18.00 1800.0 209.90 897.2 1901.3 2798.5 0.105
19.00 1900.0 212.47 909.0 1890.5 2799.5 0.100
20.00 2000.0 214.96 920.3 1880.2 2800.5 0.0949
21.00 2100.0 217.35 931.3 1870.1 2801.4 0.0906
22.00 2200.0 219.65 941.9 1860.1 2802.0 0.0868
23.00 2300.0 221.85 952.2 1850.4 2802.6 0.0832
24.00 2400.0 224.02 962.2 1840.9 2803.1 0.0797
25.00 2500.0 226.12 972.1 1831.4 2803.5 0.0768
26.00 2600.0 228.15 981.6 1822.2 2803.8 0.0740
27.00 2700.0 230.14 990.7 1813.3 2804.0 0.0714
28.00 2800.0 232.05 999.7 1804.4 2804.1 0.0689
29.00 2900.0 233.93 1008.6 1795.6 2804.2 0.0666
30.00 3000.0 235.78 1017.0 1787.0 2804.1 0.0645
31.00 3100.0 237.55 1025.6 1778.5 2804.1 0.0625
32.00 3200.0 239.28 1033.9 1770.0 2803.9 0.0605
33.00 3300.0 240.97 1041.9 1761.8 2803.7 0.0587
34.00 3400.0 242.63 1049.7 1753.8 2805.5 0.0571
35.00 3500.0 244.26 1057.7 1745.5 2803.2 0.0554
36.00 3600.0 245.86 1065.7 1737.2 2802.9 0.0539
37.00 3700.0 247.42 1072.9 1729.5 2802.4 0.0524
38.00 3800.0 248.95 1080.3 1721.6 2801.9 0.0510
39.00 3900.0 250.42 1087.4 1714.1 2801.5 0.0498
40.00 4000.0 251.94 1094.6 1706.3 2800.9 0.0485
41.00 4100.0 253.34 1101.6 1698.3 2799.9 0.0473
42.00 4200.0 254.74 1108.6 1691.2 2799.8 0.0461
43.00 4300.0 256.12 1115.4 1683.7 2799.1 0.0451
44.00 4400.0 257.50 1122.1 1676.2 2798.3 0.0441
45.00 4500.0 258.82 1228.7 1668.9 2797.6 0.0431
46.00 4600.0 260.13 1135.3 1666.6 2796.9 0.0421
47.00 4700.0 261.43 1142.2 1654.4 2796.6 0.0412
48.00 4800.0 262.73 1148.1 1647.1 2795.2 0.0403
49.00 4900.0 264.00 1154.5 1639.9 2794.4 0.0394
50.00 5000.0 265.26 1160.8 1632.8 2793.6 0.0386
51.00 5100.0 266.45 1166.6 1626.9 2792.6 0.0378
52.00 5200.0 267.67 1172.6 1619.0 2791.6 0.0371
53.00 5300.0 268.84 1178.7 1612.0 2790.7 0.0364
54.00 5400.0 270.02 1184.6 1605.1 2789.7 0.0357
55.00 5500.0 271.20 1190.5 1598.2 2788.7 0.0350
56.00 5600.0 272.33 1196.3 1591.3 2787.6 0.0343

1.02 EDB/1
Steam tables
Specific Enthalpy Specific
Pressure Temperature Volume
Water (hf ) Evaporation (hfg) Steam (hg) Steam
o
bar gauge kPa C kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg m3/kg
57.00 5700.0 273.45 1202.1 1584.5 2786.6 0.0337
58.00 5800.0 274.55 1207.8 1577.7 2785.5 0.0331
59.00 5900.0 275.65 1213.4 1571.0 2784.4 0.0325
60.00 6000.0 276.73 1218.9 1564.4 2783.3 0.0319
61.00 6100.0 277.80 1224.5 1557.6 2782.1 0.0314
62.00 6200.0 278.85 1230.0 1550.9 2780.9 0.0308
63.00 6300.0 279.89 1235.4 1544.3 2779.7 0.0303
64.00 6400.0 280.92 1240.8 1537.3 2778.5 0.0298
65.00 6500.0 281.95 1246.1 1531.2 2777.3 0.0293
66.00 6600.0 282.95 1251.4 1524.7 2776.1 0.0288
67.00 6700.0 283.95 1256.7 1518.1 2774.8 0.0283
68.00 6800.0 284.93 1261.9 1511.6 2773.5 0.0278
69.00 6900.0 285.90 1267.0 1501.1 2772.1 0.0274
70.00 7000.0 286.85 1272.1 1498.7 2770.8 0.0270
71.00 7100.0 287.80 1277.3 1492.2 2769.5 0.0266
72.00 7200.0 288.75 1282.3 1485.8 2768.1 0.0262
73.00 7300.0 289.69 1287.3 1479.4 2766.7 0.0258
74.00 7400.0 290.60 1292.3 1473.0 2765.3 0.0254
75.00 7500.0 291.51 1297.2 1466.6 2763.8 0.0250
76.00 7600.0 292.41 1302.3 1460.2 2762.5 0.0246
77.00 7700.0 293.91 1307.0 1453.9 2760.9 0.0242
78.00 7800.0 294.20 1311.9 1447.6 2759.5 0.0239
79.00 7900.0 295.10 1316.7 1441.3 2758.0 0.0236
80.00 8000.0 295.96 1321.5 1435.0 2756.5 0.0233
81.00 8100.0 296.81 1326.2 1428.7 2754.9 0.0229
82.00 8200.0 297.66 1330.9 1422.5 2753.4 0.0226
83.00 8300.0 298.50 1335.7 1416.2 2751.9 0.0223
84.00 8400.0 299.35 1340.3 1410.0 2750.3 0.0220
85.00 8500.0 300.20 1345.0 1403.8 2748.8 0.0217
86.00 8600.0 301.00 1349.6 1397.6 2747.2 0.0214
87.00 8700.0 301.81 1354.2 1391.3 2745.5 0.0211
88.00 8800.0 302.61 1358.8 1385.2 2744.0 0.0208
89.00 8900.0 303.41 1363.3 1379.0 2742.3 0.0205
90.00 9000.0 304.20 1367.8 1372.7 2740.5 0.0202
92.00 9200.0 305.77 1376.8 1360.3 2737.1 0.0197
94.00 9400.0 307.24 1385.7 1348.0 2733.7 0.0192
96.00 9600.0 308.83 1394.5 1335.7 2730.2 0.0187
98.00 9800.0 310.32 1403.2 1323.3 2726.5 0.0183
100.00 10000.0 311.79 1411.9 1310.9 2722.8 0.0178
102.00 10200.0 313.24 1420.5 1298.7 2719.2 0.0174
104.00 10400.0 314.67 1429.0 1286.3 2715.3 0.0170
106.00 10600.0 316.08 1437.5 1274.0 2711.5 0.0166
108.00 10800.0 317.46 1445.9 1261.7 2707.6 0.0162
110.00 11000.0 318.83 1454.3 1249.3 2703.6 0.0158
112.00 11200.0 320.17 1462.6 1237.0 2699.6 0.0154
114.00 11400.0 321.50 1470.8 1224.6 2695.4 0.0150
116.00 11600.0 322.81 1479.0 1212.2 2691.2 0.0147
118.00 11800.0 324.10 1487.2 1199.8 2687.0 0.0144
120.00 12000.0 325.38 1495.4 1187.3 2682.7 0.0141

EDB/1 1.03
Quantity of flash steam
'Flash steam' is released from hot condensate when its pressure is lowered rather than by the
further addition of heat. The steam released by the flashing process is exactly the same as 'live
steam' emanating from a boiler - steam is steam!

How much flash steam

The quantity of flash steam is readily determined by calculation or it can simply be read from tables
or charts. The calculation is best illustrated by an example: consider hot condensate at 7 bar g
and 170.5 oC. It has an enthalpy of 721.4 kJ/kg (derived from steam tables hf@ 7 bar g). After
passing through the steam trap, the pressure on the condensate is 0 bar g. At this pressure the
enthalpy of saturated water hf is 419.0 kJ/kg and its temperature is 100 oC. If a kilogram of saturated
water at 0 bar g was supplied with an additional (721.4 - 419.0 kJ/kg) 302.4 kJ, then this enthalpy
would evaporate some of the water. The enthalpy of evaporation hfg at 0 bar g is 2257 kJ/kg and
the addition of 302.4 kJ must therefore evaporate (302.4/2257) 0.134 kg or 13.4% of the water
into steam.

This can be expressed as a formula:

% Flash Steam = (hf high pressure

- hf low pressure
) x 100%

hfg low pressure

1.04 EDB/1
Saturated steam pipeline capacities at specific velocities
Pressure Velocity kg/h
bar g m/s 1 5 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 125 150
mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
15 7 14 24 37 52 99 145 213 394 648 917
0.4 25 10 25 40 62 92 162 265 384 675 972 1457
40 17 35 64 102 142 265 403 576 1037 1670 2303
15 7 16 25 40 59 109 166 250 431 680 1006
0.7 25 12 25 45 7 2 100 182 287 430 716 1145 1575
40 18 37 68 106 167 298 428 630 1108 1712 2417
15 8 17 29 43 65 112 182 260 470 694 1020
1.0 25 12 26 48 7 2 100 193 300 445 730 1160 1660
40 19 39 71 112 172 311 465 640 1150 1800 2500
15 12 25 45 7 0 100 182 280 410 715 1125 1580
2.0 25 19 43 70 112 162 295 428 656 1215 1755 2520
40 30 64 115 178 275 475 745 1010 1895 2925 4175
15 16 37 60 9 3 127 245 385 535 925 1505 2040
3.0 25 26 56 100 152 225 425 632 910 1580 2480 3440
40 41 87 157 250 375 595 1025 1460 2540 4050 5940
15 19 42 70 108 156 281 432 635 1166 1685 2460
4.0 25 30 63 115 180 270 450 742 1080 1980 2925 4225
40 49 116 197 295 456 796 1247 1825 3120 4940 7050
15 22 49 87 128 187 352 526 770 1295 2105 2835
5.0 25 36 81 135 211 308 548 885 1265 2110 3540 5150
40 59 131 225 338 495 855 1350 1890 3510 5400 7870
15 26 59 105 153 225 425 632 925 1555 2525 3400
6.0 25 43 97 162 253 370 658 1065 1520 2530 4250 6175
40 71 157 270 405 595 1025 1620 2270 4210 6475 9445
15 29 63 110 165 260 445 705 952 1815 2765 3990
7.0 25 49 114 190 288 450 785 1205 1750 3025 4815 6900
40 76 177 303 455 690 1210 1865 2520 4585 7560 10880
15 32 70 126 190 285 475 800 1125 1990 3025 4540
8.0 25 54 122 205 320 465 810 1260 1870 3240 5220 7120
40 84 192 327 510 730 1370 2065 3120 5135 8395 12470
15 41 95 155 250 372 626 1012 1465 2495 3995 5860
10.0 25 66 145 257 405 562 990 1530 2205 3825 6295 8995
40 104 216 408 615 910 1635 2545 3600 6230 9880 14390
15 50 121 205 310 465 810 1270 1870 3220 5215 7390
14.0 25 85 195 331 520 740 1375 2080 3120 5200 8500 12560
40 126 305 555 825 1210 2195 3425 4735 8510 13050 18630

Note: the nominal bore of the pipeline varies with the schedule of the pipe. The capacities shown
in the table approximate to Schedule 80 pipe.
The formula shown below can be used to determine the nominal carrying capacity of pipelines at
various velocities. The specific volume is read from steam tables at the relevant pressure whilst
the bore of the pipe D depends on the pipe schedule:

DN 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 125 150

Sch 40 15.8 21.0 26.6 35.1 40.9 52.5 62.7 77.9 102.3 128.2 154.1
Bore (mm) Sch 80 13.8 18.9 24.3 32.5 38.1 49.2 59.0 73.7 97.2 122.3 146.4
Sch 160 11.7 15.6 20.7 29.5 34.0 42.8 53.9 66.6 87.3 109.5 131.8

W kg/h = 0.002827 D2V

Where D = Pipe bore mm V = Steam Velocity m/s = specific volume m3/kg

Re-arranging the formula enables the pipeline velocity to be determined for any given mass flowrate
and pipeline diameter

V = W
0.002827 D2

EDB/1 1.05
Steam pipeline sizing chart (velocity method)
Example: It is required to size a pipeline to handle 20 t/h of superheated steam at 15 bar
g and 300 oC. The maximum acceptable steam velocity is 60 m/s.

Method: Draw a vertical line from 300 oC (point A) on the temperature scale to 15 bar g
(point B) on the pressure scale. From B draw a horizontal line to the steam mass flow rate
of 20,000 kg/h (point F). Now draw a vertical line to the steam velocity of 60 m/s (point G).
From G draw a horizontal line across to the pipe diameter scale (point H). A pipe with a
bore of 150 mm will suffice in this case.
Steam pipeline sizing chart (pressure drop method)
Example: Determine the pressure drop when 20,000 kg/h of superheated steam at 15 bar
g/300 oC flows through a 150 mm diameter pipeline.

Method: Draw a vertical line from 300 oC (point A) on the temperature scale to 15 bar g
(point B) on the pressure scale. From this point draw a horizontal line across to 20,000
kg/h (point C). Now draw a vertical line to the pipe diameter of 150 mm (point D). From
point D draw a horizontal line to the pressure drop scale. The pressure drop in this case
is 1 bar/100m length.
Condensate pipeline sizing (frictional resistance method)
(Starting load i.e. Running load x 2)
Approximate Frictional Resistance in mbar per m of Travel Heavy Steel Tube
nominal 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.4
bore (30 Pa) (50 Pa) (60 Pa) (80 Pa) (100 Pa) (140 Pa)
15 mm 95 130 140 160 180 220
20 mm 220 290 320 370 420 500
25 mm 410 540 600 690 790 940
32 mm 890 1180 1300 1500 1700 2040
40 mm 1360 1790 2000 2290 2590 3100
50 mm 2630 3450 3810 4390 4990 6000
65 mm 5350 6950 7730 8900 10150 12100
80 mm 8320 10900 12000 13800 15650 18700
100 mm 17000 22200 24500 28200 31900 38000

Where the steam pressure on the steam traps is greater than 4 bar g then a significant percentage
of the condensate is likely to flash to steam at low pressure as it enters the condensate pipeline.
This will have a large specific volume. It is therefore recommended to size the condensate
pipelines on the basis of flash steam velocity - see page 1.09.

Steam pressure reduction and potential for superheat

The fact that it is very difficult in most practical cases to find a steam supply which is dry enough
to produce superheat through a drop in pressure, is familiar to us all. The enthalpy content is
substantially the same at the outlet from a control valve orifice as it is at the inlet. The text books
show how the throttling effect of passing dry saturated steam through an orifice leads to superheat
conditions at the outlet; however unless the pressure drop is very great, a very small amount of
wetness in the high pressure steam means that the steam is a little drier but not superheated after
the pressure reduction.

Example: dry steam at 12.5 bar g is passed through a pressure reducing valve to a service
operating at 2 bar g. From steam tables:

Total enthalpy of 1 kg of steam at 12.5 bar g = 2788.8 kJ (hg)

Total enthalpy of 1 kg of steam at 2.0 bar g = 2725.5 kJ (hg)
Difference = 63.3kJ

This surplus enthalpy at the lower pressure is sufficient to superheat the steam to about 163oC,
which means some 30oC of superheat. Alternatively, as steam is rarely dry saturated, a more
practical consideration is the case where the steam has a dryness fraction of less than one prior
to pressure reduction. To determine the limiting dryness such that superheat does not occur
on the low pressure side; from tables, the specific enthalpy of water (hf) at 12.5 bar g is 822.9
kJ/kg and that of evaporation (hfg) is 1965.4 kJ/kg. If the 2 bar g steam at the exit of the orifice
is not to be superheated then its maximum enthalpy shall be that of dry saturated steam, i.e. 2725.5
kJ/kg (hg). We are now able to equate enthalpy before pressure reduction to that after it and to
resolve the limiting dryness fraction:
hg 2 bar g = hf 12.5 bar g + xhfg 12.5 bar g
(where x is the dryness fraction)

2725.5kJ/kg = 822.9kJ/kg + x1965.4kJ/kg

x = 0.968
In other words if the dryness fraction prior to pressure reduction is 0.968 or less, then the low
pressure steam will not be superheated.
Note: immediately after reasonably large reductions in steam pressure as that illustrated above,
the steam will be initially in a meta stable state. It is therefore recommended that where superheat
is likely or known to cause problems (e.g. in animal foodstuff pelletizers) a length of unlagged steam
main is installed to promote a degree of condensation and generate stable conditions.

EDB/1 1.08
Condensate line sizing where pressure at traps > 4 bar g

1. From pressure upstream of trap move horizontally to pressure in return line - A.

2. Drop vertically to condensate load in kg/h - B.
3. Follow curve to right hand scale and across to same return line pressure - C.
4. Move upward to return line flash velocity - say 25 m/s maximum - D.
5. Read return line size.

1.09 EDB/1
Steam mains consumption
In any steam system, account must be taken of the steam consumption of the mains themselves.
During the warming up period, the rate of condensation will be at its highest and this will govern
the sizing of steam traps for mains drainage. With the steam main in use there will be a smaller
but continuous heat loss due to convection and radiation from the pipe.

Warming up losses
Heat will be required initially to bring the cold pipe up to working temperature. The warming up rate
will depend on the time which is allowed and this should be based on a practical assessment. If
20 minutes is accepted instead of 10 minutes, then the steam flow rate is cut by half and the system
may benefit from reduced stresses. A warming up time of 30 minutes would cut the warming up
rate yet again. Warming up rate can be expressed as:

Q = 60W (T - t) Sp
Lm

Where Q = Rate of condensation ........................................ kg/h

W = Total mass of pipe plus flanges and fittings ....... kg
T = Steam temperature .............................................. oC
t = Ambient temperature ........................................... oC
Sp = Specific heat capacity of steel ........... 0.49 kJ/kg oC
L = Specific enthalpy of evaporation (hfg) ............. kJ/kg
m = Warm up time .............................................. minutes

Refer to page 1.11 for typical masses of steel pipe, flanges, valves etc

Since any main may be warmed through more quickly than anticipated, a factor of 3 should be
applied to the calculated warming up rate for the purpose of sizing steam traps. Proper provision
must also be made to vent the air contained in the pipework at start up.

Example: find the rate of condensation in warming up 91.5m of 100mm steel main which includes
18 flanged joints and one stop valve. The starting temperature (ambient) is 8 oC and the steam
pressure is 14 bar g. The time taken to warm up the steam main is 30 minutes.
From steam tables the specific enthalpy of evaporation (hfg) is 1947 kJ/kg and the saturation
temperature is 198.5 oC. First find the total mass of steel in the main:

W = (91.5m x 14.9 kg/m) + (18 x 16.1 kg) + (1 x 34 kg)

= 1687 kg

Rate of condensation Q kg/h = 1687 kg x (198.5 - 8 oC) x 0.49 kJ/kgoC x 60 min/h

1947 kJ/kg x 30 min

= 162 kg/h

EDB/1 1.10
Running losses
Once a steam main has warmed up, condensation will continue as heat is lost through convection
and radiation, the rate depending on the steam temperature, ambient temperature and the
efficiency of the insulation.
If the main is flanged, each pair of flanges will have approximately the same surface area as 0.3m
of pipe of the same size.
Distribution mains will usually be insulated and it will obviously be an advantage if flanges are also
included. The effect of this on heat losses will depend on the type and thickness of the insulation
and on its general condition. For most practical purposes it can be taken that steam lines will reduce
the heat loss to 20% or below that of an uninsulated line. The heat loss from insulated mains can
therefore be expressed as:

Q = 3.6 E 1
5L
Where Q = Rate of condensation ......................................... kg/h

E = Heat emission from table (page 1.12) ............... W/m

l = Effective length of pipe,
allowing for flanges and fittings .............................. m
L = Specific enthalpy of evaporation (hfg) .............. kJ/kg

Masses of steel pipe, flanges and valves

Approx mass per pair Typical mass
Approx mass of of flanges including of flanged steel
Pipe Size steel pipe bolts and nuts stop valves
mm inches kg/m kg kg
1
15 /2 1.5 2.8 4.0
3
20 /4 2.2 2.9 4.6
25 1 3.0 3.1 5.7
32 11/4 4.5 4.5 7.2
40 11/2 5.2 5.0 9.6
50 2 6.7 7.0 12.4
65 21/2 8.9 9.3 17.6
80 3 11.2 12.0 23.2
100 4 14.9 16.1 34.0
150 6 24.5 31.3 72.0

1.11 EDB/1
Heat emission from single horizontal steel pipes freely exposed in
surroundings at 20 oC
Temperature Heat Emission W/m
difference between
Nominal Pipe Size mm
pipe surface and
ambient-oC 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 125 150
40 42 51 62 75 84 102 125 143 179 214 248
50 55 67 81 99 111 135 165 189 236 281 327
60 69 84 102 125 140 169 207 238 297 354 411
70 84 103 125 152 170 206 253 290 362 432 502
80 100 122 149 181 203 246 301 345 431 515 598
100 135 164 200 244 273 331 406 466 582 695 808
120 173 211 257 314 352 427 523 600 750 897 1040
140 215 262 320 391 438 532 653 750 937 1120 1310
160 261 318 389 476 534 648 796 915 1140 1370 1600
180 311 380 465 569 638 776 954 1100 1370 1650 1920
200 366 447 547 670 753 916 1130 1300 1620 1950 2270
220 425 520 637 781 878 1070 1320 1510 1900 2280 2660
240 490 600 735 902 1010 1240 1520 1750 2200 2650 3090

Note: the above table applies to an air velocity of 0 m/s. Emission is increased with rise in air velocity
+ 4% at 0.5 m/s, + 12% at 1 m/s and + 20% at 2 m/s.

Example: using the data in the example on page 1.10, determine the heat losses (running) from
the pipe.
First determine the equivalent length of pipe - assume that a flange surface area is equivalent to
0.3 m length of pipe and that a stop valve is about 1.2 m. Insulation efficiency is 80%.

Equivalent length of pipe (m) = 91.5 + (18 x 0.3) + 1.2

= 98.1 m

Rate of condensation due to heat losses (Q) kg/h = * 1495 W/m x 98.1 m x 3.6 = 54 kg/h
1947 kJ/kg x 5
(* linear interpolation for the nominal 190 oC difference)

One hour warm up/running loads (kg/h) per 50m of steam main
Steam Nominal Pipe Size mm
Pressure
bar g 50 65 80 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400
1 5.4 8.6 11.2 16 22 28 44 60 80 94 123
4.8 5.4 6.8 8.5 10.3 13 16 19 23 25 28
5 8.2 13 17 24 33 42 63 70 119 142 185
7.3 8.9 10.5 13 17 20 24 30 36 40 46
7 8.7 13.8 18 26 35 45 68 97 128 151 198
8.2 10.2 12 15 19 23 28 35 42 46 52
10 9.9 16 20 29 40 51 77 109 144 171 224
9.8 12 15 17 21 25 33 41 49 54 62
14 10.9 17 23 32 44 57 85 120 160 189 247
11.2 14 17 20 26 30 39 49 58 64 73
18 17 23 31 45 62 84 127 187 255 305 393
15 16 19 24 30 36 44 55 66 72 82

EDB/1 1.12
Pressure powered pump/float trap combination
The use of a condensate pump/trap combination enables complete condensate drainage from
the steam space to be achieved under any load condition. It is relevant on any application
where the steam supply is temperature controlled and it will ensure stable control, prevent
corrosion problems caused by incomplete drainage allied to possible freezing damage in cold
climates and reduce the risk of waterhammer.

In simple terms, Heat Flow Rate Q can be expressed as:-

Q= UA T

Where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient

A is the area of heat transfer surfaces
T is the mean temperature difference between T1, the temperature of the heating
medium (steam) and T2, the mean temperature of the fluid being heated.
i.e. T= T1 T2

To obtain condensate discharge through a steam trap there must be a differential pressure
between the trap inlet and trap outlet. The pressure at the trap outlet may be increased by a rise
in the discharge line, or by pressure in the return system.

A reduction in the inlet pressure to the trap (and, therefore, the differential pressure across it) will
be caused by the action of the temperature control valve as it throttles towards the closed position
in response to a signal for a decreased heat output. The lower pressure means that T1 in the above
equation, is being lowered. At some point the pressure differential reaches zero and condensate
will not be discharged through the steam trap. This is known as the "stall" point. Further throttling
action of the control valve will lead to sub-atmospheric conditions within the steam space.
Partial, or even complete, flooding will result with the attendant dangers outlined above.

The use of the "Stall Chart" enables these conditions to be plotted. The use of the
Pump /Trap Combination allows complete condensate drainage under all load variations.

1.13 EDB/1
Stall chart
250 39.0
240 33.0
230 27.0
220 22.0
210 18.0

Pressure bar gauge

200 14.5
190 11.6
180 9.0
170 7.0
160 5.2
150 3.8
140 2.6
130 1.7
120 1.0
110 0.4
Temperature oC

100 0
90 0.7
80 0.5
70 0.3
60 0.2

Pressure - bar absolute (vacuum)

50 0.12
40 0.07
30 0.05
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Turndown percentage

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
100 0
Percentage load

EDB/1 1.14
Sizing the pressure powered pump/float trap combination
1. Using the stall chart, determine the % load at which the stall condition will occur.
2. Select the pressure powered pump based on the stall load, the motive pressure
available and the back pressure.
3. Select the float type steam trap to operate at the maximum differential pressure but
capable of handling 5 times the stall load at a differential pressure of 0.5 bar. This size trap will
allow the pump to operate at its maximum capacity.
The following example, (under case 1 on page 1.16 ) should help.

How to use the stall chart

1. Plot incoming secondary medium temperature (T3) and outgoing secondary
medium temperature (T4) from left to right at bottom of chart.
2. Plot steam supply pressure (P1) at left side of chart and connect line from P1 to T4.
3. Plot point where line P1 to T4 intersects with system backpressure (P2) and drop
straight down to bottom of chart to determine percentage of load at which stall
condition will occur.

Sizing the pump and the trap

1. Determine stall load from stall
chart. (Multiply maximum load of
equipment by percentage at which
stall will occur).
2. Select pressure powered pump
based on available motive steam
pressure and system
backpressure (P2) at stall load.
3. Select float type steam trap
which operates at maximum P
(P1 P2) and passes 5
times the stall load at 0.5 bar P.

Example
Max steam load
= 600 kg/h
Steam supply pressure (P1)
= 7 bar g
System backpressure (P2)
= 2 bar g
Incoming medium temp (T3)
= 25oC
Outgoing medium temp (T4)
= 80oC
Available motive pump pressure
= 7 bar g

1. Stall load = 600 x 60% = 360 kg/h

2. Pump must be capable of
passing 360 kg/h with 7 bar g
motive pressure and 2 bar g
back pressure.
3. Trap must be able to operate at 5
bar g
(7 bar 2 bar) and must pass
5 x 360 = 1,800 kg/h at 0.5 bar
P.

1.15 EDB/1
Other examples of how to use the stall chart
Case I
Turndown means the secondary fluid inlet
temperature increases, so reducing the
heat load to be met.
Step 1
Mark full load steam temperature and
secondary fluid inlet temperature at
design condition, on left axis.
Step 2
Mark control temperature and
temperature of steam at pressure equal
to back pressure, on right axis.
Step 3
Draw horizontal through temperature of
steam at back pressure. (e.g. at 100oC
for atmospheric discharge).
Step 4
Join secondary inlet temperature to
control temperature.
Step 5
Join control temperature to steam
temperature at full load.
Step 6
Where this line intersects back pressure
line, drop a vertical to base line.
Results
This vertical crosses line 4 at inlet
temperature giving stall condition, and
meets base line at corresponding
turndown percentage.
Case II
Turndown means the secondary flowrate
is reduced, so reducing the heat load to
be met.
Steps 1 to 4
As for Case I.
Step 5
Find midpoint of line 4 at 50% ordinate.
Draw a horizontal from this point to right
axis, as mean secondary temperature.
Step 6
Join mean secondary temperature on
right axis to full load steam temperature.
Step 7
As step 6 in case I
Results
This vertical meets base line at
corresponding turndown percentage.
(Note: line 6 must be cut off at control
temperature).

EDB/1 1.16
 Steam/fuel wastage through leaks

From chart read off energy loss in kg/h of steam from sharp edged
orifice. Average orifice sizes in traps are:

15mm Trap = 3mm orifice

20mm Trap = 5mm orifice
25mm Trap = 7.5mm orifice
40mm Trap = 10.0mm orifice
50mm Trap = 12.5mm orifice

Actual energy loss is approximately 50% of sharp edged orifice.

Energy requirements of steam traps (in kg/h of steam equivalent)
NO LOAD REASONABLE LOAD
Through From Through From
Total Total
Trap Trap Trap Trap
Thermostatic 0.5 0.5 1.0 Nil 0.5 0.5
Float Nil 1.4 1.4 Nil 1.4 1.4
I.B. 0.5 1.2 1.7 Nil 1.2 1.2
Thermodynamic 0.5 0.25 0.75 Nil 0.25 0.25

Water and water treatment

pH value
pH is a measure of the degree of acidity or alkalinity of water related to the concentration of hydrogen
ions. In water of absolute purity at 21oC the concentrations of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions are equal
and each may be expressed as 10-7 g/l. It is convenient to use the logarithm to base 10 of this value
and to change the sign; thus the hydrogen ion content of pure water at 21oC is stated as pH 7, the
neutral condition. Water having a deficit of hydrogen ions (pH >7) is alkaline and water having an
excess of hydrogen ions (pH < 7) is acidic. The pH scale extends from 0 to 14. See pH chart for
various liquids- page 1.19.

Hardness
Analysis of the total solids taken into solution as water percolates through a catchment area
reveals various mineral salts. Only salts having soap-destroying properties, namely those of
calcium and magnesium, are considered in the quantitative evaluation of hardness.
Hardness has traditionally been expressed in terms of temporary and permanent components,
the former being that proportion of the total precipitated by boiling. Current practice tends towards
the substitution of a more precise evaluation of water characteristics as carbonate and non-
carbonate hardness. Numerically, the carbonate hardness is usually identical with the alkalinity
of the water.
The traditional unit of hardness, the Degree Clark (grains of calcium carbonate per imperial gallon),
has been replaced either by parts per 100,000 or parts per million. The latter scale has the
advantage of being synonymous with the metric equivalent mg/l.

Conversion factors for scales of hardness.

Parts per Grains per Grains per
million Parts per imperial U.S.
Units (mg/l) 100 000 gallon gallon
One part per million as CaCO3 * 1.0 0.10 0.07 0.058
One part per 100 000 as CaCO3 10.0 1.00 0.70 0.58
One grain per imperial gallon as CaCO3
(= 1 degree Clark) 14.3 1.43 1.00 0.83
One grain per U.S. gallon as CaCO3 17.1 1.71 1.20 1.00
* The convention 'as CaCO3' is arbitrary and expresses the soap-destroying properties of the
water, due to both calcium and magnesium salts, as though they were all due to the presence of
calcium carbonate.

EDB/1 1.18
pH chart
pH: a scale of acidity and alkalinity: pH7= neutral, pH>7= acidic, pH<7= alkaline.
The following chart illustrates typical pH values of various liquids.

pH

0 0.1 Hydrochloric acid (3.6% HCI)

0.3 Sulphuric acid (4.9% H2SO4)

1 1.1 Hydrochloric acid (0.36% HCI)

1.2 Sulphuric acid (0.49% H2SO4)

2.0 Hydrochloric acid (0.036% HCI)

2 2.1 Sulphuric acid (0.049% H2SO4)
Lemon juice 2.3
2.4 Acetic acid (6% CH3COOH)
Wine 2.8 to 3.8 2.9 (Acetic acid 0.6% CH3COOH)
Vinegar 3.1 3
Fruit juice 3.5 to 4.0 3.4 Acetic acid (0.6% CH3COOH)

Marshy water 4.0 4

Beer 4.0 to 5.0 5

5.2 Boric acid (0.2% H3BO3)

6
Milk 6.3 to 6.6
Water, chemically
pure 7.0 7

8
Sea water 8.3 8.4 Sodium hyd. carb. solution (0.42% NaHCO3)

9
9.2 Borax solution (1.9% Na2B407)

10

10.6 Ammonia solution (0.017% NH3)

11 11.1 Ammonia solution (0.17% NH3)
11.3 Sodium carb. solution (0.53% Na2CO3)
11.6 Ammonia solution (1.7% NH3)
Lime-water, 12 12.0 Potassium hyd. solut. (0.056% KOH)
saturated 12.3
12.0 Sodium hydroxide solut. (0.04% NaOH)
13 13.0 Potassium hydroxide solut. (0.56% KOH)
13.0 Sodium hydroxide solution (0.4% NaOH)
14
14.0 Potassium hyd. sol. (5.6% KOH)
14.0 Sodium hydroxide solution (4% NaOH)

1.19 EDB/1
External (to the boiler) water treatment
Ion change treatment
An ion exchanger is an insoluble material normally made in the form of resin beads of 0.5/1.0 mm
diameter. The resin beads are usually employed in the form of a packed bed contained in a glass
reinforced plastic pressure vessel. The resin beads are porous and hydrophilic - that is, they
absorb water. Within the bead structure are fixed ionic groups with which are associated mobile
exchangeable ions of opposite charge. These mobile ions can be replaced by similarly charges
ions from the salts dissolved in the water surrounding the beads.

Softening
Removal of all the calcium and magnesium ions as defined by the term 'total hardness' can be
achieved by the use of a strong-acid cation resin in the sodium form. This process is commonly
called base exchange softening but is more correctly sodium ion exchange. The process merely
converts calcium and magnesium salts in the water into the corresponding sodium salts. It should
be noted that there is no reduction in the total alkalinity of the water or in the total dissolved solids
level. All sodium salts are soluble and remain in solution at high temperatures and concentrations
- conditions that exist in steam boiler plant. Water softening is one of the simplest forms of external
water treatment and is probably the most widely used for low pressure steam boilers
(e.g < 10 bar g).

Regeneration of the sodium ion exchanger is achieved by passing a solution of sodium chloride
(common salt) through the bed and then by rinsing with raw water. Regeneration is usually carried
out automatically by the operation of solenoid valves and timers. It is triggered by a water meter
and/or a timer. At the design stage the water treatment engineer determines the number of cubic
metres of water that can be passed through the softener (i.e. considering the analysis of the raw
water and the amount of sodium ions held in the resin bed) and then sets up the water meter
accordingly. Note that as the TDS level remains unchanged with this process, it is not possible
to use a conductivity meter to trigger regeneration as the efficiency of the bed falls off . Typical
installations usually have a duty and a standby column.

Brine regeneration

Raw water
TDS = 200ppm 1 1
Ca(HCO3) 2
Calcium bicarbonate
MgCI2
Magnesium chloride
Na 2SO 2
Sodium sulphate

2
2NaHCO 3
SAC Sodium bicarbonate
SAC - Strong acid cation resin (Na+) 2NaCI
Na+ - Sodium form Sodium chloride
Na 2SO 2
Sodium sulphate

2 Softened Water TDS = 200ppm

EDB/1 1.20
Dealkalization
Where the alkalinity of the raw water constitutes a high proportion of the total dissolved solids, the
use of a simple softener could result in an undesirably high level of hydroxide and carbonate
alkalinity in the boiler. Additionally, the carbon dioxide formed by the breakdown of sodium
bicarbonate in the boiler will be released into the steam system and on mixing with the condensate
(carbonic acid) could cause corrosion of the condensate return system. In these cases a more
sophisticated ion exchange plant is called for - a dealkalization plant.

Removal of alkaline (or temporary) hardness can be accomplished by passing the raw water
through an ion exchange column containing a weak acid cation resin. Calcium and magnesium
ions, in concentration equivalent to the bicarbonate alkalinity, are exchanged for hydrogen ions
-
(H+) and these combine with bicarbonate ions (HCO3 ) to form the weakly dissociated carbonic
acid. On leaving the unit the treated water contains only calcium and magnesium due to non-alkaline
hardness and dissolved carbon dioxide equivalent to the alkaline hardness removed. The pH at
this stage is low, typically 4.4-5, owing to the high CO2 content and low total alkalinity. The water
leaving the cation column is then passed to a degassing tower where the carbon dioxide is removed
by the use of mechanical separation and an extraction fan. The third and final stage of the process
is to pass the treated water through a water softener where the non-alkaline hardness and residual
alkaline hardness is removed.

Note that when the cation exchange bed is exhausted, the alkalinity of the water leaving it starts
to rise, at this point a simple pH meter is used to trigger regeneration. Regeneration is effected
by passing a dilute solution of mineral acid through the column followed by flushing with raw water,
prior to returning the column to service.

1 2 3 4 5
Ca(HCO3) 2 2H2CO3 H2 O H2 O H2 O
MgCI2 MgCI2 MgCI2 MgCI2 2NaCl
Na 2SO 4 Na 2SO 4 Na 2SO 4 Na 2SO 4 Na 2SO 4
pH 7.6 pH 4.5-5.0 pH 4.5-5.0 pH 7.5-8.5

Acid regeneration Brine regeneration

1
4 SAC = Strong acid
cation resin
Na+ = Sodium form
WAC = Weak acid
cation resin

WAC SAC
H+ = Hydrogen form (H+) (Na+)

3
2 5
Softened water

Add NaOH to raise pH 7.5-8.5

1.21 EDB/1
Demineralization
The complete removal of all dissolved solids can be achieved by ion exchange using a combination
of cation and anion exchange resins. The operation of all ion exchange demineralizers is
conversion of the mineral salts into their corresponding acid by treatment of the water in a strong
acid cation exchanger and the subsequent removal of the acids by degassing and treatment in
an anion exchanger.

Anion exchangers differ from cation exchangers in that the resin is charged with mobile hydroxyl
ions (OH-) which can be changed for any other anion present in the water. Thus salts such as
sodium chloride are 'split' with the chloride ion being deposited onto the resin and the hydroxyl ion
associating with the sodium ion to form sodium hydroxide. Alternatively, when the OH- ion
combines with the H+ ion of the original acid, then water is actually produced. The acid is in effect
eliminated and the water thus demineralized. The type of water treatment is reserved for very
high pressure steam plant such as power stations; alternatively when water of such purity is
required for other process requirements, then it is often used as boiler water make-up. With mixed
bed demineralization (combined cation and anion resins in a common vessel) 'absolute' water
purity down to a conductivity of 0.05 s/cm can be achieved.

Na OH
Acid regeneration regeneration

Raw water 1
SBA = Strong base
TDS 300ppm 3 anion resin
OH- = Hydroxide form

Cation Anion
resin resin

SAC SBA
(H+) (OH-)
SAC = Strong acid
cation resin 3
H+ = Hydrogen form
2 4

Treated water with almost all

1 2 3 4 salts removed TDS<5ppm
Ca(HCO3) 2 2H2CO3 H2 O H2 O
MgCl2 2NCI 2HCI H2 O
Na 2SO 4 H 2SO4 H 2SO4 H2 O
Na 2SIO 3 H 2SIO3 H 2SIO3 H2 O
pH 7.6 pH 2.0-2.5 pH 2.0-2.5 pH 8.5-9.0

EDB/1 1.22
Internal (in the boiler) water treatment
Internal treatment may be by carbonate or phosphate control. In the former, sodium carbonate
or sometimes sodium hydroxide is added directly to the boiler water to maintain a controlled reserve
of carbonate alkalinity. This serves to precipitate the hardness salts as calcium carbonate,
magnesium hydroxide or silicate in the form of a mobile non-adherent sludge.

With phosphate control, trisodium phosphate and sodium carbonate (or hydroxide) are dosed
directly into the boiler water. By maintaining a reserve of soluble phosphate in the boiler water
together with a caustic alkalinity of 10/15% of the TDS concentration, the calcium hardness is
caused to precipitate as a calcium phosphate and the magnesium as hydroxide or silicate - soft
sludges.

There is no guarantee that the precipitate formed by internal treatment will have no scale forming
tendencies and indeed will be of adequate mobility since so much depends upon the crystalline
form and the relative proportions of the various precipitates produced. Sludge conditioners such
as organic polymers are often added to the carbonate control to ensure mobility and non-adherent
properties.

In order to reduce corrosion in the boiler it is essential to reduce the level of dissolved oxygen in
the feedwater to a minimum. The first step is taken outside the boiler through the use of deaerators
or simply by keeping the feedtank at as high a temperature as possible - the solubility of oxygen
in water reduces with increased temperature. The second step involves the addition of sodium
sulphite to the boiler which serves to eliminate any residual oxygen and to assist the alkalinity of
the boiler water in creating a protective magnetite film on the metal surfaces. One problem with
the use of sodium sulphite is that it adds to the TDS of the boiler water; an alternative which has
been used for many years especially for high pressure plant is hydrazine, this is toxic however
and cannot be used in food processing plants.

Boiler water TDS measurement

The actual method of measuring the concentration of dissolved solids is not too important since
it is simply a method of predicting the onset of carryover which we require. In practice the modern
method of measuring boiler water dissolved solids is to use a portable conductivity instrument. The
reading obtained in micro Siemens per centimetre (s/cm) is normally converted to total dissolved
solids (TDS) as follows:
Conductivity (s/cm) x 0.7 = TDS in parts per million (ppm).
(The total in total dissolved solids simply indicates that it is the sum or total of all the various
dissolved salts in the sample.)
There is nothing absolute about this relationship, but the factor of 0.7 is approximately valid for a
sample temperature of 25oC and a neutral (ie. not acid or alkaline) pH 7 solution. At higher
temperatures the conductivity increases at the rate of about 2% per oC. Similarly with either acid
or alkaline solutions the conductivity increases for a given TDS so for typical boiler waters which
are maintained alkaline it is necessary to neutralise the sample before measuring its conductivity.

Deciding on the required boiler water TDS

Conventional shell boilers are normally operated with the TDS in the range of 2000 ppm for very
small boilers up to about 3500 ppm for larger boilers. Provided the boiler is operating near to its
design pressure, that the steam load conditions are not too severe and that other boiler water
conditions are correctly controlled, blowing down the boiler to maintain these TDS levels should
ensure that reasonably clean and dry steam is delivered to the plant.
By gradually increasing the boiler water TDS and by measuring the TDS of the condensate from
the first steam trapping point along the steam main the onset of carryover can be determined. The
boiler water TDS should then be controlled below this figure.

1.23 EDB/1
Calculating the required blowdown rate
Before it is possible to select a suitable boiler blowdown TDS control system it is necessary to
estimate the amount of boiler water which has to be blown down. The following information is
required:

1. The required boiler water TDS in parts per million (as decided on page 1.23).

2. The feedwater TDS in parts per million. An average value may be obtained by looking at water
treatment records or a sample of feedwater may be obtained and its conductivity measured.
As with boiler water TDS measurement:

Conductivity (s/cm) x 0.7 = TDS in parts per million (ppm).

Note that the sample of feedwater which is required is from the boiler feed line or from the feed
tank, not a sample of the make-up feedwater.

3. The quantity of steam which the boiler generates, usually measured in kg/h or lb/h. For selecting
a blowdown system, the most important figure is usually the maximum quantity of steam that
the boiler can generate at full load.

When the above information is available the required blowdown rate can be calculated as follows:

Blowdown rate = F x S
(B - F)

where F = feedwater TDS in ppm

B = required boiler water TDS in ppm
S = steam generation rate in kg/h or lb/h

The blowdown rate is then given in kg/h or lb/h.

Controlling the TDS

The boiler water TDS could obviously be controlled by regular manual testing and manual operation
of the blowdown valve. For reasonably good control on most boilers, however, it would be
necessary to take samples two or three times a day. Most people would consider this unreasonable
and it is the main reason that automatic TDS control systems are installed. Different systems are
available to suit particular boilers but they all offer the following main advantages:

1. Maintain the boiler water TDS near the maximum allowable to minimise heat losses and water
treatment costs.

2. Prevent too high a TDS which would cause dirty steam, product contamination and blocked
steam traps.

3. Help to maintain a clean boiler without scale by ensuring predictable water conditions which can
be correctly treated.

4. Provide these advantages with the minimum of manual attention.

EDB/1 1.24
 Steam
Consumption
and Heating
Comparison of steam, high temperature hot water and high
temperature oil systems
STEAM HOT WATER HT OIL
1 High heat content. Moderate heat content. Poor heat content.
Specific heat of evaporation Specific heat capacity Specific heat capacity
approximately 2100 kJ/kg 4.2 kJ/kgoC 1.69 2.93 kJ/kgoC
2 Cheap but some water Cheap. Only occasional Expensive.
treatment cost. dosing.
3 Good heat transfer Moderate heat transfer Relatively poor heat
coefficients. coefficients. transfer coefficients.
4 High pressure required for High pressure required for Low pressures only to
high temperatures. high temperatures. get high temperatures.
5 No circulating pump required.Circulating pump required. Circulating pump required.
6 Small pipes. Large pipes. Larger pipes.
7 Easy to control with 2-way Less easy- 3-way valves or Less easy- 3-way valves
valves. differential pressure valves or differential pressure
may be required. valves may be required
8 Temperature breakdown easy Temperature breakdown Temperature breakdown
through reducing valve. less easy. less easy.
9 Steam traps required. No steam traps. No steam traps.
10 Condensate to be handled. No condensate handling. No condensate handling.
11 Flash problems. No flash problems. No flash problems
12 Blowdown loss. No blowdown loss. No blowdown loss.
13 Corrosion problems Less corrosion. Negligible corrosion.
14 Reasonable pipework Searching medium, welded Very searching medium,
required. or flanged joints usual. welded or flanged joints
usual.
15 No fire risk. No fire risk. Fire risk.
16 System flexible. System less flexible. System less flexible.

Categories of hot water heating systems (CIBSE* definition)

Category Flow Temperature
LTHW
(Low Temperature Hot Water) up to 100oC
MTHW
(Medium Temperature Hot Water) 100oC 120oC
HTHW
(High Temperature Hot Water) Over 120oC

*UK-Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers.

EDB/1 2.01
Steam consumption
Tanks and vats
Any tank or vat which is holding a liquid at a higher temperature than ambient will lose heat. Also,
many applications require the contained liquid to be raised from one temperature to another and
others are open tanks into which articles are dipped for processing. Therefore there are often
differences between start up and running loads. The heat load can be made up of some or all of the
following components:

1. The heat required to raise the temperature of the liquid from cold to its running level.
2. The heat required to raise the temperature of the tank structure from cold to its running level.
3. Heat losses from the surfaces of the tank.
4. Heat loss from the liquid surface.
5. Heat absorbed by cold articles dipped into the tank when the plant is running.

When calculating the starting load, the time that this takes must be determined. After the plant shuts
down at weekends, it is desirable to bring the tanks up to operating temperature as quickly as
possible on a Monday morning. However, unless the operating temperature is low, it may not be
feasible to have sufficient heating surface in the tank to warm up the contents very quickly. In
addition, the effect on the boiler plant and mains of a sudden peak heating up load must not be
overlooked, particularly in cold weather when heating systems will be on as well. Taking these
factors into account, a good average heating up time, in practice, is about 3 to 4 hours. Let us now
consider each component of the total heat load.

Raising the liquid temperature

Q = M x Cp x (T-t)

Where Q = Heat load .................................................. kJ

M = Mass of liquid ............................................ kg
Cp = Specific heat capacity of the liquid .. kJ/kg oC
t = Initial temperature ..................................... oC
T = Final temperature ..................................... oC

Both the relative density and the specific heat capacity of plating solutions are taken to be that of
water. The rate of heat input is then the heat required divided by the warming up time.

Raising the tank structure temperature

Heat is also required to raise the temperature of the tank structure and any conveyors used to carry
articles through the liquid. In the majority of cases this is so small in comparison with the other heat
requirements that it can be ignored.

Heat emission from plane surfaces

Heat transfer coefficients from flat vertical surfaces to air

o
Temperature difference C 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 170
Heat loss (approx) W/m2 C diff 10.7
o
11.5 12.4 13.3 14.3 15.5 16.7 17.9
For plain horizontal surfaces losing heat upwards, multiply the above figures by 1.3. For plain
horizontal surfaces losing heat downwards multiply by 0.65.

Heat losses from liquid surface

These are best determined by the use of the chart on page 2.03.

How to use the chart

Select the water surface temperature from the top scale and project a line downwards to the heat
loss curve. For still air conditions project a line horizontally from the intersection and read off the
heat loss from the left hand scale. If the air velocity is known, then project the horizontal line right
or left until it cuts the required velocity line, then project vertically down to the bottom scale from which
the heat loss can be read.

2.02 EDB/1
Heat absorbed by material being processed
This is readily calculated from the formula:
Heat absorbed = mass of material x specific heat capacity x temperature rise

Warming up
Total Heat Load = Heat to raise solution temperature + heat loss from tank surfaces + heat loss from
solution surface.

Running load
Total Running Load = Heat absorbed by immersed product (if applicable) + heat loss from tank
surfaces + heat loss from solution surface.

Heat loss from water surfaces

Bulk oil storage tanks

Heat losses from tanks
Heat transfer coefficient in W/m2 oC
temperature difference between oil
and surrounding air
Position Oil temperature Unlagged Lagged
Tank sheltered Up to 10oC 6.81 1.70
Up to 27oC 7.38 1.84
Up to 38oC 7.95 1.99
Tank exposed Up to 10oC 7.95 1.99
Up to 27oC 8.52 2.13
Up to 38oC 9.08 2.27
Tank in pit All temperatures 6.81

EDB/1 2.03
Warming up load

QS = m x Cp x ( T- t )

Where QS = Heat required .......................................................... kJ

m = Mass of oil .............................................................. kg
Cp = Specific heat capacity of oil .......................... kJ/kg OC
T = Final oil temperature .............................................. OC
t = Initial oil temperature .............................................. OC

Running load

Qr = U x A x ( T- ta )

Where Qr = Heat required ............................................................ kW

U = Overall heat transfer coefficient ...................... W/m2 OC
A = Heat transfer surface area ......................................... m2
T = Tank temperature ..................................................... OC
ta = Ambient air temperature ........................................... OC

The running losses will be affected by:

(a) Average temperature of the tank and its contents. Note: during the warm up period an arithmetic
mean of initial and final temperatures is normally used.

(b) The effect of lagging the tank.

(c) The effect of exposure to wind.

The influence of these can be accounted for by changing the overall heat transfer coefficient.

Steam coil sizing

The coil surface area required is calculated using the formula:-

Q = U x A x ( T1 - T2 )

Where Q = Rate of heat output from the coil to the liquid ................ W
U = Heat transfer coefficient from the steam
in the coil to the liquid .......................................... W/m2 OC
A = The surface area of coil ................................................ m2
T1 = The mean temperature of the heating surface .............. OC
T2 = Mean temperature of the liquid ...................................... OC

Heat transfer coefficients from pipes submerged in oils/fats

Published Overall Heat Transfer Rates W/m2 OC
Tank Coils, Steam/light oils - natural convection 170
Tank Coils, Steam/light oils - forced convection 568
Tank Coils, Steam/medium oils - forced convection 341
Tank Coils, Steam/heavy oils - natural convection 85 - 113
Tank Coils, Steam/heavy oils - forced convection 170
Tank Coils, Steam/fats* - natural convection 28 - 57
Tank Coils, Steam/molasses + - forced convection 85
* certain materials such as tallow and margarine are solid at normal temperatures but have quite
low viscosities in the molten state.
+ commercial molasses frequently contains water and the viscosity is much lower.

2.04 EDB/1
Heat transfer coefficients from pipes submerged in water
Published Overall Heat Transfer Rates W/m2 OC
Tank Coils, Steam/Water (Temperature difference 28OC) 568 to 1277
Tank Coils, Steam/Water (Temperature difference 56OC) 993 to 1703
Tank Coils, Steam/Water (Temperature difference 111OC) 1277 to 2697

Surface areas of steel pipes

Nominal bore 10 mm (3/8") 15 mm (1/2") 20 mm (3/4") 25 mm (1") 32 mm (11/4")
Surface m2/m length 0.054 0.067 0.085 0.106 0.134

Nominal bore 40 mm (11/2") 50 mm (2") 65 mm (21/2") 80 mm (3") 100 mm (4")

Surface m2/m length 0.152 0.189 0.239 0.279 0.358

Air heater batteries steam consumption

Most manufacturers of unit heaters and air heater batteries quote the output of their heaters in W.
From this the condensation rate can be calculated by dividing the heat output by the specific heat
of evaporation (hfg) at the relevant steam pressure. Thus a 44,000W unit heater operating at 3.5
bar g will condense:

44,000 W x 3.6 = 74.7 kg/h

2120 kJ/kg

Note: to enable the condensation rate to be expressed in kg/h instead of g/s, the constant 3.6 has
been added to the calculation.

If the manufacturers figures are not available, but the volume of air being heated, the temperature
rise and the steam pressure are known, the approximate condensation rate can be calculated from
the following formula:

W = V x 60 x t x Cp
hfg

Where W = Steam consumption ............................................. kg/h

V = Volume of air heated .................................. m3/minute
t = Temperature rise .................................................... OC
Cp = Specific heat of air at constant pressure 1.3 kJ/m3 OC
hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation ....................... kJ/kg

Heating calorifiers
Manufacturers usually declare the ratings of their heating calorifiers in W or kW and from this rating
the condensation rate can be calculated as for air heater batteries; however care should be taken
as calorifiers are often too large for the systems they are asked to serve. The initial heat load
calculations for the building will have included safety factors and the calorifier itself will have been
selected from a standard range with the probability that it will have a somewhat larger output than
the design figure. An idea of the actual load at any time can sometimes be obtained if flow and return
temperatures and the pumping rate are known.

EDB/1 2.05
Hot water storage calorifiers
Hot water storage calorifiers are designed to raise the temperature of the entire contents from cold
to the storage temperature within a specified period. The average rate at which steam is condensed
during the recovery period is calculated using the following formula:-
Q=WxCxt
hfg x H
Where Q = Rate of condensation .......................................... kg/h
W = Mass of water heated ............................................. kg
C = Specific heat capacity of water ........... 4.186 kJ/kg OC
t = Temperature rise .................................................... OC
hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation ....................... kJ/kg
H = Recovery time .......................................................... h

Air heating pipes

These are simple pipes with steam passing through them - the most simple form of heat exchanger.
The pipes are commonly used to provide background heating and may be in the form of single or
multiple pipes arranged horizontally or vertically. Pipes arranged into horizontal coils with several
rows of pipes one above the other and without any means of blowing air over them, become less
efficient as the number of pipes increase. A table covering such efficiency factors is shown below.
Heating pipes installed vertically are also less efficient than horizontal pipes - see table below. When
a fan is used to blow air over the pipe coils the heat emission is improved and the rate of condensation
is increased. The table below shows the increase factor. The steam consumption can be
determined using the formula:
Q = E x l x 3.6
hfg
Where Q = Rate of condensation ......................................... kg/h
E = Heat emission from page 1.11 ............................ W/m
l = Effective length of pipe ........................................... m
hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation at the
steam pressure .................................................. kJ/kg
3.6 = constant to give Q in kg/h

Approximate reduction in efficiency of banked pipes

No. of pipes high 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Efficiency factor 1.0 0.96 0.91 0.86 0.82 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.67 0.63

Approximate reduction in efficiency of vertical pipes

Pipe size 1/2" 3/4" 1" 11/4" 11/2" 2" 21/2" 3" 4" 6"
Efficiency factor 0.76 0.80 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.91 0.93 0.95 1.0

Approximate effect of air movement on heat emission from fully exposed pipes
Air velocity Heat emission factor
m/min m/s km/h
Still Still Still 1.0
60 1 3.6 1.4
180 3 10.8 2.1
300 5 18.0 2.7
420 7 25.2 3.3
540 9 32.4 3.9
660 11 39.6 4.3
780 13 46.8 4.7
900 15 54.0 5.1

Drying cylinders
Drying cylinders vary considerably and it is generally best to consult the manufacturer for details of
steam consumption or alternatively measure it directly by practical test. However, where the amount
of moisture to be removed is known, the steam consumption can be calculated from the following
formula, assuming that the wet and dry masses of the material being handled are known.

2.06 EDB/1
 Q = 1.5 ( MW - Md ) x 2550 + 1.26 Md ( T - t )
hfg
Where Q = Mass flow rate of steam ..................................... kg/h
MW = Wet mass of material .......................................... kg/h
Md = Dry mass of material .......................................... kg/h
T = Temperature of material leaving machine ............. OC
t = Temperature of material on to machine ................. OC
hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation (steam) .......... kJ/kg

Constants
1.5 = Factor applied to cylinder dryers.
2550 = Average enthalpy required to evaporate moisture.
1.26 = Average specific heat capacity of material.

Steam loads
Almost all heat loads fall into one of two categories. Either some material is to be heated from a lower
temperature to a higher one - or is to be maintained at a high temperature while heat is supplied at
a rate sufficient to balance the heat losses. In the first case the amount of heat needed to produce
the change in temperature is given by:
Q = M x C x t

Where Q = Heat load ................................................................ kJ

M = Mass of material .................................................... kg
C = Specific heat capacity .................................. kJ/kg OC
t = Temperature rise ................................................... OC

More usefully, since the steam flow rate is sought, rather than the mass of steam:

q = Q = M x C x t
h h

Where q = Heat flow rate ................................................ kJ/h

h = time available .................................................... h

Then if hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation of the steam at the relevant pressure, then

QS = M x C x t
hfg x h

QS = Mass flow rate of steam ............................... kg/h

hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation ................. kJ/kg

The second case is the supply of heat at a rate which balances the heat losses, and here the heat
load is given by:
qr = U x A x t
Where qr = Heat flow rate ................................................ kJ/h
U = Heat transfer rate coefficient
(through the surface involved) .............. kJ/m2 OCh
t = Temperature difference
(across surface involved) ................................ OC
A = Area of surface involved .................................. m2

Then if hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation of the steam at the relevant pressure,

Qr = U x A x t
hfg

Where Qr = Mass flow rate of steam ............................... kg/h

EDB/1 2.07
 Relative densities/specific heat capacities of various materials
Material Relative SHC Relative SHC
o o
Density kJ/kg C Material Density KJ/kg C
Aluminium 2.55-2.8 0.92 Garnet 0.75
Andalusite 0.71 Glass, common 2.4-2.8 0.83
Antimony 0.2 Glass, crystal 2.9-3.0 0.5
Apatite 0.83 Glass, plate 2.45-2.72 0.5
Asbestos 2.1-2.8 0.83 Glass, wool 0.66
Augite 0.79 Gold 19.25-19.35 0.12
Bakelite, wood filler 1.38 Granite 2.4-2.7 0.79
Bakelite, asbestos filler 1.59 Haematite 5.2 0.66
Barite 4.5 0.46 Homblende 3.0 0.83
Barium 3.5 2.93 Hypersthene 0.79
o
Basalt rock 2.7-3.2 0.83 Ice, -79 C 1.46
o
Beryl 0.83 Ice, -40 C 1.79
o
Bismuth 9.8 0.12 Ice, -20 C 1.96
o
Borax 1.7-1.8 1.0 Ice, 0 F 2.05
Boron 2.32 1.29 Iridium 21.78-22.42 0.12
Cadmium 8.65 0.25 Iron, cast 7.03-7.13 0.5
o
Calcite 0 - 37 C 0.79 Iron, wrought 7.6-7.9 0.5
o
Calcite 0 - 100 C 0.83 Labradorite 0.79
Calcium 4.58 0.62 Lava 0.83
Carbon 1.8-2.1 0.71 Lead 11.34 0.12
Carborundum 0.66 Limestone 2.1-2.86 0.92
Cassiterite 0.37 Magnetite 3.2 0.66
Cement, dry 1.54 Magnesium 1.74 1.04
Cement, powder 0.83 Malachite 0.75
Charcoal 1.0 Manganese 7.42 0.46
Chalcopyrite 0.54 Marble 2.6-2.86 0.79
Chromium 7.1 0.5 Mercury 13.6 0.12
Clay 1.8-2.6 0.92 Mica 0.87
Coal 0.64-0.93 1.08-1.54 Molybdenum 10.2 0.25
Cobalt 8.9 0.46 Nickel 8.9 0.46
Concrete, stone 0.79 Oligloclose 0.87
Concrete, cinder 0.75 Orthoclose 0.79
Copper 8.8-8.95 0.37 Plaster of Paris 4.77
Corundum 0.41 Platinum 21.45 0.12
Diamond 3.51 0.62 Porcelain 1.08
Dolomite rock 2.9 0.92 Potassium 0.86 0.54
Fluorite 0.92 Pyrexglass 0.83
Fluorspar 0.87 Pyrolusite 0.66
Galena 0.2 Pyroxylin plastics 1.42-1.59

2.08 EDB/1
 Relative densities/specific heat capacities of various materials
Material Relative SHC Material Relative SHC
Density kJ/kgC Density kJ/kgC
Quartz, 12.8-100C 2.5-2.8 0.79 Tar 1.2 1.46
Quartz, 0C 0.71 Tellurium 6.0-6.24 0.2
Rock salt 0.92 Tin 7.2-7.5 0.2
Rubber 2.0 Tile, hollow 0.62
Sandstone 2.0-2.6 0.92 Titanium 4.5 0.58
Serpentine 2.7-2.8 1.08 Topaz 0.87
Silk 1.38 Tungsten 19.22 0.16
Silver 10.4-10.6 0.25 Vanadium 5.96 0.5
Sodium 0.97 1.25 Vulcanite 1.38
Steel 7.8 0.5 Wood 0.35-0.99 1.33-2.0
Stone 0.83 Wool 1.32 1.38
Stoneware 0.79 Zinc blend 3.9-4.2 0.46
Talc 2.6-2.8 0.87 Zinc 6.9-7.2 0.37

Relative densities/specific heat capacities of various liquids

Liquid Relative SHC Liquid Relative SHC
Density kJ/kgC Density kJ/kgC
Acetone 0.790 2.13 Fuel oil 0.86 1.88
Alcohol, ethyl, 0C 0.789 2.30 Fuel oil 0.81 2.09
Alcohol, ethyl, 40C 0.789 2.72 Gasoline 2.21
Alcohol,methyl, 4-10C 0.796 2.46 Glycerine 1.26 2.42
Alcohol,methyl, 15-21C 0.796 2.51 Kerosene 2.0
Ammonia 0C 0.62 4.6 Mercury 19.6 1.38
Ammonia 40C 4.85 Naphthalene 1.14 1.71
Ammonia 80C 5.39 Nitrobenzole 1.5
Ammonia 100C 6.19 Olive oil 0.91-0.94 1.96
Ammonia 114C 6.73 Petroleum 2.13
Anilin 1.02 2.17 Potassium hydrate 1.24 3.68
Benzol 1.75 Sea water 1.0235 3.93
Calcium chloride 1.20 3.05 Sesame oil 1.63
Castor oil 1.79 Sodium chloride 1.19 3.3
Citron oil 1.84 Sodium hydrate 1.27 3.93
Diphenylamine 1.16 1.92 Soybean oil 1.96
Ethyl ether 2.21 Toluol 0.866 1.5
Ethylene Glycol 2.21 Turpentine 0.87 1.71
Fuel oil 0.96 1.67 Water 1 4.18
Fuel oil 0.91 1.84 Xylene 0.861-0.881 1.71

EDB/1 2.09
 Specific heat capacities of gases and vapours
Specific heat Specific heat
capacity capacity
o o
Gas or vapour kJ/kg C Gas or vapour kJ/kg C
(constant pressure) (constant pressure)
Acetone 1.31 Chloroform 0.54
o
Air, dry, 10 C 0.71 Ether 1.95
o
Air, dry, 0 - 199 C 0.72 Hydrochloric acid 0.56
o
Air, dry, 20 - 440 C 0.74 Hydrogen 10.0
o
Air, dry, 20 - 461 C 0.77 Hydrogen sulphide 0.79
o
Air, dry, 20 - 798 C 0.78 Methane 1.86
Alcohol, C2 H5 OH 1.66 Nitrogen 0.71
Alcohol, CH3 OH 1.53 Nitric oxide 0.69
Ammonia 1.76 Nitrogen tetroxide 4.59
Argon 0.3 Nitrous oxide 0.69
Benzene, C6 H6 0.98 Oxygen 0.65
o
Bromine 0.19 Steam, 0.68 bar 49 - 315 C 1.46
o
Carbon dioxide 0.62 Steam, 1 bar 104 - 315 C 1.5
o
Carbon monoxide 0.71 10 bar 182 - 315 C 1.76
Carbon disulphide 0.55 Sulphur dioxide 0.49
Chlorine 3.43

2.10 EDB/1
Heat transmission of jacketed vessels: overall coefficients
Overall U *
o
Jacketed Fluid Heated Fluid Wall Material W/m2 C
Steam Water Stainless steel 850-1700
Steam Aqueous solution Stainless steel 450-1140
Steam Organics Stainless steel 285-850
Steam Light Oil Stainless steel 340-910
Steam Heavy Oil Stainless steel 57-285

Brine Water Stainless steel 230-1625

Brine Aqueous solution Stainless steel 200-850
Brine Organics Stainless steel 170-680
Brine Light Oil Stainless steel 200-740
Brine Heavy Oil Stainless steel 57-170

Heat transfer oil Water Stainless steel 285-1140

Heat transfer oil Aqueous solution Stainless steel 230-965
Heat transfer oil Organics Stainless steel 170-680
Heat transfer oil Light oil Stainless steel 200-740
Heat transfer oil Heavy oil Stainless steel 57-230

Steam Water Glass lined CS 400-570

Steam Aqueous solution Glass lined CS 285-480
Steam Organics Glass lined CS 170-400
Steam Light oil Glass lined CS 230-425
Steam Heavy oil Glass lined CS 57-230

Brine Water Glass lined CS 170-450

Brine Aqueous solution Glass lined CS 140-400
Brine Organics Glass lined CS 115-340
Brine Light oil Glass lined CS 140-370
Brine Heavy oil Glass lined CS 57-170

Heat transfer oil Water Glass lined CS 170-450

Heat transfer oil Aqueous solution Glass lined CS 140-400
Heat transfer oil Organics Glass lined CS 140-370
Heat transfer oil Light oil Glass lined CS 115-400
Heat transfer oil Heavy oil Glass lined CS 57-200

* Values listed are for moderate nonproximity agitation. CS = carbon steel.

Estimating steam tracer loads

Data needed for calculation
It is necessary to specify:
a) The size and length of the process line to be traced.
b) The temperature to be maintained, Tp.
c) The thickness of the insulation.
d) The minimum ambient temperature, t m.
e) The steam pressure to be used in the tracer, and its temperature. Tt.
Note that the method allows for wind of 32 km/h (20 mph) which increases the heat loss from the
line. Where the line is within a building, the loss is reduced by a factor which varies with pipe and
insulation thickness but is usually only about 5%.
Method
Step 1) Find the mean of the process pipe and tracer line temperatures. Tpt ave = 1/2 (Tp + Tt)
Step 2) Subtract the minimum ambient temperature. T1 = Tpt ave. t m
Step 3) Locate ] T1, in the abscissa of Fig. 1, and follow a vertical from this point to the intersection
with the process pipe size. Read, to the left, the Heat Loss in W/m. (This heat loss is on the
basis of 2" 50mm insulation thickness).

EDB/1 2.11
Step 4) Locate in Fig. 2 the intersection of the actual insulation thickness and the pipe size. Read,
to the left, a multiplying factor F1.
Step 5) Find the average temperature of the insulation, T1 ave = 1/2 (Tpt + t m).
The conductivity of the insulation varies with this temperature.
Step 6) Locate in Fig. 3 the intersection of T1 ave and the sloping line and read, to the left, a
multiplying factor F2.
Step 7) Multiply the heat loss from Step 3 by F1 and F2. Corrected Heat Loss = W/m x F1 x F2. This
amount of heat must be supplied through the tracer. Multiplying by the length of the line in
m will give the total heat flow in W. Dividing this value by the specific enthalpy of evaporation
in J/kg gives the total steam load in kg/s.
Step 8) Subtract the temperature to be maintained, Tp, from the steam temperature Tt.
T2 = Tt Tp.
Step 9) In Fig. 4 follow a vertical from T2 to the required heat input in W/m, and read the number
and size of tracers next about the intersection point. Tracer outputs in Fig. 4 are based on
steel pipe, in inch sizes, or copper tube in mm sizes. The output from SS tube although a little
less than that of copper tube is sufficiently close that Fig.4 may be used in either case.

Fig. 1 Heat loss in W/m, at T1

Fig. 3 Correction for insulation temperature

2.12 EDB/1
Fig. 2 Correction for insulation thickness

Fig. 4 Tracer heat flow

EDB/1 2.13
No. of 1/ 2" Tracers from local distribution header
Header Size No. of 15mm/1/2" Tracers
20mm 3/ 4" 2
25mm 1" 35
40mm 11/ 2" 6 - 15
50mm 2" 16 30

Steam connection size for jacketed lines

Product Line Jacket Diameter Steam Connection
65mm 21/ 2" 100mm 4" 15mm 1
/ 2"
3
80mm 3" 150mm 6" 20mm /4"
3
100mm 4" 150mm 6" 20mm /4"
3
150mm 6" 200mm 8" 20mm /4"
200mm 8" 250mm 10" 25mm 1"
250mm 10" 300mm 12" 25mm 1"

2.14 EDB/1
Estimating steam flowrates for water heating
The following chart enables an estimate to be made of the steam flowrate required to heat up a tank
in one hour or to produce a particular temperature rise in a boiler feedtank. For boiler feedtanks note
that Feedwater flowrate = Steam Generation Rate + Blowdown Rate.

Examples:
1. My tank size is 1.5 x 2 x 1.5m high. I want to heat it up from 20 to 40oC in an hour. Assume the
tank is full. The tank volume = 4.5 m3 = 4500 l (4500 kg). From the graph the required injected steam
rate = 155 kg/h.

2. My tank is the same as example 1, but I want to heat it up in 20 minutes. Since it is required to
heat it up 3 times faster, then the injected steam rate will be three times as great i.e. 465 kg/h.

3. I want to heat up my boiler hotwell from 30 to 90oC. I have two boilers steaming all year round.
They are each generating a maximum of 10 000 lb/h and my blowdown rate is 5%. Total steam
generation rate = 20 000 lb/h. Total blowdown rate = 5% of 20 000 = 1 000 lb/h. Hence, feedwater
flowrate = 20 000 + 1 000 = 21 000 lb/h. From the graph the required injected steam rate = 1 000
kg/h.

EDB/1 2.15
Space heating information

Units
The specific heat capacity of a substance is defined as the heat required to raise unit mass (1 kg)
through 1oC. Units are J/kgoC more commonly used in kJ/kgoC form.

Note: Water has a specific heat capacity of 4187 J/kgoC = 4.187 kJ/kgoC.

Intensity of Heat Flow Rate or

Density of Heat Flow Rate W/m2
Heat Transfer Coefficient or
Thermal Conductivity W/m2 oC
Flow rate, mass kg/s
Flow rate, volume m3/s or l/s
Heat per unit mass kJ/kg

Rule of thumb heat loss

Dwellings 40 to 60 W/m3
Buildings up to 3000m3 30 to 40 W/m3
Buildings above 3000m3 15 to 30 W/m3

Heat losses
The rate of heat loss due to air change is normally obtained from:-
Q = V x c x (t1 t2)

Where:- V = rate of ventilation m3/s

c = Specific heat capacity J/m3 oC
Q = Rate of heat loss J/s or W

Note: Specific heat of air is 1200 J/m3 oC.

Using standard values this simplifies to:

Q = 0.33 N V (t1 t2)

where:- N = number of air changes

V = room volume m3
t1 = internal temperature
t2 = external temperature

Typical air infiltration rates for normal winter heating excluding mechanical ventilation

Building Air infiltration rate (change/ h)

Art Gallery 1

Bank 1 1

Church

Restaurant

Flats
Living rooms 1
Bedrooms

Offices 1
Shops 1

2.16 EDB/1
Ventilation requirements (mechanical ventilation) for various building types

Building Air changes/ h

Boiler houses 15/30

Banks 6

Conference rooms 6/10

Dining halls/ restaurants 10/15

Kitchens (Industrial/hotel) 20

Laundries 10/15

Libraries, museums and galleries 3/4

Theatres 6/10

U values, definitions and symbols

Thermal conductivity k The thermal transmission in unit time through unit area
of a slab, of a uniform homogeneous material of unit
thickness, when unit difference of temperature is
established between its surfaces (W/moC)

Thermal resistivity 1/k The reciprocal of thermal conductivity (moC/W)

Thermal conductance = k/L C The thermal transmission in unit time through unit area
of a uniform structural component or structure of thickness
L, per unit of temperature difference between the hot and
cold surfaces (W/m2 oC)

Thermal resistance R The reciprocal of thermal conductance (m2 oC/W)

Thermal transmittance
U The thermal transmission in unit time through unit area
of a given structure (e.g. a wall consisting of bricks,
thermal insulation, cavities etc.) divided by the difference
between the environmental temperature on either side
of the structure (W/m2 oC)

Standard thermal transmittance U The value for the thermal transmittance of a building
element (standard U value) related to standard conditions
(W/m2 oC)

Design thermal transmittance U A value of the thermal transmittance of a building element

(Design U value) for the prevailing design conditions (W/m2 oC)

EDB/1 2.17
U values for external walls (Masonry construction)
U value (W/m2 oC)
Construction Normal
Sheltered (standard) Severe

Brickwork
1. Solid wall, unplastered .......................................... 105 mm 3.0 3.3 3.6
.............................................................................. 220 mm 2.2 2.3 2.4
.............................................................................. 335 mm 1.6 1.7 1.8

2. Solid wall, with 16mm plaster on inside face

(a) With dense plaster ........................................... 105 mm 2.8 3.0 3.2
............................................................................. 220 mm 2.0 2.1 2.2
.............................................................................. 335 mm 1.6 1.7 1.8
(b) With lightweight plaster .................................... 105 mm 2.3 2.5 2.7
.............................................................................. 220 mm 1.8 1.9 2.0
............................................................................. 335 mm 1.4 1.5 1.6

3. Solid wall, with 10mm plasterboard lining fixed to

brickwork with plaster dabs ................................... 105 mm 2.6 2.8 3.0
.............................................................................. 220 mm 1.9 2.0 2.1
............................................................................. 335 mm 1.5 1.6 1.7

4. Cavity wall (unventilated) with 105mm outer and

inner leaves with 16mm plaster on inside face ...... 260 mm
(a) With dense plaster ........................................................ 1.4 1.5 1.6
(b) With lightweight plaster ................................................. 1.3 1.3 1.3

5. As 4, but with 230mm outer leaf and

105mm inner leaf 375 mm
(a) With dense plaster ........................................................ 1.2 1.2 1.2
(b) With lightweight plaster ................................................. 1.1 1.1 1.1

Brickwork/lightweight concrete block

6. Cavity wall (unventilated), with 105mm brick outer leaf
100mm lightweight concrete block inner leaf and with
16mm dense plaster on inside face ....................... 260 mm 0.93 0.96 0.98

7. As 6, but with 13mm expanded polystyrene board

in cavity .............................................................................. 0.69 0.70 0.71

Lightweight concrete block

8. Solid wall, 150mm aerated concrete block, with tile
hanging externally and with 16mm plaster on
inside face .......................................................................... 0.95 0.97 1.0

9. Cavity wall (unventilated), with 75mm aerated concrete

block outer leaf, rendered externally, 100mm aerated
concrete block inner leaf and with 16mm plaster on inside
face 50mm cavity ............................................................... 0.82 0.84 0.86

10. Concrete Cast ........................................................ 150mm 3.2 3.5 3.9

............................................................................... 200mm 2.9 3.1 3.4

11. Cast, 150mm thick, with 50mm woodwool slab

permanent shuttering on inside face finished with
16mm dense plaster ........................................................... 1.1 1.1 1.1

12. As 11, but 200mm thick ...................................................... 1.1 1.1 1.1

13. Pre-cast panels, 75mm thick .............................................. 3.9 4.3 4.8

2.18 EDB/1
U values for external walls (Masonry construction) (cont'd)
U value (W/m2 oC)
Construction Normal
Sheltered (standard) Severe

14. As 13, but with 50mm cavity and sandwhich lining

panels, composed of 5mm asbestos-cement sheet,
25mm expanded polystyrene and 10mm plasterboard ...... 0.79 0.80 0.82

15. Pre-cast sandwhich panels comprising 75mm dense

concrete, 25mm expanded polystyrene and 150mm
lightweight concrete. .......................................................... 0.71 0.72 0.73

16. Pre-cast panels 38mm on timber battens and framing

with 10mm platerboard lining and 50mm glass-fibre
insulation in cavity
(Assumed 10% area of glass fibre bridged by timber) ........ 0.61 0.62 0.63

U values for external walls (Curtain wall construction)

U value (W/m2 oC)
Construction Normal
Sheltered (standard) Severe

Composite cladding panels

1. Comprising 25mm expanded polystyrene between 5mm
asbestos- cement sheets set in metal framing, 50mm
cavity, 100mm lightweight concrete block inner wall,
finished with 16mm plaster rendering on inside face .......... 0.79 0.81 0.83
(Assumed 5% area of expanded polystyrene bridged by
metal framing)

2. Obscured glass, 38mm expanded polystyrene cavity

100mm lightweight concrete back-up wall,
dense plaster ...................................................................... 0.51 0.51 0.52

3. Stove-enamelled steel sheet, 10mm asbestos board,

cavity, 100mm lightweight concrete back-up wall,
dense plaster ...................................................................... 1.1 1.1 1.1

Curtain walling panelling with 5% bridging by metal

mullions, 150 mm x 50 mm wide
4. With mullion projecting outside, flush inside:
Panel construction 2 ........................................................... 0.8 0.9 0.9
Panel construction 3 .......................................................... 1.4 1.4 1.5

5. With mullion projecting inside and outside:

Panel construction 2 ........................................................... 1.3 1.5 1.8
Panel construction 3 .......................................................... 1.9 2.1 2.4

Curtain walling panelling with 10% bridging by

metal mullions 150 mm x 50 mm wide
6. With mullion projecting outside, flush inside:
Panel construction 2 ........................................................... 1.2 1.2 1.3
Panel construction 3 .......................................................... 1.7 1.7 1.8

7. With mullion projecting inside and outside:

Panel construction 2 ........................................................... 2.2 2.5 3.0
Panel construction 3 ........................................................... 2.7 3.1 3.6

EDB/1 2.19
U values for external walls (Framed construction)
U value (W/m2 oC)
Construction Normal
Sheltered (standard) Severe

Tile Hanging
1. On timber battens and framing with 10mm plasterboard
lining, 50mm glass-fibre insulation in the cavity and
building paper behind the battens ....................................... 0.64 0.65 0.66
(Assumed 10% area of glass fibre bridged by timber)

Weatherboarding
2. On timber framing with 10mm plasterboard lining, 50mm
glass-fibre insulation in the cavity and building paper
behind the boarding ............................................................ 0.61 0.62 0.63
(Assumed 10% area of glass fibre bridged by timer)

Corrugated sheeting
3. 5mm thick asbestos-cement ............................................... 4.7 5.3 6.1
(No allowance has been made for effect of corrugations on
heat loss)

4. As 3, but with cavity and aluminium foil-backed

plasterboard lining ............................................................... 1.7 1.8 1.9

5. Double-skin asbestos-cement with 25mm glass-fibre

insulation in between .......................................................... 1.1 1.1 1.1

6. As 5, but with cavity and aluminium foil-backed

plasterboard lining ............................................................... 0.76 0.78 0.79

7. Aluminium:
(a) Bright surface outside and inside .................................. 2.4 2.6 2.9
(b) Dull surface outside, bright surface inside ..................... 2.6 2.8 3.0

8. As 7, but with cavity and aluminium foil-backed

plasterboard lining:
(a) Bright surface outside ................................................... 1.7 1.8 1.9
(b) Dull surface outside ....................................................... 1.8 1.9 2.0

9. Plastic-covered steel .......................................................... 5.0 5.7 6.6

10. As 9, but with cavity and aluminium foil-backed

plasterboard lining ............................................................... 1.8 1.9 2.0

2.20 EDB/1
U values for flat or pitched roofs
U value (W/m2 oC)
Construction Normal
Sheltered (standard) Severe

1. Asphalt 19mm thick or felt/bitumen layers * on solid

concrete 150mm thick (treated as exposed) ...................... 3.1 3.4 3.7

2. As 1, but with 50mm lightweight concrete screed and

16mm plaster ceiling .......................................................... 2.1 2.2 2.3

3. As 2, but with screed laid to falls, average 100mm thick .... 1.7 1.8 1.9

4. Asphalt 19mm thick or felt/bitumen layers * on 150mm

thick autoclaved aerated concrete roof slabs ..................... 0.87 0.88 0.89

5. Asphalt 19mm thick or felt/bitumen layers * on hollow tiles

150mm thick ....................................................................... 2.1 2.2 2.3

6. As 5, but with 50mm lightweight concrete screed and

16mm plaster ceiling .......................................................... 1.5 1.6 1.7

7. As 6, but with screed laid to falls, average 100mm thick .... 1.4 1.4 1.5

8. Asphalt 19mm thick or felt/bitumen layers * on 13mm

cement and sand screed, 50mm woodwool slabs on
timber joists and aluminium foil-backed 10mm
plasterboard ceiling, sealed to prevent moisture
penetration ......................................................................... 0.88 0.90 0.92

9. As 8, but with 25mm glass-fibre insulation laid between

joints ................................................................................... 0.59 0.60 0.6

10. Asphalt 19mm thick or felt/bitumen layers * on 13mm

cement and sand screed on 50mm metal edge
reinforced woodwool slabs on steel framing, with vapour
barrier at inside ................................................................... 1.4 1.4 1.5

11. As 10, but with cavity and aluminium foil-backed 10mm

plasterboard ceoling below steel framing (Bridging effect
of framing neglected. Assumed that aluminium foil acts
as vapour barrier) ............................................................... 0.88 0.90 0.92

12. Asphalt 19mm thick or felt/bitumen layers * on 13mm

fibre insulation board on hollow or cavity asbestos-
cement decking, with vapour barrier at inside .................... 1.4 1.5 1.6

13. As 12, but with 25mm glass-fibre insulation in cavity,

with vapour barrier .............................................................. 0.72 0.73 0.74

14. Felt/bitumen layers * on 25mm expanded polystyrene on

hollow or cavity asbestos decking, with vapour barrier ...... 0.85 0.87 0.89

15. Asphalt 19mm thick or felt/bitumen layers * on 13mm

fibre insulation board on metal decking, with vapour barrier 2.1 2.2 2.3

16. Felt/bitumen layers * on 25mm expanded polystyrene on

metal decking, with vapour barrier ...................................... 1.1 1.1 1.1

* The difference between the thermal resistance values of 19mm asphalt and three layers of roofing
felt set in bitumen is sufficiently small to be ignored.

EDB/1 2.21
U values for pitched roofs (35 o Slope)
U value (W/m2 oC
Construction Normal
Sheltered (standard) Severe

1. Tiles on battens, roofing felt and rafters, with roof space

and aluminium foil-backed 10mm plasterboard ceiling on
joists ................................................................................... 1.4 1.5 1.6

2. As 1, but with boarding on rafters ....................................... 1.3 1.3 1.3

3. As 2, but with 50mm fibre-glass insulation between joists .. 0.49 0.50 0.51

4. Corrugated asbestos-cement sheeting ............................... 5.3 6.1 7.2

5. As 4, but with cavity and aluminium foil-backed 10mm

plasterboard lining .............................................................. 1.8 1.9 2.0

6. Corrugated double-skin asbestos-cement sheeting with

25mm glass-fibre insulation between (No allowance has
been made for effect of corrugations on heat loss .............. 1.1 1.1 1.1

7. As 6, but with cavity and aluminium foil-backed 10mm

plasterboard lining; ventilated air space ............................. 0.79 0.80 0.82

8. Corrugated aluminium sheeting .......................................... 3.3 3.8 4.3

9. As 8, but with cavity and aluminium foil-backed 10mm

plasterboard lining .............................................................. 1.8 1.9 2.0

10. Corrugated plastic covered steel sheeting .......................... 5.7 6.7 8.1

11. As 10, but with cavity and aluminium foil-backed 10mm

plasterboard lining; ventilated air space ............................. 1.9 2.0 2.1

U values for solid floors in contact with the earth with four exposed edges

U values
Dimensions of floor (W/m2 C of inside/outside temperature difference)

Very long x 30m broad ..................................................................................... 0.16*

Very long x 15m ............................................................................................... 0.28*
Very long x 1.5m .............................................................................................. 0.48*

150m x 60m .................................................................................................. 0.11

150m x 30m .................................................................................................. 0.18

60m x 60m .................................................................................................. 0.15

60m x 30m .................................................................................................. 0.21
60m x 15m .................................................................................................. 0.32
30m x 30m .................................................................................................. 0.26
30m x 15m .................................................................................................. 0.36
30m x 7.5m .................................................................................................. 0.55
15m x 15m .................................................................................................. 0.45
15m x 7.5m .................................................................................................. 0.62
7.5m x 7.5m .................................................................................................. 0.76
3m x 3m .................................................................................................. 1.47

* Applies also for any floor of this breadth and losing heat from two parallel edges. (Breadth here
is the distance between the exposed edges).

2.22 EDB/1
U values for solid floors in contact with the earth having two exposed
edges at right angles.
U values
Dimensions of floor (W/m2 oC of inside/outside temperature difference)

Very long x 30m broad ..................................................................................... 0.09

Very long x 15m ............................................................................................... 0.16
Very long x 5.5m .............................................................................................. 0.28

150m x 60m .................................................................................................. 0.06

150m x 30m .................................................................................................. 0.10

60m x 60m .................................................................................................. 0.08

60m x 30m .................................................................................................. 0.12
60m x 15m .................................................................................................. 0.18

30m x 30m .................................................................................................. 0.15

30m x 15m .................................................................................................. 0.21
30m x 7.5m .................................................................................................. 0.32

15m x 15m .................................................................................................. 0.26

15m x 7.5m .................................................................................................. 0.36

7.5m x 7.5m .................................................................................................. 0.45

3m x 3m .................................................................................................. 1.07

U values for suspended timber floors directly above ground.

U values
(W/m2 oC of inside/outside temperature difference)

Bare or with linoleum, With carpet, parquet or

Actual dimensions of floor plastic or rubber tiles * cork tiles

Very long x 30m broad ....................... 0.18 ................................................... 0.18

Very long x 15m .................................. 0.33 ................................................... 0.33
Very long x 7.5m ................................. 0.53 ................................................... 0.52

150m x 60m ...................................... 0.14 ................................................... 0.14

150m x 30m ...................................... 0.21 ................................................... 0.21

60m x 60m ...................................... 0.16 ................................................... 0.16

60m x 30m ...................................... 0.24 ................................................... 0.24
60m x 15m ...................................... 0.37 ................................................... 0.36
30m x 30m ...................................... 0.28 ................................................... 0.27
30m x 15m ...................................... 0.39 ................................................... 0.38
30m x 7.5m ...................................... 0.57 ................................................... 0.55
15m x 15m ...................................... 0.45 ................................................... 0.44
15m x 7.5m ...................................... 0.61 ................................................... 0.59
7.5m x 7.5m ...................................... 0.68 ................................................... 0.65
3m x 3m ...................................... 1.05 ................................................... 0.99

* Assuming Rs = 0.20. Assuming Rs = 0.26.

EDB/1 2.23
U values for intermediate floors.
U values
o
(W/m2 C)

Construction Heat flow Heat flow

downwards upwards

Wood
20mm wood floor on 100mm x 50mm joists, 10mm .............. 1.5 1.7
plasterboard ceiling, allowing for 10% bridging by joists ...... 1.4 1.6

Concrete
150mm concrete with 50mm screed ..................................... 2.2 2.7
with 20mm wood flooring ...................................................... 1.7 2.0

Hollow tile floors

With 50mm dense concrete over and between tiles

tile thickness .............................................................. 150mm 1.7 2.0

.................................................................................. 200mm 1.6 1.9
.................................................................................. 250mm 1.5 1.8

as above with 20mm wood flooring

tile thickness .............................................................. 150mm 1.4 1.6

.................................................................................. 200mm 1.3 1.5
.................................................................................. 250mm 1.2 1.4

U values for glazing (without frames)

U value
o
(W/m2 C)

Construction Normal
Sheltered (standard) Severe

Single window glazing .......................................................... 5.0 5.6 6.7

Double window glazing with air space ................................

20mm or more .............................................................. ( in) 2.8 2.9 3.2
12mm ........................................................................... ( in) 2.8 3.0 3.3
6mm .............................................................................. ( in) 3.2 3.4 3.8
3mm .............................................................................. (1/ 8 in) 3.6 4.0 4.4

Triple window glazing with air space

20mm or more .............................................................. ( in) 1.9 2.0 2.1
2mm .............................................................................. ( in) 2.0 2.1 2.2
6mm .............................................................................. ( in) 2.3 2.5 2.6
3mm .............................................................................. (1/ 8 in) 2.8 3.0 3.3

Roof glazing skylight ............................................................ 5.7 6.6 7.9

Horizontal laylight with skylight or lantern light over

Ventilated ................................................................................ 3.5 3.8 4.2
Unventilated ............................................................................ 2.8 3.0 3.3

2.24 EDB/1
U values for typical windows.
Fraction of area U values for stated exposure
o
Window type occupied by (W/m2 C)
frame Sheltered Normal Severe
Single glazing :
Wood frame ......................................... 30% 3.8 4.3 5.0
Metal frame ......................................... 20% 5.0 5.6 6.7

Double glazing: Wood frame ............ 30% 2.3 2.5 2.7

Metal frame with thermal break ........ 20% 3.0 3.2 3.5

Note: Where the proportion of frame differs appreciably from the above tabulated values, particularly
with wood or plastic, the U values should be calculated (metal members have a U value similar to
glass).

Typical HWS storage and boiler power

Building Storage at 65oC (litre/person) Boiler power at 65oC (kW/person)

Boarding School 25 0.7

Day School 5 0.1

Factories 5 1.2

Hotels
First class 4.5 1.2
Average 3.5 0.9

Offices 5 0.1

System characteristics
In the piping system, there is resistance to water flow because of pipe friction. This frictional
resistance will vary with the amount of flow. If we try to push more water through a given size of pipe,
the frictional resistance will increase, as will the velocity at which it is pushed through the pipe. The
resistance varies with the amount of flow approximately in proportion to the square of the velocity
of the water. This relationship can be shown graphically, using the formula:-

P Q2 where:- P = pressure (kPa)

Q = capacity (kg/s)
2
P1 = Q1
P2 Q2

Where:- P1 = loss of pressure at flow Q1

P2 = loss of pressure at flow Q2

Pumps
Pump laws
Certain laws govern the relative performance of centrifugal pumps which can be stated briefly as
follows:-
1. Capacity delivered varies directly as the speed of rotation.
Q2 = N2
Q1 N1
2. Pressure developed varies as the speed of rotation squared.
2
H2 = N2
H1 N1

EDB/1 2.25
3. Power absorbed varies as the speed of rotation cubed.
3
P2 = N2
P1 N1

where:- Q = Capacity
N = Speed of rotation of impeller
H = Pressure
P = Power

Pump performance curve Steep and flat performance curves

Pumps in series Pumps in parallel

2.26 EDB/1
Effects of various condition alterations to pump characteristics
Alteration Condition Result

Pump Response to Throttling of Discharge Pressure Increase

Power Decrease

Result of Increasing the Pressure Capacity Decrease

Power Decrease

Result of Decreasing the Pressure Capacity Increase

Power Increase

The flow of fluids in pipes and ducts

NOTES AND FORMULAE

Straight Pipes and Ducts

The head lost due to friction may be best determined by the use of a rational formula:
4 fl2f ........................................................................ 1
H = 2gd

where H = Head lost, metres of fluid flowing ............................ m

f = Coefficient of friction ............................ dimensionless
l = Length of pipe .......................................................... m
= Velocity ................................................................. m/s
g = Acceleration due to gravity .................................. m/s2
d = Internal diameter of pipe .......................................... m

The pressure loss per unit length of pipe (specific pressure loss) is given by:

p = P Hg ............................................................... 2
=
I I

Where P = Pressure loss ......................................................... Pa

p = Pressure loss per metre run of pipe or
specific pressure loss ........................................ Pa/m
= Density of fluid flowing ....................................... kg/m3

Combination of equations 1 and 2 gives:

2 f v2
p =
d

The coefficient of friction f, is a variable dependent upon:

a) The physical characteristics of the fluid flowing, the velocity of flow and the internal diameter of
the pipe, which three components may be combined for consideration in terms of Reynolds Number,
a dimensionless quantity:

d = d
(Re) =

Where (Re)= Reynolds Number.

= Density of fluid .................................................. kg/m3
= Absolute viscosity of fluid ................................. kg/ms
= Kinematic viscosity of fluid ................................. m2/s

b) The roughness of the pipe wall relative to the internal diameter, which is expressed in terms of
a dimensionless ratio, k8/d, where k8 is a lineal measure of absolute roughness having the same
dimensional units as the diameter.

EDB/1 2.27
The relation between the coefficient of friction f and these components involves the use of the
following expressions:

(Re) < 2000.

Here flow is streamline or laminar in character, the roughness of the pipe walls is not a significant
factor and the coefficient of friction may be calculated from the formula of Poiseuille:

16
f = (Re)

(Re) > 3000.

Here flow is turbulent and all the components previously discussed have value. The formula of
Colebrook and White has now been generally accepted as being the best theoretical approach:

1 = 4log10 k8 + 1.255
f 3.7d (Re) f

The advantages accruing from the use of these two expressions for evaluation of the coefficient of
friction are that problems involving the flow of any fluid in any type of pipe or duct may be solved with
accuracy. It should be noted however, that these expressions strictly only apply to flow at constant
density ie, incompressible flow. This is the case for the majority of piped liquid systems. Compressibility
can also be ignored in typical ventilation systems since only small changes in density occur.

2.28 EDB/1
 o
Flow of water at 75 C in black steel pipes
10 mm 15 mm 20 mm 25 mm 32 mm 40 mm 50 mm
Pl Pl
M Ie M Ie M Ie M Ie M Ie M Ie M Ie
0.1 0.003 0.1 0.009 0.5 0.017* 0.9 0.031 1.2 0.1
0.2 0.006 0.3 0.018* 0.9 0.024 0.9 0.044 1.2 0.2
0.3 0.003 0.2 0.008 0.4 0.020 0.8 0.029 0.9 0.055 1.2 0.3
0.4 0.004 0.2 0.011 0.6 0.023 0.8 0.034 0.9 0.065 1.3 0.4
0.5 0.005 0.3 0.014* 0.7 0.025 0.8 0.038 0.9 0.074 1.3 0.5
0.6 0.007 0.3 0.013 0.6 0.028 0.8 0.042 1.0 0.082 1.4 0.6
0.7 0.008 0.4 0.014 0.6 0.030 0.8 0.046 1.0 0.090 1.4 0.7
0.8 0.009 0.5 0.015 0.6 0.032 0.8 0.050 1.0 0.097 1.4 0.05 0.8
0.9 0.010 0.5 0.016 0.6 0.035 0.8 0.054 1.0 0.104 1.5 0.9
1.0 0.003 0.2 0.011* 0.6 0.017 0.6 0.037 0.8 0.057 1.0 0.110 1.5 1.0
1.5 0.005 0.2 0.012 0.4 0.021 0.6 0.047 0.9 0.072 1.1 0.139 1.6 1.5
2.0 0.006 0.3 0.014 0.4 0.025 0.6 0.055 0.9 0.085 1.1 0.164 1.6 2.0
2.5 0.008 0.4 0.015 0.4 0.028 0.6 0.062 0.9 0.096 1.2 0.186 1.7 2.5
3.0 0.009* 0.5 0.017 0.4 0.031 0.6 0.069 1.0 0.107 1.2 0.206 1.7 3.0
3.5 0.008 0.3 0.018 0.4 0.034 0.6 0.076 1.0 0.116 1.2 0.224 1.7 3.5
4.0 0.004 0.2 0.009 0.3 0.020 0.4 0.037 0.7 0.082 1.0 0.126 1.3 0.242 1.8 4.0
4.5 0.05 0.005 0.2 0.009 0.3 0.021 0.5 0.039 0.7 0.087 1.0 0.134 1.3 0.258 1.8 4.5
5.0 0.005 0.3 0.010 0.3 0.022 0.5 0.042 0.7 0.093 1.0 0.142 1.3 0.274 1.8 5.0
5.5 0.006 0.3 0.010 0.3 0.023 0.5 0.044 0.7 0.098 1.0 0.150 1.3 0.289 1.8 0.15 5.5
6.0 0.006 0.3 0.011 0.3 0.025 0.5 0.046 0.7 0.103 1.1 0.158 1.3 0.303 1.9 6.0
6.5 0.007* 0.4 0.011 0.3 0.026 0.5 0.048 0.7 0.107 1.1 0.165 1.3 0.317 1.9 6.5
7.0 0.006 0.2 0.012 0.3 0.027 0.6 0.050 0.7 0.112 1.1 0.172 1.3 0.330 1.9 7.0
7.5 0.006 0.2 0.012 0.3 0.028 0.5 0.052 0.7 0.116 1.1 0.179 1.4 0.343 1.9 7.5
8.0 0.006 0.2 0.012 0.3 0.029 0.5 0.054 0.7 0.120 1.1 0.185 1.4 0.355 1.9 8.0
8.5 0.006 0.2 0.013 0.3 0.030 0.5 0.056 0.7 0.125 1.1 0.191 1.4 0.368 1.9 8.5
9.0 0.007 0.2 0.013 0.3 0.031 0.5 0.058 0.7 0.129 1.1 0.198 1.4 0.379 1.9 9.0
9.5 0.007 10.2 0.014 0.3 0.032 0.5 0.060 0.7 0.133 1.1 0.204 1.4 0.391 1.9 9.5
10.0 0.007 0.2 0.014 0.3 0.033 0.5 0.062 0.7 0.136 1.1 0.210 1.4 0.402 2.0 10.0
12.5 0.008 0.2 0.016 0.3 0.037 0.5 0.070 0.8 0.154 1.1 0.237 1.4 0.454 2.0 12.5
15.0 0.008 0.2 0.018 0.4 0.042 0.6 0.077 0.8 0.171 1.2 0.262 1.5 0.502 2.0 15.0
17.5 0.009 0.2 0.019 0.4 0.045 0.6 0.084 0.8 0.186 1.2 0.285 1.5 0.546 2.0 17.5
20.0 0.010 0.2 0.021 0.4 0.049 0.6 0.091 0.8 0.200 1.2 0.307 1.5 0.587 2.1 0.30 20.0
22.5 0.010 0.2 0.022 0.4 0.052 0.6 0.097 0.8 0.214 1.2 0.327 1.5 0.626 2.1 22.5
25.0 0.011 0.3 0.023 0.4 0.055 0.6 0.103 0.8 0.226 1.2 0.347 1.5 0.663 2.1 25.0
27.5 0.012 0.3 0.025 0.4 0.058 0.6 0.108 0.8 0.238 1.2 0.365 1.5 0.698 2.1 25.0
30.0 0.012 0.3 0.026 0.4 0.061 0.6 0.114 0.8 0.250 1.2 0.383 1.6 0.731 2.2 30.0
32.5 0.013 0.3 0.027 0.4 0.064 0.6 0.119 0.8 0.261 1.3 0.400 1.6 0.763 2.2 32.5
35.0 0.013 0.3 0.028 0.4 0.067 0.6 0.124 0.8 0.272 1.3 0.416 1.6 0.794 2.2 35.0
37.5 0.014 0.3 0.029 0.4 0.069 0.6 0.129 0.9 0.282 1.3 0.432 1.6 0.824 2.2 37.5
40.0 0.014 0.3 0.031 0.4 0.072 0.6 0.133 0.9 0.292 1.3 0.447 1.6 0.853 2.2 40.0
42.5 0.15 0.015 0.3 0.032 0.4 0.074 0.6 0.138 0.9 0.302 1.3 0.462 1.6 0.882 2.2 42.5
45.0 0.015 0.3 0.033 0.4 0.077 0.6 0.142 0.9 0.312 1.3 0.477 1.6 0.909 2.2 45.0
47.5 0.016 0.3 0.034 0.4 0.079 0.6 0.146 0.9 0.321 1.3 0.491 1.6 0.936 2.2 47.5
50.0 0.016 0.3 0.035 0.4 0.081 0.6 0.150 0.9 0.330 1.3 0.504 1.6 0.962 2.2 50.0
52.5 0.017 0.3 0.036 0.4 0.083 0.6 0.155 0.9 0.339 1.3 0.518 1.6 0.987 2.2 0.50 52.5
55.0 0.017 0.3 0.036 0.4 0.085 0.6 0.159 0.9 0.347 1.3 0.531 1.6 1.01 2.2 55.0
57.5 0.018 0.3 0.037 0.4 0.088 0.6 0.162 0.9 0.356 1.3 0.544 1.6 1.04 2.3 57.5
60.0 0.018 0.3 0.038 0.4 0.090 0.6 0.166 0.9 0.364 1.3 0.556 1.6 1.06 2.3 60.0
62.5 0.018 0.3 0.039 0.4 0.092 0.7 0.170 0.9 0.372 1.3 0.569 1.6 1.08 2.3 62.5
65.0 0.019 0.3 0.040 0.4 0.094 0.7 0.174 0.9 0.380 1.3 0.581 1.6 1.11 2.3 65.0

Heavy grade steel, water at 75oC

M= mass flow rate kg/s
le= equivalent length of pipe in metres for = 1.0
Pl pressure loss per unit length Pa/m
= velocity m/s *(Re)= 2000 (Re) = 3000

EDB/1 2.29
Flow of water at 75C in black steel pipes (cont'd)
10 mm 15 mm 20 mm 25 mm 32 mm 40 mm 50 mm
Pl M Ie M Ie M Ie M Ie M Ie M Ie M Ie
Pl
67.5 0.019 0.3 0.041 0.4 0.096 0.7 0.177 0.9 0.388 1.3 0.592 1.7 1.13 2.3 67.5
70.0 0.020 0.3 0.042 0.4 0.098 0.7 0.181 0.9 0.395 1.3 0.604 1.7 1.15 2.3 70.0
72.5 0.020 0.3 0.042 0.4 0.099 0.7 0.184 0.9 0.403 1.3 0.616 1.7 1.17 2.3 72.5
75.0 0.020 0.3 0.043 0.4 0.101 0.7 0.188 0.9 0.410 1.3 0.627 1.7 1.19 2.3 75.0
77.5 0.021 0.3 0.044 0.4 0.103 0.7 0.191 0.9 0.418 1.3 0.638 1.7 1.21 2.3 77.5
80.0 0.021 0.3 0.045 0.4 0.105 0.7 0.194 0.9 0.455 1.4 0.649 1.7 1.24 2.3 80.0
82.5 0.021 0.3 0.046 0.4 0.107 0.7 0.197 0.9 0.432 1.4 0.659 1.7 1.26 2.3 82.5
85.0 0.022 0.3 0.046 0.4 0.108 0.7 0.201 0.9 0.439 1.4 0.670 1.7 1.28 2.3 85.0
87.5 0.022 0.3 0.047 0.4 0.110 0.7 0.204 0.9 0.446 1.4 0.680 1.7 1.30 2.3 87.5
90.0 0.023 0.3 0.048 0.4 0.112 0.7 0.207 0.9 0.452 1.4 0.691 1.7 1.31 2.3 90.0
92.5 0.023 0.3 0.049 0.4 0.113 0.7 0.210 0.9 0.459 1.4 0.701 1.7 1.33 2.3 92.5
95.0 0.023 0.3 0.049 0.4 0.115 0.7 0.213 0.9 0.466 1.4 0.711 1.7 1.35 2.3 95.0
97.5 0.024 0.3 0.050 0.4 0.117 0.7 0.216 0.9 0.472 1.4 0.721 1.7 1.37 2.3 97.5
100 0.024 0.3 0.051 0.4 0.118 0.7 0.219 0.9 0.479 1.4 0.731 1.7 1.39 2.3 100
120 0.026 0.3 0.056 0.4 0.131 0.7 0.242 0.9 0.527 1.4 0.805 1.7 1.53 2.4 120
140 0.3 0.029 0.3 0.061 0.5 0.142 0.7 0.262 0.9 0.572 1.4 0.873 1.7 1.66 2.4 140
160 0.031 0.3 0.065 0.5 0.152 0.7 0.282 1.0 0.614 1.4 0.937 1.7 1.78 2.4 160
180 0.033 0.3 0.070 0.5 0.162 0.7 0.300 1.0 0.654 1.4 0.997 1.8 1.89 2.4 180
200 0.035 0.3 0.074 0.5 0.172 0.7 0.317 1.0 0.691 1.4 1.05 1.8 2.00 2.4 1.0 200
220 0.037 0.3 0.078 0.5 0.181 0.7 0.334 1.0 0.727 1.4 1.11 1.8 2.10 2.4 220
240 0.039 0.3 0.081 0.5 0.189 0.7 0.349 1.0 0.761 1.4 1.16 1.8 2.20 2.4 240
260 0.040 0.3 0.085 0.5 0.198 0.7 0.364 1.0 0.793 1.5 1.21 1.8 2.29 2.4 260
280 0.042 0.3 0.088 0.5 0.206 0.7 0.379 1.0 0.825 1.5 1.26 1.8 2.38 2.4 280
300 0.044 0.3 0.092 0.5 0.213 0.7 0.393 1.0 0.855 1.5 1.30 1.8 2.47 2.5 300
320 0.045 0.3 0.095 0.5 0.221 0.7 0.407 1.0 0.884 1.5 1.35 1.8 2.55 2.5 320
340 0.047 0.3 0.098 0.5 0.228 0.7 0.420 1.0 0.913 1.5 1.39 1.8 2.64 2.5 340
360 0.048 0.3 0.101 0.5 0.235 0.7 0.433 1.0 0.941 1.5 1.43 1.8 2.71 2.5 360
380 0.5 0.049 0.3 0.104 0.5 0.242 0.7 0.445 1.0 0.970 1.5 1.47 1.8 2.79 2.5 380
400 0.051 0.3 0.107 0.5 0.248 0.7 0.457 1.0 0.994 1.5 1.51 1.8 2.87 2.5 400
420 0.052 0.3 0.110 0.5 0.255 0.7 0.469 1.0 1.02 1.5 1.55 1.8 2.94 2.5 420
440 0.054 0.3 0.113 0.5 0.261 0.7 0.481 1.0 1.04 1.5 1.59 1.8 3.01 2.5 1.5 440
460 0.055 0.3 0.115 0.5 0.267 0.7 0.492 1.0 1.07 1.5 1.63 1.8 3.08 2.5 460
480 0.056 0.3 0.118 0.5 0.273 0.8 0.503 1.0 1.09 1.5 1.66 1.8 3.15 2.5 480
500 0.057 0.3 0.120 0.5 0.279 0.8 0.514 1.0 1.12 1.5 1.69 1.8 3.22 2.5 500
520 0.059 0.3 0.123 0.5 0.285 0.8 0.524 1.0 1.14 1.5 1.73 1.8 3.28 2.5 520
540 6.060 0.3 0.125 0.5 0.291 0.8 0.535 1.0 1.16 0.5 0.77 1.8 3.35 2.5 540
560 0.061 0.3 0.128 0.5 0.296 0.8 0.545 1.0 1.17 1.5 1.80 1.8 3.41 2.5 560
580 0.062 0.3 0.130 0.5 0.302 0.8 0.555 1.0 1.21 1.5 1.83 1.8 3.47 2.5 580
600 0.063 0.3 0.133 0.5 0.307 0.8 0.565 1.0 1.23 1.5 1.87 1.8 3.53 2.5 600
620 0.064 0.3 0.135 0.5 0.312 0.8 0.575 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.90 1.8 3.59 2.5 620
640 0.065 0.3 0.137 0.5 0.318 0.8 0.584 1.0 1.27 1.5 1.93 1.8 3.65 2.5 640
660 0.066 0.3 0.139 0.5 0.323 0.8 0.594 1.0 1.29 1.5 1.96 1.8 3.71 2.5 660
680 0.067 0.3 0.142 0.5 0.328 0.8 0.603 1.0 1.31 1.5 1.99 1.9 3.77 2.5 680
700 0.069 0.3 0.144 0.5 0.333 0.8 0.612 1.0 1.33 1.5 2.02 1.9 3.83 2.5 700
720 0.070 0.3 0.146 0.5 0.338 0.8 0.621 1.0 1.35 1.5 2.05 1.9 3.88 2.5 720
740 0.071 0.3 0.148 0.5 0.343 0.8 0.630 1.0 1.37 1.5 2.08 1.9 3.94 2.5 740
760 0.072 0.3 0.150 0.5 0.347 0.8 0.639 1.0 1.39 1.5 2.10 1.9 3.99 2.5 2.0 760
780 0.073 0.3 0.152 0.5 0.352 0.8 0.648 1.0 1.41 1.5 2.14 1.9 4.04 2.5 780
800 0.074 0.3 0.154 0.5 0.357 0.8 0.656 1.0 1.42 1.5 2.17 1.9 4.10 2.5 800
820 0.075 0.4 0.156 0.5 0.362 0.8 0.665 1.0 0.44 1.5 2.19 1.9 4.15 2.5 820

o
Heavy grade steel, water at 75 C
M= mass flow rate kg/s
le= equivalent length of pipe in metres for = 1.0
Pl= pressure loss per unit length Pa/m
= velocity m/s *(Re)= 2000 (Re) = 3000

2.30 EDB/1
Flow of water at 75C in black steel pipes (cont'd)
10 mm 15 mm 20 mm 25 mm 32 mm 40 mm 50 mm
Pl Pl
M Ie M Ie M Ie M Ie M Ie M Ie M Ie
840 0.075 0.4 0.158 0.5 0.366 0.8 0.673 1.0 1.46 1.5 2.22 1.9 4.20 2.5 840
860 0.076 0.4 0.160 0.5 0.371 0.8 0.681 1.0 1.48 1.5 2.25 1.9 4.25 2.5 860
880 0.077 0.4 0.162 0.5 0.375 0.8 0.689 1.0 1.50 1.5 2.27 1.9 4.30 2.5 880
900 0.078 0.4 0.164 0.5 0.379 0.8 0.698 1.0 1.51 1.5 2.30 1.9 4.35 2.5 900
920 0.079 0.4 0.166 0.5 0.384 0.8 0.706 1.0 1.53 1.5 2.33 1.9 4.40 2.5 920
940 0.080 0.4 0.168 0.5 0.388 0.8 0.713 1.0 1.55 1.5 2.35 1.9 4.45 2.5 940
960 0.081 0.4 0.170 0.5 0.392 0.8 0.721 1.0 1.56 1.5 2.38 1.9 4.50 2.5 960
980 0.082 0.4 0.172 0.5 0.397 0.8 0.729 1.0 1.58 1.5 2.40 1.9 4.55 2.5 980
1000 0.083 0.4 0.173 0.5 0.401 0.8 0.737 1.0 1.60 1.5 2.43 1.9 4.59 2.5 1000
1100 0.087 0.4 0.182 0.5 0.421 0.8 0.774 1.1 1.68 1.5 2.55 1.9 4.82 2.6 1100
1200 0.091 0.4 0.191 0.5 0.441 0.8 0.809 1.1 1.75 1.5 2.67 1.9 5.04 2.6 1200
1300 1.0 0.095 0.4 0.199 0.5 0.459 0.8 0.844 1.1 1.83 1.5 2.78 1.9 5.25 2.6 1300
1400 0.099 0.4 0.207 0.5 0.477 0.8 0.876 1.1 1.90 1.5 2.89 1.9 5.46 2.6 1400
1500 0.120 0.4 0.214 0.5 0.495 0.8 0.908 1.1 1.98 1.5 2.99 1.9 5.65 2.6 1500
1600 0.106 0.4 0.222 0.5 0.511 0.8 0.939 1.1 2.03 1.5 3.09 1.9 5.84 2.6 1600
1700 0.109 0.4 0.229 0.5 0.528 0.8 0.968 1.1 2.10 1.5 3.19 1.9 6.02 2.6 3.0 1700
1800 0.113 0.4 0.236 0.5 0.543 0.8 0.997 1.1 2.16 1.6 3.28 1.9 1800
1900 0.116 0.4 0.242 0.5 0.559 0.8 1.03 1.1 2.22 1.6 3.37 1.9 1900
2000 0.119 0.4 0.249 0.5 0.574 0.8 1.05 1.1 2.28 1.6 3.46 1.9 2000

o
Heavy grade steel, water at 75 C
M = mass flow rate kg/s
le = equivalent length of pipe in metres for = 1.0
Pl = pressure loss per unit length Pa/m
= velocity m/s *(Re) = 2000 (Re) = 3000

EDB/1 2.31
Flow of water at 75C in black steel pipes (cont'd)
65mm 80 mm 90 mm 100 mm 125 mm 150 mm
Pl M Ie M Ie M Ie M Ie M Ie M Ie
Pl
0.1 0.061 1.5 0.096 2.0 0.144 2.5 0.200 2.9 0.362 4.1 0.600 5.3 0.1
0.2 0.091 1.7 0.144 2.2 0.215 2.7 0.298 3.3 0.544 4.5 0.889 5.8 0.05 0.2
0.3 0.115 1.8 0.181 2.3 0.271 2.9 0.375 3.4 0.685 4.7 1.12 6.1 0.3
0.4 0.136 1.9 0.214 2.4 0.319 3.0 0.442 3.6 0.805 4.9 1.31 6.4 0.4
0.5 0.154 2.0 0.243 2.5 0.362 3.1 0.501 3.7 0.913 5.0 1.49 6.5 0.5
0.6 0.05 0.171 2.0 0.269 2.6 0.401 3.2 0.556 3.8 1.01 5.1 1.65 6.6 0.6
0.7 0.187 2.1 0.294 2.6 0.438 3.2 0.606 3.8 1.10 5.2 1.79 6.7 0.7
0.8 0.202 2.1 0.317 2.7 0.472 3.3 0.653 3.9 1.19 5.3 1.93 6.8 0.8
0.9 0.216 2.1 0.339 2.7 0.504 3.3 0.698 4.0 1.27 5.4 2.06 6.9 0.9
1.0 0.229 2.2 0.359 2.8 0.535 3.4 0.740 4.0 1.34 5.5 2.18 7.0 1.0
1.5 0.288 2.3 0.451 2.9 0.671 3.6 0.928 4.2 1.68 5.7 2.73 7.3 0.15 1.5
2.0 0.338 2.4 0.530 3.0 0.787 3.7 1.09 4.3 1.97 5.9 3.20 7.5 2.0
2.5 0.383 2.4 0.600 3.1 0.891 3.8 1.23 4.4 2.23 6.0 3.61 7.6 2.5
3.0 0.424 2.5 0.664 3.1 0.985 3.8 1.36 4.5 2.46 6.1 3.99 7.7 3.0
3.5 0.462 2.5 0.723 3.2 1.07 3.9 1.48 4.6 2.68 6.2 4.34 7.9 3.5
4.0 0.15 0.498 2.6 0.778 3.2 1.15 3.9 1.59 4.6 2.88 6.3 4.66 8.0 4.0
4.5 0.531 2.6 0.830 3.3 1.23 4.0 1.70 4.7 3.07 6.3 4.97 8.0 4.5
5.0 0.563 2.6 0.880 3.3 1.30 4.0 1.80 4.7 3.25 6.4 5.26 8.1 0.30 5.0
5.5 0.594 2.7 0.927 3.3 1.37 4.1 1.90 4.8 3.42 6.4 5.54 8.2 5.5
6.0 0.623 2.7 0.973 3.4 1.44 4.1 1.99 4.8 3.59 6.5 5.81 8.2 6.0
6.5 0.651 2.7 1.02 3.4 1.51 4.1 2.08 4.9 3.75 6.5 6.06 8.3 6.5
7.0 0.678 2.7 1.06 3.4 1.57 4.2 2.16 4.9 3.90 6.6 6.31 8.3 7.0
7.5 0.704 2.7 1.10 3.4 1.63 4.2 2.24 4.9 4.05 6.6 6.55 8.4 7.5
8.0 0.729 2.7 1.14 3.5 1.69 4.2 2.32 4.9 4.19 6.6 6.78 8.4 8.0
8.5 0.754 2.8 1.18 3.5 1.74 4.2 2.40 5.0 4.33 6.7 7.00 8.4 8.5
9.0 0.778 2.8 1.21 3.5 1.80 4.2 2.48 5.0 4.46 6.7 7.2 8.5 9.0
9.5 0.801 2.8 1.25 3.5 1.85 4.3 2.55 5.0 4.60 6.7 7.43 8.5 9.5
10.0 0.824 2.8 1.29 3.5 1.90 4.3 2.62 5.0 4.72 6.7 7.63 8.5 10.0
12.5 0.930 2.9 1.45 3.6 2.14 4.4 2.96 5.1 5.32 6.8 8.60 8.7 0.50 12.5
15.0 0.30 1.03 2.9 1.60 3.6 2.37 4.4 3.26 5.2 5.87 6.9 9.47 8.8 15.0
17.5 1.12 3.0 1.74 3.7 2.57 4.5 3.54 5.2 6.37 7.0 10.3 8.8 17.5
20.0 1.20 3.0 1.87 3.7 2.76 4.5 3.80 5.3 6.84 7.1 11.0 8.9 20.0
22.5 1.28 3.0 1.99 3.8 2.94 4.6 4.05 5.3 7.28 7.1 11.7 9.0 22.5
25.0 1.35 3.0 2.11 3.8 3.11 4.6 4.28 5.4 7.69 7.1 12.4 9.0 25.0
27.5 1.42 3.1 2.22 3.8 3.27 4.6 4.50 5.4 8.09 7.2 13.0 9.1 27.5
30.0 1.49 3.1 2.32 3.8 3.43 4.6 4.71 5.4 8.47 7.2 13.6 9.1 30.0
32.5 1.56 3.1 2.42 3.8 3.58 4.7 4.92 5.4 8.84 7.3 14.2 9.1 32.5
35.0 1.62 3.1 2.52 3.9 3.72 4.7 5.12 5.5 9.19 7.3 14.8 9.2 35.0
37.5 0.50 1.68 3.1 2.61 3.9 3.86 4.7 5.31 5.5 9.53 7.3 15.3 9.2 37.5
40.0 1.74 3.1 2.70 3.9 3.99 4.7 5.49 5.5 9.86 7.3 15.9 9.2 40.0
42.5 1.80 3.1 2.79 3.9 4.12 4.7 5.67 5.5 10.2 7.4 16.4 9.3 42.5
45.0 1.85 3.2 2.88 3.9 4.25 4.7 5.84 5.5 10.5 7.4 16.9 9.3 45.0
47.5 1.91 3.2 2.96 3.9 4.37 4.8 6.01 5.6 10.8 7.4 17.4 9.3 47.5
50.0 1.96 3.2 3.04 3.9 4.49 4.8 6.17 5.6 11.1 7.4 17.8 9.3 1.0 50.0
52.5 2.01 3.2 3.12 4.0 4.61 4.8 6.33 5.6 11.4 7.4 18.3 9.3 52.5
55.0 2.06 3.2 3.20 4.0 4.72 4.8 6.49 5.6 11.6 7.4 18.8 9.4 55.0

57.5 2.11 3.2 3.28 4.0 4.83 4.8 6.64 5.6 11.9 7.5 19.2 9.4 57.5
60.0 2.16 3.2 3.35 4.0 4.94 4.8 6.79 5.6 12.2 7.5 19.6 9.4 60.0
62.5 2.20 3.2 3.42 4.0 5.05 4.8 6.94 5.6 12.5 7.5 20.0 9.4 62.5
65.0 2.25 3.2 3.50 4.0 5.16 4.8 7.08 5.7 12.7 7.5 20.5 9.4 65.0
67.5 2.30 3.2 3.57 4.0 5.26 4.9 7.22 5.7 13.0 7.5 20.9 9.4 67.5

70.0 2.34 3.2 3.63 4.0 5.36 4.9 7.36 5.7 13.2 7.5 21.3 9.4 70.0
72.5 2.38 3.2 3.70 4.0 5.46 4.9 7.50 5.7 13.5 7.5 21.7 9.5 72.5
75.0 2.43 3.3 3.77 4.0 5.56 4.9 7.63 5.7 13.7 7.5 22.0 9.5 75.0
77.5 2.47 3.3 3.83 4.0 5.65 4.9 7.77 5.7 13.9 7.5 22.4 9.5 77.5
80.0 2.51 3.3 3.90 4.0 5.75 4.9 7.90 5.7 14.2 7.6 22.8 9.5 80.0
82.5 2.55 3.3 3.96 4.1 5.84 4.9 8.02 5.7 14.4 7.6 23.2 9.5 82.5
85.0 2.59 3.3 4.02 4.1 5.93 4.9 8.15 5.7 14.6 7.6 23.5 9.5 85.0
87.5 2.63 3.3 4.09 4.1 6.02 4.9 8.27 5.7 14.8 7.6 23.9 9.5 87.5
o
Heavy grade steel, water at 75 C Pl = pressure loss per unit length Pa/m
M= mass flow rate kg/s = velocity m/s
le = equivalent length of pipe in metres for = 1.0 *(Re)= 2000 (Re) = 3000

2.32 EDB/1
Flow of water at 75C in black steel pipes (cont'd)
65mm 80 mm 90 mm 100 mm 125 mm 150 mm
Pl Pl
M Ie M Ie M Ie M Ie M Ie M Ie
90.0 2.67 3.3 4.15 4.1 6.11 4.9 8.40 5.7 15.0 7.6 24.2 9.5 90.0
92.5 2.71 3.3 4.21 4.1 6.20 4.9 8.52 5.7 15.3 7.6 24.6 9.5 92.5
95.0 2.75 3.3 4.27 4.1 6.29 4.9 8.64 5.7 15.5 7.6 24.9 9.6 95.0
97.5 2.79 3.3 4.32 4.1 6.37 4.9 8.75 5.8 15.7 7.6 25.2 9.6 97.5
100.0 2.82 3.3 4.38 4.1 6.46 4.9 8.87 5.8 15.9 7.6 25.6 9.6 1.5 100.0
120.0 3.11 3.3 4.82 4.1 7.10 5.0 9.75 5.8 17.5 7.7 28.1 9.6 120.0
140.0 1.0 3.37 3.4 5.22 4.2 7.69 5.0 10.6 5.8 18.9 7.7 30.4 9.7 140.0
160.0 3.61 3.4 5.60 4.2 8.25 5.0 11.3 5.9 20.3 7.7 32.6 9.7 160.0
180.0 3.84 3.4 5.95 4.2 8.76 5.0 12.0 5.9 21.6 7.8 34.6 9.7 2.0 180.0
200.0 4.05 3.4 6.29 4.2 9.25 5.0 12.7 5.9 22.7 7.8 36.5 9.8 200.0
220.0 4.26 3.4 6.60 4.2 9.27 5.1 13.3 5.9 23.9 7.8 38.4 9.8 220.0
240.0 4.46 3.4 6.91 4.2 10.2 5.1 14.0 5.9 25.0 7.8 40.1 9.8 240.0
260.0 4.65 3.4 7.20 4.2 10.6 5.1 14.5 6.0 26.0 7.9 41.8 9.8 260.0
280.0 4.83 3.4 7.48 4.3 11.0 5.1 15.1 6.0 27.0 7.9 43.4 9.9 280.0
300.0 1.5 5.00 3.5 7.75 4.3 11.4 5.1 15.6 6.0 28.0 7.9 45.0 9.9 300.0
320.0 5.17 3.5 8.01 4.3 11.8 5.1 16.2 6.0 29.0 7.9 46.5 9.9 320.0
340.0 5.34 3.5 8.27 4.3 12.2 5.2 16.7 6.0 29.8 7.9 47.9 9.9 340.0
360.0 5.50 3.5 8.51 4.3 12.5 5.2 17.2 6.0 30.7 7.9 49.4 9.9 360.0
380.0 5.65 3.5 8.75 4.3 12.8 5.2 17.7 6.0 31.6 7.9 50.7 9.9 380.0
400.0 5.80 3.5 8.99 4.3 13.2 5.2 18.1 6.0 32.4 7.9 52.1 9.9 400.0
420.0 5.95 3.5 8.99 4.3 13.6 5.2 18.6 6.0 33.2 7.9 53.4 9.9 420.0
440.0 6.09 3.5 9.44 4.3 13.9 5.2 19.0 6.0 34.0 7.9 54.7 9.9 3.0 440.0
460.0 6.24 3.5 9.66 4.3 14.2 5.2 19.5 6.0 34.8 8.0 55.9 9.9 460.0
480.0 6.37 3.5 9.87 4.3 14.5 5.2 19.9 6.0 35.6 8.0 57.2 10 480.0
500.0 6.51 3.5 10.1 4.3 14.8 5.2 20.3 6.0 36.3 8.0 58.4 10 500.0
520.0 6.64 3.5 10.3 4.3 15.1 5.2 20.7 6.1 37.1 8.0 59.5 10 520.0
540.0 2.0 6.77 3.5 10.5 4.3 15.4 5.2 21.1 6.1 37.8 8.0 60.7 10 540.0
560.0 6.90 3.5 10.7 4.3 15.7 5.2 21.5 6.1 38.5 8.0 61.8 10 560.0
580.0 7.02 3.5 10.9 4.3 16.0 5.2 21.9 6.1 39.2 8.0 62.9 10 580.0
600.0 7.15 3.5 11.1 4.3 16.3 5.2 22.3 6.1 39.9 8.0 64.0 10 600.0
620.0 7.27 3.5 11.3 4.4 16.6 5.2 22.7 6.1 40.5 8.0 65.1 10 620.0
640.0 7.39 3.5 11.4 4.4 16.8 5.2 23.1 6.1 41.2 8.0 66.2 10 640.0
660.0 7.50 3.5 11.6 4.4 17.1 5.2 23.4 6.1 41.9 8.0 67.2 10 660.0
680.0 7.62 3.5 11.8 4.4 17.3 5.2 23.8 6.1 42.5 8.0 68.2 10 680.0
700.0 7.73 3.5 12.0 4.4 17.6 5.2 24.1 6.1 43.1 8.0 69.2 10 700.0
720.0 7.85 3.5 12.2 4.4 17.8 5.2 24.5 6.1 43.7 8.0 70.2 10 720.0
740.0 7.96 3.5 12.3 4.4 18.1 5.2 24.8 6.1 44.4 8.0 71.2 10 740.0
760.0 8.07 3.5 12.4 4.4 18.4 5.3 25.1 6.1 45.0 8.0 72.2 10 4.0 760.0
780.0 8.17 3.5 12.6 4.4 18.6 5.3 25.5 6.1 45.6 8.0 780.0
800.0 8.28 3.6 12.8 4.4 18.8 5.3 25.8 6.1 46.2 8.0 800.0
820.0 8.39 3.6 12.9 4.4 19.1 5.3 26.2 6.1 46.7 8.0 820.0
840.0 8.49 3.6 13.1 4.4 19.3 5.3 26.5 6.1 47.3 8.0 840.0
860.0 8.59 3.6 13.3 4.4 19.6 5.3 26.8 6.1 47.9 8.0 860.0
880.0 8.69 3.6 13.5 4.4 19.8 5.3 27.1 6.1 48.4 8.0 880.0
900.0 8.80 3.6 13.6 4.4 20.0 5.3 27.4 6.1 49.0 8.0 900.0
920.0 8.89 3.6 13.8 4.4 20.2 5.3 27.7 6.1 49.6 8.1 920.0
940.0 8.99 3.6 13.9 4.4 20.5 5.3 28.0 6.1 50.1 8.1 940.0
960.0 9.09 3.6 14.1 4.4 20.7 5.3 28.3 6.1 50.6 8.1 960.0
980.0 9.19 3.6 14.2 4.4 20.9 5.3 28.6 6.1 980.0
1000.0 9.28 3.6 15.1 4.4 21.1 5.3 28.9 6.1 1000.0
1100.0 9.74 3.6 15.1 4.4 22.2 5.3 30.4 6.1 1100.0
1200.0 3.0 10.2 3.6 15.8 4.4 23.2 5.3 31.7 6.1 1200.0
1300.0 10.6 3.6 16.4 4.4 24.1 5.3 1300.0
1400.0 11.0 3.6 17.0 4.4 25.0 5.3 1400.0
1500.0 11.4 3.6 17.6 4.4 1500.0
1600.0 11.8 3.6 18.2 4.4 1600.0
1700.0 12.2 3.6 18.8 4.4 1700.0
1800.0 12.5 3.6 1800.0
1900.0 12.9 3.6 1900.0
2000.0 13.2 3.6 2000.0

o
Heavy grade steel, water at 75 C Pl = pressure loss per unit length Pa/m
M= mass flow rate kg/s = velocity m/s
le = equivalent length of pipe in metres for = 1.0 *(Re)= 2000 (Re) = 3000

EDB/1 2.33
Values of velocity head factor for pipe fittings and equipment
These are intended to be used in conjunction with the values of unit equivalent length quoted in
the fluid flow tables.

Tees and Junctions

(based on velocity head of combined flow)
DIRECTION OF FLOW TO OR FROM RUN TO OR FROM RUN
o
90 Branch

Divergent 0.5
Flow 0.2 PLUS
PLUS factor for bend or
factor for an enlargement elbow as appropriate
or reduction where PLUS
Convergent appropriate factor
Flow for enlargement
or reduction where
bores differ.

Divergent
Flow

Convergent
Flow

SPECIAL NOTE ON CONVERGENT FLOW AT JUNCTIONS

Where the velocity of flow in one branch of a tee, at a
convergent junction, is high relative to the velocity in the
other, the factor for the latter may be negative due to the
injection effect.

TONGUE TEE. FACTOR

FOR THROUGH FLOW. 3.0

REDUCTIONS AND ENLARGEMENTS

(based on velocity head in smaller pipe)
DIAMETER RATIOS 3:2 2:1 3:1 4:1

0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5

0.4 0.7 0.9 1.0

2.34 EDB/1
 FLOWS AND BENDS
15 - 25mm 32 - 50mm 65 - 80mm 100m
PIPE SIZES " - 1" 1" - 2" 2" - 3" 4" and over

o
90 Malleable 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.6
C.I. Elbow

o
45 Malleable 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5
C.I. Elbow

Malleable 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.4

C.I. Elbow

Screwed 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.3

M.S. Bend

Malleable C.I. 0.9 0.8 0.8

Return Bend

Flanged 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

C.I. Bend

Welded 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3

M.S. Elbow

Welded 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2

M.S. Elbow

Copper 1.0 0.8 0.5

Pipe Elbow

Panel Return 0.6

Bend R 3"

EDB/1 2.35
 Valves

Parallel Slide
0.2
or Gate Valve

Angel Disc
5.0
or Globe Valve

Non-Return Valve
2.0

Pillar Tap
10
or Bib Cock

Other Items

Radiator 5.0

Sectional Boiler 2.5

Entry Into Large Vessel 1.0

Exit From Large Vessel 0.4

GENERAL NOTES

Bushes
Take as twice that of the comparable socket.

Tapers
o
Where the included angle is 10 , or less, take a factor of 0.2 for an enlargement and ignore for
a contraction.

Valves
Factor quoted are high averages. Individual designs show wide variations.

Multiple Arrangements
Factors quoted apply to isolating fittings. For bends, the factor for any item occurring subsequent
to the first, within 20 diameters run, may be taken as being approximately half of the appropriate
value quoted above.

Specialist Equipment
Manufacturers should be consulted for data regarding specialist equipment such as automatic
control valves, calorifiers, convectors, etc.

2.36 EDB/1
Humidification
Psychrometric chart
The psychrometric chart explained
To plot an air conditioning process on the chart, at least two of the following variables must be known
for the ambient air and for the desired final condition of the air.
i) The Dry Bulb temperature of the air (OC)
ii) The Wet Bulb temperature of the air (OC)
iii) The Relative Humidity of the air (%)
Given the two values, the State Point of the air can be marked on the chart. The sketch below shows
the extension lines necessary, radiating from the state point, to obtain all the information.
It should be noted that:
a) Heating and cooling (by cooler battery) takes place parallel to the base line, at constant moisture
content.
b) Humidification by steam takes place (for practical purposes) at a constant dry bulb temperature.
c) Humidification by water (at normal temperatures) takes place at constant wet bulb temperature.

This sketch shows the graphical representation of these processes:-

The diagrams below explain in outline form the various lines and scales on the chart:-

Dewpoint scale Moisture content Moisture content Wet bulb

(at 100% saturation line scale temperature
curve)

Specific volume Specific enthalpy Dry bulb Relative

line scales temperature humidity line

EDB/1 3.02
Calculating humidification loads
Using the Table below, calculate the steam required in kg/s to humidify the given air flow rate to the
specified final condition.
Air flow (m3/s) = 4 m3/s
Final temperature and relative humidity = 22OC, 50% RH
a) Firstly, an outside air design condition has to be specified. The figures can be obtained from
meteorological data or other publications *. Assume a condition of -7OC, 100% RH.
b) Determine the moisture content of the outdoor air from the Table:-
Read 0.277 kg/s per 100 m3/s at -7OC, 100% RH.
c) Determine the moisture content of the air at the final condition again from the Table :- Read 0.975
kg/s per 100 m3/s at 22OC, 50% RH.
d) Moisture required - subtract b) from c) 0.975 kg/s - 0.277 kg/s = 0.698 kg/s per 100 m3/s.
e) Total steam required.

Moisture required x air flow 0.698 x 4

= = 0.028 kg/s (100 kg/h)
100 100

Chart for calculating humidification loads

kg/s water vapour/100 m3/s of air at various temperatures and relative humidities.

Dry bulb
Air Temp.100% 85% 80% 75% 70% 65% 60% 55% 50% 45% 40% 35% 30%
(OC)

32 3.394 2.885 2.716 2.545 2.375 2.193 2.035 1.933 1.697 1.526 1.357 1.187 1.018
31 3.218 2.734 2.574 2.413 2.252 2.096 1.930 1.769 1.608 1.447 1.286 1.126 0.965
30 3.048 2.590 2.438 2.286 2.133 1.969 1.829 1.674 1.524 1.373 1.218 1.066 0.914
29 2.887 2.454 2.310 2.166 2.022 1.877 1.733 1.589 1.445 1.295 1.156 1.011 0.867
28 2.733 2.323 2.186 2.049 1.913 1.776 1.640 1.503 1.366 1.229 1.093 0.956 0.820
27 2.586 2.198 2.069 1.940 1.810 1.681 1.551 1.422 1.292 1.163 1.034 0.905 0.775
26 2.446 2.079 1.957 1.834 1.712 1.591 1.467 1.343 1.223 1.101 0.973 0.856 0.734
25 2.313 1.965 1.851 1.734 1.619 1.503 1.338 1.272 1.156 1.041 0.925 0.809 0.694
24 2.186 1.858 1.748 1.639 1.530 1.421 1.311 1.202 1.093 0.983 0.874 0.765 0.655
23 2.058 1.755 1.625 1.549 1.446 1.342 1.239 1.136 1.032 1.929 0.826 0.723 0.619
22 1.950 1.657 1.560 1.463 1.364 1.267 1.170 1.072 0.975 0.877 0.780 0.682 0.585
21 1.840 1.564 1.472 1.380 1.228 1.196 1.104 1.012 0.920 0.828 0.736 0.674 0.552
20 1.736 1.475 1.389 1.302 1.216 1.128 1.042 0.976 0.868 0.781 0.694 0.607 0.521
19 1.639 1.391 1.309 1.228 1.146 1.064 0.982 0.900 0.818 0.736 0.654 0.573 0.491
18 1.542 1.312 1.235 1.155 1.080 1.003 0.925 0.848 0.771 0.694 0.617 0.540 0.462
17 1.453 1.236 1.163 1.090 1.017 0.944 0.872 0.800 0.726 0.654 0.588 0.508 0.436
16 1.373 1.167 1.098 1.030 0.961 0.892 0.824 0.755 0.686 0.618 0.549 0.481 0.412
15 1.289 1.095 1.030 0.966 0.901 0.837 0.772 0.708 0.644 0.579 0.515 0.451 0.386
14 1.212 1.030 0.970 0.909 0.848 0.788 0.727 0.667 0.606 0.545 0.485 0.424 0.364
13 1.139 0.968 0.911 0.854 0.797 0.740 0.683 0.626 0.570 0.513 0.456 0.399 0.342
12 1.070 0.910 0.856 0.803 0.749 0.696 0.642 0.588 0.535 0.482 0.428 0.374 0.321
11 1.005 0.854 0.804 0.754 0.704 0.653 0.603 0.553 0.503 0.452 0.402 0.352 0.302
10 0.944 0.802 0.755 0.708 0.661 0.613 0.556 0.519 0.472 0.425 0.377 0.330 0.283
5 0.683 0.581 0.546 0.512 0.478 0.444 0.410 0.376 0.341 0.307 0.273 0.239 0.205
0 0.487 0.414 0.389 0.365 0.341 0.316 0.292 0.268 0.243 0.219 0.195 0.170 0.146
-1 0.450 0.381 0.360 0.339 0.315 0.293 0.271 0.247 0.226 0.203 0.181 0.157 0.135
-2 0.415 0.353 0.333 0.313 0.291 0.273 0.250 0.229 0.208 0.187 0.167 0.146 0.125
-3 0.383 0.325 0.307 0.273 0.269 0.250 0.231 0.212 0.192 0.173 0.154 0.135 0.115
-4 0.354 0.301 0.283 0.265 0.249 0.230 0.213 0.196 0.177 0.158 0.142 0.125 0.106
-5 0.326 0.277 0.261 0.245 0.228 0.212 0.196 0.179 0.163 0.147 0.130 0.114 0.098
-6 0.301 0.256 0.241 0.225 0.211 0.195 0.181 0.165 0.151 0.136 0.120 0.106 0.090
-7 0.277 0.235 0.221 0.208 0.194 0.180 0.166 0.152 0.140 0.125 0.111 0.097 0.083
-8 0.255 0.217 0.204 0.186 0.178 0.165 0.153 0.140 0.127 0.114 0.102 0.089 0.077
-9 0.234 0.200 0.118 0.176 0.164 0.152 0.141 0.129 0.117 0.105 0.094 0.083 0.070
-10 0.215 0.183 0.172 0.161 0.151 0.140 0.129 0.118 0.108 0.097 0.086 0.075 0.064

* such as the CIBSE guide (CIBSE- UK Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers).

3.03 EDB/1
Chart showing relationship of effective temperature, wet-bulb/dry-bulb
temperatures and relative humidity

EDB/1 3.04
Relative humidity in percentage terms
For various room temperatures and differences between Wet and Dry-Bulb Temperatures.

Dry Difference between Dry Bulb and Wet Bulb temperature OC

Temp.
O
C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

10 100 88 77 66 55 44 34 25 15 6 0 0
11 100 89 78 67 56 46 36 27 18 9 2 0
12 100 89 78 68 58 48 39 29 21 12 3 0
13 100 90 79 69 60 50 41 32 24 15 6 1
14 100 90 80 70 61 52 43 34 26 17 8 2
15 100 90 81 71 62 53 44 36 28 20 11 5
16 100 90 81 71 63 54 46 37 30 22 14 8
17 100 91 82 72 64 56 48 39 32 25 17 11
18 100 91 82 73 65 57 49 41 34 27 20 13
19 100 91 83 74 66 59 51 43 36 29 23 16
20 100 91 83 74 67 59 52 44 38 31 25 18
21 100 92 83 75 68 61 53 46 40 33 27 20
22 100 92 83 75 68 61 54 47 41 34 28 22
23 100 92 84 76 69 62 55 48 42 36 30 24
24 100 92 84 76 70 63 56 49 43 37 31 26
25 100 92 85 77 71 64 57 51 45 39 33 28
26 100 92 85 77 71 64 58 52 46 40 34 29
27 100 93 85 78 72 65 59 53 47 42 36 31

Steam .v. water humidification

Humidification by steam
There is no appreciable change in air temperature when steam is used for humidification and thus
humidification takes place at constant Dry Bulb temperature. After the air has been preheated to the
desired Dry Bulb temperature, design conditions will be achieved by simply adding the correct quantity
of steam.

Humidification by water
Unlike steam, which is already a vapour, water must change its state to a vapour before it can be
absorbed. This requires heat and thus when water is used to humidify, it will absorb heat from the
preheated air and thereby reduce the Dry Bulb temperature. The air must then be reheated after
humidification by a re-heat battery.
Humidification by water follows the Wet Bulb temperature line (the Dry Bulb temperature falls as water
is added, whereas it remains constant when steam is added).

3.05 EDB/1
Metering
Steam meter terminology
Accuracy There are two methods used to express accuracy.

(a) Measured Value or Actual Reading.

A percentage quoted in these terms is exactly as stated e.g. Accuracy 3%
of Actual Flow; Indicated Flowrate 1,000 kg/h; "uncertainty" is between
1030 and 970 kg/h.

(b) F.S.D. or Full Scale Deflection.

Measurement error is expressed as a percentage of the maximum flow that
the meter can handle e.g. Accuracy 3% F.S.D.; Maximum meter can
handle, 1000 kg/h; Indicated Flowrate 1000 kg/h; "uncertainty" is again
between 1030 and 970 kg/h.
BUT
If Indicated Flowrate is only 100 kg/h, the "uncertainty" is now between 130
(100 + 30) and 70 (100 30) kg/h. Expressed in Measured Valve terms,
this is an accuracy of 30%.
Repeatability The ability of a meter to indicate the same value for an identical flowrate on
more than one occasion. This must not be confused with accuracy
(consistently wrong values may be displayed).
Turndown This is the range of flowrates over which the meter will work within the
Effective Range accuracy and repeatability tolerances given e.g. Maximum Flowrate 1000
or Rangeability kg/h, Minimum Flowrate 100 kg/h, Turndown Ratio is 10:1. The way of
measuring Turndown varies between manufacturers. Often the figures are
obtained on fluids at velocities up to 100m/s clearly not realistic for
steam. Accuracy claims of 1% of Measured Value and Turndown of
100:1 are nearly impossible to achieve on steam whilst remaining within the
standards of good practice.
Dryness At a fixed steam pressure, the density will vary with changes in dryness
Fraction fraction. If the steam is totally dry, the flow rate indicated by the meter will be
Compensation correct. Most steam is not totally dry so the accuracy of the meter will be
affected if there is no compensation for dryness fraction. The wetter the
steam, the greater will be the error as shown by the graph.
Example: Indicated flow, assuming Dryness fraction 1.0 =100kg/h Actual
dryness fraction 0.95 True flowrate 102.6 kg/h from graph. i.e. In this
example the meter under-reads by 2.6% due to the absence of dryness
fraction correction.

EDB/1 4.01
Density compensation
The specific volume of steam (m3/kg) varies with change in pressure and in most steam systems the
pressure is rarely constant. It is therefore necessary to establish steam pressure/temperature when
measuring mass flow so that density (kg/m3) can be computed and Density Compensation applied
to the measured flowrate. Charts A and B show there can be significant percentage errors in meters
without density compensation.

Errors due to absence of density compensation

Example
A vortex shedding meter specified to be used at 5.0 bar g is actually used at 4.2 bar g. What is the
resulting error?
The meter is being used 0.8 bar below the specified pressure. The vertical line from 1 intersects the
specified pressure at 2 and the horizontal line shows the error at 3 as +14.6%.

4.02 EDB/1
Example
An orifice plate and DP cell are measuring saturated steam flow. Specified line pressure is 5.0 bar g
but actual pressure is 4.2 bar g. What is the resulting error?
The meter is being used 0.8 bar below the specified pressure. The vertical line from 1 intersects the
specified pressure at 2 and the horizontal line shows the error at 3 as + 7.1%.

EDB/1 4.03
Controls
Controls terminology
Set value - The value set on the scale of the control system in order to obtain the required condition.
Control value - The value of the control condition actually maintained under steady state conditions.
Deviation - The difference between the desired value and the measured value of the controlled
condition.
Offset - Sustained deviation.
Sensor - The element which responds directly to the value of the controlled condition.
Controlled condition - The physical quantity or condition of the controlled medium which is the purpose
of the control system.
Controller - Accepts the signal from the sensor and sends a correcting (or control) signal to the actuator.
Actuator - The element that adjusts the controlled device in response to a signal from the Controller.
Controlled device - The final controlling element in a control system.

Typical mix of process control devices with system elements

Controller knob,
SET POINT
MANIPULATED remote controller
VARIABLE
Compressed air MEASURED
0.2-1 bar VARIABLE
Electric current CONTROLLER Pressure signal,
4-20mA temperature signal

Pneumatic
Proportional (P),
actuator,
Proportional +
electric Temperature
Integral (P+I), MEASURING
actuator, CONTROLLED sensor,
Proportional + ELEMENT
self acting ELEMENT pressure
Integral +
actuator sensor,
Derivative (P+I+D) humidity
MANIPULATED sensor
VARIABLE

CONTROLLED
PROCESS
DEVICE
CONTROLLED
2-port valve, Autoclave
CONDITION
3-way valve calorifier

Flow coefficients (capacity indices: Av Kv and Cv)

The pressure drop across a control valve at a given flowrate is a function of the flow coefficient or
capacity index. The value of the flow coefficient is published by the control valve manufacturer.
These coefficients represent the quantity of fluid which passes through a fully open control valve at
unity pressure drop. In true SI units the flow coefficient Av is the quantity of fluid in m/s that will pass
through a valve with a 1 Pa pressure drop across it. This produces rather unwieldy figures and most
manufacturers continue to use the imperial Cv or alternatively the engineering metric unit Kv. Cv
is the number of imperial gallons/min that will pass through the valve with a 1 psi pressure drop
across it. Care should be taken with American valves as the quoted Cv is likely to be based on the
smaller American gallon - the quoted flow coefficient being larger for the same valve than its imperial
cousin. Kv is the number of m3/h that pass through the control valve with a pressure drop of 1 bar.
Note: Kvs is sometimes used to denote full lift Kv.

EDB/1 5.01
Conversion factors
Cv (UK) = Kv x 0.97

Cv (US) = Kv x 1.17

A v = Kv x 28 x 10-6

These conversion factors are often a source of confusion and a word or two of explanation seems
worthwhile. Let us assume that a manufacturer has designed and subsequently confirmed by test
that a control valve has a Kv (or Kvs if you prefer) of 10. What is its capacity in Cv (UK) terms? Cv
is a bigger unit than K v and hence there will be numerically less of them, i.e. 10 x 0.97 = 9.7. In
a similar fashion, the Cv (US) unit is smaller than the Kv unit and hence there will be numerically more
of them: if the Kv of the valve = 10, then in Cv (US) terms it capacity is 11.7.

Kv Formulae
For liquids
Kv = Q G
p

Where Q = Flow rate in m3/h

G = Relative density of liquid
p = Pressure drop across the valve in bar
Kv = Valve flow coefficient

Rearranging the formula, gives us:

Q = Kv p
G

For saturated steam, there are a variety of formulae in existence, but a rationalised approach based
on experience is:

W = 12 Kv P 1 1 5.67 (0.42 X) 2

Where W = Mass flow rate kg/h

P1 = Upstream pressure in bar absolute
P2 = Downstream pressure in bar absolute
X = Pressure drop ratio P1 _ P 2

P1

Kv = Valve flow coefficient

Note: If this formula is used when P2 is below the value which gives critical flow, i.e. equal or less
than 58% P1 , then the term within the bracket (0.42 X) becomes less than zero. It is then taken
as zero and the function within the square root sign becomes 1. In other words, for critical pressure
drop the simplified formula shown below can be used:
W= 12 Kv P1

Valve authority (liquid systems)

Valve authority is a means of sizing a valve for a liquid system with due regard to economic viability
and good control. When selecting a valve size, the Valve Authority should be between 0.2 and 0.5
and preferably 0.5. This will ensure that each small valve movement will influence some authority
over the flow whilst not excessively increasing pumping power costs.

Valve Authority always relates to the variable volume circuit - see diagrams on page 5.05

5.02 EDB/1
Kv steam (saturated and superheated) sizing chart
Example: It is required to size a control valve to handle a process load of 700 kg/h. The
steam supply conditions are 9 bar g saturated. The application requires a steam pressure
of 3 bar g such that the design output is achieved.

Method: 9 bar g is approximately 10 bar abs and likewise 3 bar g is about 4 bar abs. As
P2 is less than 58% P1 abs, the pressure drop is critical. Draw a horizontal line at 10 bar
abs to the critical pressure drop line and then from the intersection, a vertical line to the
bottom of the chart.
Now draw a horizontal line from the 700 kg/h (0 OC superheat = saturated steam) to the
drawn vertical line. At this intersection, read off the Kv required; in this case a valve having
a Kvs of about 6 is required - see below for typical valve size.

Many control valve manufacturers now produce valves with flow coefficients that follow
one of the Renard Series of Preferred Numbers. The table below shows DN .v. Kvs:

DN Kvs

15 4 (standard)
2.5 (reduced trims)
1.6
1.0
20 6.3 (standard)
4.0 (reduced trim)
25 10 (standard)
6.3 (reduced trim)
32 16 (standard)
10 (reduced trim)
40 25 (standard)
16 (reduced trim)
50 40 (standard)
25 (reduced trim)
65 63 (standard)
40 (reduced trim)
80 100 (standard)
63 (reduced trim)
100 160 (standard)
100 (reduced trim)
125 250 (standard)
160 (reduced trim)
150 400 (standard)
250 (reduced trim)

Note: in the above example a DN20 valve having a Kvs of 6.3 might suffice, however many
control engineers would select a DN25 (Kvs of 10) to gave a certain safety factor. This is
particularly important where the integrity of the 9 bar g supply cannot be guaranteed,
i.e. where steam supply pressure fluctuations occur.

EDB/1 5.03
Kv water sizing chart
Example: Size a three port diverting valve for the application shown below. The pressure
drop through the load (P2) has been calculated from tables to be 70 kPa with the design
flowrate of 2 l/s.

P1

P2

Method: firstly we need to consider Valve Authority; ideally we are looking for a figure of
0.5. Using the formula below, we can determine the pressure drop available across the
control valve:

Valve Authority N = P1
P1 + P2

With our target N of 0.5 and P2 equal to 70 kPa, then the available pressure drop across
the valve (P1) must be 70 kPa. Using the Kv chart, draw a vertical line from 70 kPa and
a horizontal line from 2 l/s. A valve with a Kvs of about 8.6 is required. Referring to the
table of DN .v. Kvs shown on page 5.03, it can be seen that a DN25 valve is needed which
has a Kvs of 10. Installing a valve with a Kvs of 10 alters the Valve Authority somewhat
- the Kv Chart can be used to determine the pressure drop through the valve at the design
flowrate. The result is then substituted into the above formula to derive the Valve Authority.
In this case the revised P2 is 52 kPa and hence N is:

52
52 + 70

= 0.43

EDB/1 5.04
It is expressed as:-

N = P1 or N = P1

P1 + P2 P3

Where N = Valve authority

P1 = Pressure drop across fully open control valve
P2 = Pressure drop across remainder of circuit
P3 = Pressure drop across whole circuit including control valve

P1

P2

Valve authority - two port valve application

P1

P2

Valve authority - three port mixing valve application

P1

P2

Valve authority- three port diverting valve application

EDB/1 5.05
Control valve characteristics
Inherent Characteristics
The relationship between valve spindle lift and area of valve opening is known as the inherent valve
characteristic. In the case of rotary valves, a similar relationship exists between spindle rotation
and area. There is an enormous range of possible valve characteristics but those most commonly
used are:

Linear: where the orifice area is directly proportional to the valve spindle lift.
Characterised V Port: with a characteristic falling between linear and equal percentage.
Equal percentage or similar modified parabolic: where equal increments of valve spindle lift provide
an equal percentage change of the previous area. The characteristic is represented by:

s = log V100
V0

Where: s = change in valve stroke...................%

V0 = volume flow rate at zero stroke
if the valve was characterised to
this point.......................................m3/s
V100 = volume flow rate with valve
fully open......................................m3/s

Quick opening: where the flow increases very rapidly from zero for small valve spindle movements,
with a fairly linear relationship between flow and spindle movement. Beyond this initial movement,
the flow rate varies more slowly with increased spindle movement. These valves are only really
suited to on/off applications.

The diagram below shows the basic valve curves described above.

100

A
Flow (%)
B

C A Linear
B Characterised V-port
C Equal percentage
D Quick opening

0
0 valve spindle lift (%) 100

The characteristics shown above are obtained by measuring flow with a constant pressure drop
across the valve for all valve spindle positions. In other words, with a Valve Authority of unity. When
such valves are installed into systems it is highly unlikely that they will operate with such a Valve
Authority and thus the valve characteristic curves are modified. The amount of distortion is
dependent on the Valve Authority with distortion increasing as it decreases. See diagram on
page 5.07

5.06 EDB/1
Installed Characteristics

Equal percentage

------
Linear

Heater or cooler output with Normal heater or cooler

different control valves battery characteristic (typical)

Rangeability
This valve parameter is defined as the ratio of the maximum controllable flow to the minimum
controllable flow. In the figure below the rangeability R is equal to fmax divided by fmin. A rangeability
of 50 indicates a valve which will control to its defined characteristic down to 2% of its maximum flow.
Care should be taken to ensure that the rangeability is suitable for control at low load conditions,
particularly in light of the heat transfer characteristics of some heat exchangers at low flow rates.
Flow
100%

f = let-by
R = fmax fmax
fmin f
fmax
fmin

100%
Note: where R is in the region
of 500 rather than 50-100 the Valve spindle lift
curve may be different
Valve leakage rates
Another important consideration when selecting control valves is the declared leakage rate which
is usually expressed as a percentage of the Kvs value. In British Standard 5793 Part 4 (IEC 534-
4), control valve leakage is categorised by a class system:
Leakage Class Designation Maximum Allowable Leakage
I As agreed buyer/supplier
II 0.5% of Kvs
III 0.1% of Kvs
IV 0.01% of Kvs
-5
V 1.8 x 10 x differential pressure bar x seat diameter mm
VI See table on page 5.08

EDB/1 5.07
Valve leakage rates BS5793 (IEC 534-4) Part 4
Class VI:

Nominal Port Diameter Leakage Rate- ml/min

25 0.15
40 0.30
50 0.45
65 0.60
80 0.90
100 1.70
150 4.00
200 6.75

Control modes
A controller can be made to operate a final control element such as a control valve in a number of
different ways in response to a signal. The way in which the final control element (control valve) acts
in response to the signal is known as the control mode. There are five principal control modes and
these can be used singly or in combination with each other. The control mode does not define the
means by which control is effected which may be through mechanical, electro-mechanical,
electrical, electronic or pneumatic systems.
The five basic control modes are: on/off, proportional control, floating control, integral control and
derivative control.

On/off control
This provides only two plant outputs - maximum (on) and minimum (off). The control sensor which
normally takes the form of an on/off thermostat, pressure switch or humidistat operates such that
below the set point the contacts open and vice versa. The reverse operation can be arranged when
the device is said to be reverse acting. There will always be an interval between the contacts
opening and closing when there is no change in the signal. This is known as the differential of the
device. It should be noted, however, that the temperature swing is wider than the differential due
to the thermal inertia of the system being controlled.

Controlled Condition Differential

Time

Controller
Output
Signal

Time

Action of On/off Controller

5.08 EDB/1
Proportional Control (P)
This action refers to a control element having an output signal proportional to its input signal. The
proportional band is the deviation necessary to produce the full range of control action. It can be
expressed in the physical unit (e.g. oC or bar) directly or as a percentage of the controller scale. If
the scale of the controller is 80 oC and a 20 oC change is necessary to produce full controller output,
then the proportional band is 20/80 = 25%. Another way of expressing this is in terms of 'gain' - gain
is the reciprocal of the proportional band - in this case, 4. The symbol used for proportional band
is Xp (%).
80

60
Controlled condition
temperature oC

40 Set point or
desired value Proportional
band

20

0
100 75 50 25 0
Open Valve position% Closed

+
Load

-
Time
Controlled condition

50
temperature oC

40
offset

30
Time
Valve position %

75

50

25
Time
Action of a proportional controller
Floating Control
A correcting element may be arranged to act at a fixed speed by means of a controller which imparts
pulses to the element. This mode of operation is dependent on the use of a dead band in the
controlled variable, in which the correcting element is not powered and remains stationary in its last
pulsed position. When the controlled variable moves outside the dead zone, the correcting element
is once again able to move - powered. This is the basis of floating control as shown on page 5.10.

EDB/1 5.09
 + Neutral zone
Controlled temperature Desired value
-
Open

Valve position

Closed

Time
Action of a floating controller

Integral Control (I)

A correcting element may be arranged to remain stationary when the controlled medium is at the
desired value and thereafter move in a correcting manner at increasing speed proportional to the
deviation from the desired value. This form of floating action is known as Integral Action.

Derivative Control (D)

A correcting element may be set so that its speed of operation is proportional to the rate of change
of the controlled variable. This action is used to eliminate overshoot during a fast load change - a
dampening action. Derivative control is also able to make a quick correcting signal in response to
a sudden fall in the measured variable.

Combinations of Basic Modes

Proportional plus Integral Control (P+I)
This mode combines the inherent stability of proportional control with the accuracy of the integral
mode to eliminate offset The diagram below shows the action of a P+I controller in response to a
step change.

Heating load

+
Controlled
temperature
-

Valve movement
due to proportional
action

Valve movement Action of a

due to integral action P + I controller

Resultant valve
movement due
to P + I action

5.10 EDB/1
Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative Control (PID)
This form of control combines the advantages of P+I control with derivative to combat sudden load
changes, whilst maintaining a zero offset under steady state conditions. The diagram below
illustrates the action of a PID controller.

Load -
Set point

P only

Set point
Overall controlled condition

P+I

Set point PID

Action of a PID controller

Matching Control Modes and Plant Characteristics

The type of control mode selected should be determined by the plant characteristic. If we consider
a large hot water storage calorifier, the secondary capacity (stored water) is large when compared
with the primary supply side (heating coil). If the vessel is controlled by a simple on/off thermostat,
then when it is cold there will be a call for heat, the valve will open and remain open until the water
in the calorifier is heated to the required temperature. There will always be a time lag in meeting any
load change but since large storage has been provided, this should not matter and an on/off control
will perform quite satisfactorily. On/off control in general is suitable for processes where there is a
large secondary side thermal capacity.

Turning to a high duty non storage heating calorifier with steam as the primary medium, here we have
a different scenario. This type of calorifier has a very small thermal capacity on both the primary and
secondary sides. If we try to control this application using on/off control, a call for heat by the
secondary water temperature would open the steam control valve on the primary but since there is
little secondary capacity and a fast reaction rate, it would be quickly satisfied and the valve closed.
The cycle would repeat every few minutes causing rapid wear and possible early failure of the control
system, but of more concern is the potential excessive cycling in the controlled water temperature
which at worst could cause boiling and steam formation. A proportional controller would be a better
choice for this application. Where offset can not be tolerated a P+I controller is usually the first
choice.

The use of PID controllers has traditionally been restricted to applications where there are very rapid
changes in load coupled with tight limits on the desired value and where there is a need for fast
corrective action. Nowadays with the advent of economically priced modern electronic controllers
the use of PID is far more widespread than it used to be, however in the strictest technical sense,
they are seldom needed and a simpler system such as P or P+I control will often suffice.

EDB/1 5.11
Summary of control mode characteristics
On/Off Inexpensive
Simple

Proportional Simple
Stable
Easy to set up
Offset occurs

Proportional plus integral No offset

Instability can occur

Proportional plus Derivative Stable

Some offset (but less than with P-action alone)
Rapid Response to changes

Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative Most complex

Most expensive
No offset
Will give best control but has to be set up properly
which can be complicated.

PN Controls - combinations of valve & actuator actions

Air Air

Air
Air

Actuator Action Direct Reverse Reverse Direct

Valve Action Direct Reverse Direct Reverse
On Air Failure Valve Opens Valve Closed

Air

Air

Actuator Action Direct Reverse

Top Seat closes. Bottom Seat closes
On Air Failure Bottom Seat opens Top Seat opens.

5.12 EDB/1
Safety valve selection and sizing
The selection and sizing of safety valves to protect pressurized systems from over-
pressure is one of the most important jobs that we undertake. It goes without saying that
we must always get it right!

With regard to boilers themselves, the safety valves are usually selected by the manufac-
turers and approved by the independent engineering inspection authority; we therefore
have little to do with their selection and sizing. Basically boiler safety valves are sized to
pass the full 'from and at' rating of the boiler when set at the boiler design pressure. British
Law requires that boilers with an evaporation rate of more than 3700 kg/h are fitted with
two safety valves. Also, the bore of the body seat of each safety valve connected to a boiler
shall not be less than 20mm.

We are much more concerned with the selection and sizing of safety valves for use with
pressure reducing stations than we are with boilers and as this is less regulated it warrants
further explanation.

The maximum set pressure of a safety valve is the design pressure of the system it
protects. The safety valve will commence to open at its set pressure and achieve its
declared capacity within a set over-pressure or accumulation - typically 110% of set
pressure. There should be an adequate margin between the normal operating pressure
of the system being protected and the set pressure of the safety valve to prevent nuisance
operation and premature wear of the safety valve - see diagram on page 5.14 which shows
the relationship of normal operating pressure, design pressure, accumulation etc.

The best method of explaining the selection and sizing of a safety valve is by example:

In the above application the supply steam is saturated at 25 bar g and is reduced through
a pressure reducing valve to 8 bar g. The design conditions of the downstream plant
are to PN16 with cast iron fittings and products. The Kvs of the DN50 reducing valve is
28.
Select a suitable safety valve for the application.

The first step is to determine the steam design pressure of the downstream plant. Pressure
/temperature charts reveal that PN16 cast iron products have a steam design pressure of
13 bar g. This is the maximum set pressure of the safety valve. Use the safety valve
sizing chart overleaf to determine the safety valve size. Draw a vertical line from the
set pressure of 13 bar g to the upstream pressure curve of 25 bar g. At this intersection
draw a horizontal line to the Kvs of the reducing valve (28). From this intersection, draw
a diagonal line down to the safety valve set pressure line and read off the required safety
valve size. In this case a size larger than a DN65 safety is required - i.e. DN80.

EDB/1 5.13
Relationship of system design pressure to safety valve set pressure
etc.
The chart below is derived from British Standard 5500 (Specification for unfired fusion welded
pressure vessels) and illustrates the relationship between the pressure system requirements and
the safety valve.

Design Pressure of System Maximum Setting of Safety Valve

Safety Valve may be set

within this region

Minimum Setting of Safety Valve

Reseat Differential
= 10% of Safety Valve Set Pressure
(0.3 bar g minimum)

Maximum Operating Pressure

(no load condition)

Normal System Pressure Variation

Operating Pressure
Maximum Flow Rate

Clearly the maximum set pressure of the safety valve is the design pressure of the system it protects
and the rise in pressure above the set pressure (accumulation) in achieving the declared capacity
exceeds the design pressure of the system by as much as 10%*. Obviously the design safety factors
of the system cater for this temporary 'excess' pressure.

Another important consideration is the pressure at which the safety valve reseats after it has relieved
the excess pressure. This is below the set pressure of the valve and is known as the reseat
differential or 'blowdown' of the valve. It is typically 10%* of the set pressure.

Due to 'blowdown' considerations the maximum (no load) pressure of the pressure reducing valve
must be at least 10% below the set pressure of the safety valve. On full load, the system operating
pressure will be lower due to the proportional band of the PRV.

* based on British Standard 6759 Part 1 (Specification for safety valves for steam and hot water).

EDB/1 5.14
Standards and
Materials
Relevant national, european and international standards
Symbols have been used to indicate harmonised standards, technically equivalent standards and
related standards - ; = and respectively.

Products section
Steam traps:
BS 6023 ISO 6552. Glossary of technical terms for automatic steam traps.
BS EN 26 553 ISO 6553. Specification for marking of automatic steam traps.
BS EN 26 554 ISO 6554. Specification for face to face dimensions for flanged automatic steam traps.
BS EN 26 704 ISO 6704. Classification for automatic steam traps.
BS EN 26 948 ISO 6948. Specification for production and performance characteristic tests for
automatic steam traps.
BS EN 27 841 ISO 7841. Methods for determination of steam loss of automatic steam traps.
BS EN 27 842 ISO 7842. Methods for determination of discharge capacity of automatic steam traps.

Pressure vessels (blowdown/flash vessels & separators)

BS 470 Specification for inspection, access and entry openings for pressure vessels.
BS 3463 Specification for observation and gauge glasses for pressure vessels.
BS 5500 Specification for unfired fusion welded pressure vessels.
BS EN 286 Specification for simple unfired pressure vessels designed to contain air or nitrogen.

Control valves
BS 5793 IEC 534 Industrial process control valves; Part 1(BS EN 60534-1) - Specification and
terminology for control valves; Part 2 (BS EN 60534-2.1/2.2/2.3) - flow capacity; Part 3 - Dimensions;
Part 4 - Specification for inspection and routine testing; Part 5 - Specification for marking; Part 6 - ;
Part 7 - ; Part 8 (BS EN 60534-8.2) - Noise Considerations.

Isolating valves (ball, butterfly, check, gate, piston etc.)

BS 5150 ISO 5996 Specification for cast iron wedge and double disk gate valves for general
purposes.
BS 5151 Specification for cast iron gate (parallel slide) valves for general purposes.
BS 5152 Specification for cast iron globe and globe stop and check valves for general purposes.
BS 5153 Specification for cast iron check valves for general purposes.
BS 5154 Specification for copper alloy globe, globe stop and check, check and gate valves.
BS 5155 Specification for butterfly valves.
BS 5158 Specification for cast iron plug valves.
BS 5159 ISO 7121 Specification for cast iron and carbon steel ball valves for general purposes.
BS 5160 Specification for steel globe valves, globe stop and check, and lift type check valves.
BS 7438 Specification for steel and copper alloy wafer check valves, single disk, spring loaded type.
ISO 5752 Metal valves for use in piping systems - face to face dimensions.
ISO 10631 Metallic butterfly valves for general purposes.

Pressure gauges and thermometers

BS 1704 General purpose thermometers
BS1780 Specification for bourdon tube pressure and vacuum gauges
BS 5253 Dial type expansion thermometers

Safety valves
BS 6759 Part 1 Specification for safety valves for steam and hot water; Part 2 Specification for safety
valves for compressed air or inert gases; Part 3 Specification for safety valves for process fluids.

EDB/1 6.01
General section

Quality systems
BS EN ISO 9000 Quality management and quality assurance standards; 9000-1 Guidelines for
selection and use; 9001 Quality systems - Model for quality assurance in design, development,
production, installation and servicing; 9002 Quality systems - Model for quality assurance in
production, installation and servicing; 9003 Quality systems - Model for assurance in final inspection
and test; 9004 Quality management and quality assurance standards; 9004-1 Guidelines.

Boilers
BS 759 Valves, gauges and other safety fittings for application to boilers and to piping installations for
and in connection with boilers.
BS 1113 Specification for design and manufacture of watertube steam generating plant (including
superheaters, reheaters and steel tube economisers).
BS 1894 Specification for design and manufacture of electrode boilers of welded construction.
BS 2790 Specification for design and manufacture of shell boilers of welded construction.

Water treatment
BS 1170 Methods for treatment of water for marine boilers.
BS 1328 Methods of sampling water used in industry.
BS 2486 Recommendations for treatment of water for land boilers.

Piping systems
BS 10 Specification for flanges and bolting for pipes, valves and fittings.
BS 21 = ISO 7/1 ISO 7/2 Specification for pipe threads for tubes and fittings where pressure tight joints
are made on the threads.
BS 806 Specification for design and construction of ferrous piping installations for and in connection
with land boilers.
BS 1306 Specification for copper and copper alloy piping systems.
BS 1387 Specification for screwed and socketed tubes and tubulars and for plain end steel tubes
suitable for welding and screwing to BS 21 pipe threads.
BS 1560 Circular flanges for pipes, valves and fittings (Class designated); Part 3 Section 3.1
Specification for steel flanges ( ISO 7005); Part 3 Section 3.2 Specification for cast iron flanges (
ISO 7005-2); Part 3 Section 3.3 Specification for copper alloy and composite flanges ( ISO 7005-3)
BS 1600 Dimensions of steel pipe for the petroleum industry.
BS 1965 Specification for butt welding pipe fittings for pressure purposes.
BS 1710 Specification for identification of pipelines.
BS 2779 = IS0 228/1 and ISO 228/2 Specification for pipe threads for tubes and fittings where pressure
tight joints are not made on the threads.
BS 3600 Specification for dimensions and masses per unit length of welded and seamless steel pipes
and tubes for pressure purposes.
BS 3601 Specification for steel pipes and tubes with specified room temperature properties for
pressure purposes.
BS 3602 Specification for steel pipes and tubes for pressure purposes: carbon and carbon manganese
steel with specified elevated temperature properties.
BS 3603 Specification for carbon and alloy steel pipes and tubes with specified low temperature
properties for pressure purposes.
BS 3604 Steel pipes and tubes for pressure purposes: ferritic alloy steel with specified elevated
temperature properties.
BS 3605 Austenitic stainless steel pipes and tubes for pressure purposes.
BS 3799 Specification for steel pipe fittings, screwed and socket welded for the petroleum industry.
BS 3974 Specification for pipe supports.
BS 4504 Part 3 Section 3.1 Specification for steel flanges; Section 3.2 Specification for cast iron
flanges ( ISO 7005-2); Section 3.3 Specification for copper alloy and composite flanges
( ISO 7005/3).

6.02 EDB/1
Enclosures
BS EN 60 529 IEC 529 Specification for degrees of protection provided by enclosures (IP code).

Guidance notes
Health and Safety Executive (UK) PM5 Automatically controlled steam and hot water boilers.
Health and Safety Executive (UK) PM60 Steam boiler blowdown systems.

End connections - flanges

Size
In British Standards, flanges are identified by the nominal size (or nominal pipe-bore size) in BS 10,
in inches, and in BS 4504, in mm. The American ANSI Standards are very similar in inches. DIN
Standards refer to the same dimension as Nennweite (NW) and AFNOR Standards use the title
diameter nominal (DN). DIN and BS standards are also now using the DN nomenclature.
Pressure
BS 10 designates pressure-temperature ratings by means of alphabetic Tables (A to T) unit of
pressure (lbf/sq. in).
In BS 4504 each rating Table has a double number reference (e.g. 10/3) : the first part of the Table
reference indicates the pressure in bar (= PN rating) while the second figure identifies the material and
type of flange (screwed, integral etc.)
DIN issue separate standards for each pressure rating or Nenndrucke (nominal pressure = ND) but
are gradually adopting PN; AFNOR are similar individual standards for each pression nominale
(nominal pressure = PN) each with dimensional tables. ANSI uses a completely different system of
eight Class ratings, Classes 125,150, 250, 300, 400, 600, 900 and 1500, the numerals representing
their respective primary service pressure ratings in lbf/sq. in at elevated temperature. Extensive tables
give dimensional details by Class and type, pressure temperature ratings for all types of material, as
well as a range of flange facings. (B16.24 bronze, B16.1 cast iron and B16.5 steel). BS 1560
is based on these ANSI standards.

Flange facings
As a general rule, flanges made in copper alloy materials are always supplied flat faced. The various
National Standard requirements on ferrous flanges are listed as follows:

BS 10: cast iron flanges are to be supplied flat faced

steel flanges to Tables D, E . F are normally flat faced

steel flanges to Tables H, J . K-raised face is recommended in the Standard but it
is Company practice to supply flat face with raised face as an option at extra cost.

steel flanges to Tables R, S . T will be supplied with raised face.

BS 4504/DIN: cast iron, e.g. iron and steel flanges are all supplied with raised face as standard.

ANSI B16.1: cast iron flanges to Class 125 are required to be flat faced
cast iron flanges to Class 250 are required to have a raised face

ANSI B 16.5: steel flanges - from Class 150 upwards all Classes will be supplied with a raised
face.

Note: above Class 300 the raised face thickness is additional to the minimum flange flange thickness.
In the following flange tables this additional amount has been added to the dimension c to give an
inclusive figure for the Classes 400, 600, 900 and 1500 see column C.

ANSI B16.42: ductile cast (SG) iron flanges to Class 150 and 300 are supplied with raised faces.

EDB/1 6.03
Surface Finish
As standard Company products are now supplied with spiral or concentrically grooved faces as
standard. The radius of the tool used to machine the finish is either 0.4 or 0.8mm with the depth of the
serrations in the range 0.01/0.02mm. The pitch of the serrations is typically 0.4mm and the roughness
grade is in the range 3.2mm (125m or N8) to 6.3mm (250m or N9).

Flange Tolerance
As standard the Company manufactures flanges to the following tolerances:

Outside diameter (D) + 2mm/ - 0.0mm

Thickness (C) + 2mm/ - 0.0mm
Raised face diameter + 0.5mm
Raised face height + 0.2mm
Bolt pitch circle diameter + 0.5mm
Bolt hole diameter + 0.5mm/ -0.0mm

Face finish- A brief explanation

Flat Face
The joint face is over the whole area and is machined right across normally to a smooth finish.

6.04 EDB/1
Raised Face
The joint face is a raised area to specified dimensions in the centre of the flange. The joint face may
be smooth or to one of the serrated finishes shown below according to specification.

Smooth Finish
As is implied this is a straightforward smooth machined finish.

Serrated Finish
The object of serrated finish is to provide a better key for the gasket and is normally used only on high
pressures. There are two forms as follows:

a) Special Groove, Continuous Groove or sometimes, for obvious reasons referred to as Gramophone
finish. This a continuous groove to specified dimensions winding outwards from the centre to the
edge of the joint face.

EDB/1 6.05
b) Concentric Grooving: This consists of a number of concentric grooves machined on the joint face
to a specified pitch and depth: this is difficult and expensive and is rarely required.

Bolt Holes: Bolt holes as standard are drilled Off Centre.

6.06 EDB/1
End connections
L
Steel flange tables
C
f
d
K
D

(DN15 - 1/2")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table F 95.3 66.7 14.3 4 1/2" 9.5
Table H 114.3 82.6 17.5 4 5/8" 12.7 57.2 1.6
Table J 114.3 82.6 17.5 4 5/8" 15.9 57.2 1.6
Table K 114.3 82.6 17.5 4 5/8" 19.1 63.5 1.6
Table R 114.3 82.6 17.5 4 5/8" 19.1 63.5 1.6
Table S 127.0 89.0 22.2 4 3/4" 22.2 63.5 1.6
Table T 140.0 101.6 22.2 4 3/4" 25.4 63.5 1.6
BS 4504*/DIN 2501 PN10 95 65 14 4 M12 14 45 2
PN16 95 65 14 4 M12 16 45 2
*up to PN40 only PN25 95 65 14 4 M12 16 45 2
PN40 95 65 14 4 M12 16 45 2
PN64 105 75 14 4 M12 20 45 2
PN100 105 75 14 4 M12 20 45 2
PN250 130 90 18 4 M16 26 45 2
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.5 150 89 60.3 15.9 4 1/2" 11.1 35 1.6
300 95 66.7 15.9 4 1/2" 14.3 35 1.6
400 95 66.7 15.9 4 1/2" 20.7 35 6.4
600 95 66.7 15.9 4 1/2" 20.7 35 6.4
900 121 82.6 22.2 4 3/4" 28.6 35 6.4
1500 121 82.6 22.2 4 3/4" 28.6 35 6.4

(DN20 - 3/4")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table F 101.6 73.0 14.3 4 1/2" 9.5
Table H 114.3 82.6 17.5 4 5/8" 12.7 57.2 1.6
Table J 114.3 82.6 17.5 4 5/8" 15.9 57.2 1.6
Table K 114.3 82.6 17.5 4 5/8" 19.1 63.5 1.6
Table R 114.3 82.6 17.5 4 5/8" 19.1 63.5 1.6
Table S 127.0 89.0 22.2 4 3/4" 22.2 63.5 1.6
Table T 140.0 101.6 22.2 4 3/4" 25.4 63.5 1.6
BS 4504*/DIN 2501 PN10 105 75 14 4 M12 16 58 2
PN16 105 75 14 4 M12 16 58 2
*up to PN40 only PN25 105 75 14 4 M12 18 58 2
PN40 105 75 14 4 M12 18 58 2
PN64 130 90 18 4 M16 22 58 2
PN100 130 90 18 4 M16 22 58 2
PN250
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.5 150 98 69.8 15.9 4 1/2" 12.7 43 1.6
300 117 82.6 19.0 4 5/8" 15.9 43 1.6
400 117 82.6 19.0 4 5/8" 22.3 43 6.4
600 117 82.6 19.0 4 5/8" 22.3 43 6.4
900 130 88.9 22.2 4 3/4" 31.8 43 6.4
1500 130 88.9 22.2 4 3/4" 31.8 43 6.4

EDB/1 6.07
Steel flange tables
L

C
f
d
K
D

(DN25 - 1")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table F 121 87.3 17.5 4 5/8" 9.5
Table H 121 87.3 17.5 4 5/8" 14.3 63.5 1.6
Table J 121 87.3 17.5 4 5/8" 19.1 63.5 1.6
Table K 127 95.2 17.5 4 5/8" 22.2 76.2 1.6
Table R 127 95.2 17.5 4 5/8" 22.2 76.2 1.6
Table S 140 101.6 22.2 4 3/4" 25.4 76.2 1.6
Table T 146.1 108.0 22.2 4 3/4" 28.6 76.2 1.6
BS 4504*/DIN 2501 PN10 115 85 14 4 M12 16 68 2
PN16 115 85 14 4 M12 16 68 2
*up to PN40 only PN25 115 85 14 4 M12 18 68 2
PN40 115 85 14 4 M12 18 68 2
PN64 140 100 18 4 M16 24 68 2
PN100 140 100 18 4 M16 24 68 2
PN250 150 105 22 4 M20 28 68 2
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.5 150 108 79.4 15.9 4 1/2" 14.3 51 1.6
300 124 88.9 19.0 4 5/8" 17.5 51 1.6
400 124 88.9 19.0 4 5/8" 23.9 51 6.4
600 124 88.9 19.0 4 5/8" 23.9 51 6.4
900 149 101.6 25.4 4 7/8" 35.0 51 6.4
1500 149 101.6 25.4 4 7/8" 35.0 51 6.4

(DN32 - 1 1/4")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table F 133.4 98.4 17.5 4 5/8" 12.7
Table H 133.4 98.4 17.5 4 5/8" 17.5 76.2 1.6
Table J 133.4 98.4 17.5 4 5/8" 19.1 76.2 1.6
Table K 133.4 98.4 17.5 4 5/8" 22.2 76.2 1.6
Table R 133.4 98.4 17.5 4 5/8" 22.2 76.2 1.6
Table S 146.1 108.0 22.2 4 3/4" 28.6 82.6 1.6
Table T 158.8 120.6 25.4 4 7/8" 31.8 82.6 1.6
BS 4504*/DIN 2501 PN10 140 100 18 4 M16 16 78 2
PN16 140 100 18 4 M16 16 78 2
*up to PN40 only PN25 140 100 18 4 M16 18 78 2
PN40 140 100 18 4 M16 18 78 2
PN64 155 110 22 4 M20 26 78 2
PN100 155 110 22 4 M20 26 78 2
PN250
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.5 150 117 88.9 15.9 4 1/2" 15.9 64 1.6
300 133 98.4 19.0 4 5/8" 19.0 64 1.6
400 133 98.4 19.0 4 5/8" 27.0 64 6.4
600 133 98.4 19.0 4 5/8" 27.0 64 6.4
900 159 111.1 25.4 4 7/8" 35.0 64 6.4
1500 159 111.1 25.4 4 7/8" 35.0 64 6.4

6.08 EDB/1
Steel flange tables
L

C
f
d
K
D

(DN40 - 1 1/2")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table F 140 104.8 17.5 4 5/8" 12.7
Table H 140 104.8 17.5 4 5/8" 17.5 82.6 1.6
Table J 140 104.8 17.5 4 5/8" 22.2 82.6 1.6
Table K 152.4 114.3 22.2 4 3/4" 25.4 89.0 1.6
Table R 152.4 114.3 22.2 4 3/4" 25.4 89.0 1.6
Table S 158.8 120.6 22.2 4 3/4" 28.6 89.0 1.6
Table T 171.5 133.3 22.2 4 3/4" 34.9 89.0 1.6
BS 4504*/DIN 2501 PN10 150 110 18 4 M16 16 88 3
PN16 150 110 18 4 M16 16 88 3
*up to PN40 only PN25 150 110 18 4 M16 18 88 3
PN40 150 110 18 4 M16 18 88 3
PN64 170 125 22 4 M20 28 88 3
PN100 170 125 22 4 M20 28 88 3
PN250 185 135 26 4 M24 34 88 3
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.5 150 127 98.4 15.9 4 1/2" 17.5 73 1.6
300 156 114.3 22.2 4 3/4" 20.6 73 1.6
400 156 114.3 22.2 4 3/4" 28.6 73 6.4
600 156 114.3 22.2 4 3/4" 28.6 73 6.4
900 178 123.8 28.6 4 1" 38.2 73 6.4
1500 178 123.8 28.6 4 1" 38.2 73 6.4

(DN50 - 2")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table F 165.1 127 17.5 4 5/8" 15.9
Table H 165.1 127 17.5 4 5/8" 19.1 102 1.6
Table J 165.1 127 22.2 4 3/4" 25.4 102 1.6
Table K 165.1 127 17.5 8 5/8" 25.4 102 1.6
Table R 165.1 127 17.5 8 5/8" 25.4 102 1.6
Table S 171.5 133.3 22.2 8 3/4" 31.8 89 1.6
Table T 184.2 146.0 22.2 8 3/4" 34.9 102 1.6
BS 4504*/DIN 2501 PN10 165 125 18 4 M16 18 102 3
PN16 165 125 18 4 M16 18 102 3
*up to PN40 only PN25 165 125 18 4 M16 20 102 3
PN40 165 125 18 4 M16 20 102 3
PN64 180 135 22 4 M20 26 102 3
PN100 195 145 26 4 M24 30 102 3
PN250 200 150 26 8 M24 38 102 3
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.5 150 152 120.6 19.0 4 5/8" 19.0 92 1.6
300 165 127.0 19.0 8 5/8" 22.2 92 1.6
400 165 127.0 19.0 8 5/8" 31.8 92 6.4
600 165 127.0 19.0 8 5/8" 31.8 92 6.4
900 216 165.1 25.4 8 7/8" 44.5 92 6.4
1500 216 165.1 25.4 8 7/8" 44.5 92 6.4

EDB/1 6.09
Steel flange tables
L

C
f
d
K
D

(DN65 - 2 1/2")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table F 184.2 146.0 17.5 8 5/8" 15.9
Table H 184.2 146.0 17.5 8 5/8" 19.1 114.3 1.6
Table J 184.2 146.0 22.2 8 3/4" 25.4 114.3 1.6
Table K 184.2 146.0 22.2 8 3/4" 28.6 114.3 1.6
Table R 184.2 146.0 22.2 8 3/4" 28.6 114.3 1.6
Table S 184.2 146.0 22.2 8 3/4" 31.8 102.0 1.6
Table T 203.2 165.1 25.4 8 7/8" 41.3 114.3 1.6
BS 4504*/DIN 2501 PN10 185 145 18 4 M16 18 122 3
PN16 185 145 18 4 M16 18 122 3
*up to PN40 only PN25 185 145 18 8 M16 22 122 3
PN40 185 145 18 8 M16 22 122 3
PN64 205 160 22 8 M20 26 122 3
PN100 220 170 26 8 M24 34 122 3
PN250 230 180 26 8 M24 42 122 3
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.5 150 178 139.7 19.0 4 5/8" 22.2 105 1.6
300 190 149.2 22.2 8 3/4" 25.4 105 1.6
400 190 149.2 22.2 8 3/4" 35.0 105 6.4
600 190 149.2 22.2 8 3/4" 35.0 105 6.4
900 244 190.5 28.6 8 1" 47.7 105 6.4
1500 244 190.5 28.6 8 1" 47.7 105 6.4

(DN80 -3")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table F 203.2 165.1 17.5 8 5/8" 15.9
Table H 203.2 165.1 17.5 8 5/8" 22.2 127 1.6
Table J 203.2 165.1 22.2 8 3/4" 31.8 127 1.6
Table K 203.2 165.1 22.2 8 3/4" 31.8 127 1.6
Table R 203.2 165.1 22.2 8 3/4" 31.8 127 1.6
Table S 203.2 165.1 25.4 8 7/8" 35.0 114.3 1.6
Table T 235.0 190.5 28.6 8 1" 47.6 127 1.6
BS 4504*/DIN 2501 PN10 200 160 18 8 M16 20 138 3
PN16 200 160 18 8 M16 20 138 3
*up to PN40 only PN25 200 160 18 8 M16 24 138 3
PN40 200 160 18 8 M16 24 138 3
PN64 215 170 22 8 M20 28 138 3
PN100 230 180 26 8 M24 36 138 3
PN250 255 200 30 8 M27 46 138 3
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.5 150 190 152.4 19.0 4 5/8" 23.8 127 1.6
300 210 168.3 22.2 8 3/4" 28.6 127 1.6
400 210 168.3 22.2 8 3/4" 38.2 127 6.4
600 210 168.3 22.2 8 3/4" 38.2 127 6.4
900 241 190.5 25.4 8 7/8" 44.5 127 6.4
1500 267 203.0 33.0 8 1 1/8" 48.0 127 6.4

6.10 EDB/1
Steel flange tables
L

C
f
d
K
D

(DN100 - 4")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table F 228.6 190.5 17.5 8 5/8" 19.1
Table H 228.6 190.5 17.5 8 5/8" 25.4 152.4 1.6
Table J 228.6 190.5 22.2 8 3/4" 34.9 152.4 1.6
Table K 241.3 196.8 25.4 8 7/8" 34.9 152.4 1.6
Table R 241.3 196.8 25.4 8 7/8" 34.9 152.4 1.6
Table S 247.7 203.2 28.6 8 1" 41.3 159.0 1.6
Table T 285.8 235.0 31.8 8 1 1/8" 57.2 114.3 1.6
BS 4504*/DIN 2501 PN10 220 180 18 8 M16 20 158 3
PN16 220 180 18 8 M16 20 158 3
*up to PN40 only PN25 235 190 22 8 M20 24 162 3
PN40 235 190 22 8 M20 24 162 3
PN64 250 200 26 8 M24 30 162 3
PN100 265 210 30 8 M27 40 162 3
PN250 300 235 33 8 M30 54 162 3
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.5 150 229 190.5 19.0 8 5/8" 23.8 157 1.6
300 254 200.0 22.2 8 3/4" 31.8 157 1.6
400 254 200.0 25.4 8 7/8" 41.3 157 6.4
600 273 215.9 25.4 8 7/8" 44.5 157 6.4
900 292 235.0 31.8 8 1 1/8" 50.8 157 6.4
1500 311 242.0 34.9 8 1 1/4" 54.0 157 6.4

(DN125 -5")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table F 279.4 235 22.2 8 3/4" 22.2
Table H 279.4 235 22.2 8 3/4" 28.6 178 1.6
Table J 279.4 235 25.4 8 7/8" 38.1 178 1.6
Table K 279.4 235 25.4 12 7/8" 41.3 178 1.6
Table R 279.4 235 25.4 12 7/8" 41.3 178 1.6
Table S 285.8 235 25.4 12 7/8" 44.5 190 1.6
Table T 324.0 273 31.8 12 1 1/8" 66.7 210 1.6
BS 4504*/DIN 2501 PN10 250 210 18 8 M16 22 188 3
PN16 250 210 18 8 M16 22 188 3
*up to PN40 only PN25 270 220 26 8 M24 26 188 3
PN40 270 220 26 8 M24 26 188 3
PN64 295 240 30 8 M27 34 188 3
PN100 315 250 33 8 M30 40 188 3
PN250 340 275 33 12 M30 60 188 3
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.5 150 254 215.9 22.2 8 3/4" 23.8 186 1.6
300 279 235.0 22.2 8 3/4" 34.9 186 1.6
400 279 235.0 25.4 8 7/8" 44.5 186 6.4
600 330 266.7 28.6 8 1" 50.8 186 6.4
900 349 279.4 34.9 8 1 1/4" 57.2 186 6.4
1500 375 292.0 42.0 8 1 1/2" 73.5 186 6.4

EDB/1 6.11
Steel flange tables
L

C
f
d
K
D

(DN150 -6")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table F 304.8 260.3 22.2 12 3/4" 22.2
Table H 304.8 260.3 22.2 12 3/4" 28.6 210 1.6
Table J 304.8 260.3 25.4 12 7/8" 38.1 210 1.6
Table K 304.8 260.3 25.4 12 7/8" 41.3 210 1.6
Table R 304.8 260.3 25.4 12 7/8" 44.5 210 1.6
Table S 323.9 273.0 28.6 12 1" 50.8 210 1.6
Table T 374.7 317.5 35.0 12 1 1/4" 73.0 229 1.6
BS 4504*/DIN 2501 PN10 285 240 22 8 M20 22 212 3
PN16 285 240 22 8 M20 22 212 3
*up to PN40 only PN25 300 250 26 8 M24 28 218 3
PN40 300 250 26 8 M24 28 218 3
PN64 345 280 33 8 M30 36 218 3
PN100 355 290 33 12 M30 44 218 3
PN250 390 320 36 12 M33 68 218 3
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.5 150 279 241.3 22.2 8 3/4" 25.4 216 1.6
300 318 269.9 22.2 12 3/4" 36.5 216 1.6
400 318 269.9 25.4 12 7/8" 47.7 216 6.4
600 356 292.1 28.6 12 1" 54.0 216 6.4
900 381 317.5 31.8 12 1 1/8" 62.0 216 6.4
1500 395 317.5 39.0 12 1 3/8" 83.0 216 6.4

(DN200 -8")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table F 368.3 323.9 22.2 12 3/4" 25.4
Table H 368.3 323.9 22.2 12 3/4" 31.8 260 1.6
Table J 368.3 323.9 25.4 12 7/8" 41.3 260 1.6
Table K 368.3 317.5 28.6 12 1" 47.6 260 1.6
Table R 368.3 323.9 28.6 12 1" 50.8 260 1.6
Table S 412.8 355.6 35.0 12 1 1/4" 63.5 273 1.6
Table T 476.3 406.4 41.3 12 1 1/2" 88.9 298 1.6
BS 4504*/DIN 2501 PN10 340 295 22 8 M20 24 268 3
PN16 340 295 22 12 M20 24 268 3
*up to PN40 only PN25 360 310 26 12 M24 30 278 3
PN40 375 320 30 12 M27 34 285 3
PN64 415 345 36 12 M33 42 285 3
PN100 430 360 36 12 M33 52 285 3
PN250 485 400 42 12 M39 82 285 3
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.5 150 343 298.4 22.2 8 3/4" 28.6 270 1.6
300 381 330.2 25.4 12 7/8" 41.3 270 1.6
400 381 330.2 28.6 12 1" 54.0 270 6.4
600 419 349.2 31.8 12 1 1/8" 62.0 270 6.4
900 470 393.7 38.1 12 1 3/8" 69.9 270 6.4
1500 485 393.7 45.0 12 1 5/8" 92.0 270 6.4

6.12 EDB/1
Cast iron flange tables
L

C
f
d
K
D

(DN15 - 1/2")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table D 95.3 66.7 14.3 4 1/2" 12.7
Table E 95.3 66.7 14.3 4 1/2" 12.7
Table F 95.3 66.7 14.3 4 1/2" 12.7
Table H 114.3 82.6 17.5 4 5/8" 15.9
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN10 95 65 14 4 M12 14 46 2
PN16 95 65 14 4 M12 14 46 2
PN25 95 65 14 4 M12 16 46 2
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.1 125 89 60.3 15.9 4 1/2" 11

(DN20 - 3/4")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table D 101.6 73.0 14.3 4 1/2" 12.7
Table E 101.6 73.0 14.3 4 1/2" 12.7
Table F 101.6 73.0 14.3 4 1/2" 12.7
Table H 114.3 82.6 17.5 4 5/8" 15.9
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN10 105 75 14 4 M12 16 56 2
PN16 105 75 14 4 M12 16 56 2
PN25 105 75 14 4 M12 16 56 2
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.1 125 98 69.8 15.9 4 1/2" 11

(DN25 -1")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table D 114.3 82.6 14.3 4 1/2" 12.7
Table E 114.3 82.6 14.3 4 1/2" 12.7
Table F 121.0 87.3 17.5 4 5/8" 12.7
Table H 121.0 87.3 17.5 4 5/8" 19.0
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN10 115 85 14 4 M12 16 65 3
PN16 115 85 14 4 M12 16 65 3
PN25 115 85 14 4 M12 18 65 3
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.1 125 108 79.4 15.9 4 1/2" 11.0
250 124 88.9 19.0 4 5/8" 17.5 68 2

(DN32 - 1 1/4")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table D 121.0 87.3 14.3 4 1/2" 15.9
Table E 121.0 87.3 14.3 4 1/2" 15.9
Table F 133.4 98.4 17.5 4 5/8" 15.9
Table H 133.4 98.4 17.5 4 5/8" 22.2
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN10 140 100 18 4 M16 18 76 3
PN16 140 100 18 4 M16 18 76 3
PN25 140 100 18 4 M16 20 76 3
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.1 125 117 88.9 15.9 4 1/2" 13.0
250 133 98.5 19.0 4 5/8" 19.0 78 1.6

EDB/1 6.13
Cast iron flange tables
L

C
f
d
K
D

(DN40 - 1 1/2")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table D 133.4 98.4 14.3 4 1/2" 15.9
Table E 133.4 98.4 14.3 4 1/2" 15.9
Table F 140.0 104.8 17.5 4 5/8" 15.9
Table H 140.0 104.8 17.5 4 5/8" 22.2
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN10 150 110 18 4 M16 18 84 3
PN16 150 110 18 4 M16 18 84 3
PN25 150 110 18 4 M16 20 84 3
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.1 125 127 98.4 15.9 4 1/2" 14.5
250 156 114.3 22.2 4 3/4" 20.5 90 2
(DN50 - 2")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table D 152.4 114.3 17.5 4 5/8" 17.5
Table E 152.4 114.3 17.5 4 5/8" 19.0
Table F 165.1 127 17.5 4 5/8" 19.0
Table H 165.1 127 17.5 4 5/8" 25.4

BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN10 165 125 18 4 M16 20 99 3

PN16 165 125 18 4 M16 20 99 3
PN25 165 125 18 4 M16 22 99 3
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.1 125 152 120.6 19.0 4 5/8" 16.0
250 165 127.0 19.0 8 5/8" 22.5 106.4 2
(DN65 - 2 1/2")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table D 165.1 127.0 17.5 4 5/8" 17.5
Table E 165.1 127.0 17.5 4 5/8" 19.0
Table F 184.2 146.0 17.5 8 5/8" 19.0
Table H 184.2 146.0 17.5 8 5/8" 25.4
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN10 185 145 18 4 M16 20 118 3
PN16 185 145 18 4 M16 20 118 3
PN25 185 145 18 8 M16 24 118 3
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.1 125 178 139.7 19.0 4 5/8" 17.5
250 190 149.2 22.2 8 3/4" 25.5 125 2
(DN80 -3")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table D 184.2 146.0 17.5 4 5/8" 19.0
Table E 184.2 146.0 17.5 4 5/8" 19.0
Table F 203.2 165.1 17.5 8 5/8" 19.0
Table H 203.2 165.1 17.5 8 5/8" 28.6
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN10 200 160 18 8 M16 22 132 3
PN16 200 160 18 8 M16 22 132 3
PN25 200 160 18 8 M16 26 132 3
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.1 125 190 152.4 19.0 4 5/8" 19.0
250 210 168.3 22.2 8 3/4" 28.5 145 2

6.14 EDB/1
Cast iron flange tables
L

C
f
d
K
D

(DN100 - 4")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table D 215.9 177.8 17.5 4 5/8" 19.0
Table E 215.9 177.8 17.5 8 5/8" 22.2
Table F 228.6 190.5 17.5 8 5/8" 22.2
Table H 228.6 190.5 17.5 8 5/8" 31.8
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN10 220 180 18 8 M16 24 156 3
PN16 220 180 18 8 M16 24 156 3
PN25 235 190 22 8 M20 28 156 3
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.1 125 229 190.5 19.0 8 5/8" 24.0
250 254 200.0 22.2 8 3/4" 32.0 176 2
(DN125 -5")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table D 254.0 209.5 17.5 8 5/8" 20.6
Table E 254.0 209.5 17.5 8 5/8" 22.2
Table F 279.4 235 22.2 8 3/4" 25.4
Table H 279.4 235 22.2 8 3/4" 35.0
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN10 250 210 18 8 M16 26 184 3
PN16 250 210 18 8 M16 26 184 3
PN25 270 220 26 8 M24 30 184 3
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.1 125 254 215.9 22.2 8 3/4" 24.0
250 279 235.0 22.2 8 3/4" 35.0 211 2
(DN150 -6")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table D 279.4 235.0 17.5 8 5/8" 20.6
Table E 279.4 235.0 22.2 8 3/4" 22.2
Table F 304.8 260.3 22.2 12 3/4" 25.4
Table H 304.8 260.3 22.2 12 3/4" 35.0
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN10 285 240 22 8 M20 26 211 3
PN16 285 240 22 8 M20 26 211 3
PN25 300 250 26 8 M24 34 211 3
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.1 125 279 241.3 22.2 8 3/4" 25.5
250 318 269.9 22.2 12 3/4" 36.5 246 2
(DN200 -8")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table D 336.6 292.1 17.5 8 5/8" 22.2
Table E 336.6 292.1 22.2 8 3/4" 25.4
Table F 368.6 323.9 22.2 12 3/4" 28.6
Table H 368.6 323.9 22.2 12 3/4" 38.1
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN10 340 295 22 8 M20 26 266 3
PN16 340 295 22 12 M20 30 266 3
PN25 360 310 26 12 M24 34 274 3
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.1 125 343 298.4 22.2 8 3/4" 28.5
250 381 330.2 25.4 12 7/8" 41.0 303 2

EDB/1 6.15
SG (ductile) iron flange tables
L

C
f
d
K
D

(DN15 - 1/2")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table E 95.3 66.7 14.3 4 1/2" 12.7
Table F 95.3 66.7 14.3 4 1/2" 12.7
Table H 114.3 82.6 17.5 4 5/8" 15.9
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN16 95 65 14 4 M12 14 46 2
PN25 95 65 14 4 M12 16 46 2
PN40 95 65 14 4 M12 16 46 2
BS 1560 150 89 60.3 15.9 4 1/2" 14 35 2

(DN20 - 3/4")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table E 101.6 73.0 14.3 4 1/2" 12.7
Table F 101.6 73.0 14.3 4 1/2" 12.7
Table H 114.3 82.6 17.5 4 5/8" 15.9
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN16 105 75 14 4 M12 16 56 2
PN25 105 75 14 4 M12 18 56 2
PN40 105 75 14 4 M12 18 56 2
BS 1560 150 98 69.8 15.9 4 1/2" 14 43 2

(DN25 -1")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table E 114.3 82.6 14.3 4 1/2" 12.7
Table F 121.0 87.3 17.5 4 5/8" 12.7
Table H 121.0 87.3 17.5 4 5/8" 19.0
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN16 115 85 14 4 M12 16 65 3
PN25 115 85 14 4 M12 18 65 3
PN40 115 85 14 4 M12 18 65 3
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.42 150 108 79.4 15.9 4 1/2" 14.0 51 2
300 124 88.9 19.0 4 5/8" 17.5 51 2

(DN32 - 1 1/4")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table E 121.0 87.3 14.3 4 1/2" 15.9
Table F 133.4 98.4 17.5 4 5/8" 15.9
Table H 133.4 98.4 17.5 4 5/8" 22.2
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN16 140 100 19 4 M16 18 76 3
PN25 140 100 19 4 M16 18 76 3
PN40 140 100 19 4 M16 20 76 3
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.42 150 117 88.9 15.9 4 1/2" 15.5 64 2
300 133 98.4 19.0 4 5/8" 19.0 64 2

6.16 EDB/1
SG (ductile) iron flange tables
L

C
f
d
K
D

(DN40 - 1 1/2")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table E 133.4 98.4 14.3 4 1/2" 15.9
Table F 140.0 104.8 17.5 4 5/8" 15.9
Table H 140.0 104.8 17.5 4 5/8" 22.2
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN16 150 110 19 4 M16 19 84 3
PN25 150 110 19 4 M16 19 84 3
PN40 150 110 19 4 M16 19 84 3
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.42 150 127 98.4 15.9 4 1/2" 17.5 73 2
300 156 114.3 22.2 4 3/4" 20.5 73 2

(DN50 - 2")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table E 152.4 114.3 17.5 4 5/8" 19.0
Table F 165.1 127 17.5 4 5/8" 19.0
Table H 165.1 127 17.5 4 5/8" 25.4
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN16 165 125 19 4 M16 19 99 3
PN25 165 125 19 4 M16 19 99 3
PN40 165 125 19 4 M16 19 99 3
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.42 150 152 120.6 19.0 4 5/8" 19.0 92 2
300 165 127.0 19.0 8 5/8" 22.5 92 2

(DN65 - 2 1/2")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table E 165.1 127.0 17.5 4 5/8" 19.0
Table F 184.2 146.0 17.5 8 5/8" 19.0
Table H 184.2 146.0 17.5 8 5/8" 25.4
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN16 185 145 19 4 M16 19 118 3
PN25 185 145 19 8 M16 19 118 3
PN40 185 145 19 8 M16 19 118 3
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.42 150 178 139.7 19.0 4 5/8" 22.5 105 2
300 190 149.2 22.2 8 3/4" 25.5 105 2

(DN80 -3")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table E 184.2 146.0 17.5 4 5/8" 19.0
Table F 203.2 165.1 17.5 8 5/8" 19.0
Table H 203.2 165.1 17.5 8 5/8" 28.6
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN16 200 160 19 8 M16 19 132 3
PN25 200 160 19 8 M16 19 132 3
PN40 200 160 19 8 M16 19 132 3
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.42 150 190 152.4 19.0 4 5/8" 24.0 127 2
300 210 168.3 22.2 8 3/4" 28.5 127 2

EDB/1 6.17
SG (ductile) iron flange tables
L

C
f
d
K
D

(DN100 - 4")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table E 215.9 177.8 17.5 8 5/8" 22.2
Table F 228.6 190.5 17.5 8 5/8" 22.2
Table H 228.6 190.5 17.5 8 5/8" 31.8
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN16 220 180 19 8 M16 19 156 3
PN25 235 190 23 8 M20 19 156 3
PN40 235 190 23 8 M20 19 156 3
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.42 150 229 190.5 19.0 8 5/8" 24.0 157 2
300 254 200.0 22.2 8 3/4" 32.0 157 2

(DN125 -5")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table E 254.0 209.5 17.5 8 5/8" 22.2
Table F 279.4 235 17.5 8 5/8" 25.4
Table H 279.4 235 17.5 8 5/8" 35.0
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN16 250 210 19 8 M16 19 184 3
PN25 270 220 28 8 M24 19 184 3
PN40 270 220 28 8 M24 23.5 184 3
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.42 150 254 215.9 22.2 8 3/4" 24.0 186 2
300 279 235.0 22.2 8 3/4" 35.0 186 2

(DN150 -6")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table E 279.4 235.0 22.2 8 3/4" 22.2
Table F 304.8 260.3 22.2 12 3/4" 25.4
Table H 304.8 260.3 22.2 12 3/4" 35.0
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN16 285 240 23 8 M20 19 211 3
PN25 300 250 28 8 M24 20 211 3
PN40 300 250 28 8 M24 26 211 3
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.42 150 279 241.3 22.2 8 3/4" 25.5 216 2
300 318 269.9 22.2 12 3/4" 36.5 216 2

(DN200 -8")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table E 336.6 292.1 22.2 8 3/4" 25.4
Table F 368.6 323.9 22.2 12 3/4" 28.6
Table H 368.6 323.9 22.2 12 3/4" 38.1
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN16 340 295 23 12 M20 20 266 3
PN25 360 310 28 12 M24 22 274 3
PN40 375 320 31 12 M27 30 284 3
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.42 150 343 298.4 22.2 8 3/4" 28.5 270 2
300 381 330.2 25.4 12 7/8" 41.0 270 2

6.18 EDB/1
Copper alloy flange tables
L

C
f
d
K
D

(DN15 - 1/2")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table D 95.3 66.7 14.3 4 1/2" 6.4
Table E 95.3 66.7 14.3 4 1/2" 6.4
Table F 95.3 66.7 14.3 4 1/2" 7.9
Table H 114.3 82.6 17.5 4 5/8" 9.5
Table J 114.3 82.6 17.5 4 5/8" 15.9
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN10 95 65 14 4 M12 6
PN16 95 65 14 4 M12 6
PN25 95 65 14 4 M12 8
PN40 95 65 14 4 M12 9
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.24 150 89 60.3 15.9 4 1/2" 8
300 95 66.7 15.9 4 1/2" 13

(DN20 - 3/4")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table D 101.6 73.0 14.3 4 1/2" 6.4
Table E 101.6 73.0 14.3 4 1/2" 6.4
Table F 101.6 73.0 14.3 4 1/2" 7.9
Table H 114.3 82.6 17.5 4 5/8" 9.5
Table J 114.3 82.6 17.5 4 5/8" 15.9
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN10 105 75 14 4 M12 6
PN16 105 75 14 4 M12 6
PN25 105 75 14 4 M12 8
PN40 105 75 14 4 M12 9
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.24 150 98 69.8 15.9 4 1/2" 9
300 117 82.6 19.0 4 5/8" 13

(DN25 -1")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table D 114.3 82.6 14.3 4 1/2" 7.9
Table E 114.3 82.6 14.3 4 1/2" 7.9
Table F 121.0 87.3 17.5 4 5/8" 9.5
Table H 121.0 87.3 17.5 4 5/8" 11.1
Table J 121.0 87.3 17.5 4 5/8" 19.0
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN10 115 85 14 4 M12 8
PN16 115 85 14 4 M12 8
PN25 115 85 14 4 M12 9
PN40 115 85 14 4 M12 11
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.24 150 108 79.4 15.9 4 1/2" 9
300 124 88.9 19.0 4 5/8" 15

EDB/1 6.19
Copper alloy flange tables
L

C
f
d
K
D

(DN32 - 1 1/4")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table D 121.0 87.3 14.3 4 1/2" 7.9
Table E 121.0 87.3 14.3 4 1/2" 7.9
Table F 133.4 98.4 17.5 4 5/8" 9.5
Table H 133.4 98.4 17.5 4 5/8" 11.1
Table J 133.4 98.4 17.5 4 5/8" 19.0
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN10 140 100 18 4 M16 8
PN16 140 100 18 4 M16 8
PN25 140 100 18 4 M16 9
PN40 140 100 18 4 M16 11
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.24 150 117 88.9 15.9 4 1/2" 10
300 133 98.5 19.0 4 5/8" 16

(DN40 - 1 1/2")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table D 133.4 98.4 14.3 4 1/2" 9.5
Table E 133.4 98.4 14.3 4 1/2" 9.5
Table F 140.0 104.8 17.5 4 5/8" 11.1
Table H 140.0 104.8 17.5 4 5/8" 12.7
Table J 140.0 104.8 17.5 4 5/8" 22.2
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN10 150 110 18 4 M16 9
PN16 150 110 18 4 M16 9
PN25 150 110 18 4 M16 11
PN40 150 110 18 4 M16 13
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.24 150 127 98.4 15.9 4 1/2" 11
300 156 114.3 22.2 4 3/4" 18

(DN50 - 2")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table D 152.4 114.3 17.5 4 5/8" 9.5
Table E 152.4 114.3 17.5 4 5/8" 9.5
Table F 165.1 127.0 17.5 4 5/8" 11.1
Table H 165.1 127.0 17.5 4 5/8" 12.7
Table J 165.1 127.0 22.2 4 3/4" 25.4
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN10 165 125 18 4 M16 11
PN16 165 125 18 4 M16 11
PN25 165 125 18 4 M16 11
PN40 165 125 18 4 M16 13
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.24 150 152 120.6 19 4 5/8" 13
300 165 127.0 19 8 5/8" 19

6.20 EDB/1
Copper alloy flange tables
L

C
f
d
K
D

(DN65-2")
Flange standard Rating/class D K L No. Bolt C d r
BS 10 Table D 165.1 127.0 17.5 4 5/8" 11.1
Table E 165.1 127.0 17.5 4 5/8" 11.1
Table F 184.2 146.0 17.5 8 5/8" 12.7
Table H 184.2 146.0 17.5 8 5/8" 14.3
Table J 184.2 146.0 22.2 8 3/4" 25.4
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN10 185 145 18 4 M16 13
PN16 185 145 18 4 M16 13
PN25 185 145 18 8 M16 13
PN40 185 145 18 8 M16 14
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.24 150 178 139.7 19.0 4 5/8" 14
300 190 149.2 22.2 8 3/4" 21

(DN80-3")
Flange standard Rating/class D K L No. Bolt C d r
BS 10 Table D 184.2 146.0 17.5 4 5/8" 127
Table E 184.2 146.0 17.5 4 5/8" 12.7
Table F 203.2 165.1 17.5 8 5/8" 14.3
Table H 203.2 165.1 17.5 8 5/8" 15.9
Table J 203.2 165.1 22.2 8 3/4" 31.8
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN10 200 160 18 8 M16 13
PN16 200 160 18 8 M16 13
PN25 200 160 18 8 M16 14
PN40 200 160 18 8 M16 16
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.24 150 190 152.4 19.0 4 5/8" 16
300 210 168.3 22.2 8 3/4" 23

(DN100 - 4")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table D 215.9 177.8 17.5 4 5/8" 15.9
Table E 215.9 177.8 17.5 8 5/8" 15.9
Table F 228.6 190.5 17.5 8 5/8" 17.9
Table H 228.6 190.5 17.5 8 5/8" 19.0
Table J 228.6 190.5 22.2 8 3/4" 35.0
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN10 220 180 18 8 M16 16
PN16 220 180 18 8 M16 16
PN25 235 190 22 8 M20 17
PN40 235 190 22 8 M20 19
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.24 150 229 190.5 19.0 8 5/8" 17
300 254 200.0 22.2 8 3/4" 27

EDB/1 6.21
Copper alloy flange tables
L

C
f
d
K
D
(DN125 -5")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table D 254.0 209.5 17.5 8 5/8" 17.5
Table E 254.0 209.5 17.5 8 5/8" 17.5
Table F 279.4 235.0 22.2 8 3/4" 19.0
Table H 279.4 235.0 22.2 8 3/4" 22.2
Table J 279.4 235.0 25.4 8 7/8" 38.1
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN10 250 210 18 8 M16 22
PN16 250 210 18 8 M16 22
PN25 270 220 26 8 M24 26
PN40
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.24 150 254 215.9 22.2 8 3/4" 19
300 279 235.0 22.2 8 3/4" 28

(DN150 -6")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d f
BS 10 Table D 279.4 235.0 17.5 8 5/8" 17.5
Table E 279.4 235.0 22.2 8 3/4" 17.5
Table F 304.8 260.3 22.2 12 3/4" 22.2
Table H 304.8 260.3 22.2 12 3/4" 25.4
Table J 304.8 260.3 25.4 12 7/8" 38.1
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN10 285 240 22 8 M20 22
PN16 285 240 22 8 M20 22
PN25 300 250 26 8 M24 26
PN40
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.24 150 279 241.3 22.2 8 3/4" 21
300 318 269.9 22.2 12 3/4" 30

(DN200-8")
Flange standard Rating/Class D K L No. Bolt C d r
BS10 Table D 336.6 292.1 17.5 8 5/8" 19.1
Table E 336.6 292.1 22.2 8 3/4" 19.1
Table F 368.6 323.9 22.2 12 3/4" 25.4
Table H 368.6 323.9 22.2 12 3/4" 31.8
Table J 368.3 323.9 25.4 12 7/8" 41.3
BS 4504/DIN 2501 PN10 340 295 22 8 M20 26
PN16 340 295 22 12 M20 26
PN25 360 310 26 12 M24 30
PN40
BS 1560/ANSI B.16.24 150 343 298.4 22.2 8 3/4" 24
300 381 330.2 25.4 12 7/8" 35

6.22 EDB/1
End connections - screwed
As standard we generally produce products with screwed end connections to BS 21 and ANSI/ASME
B1.20.1; these are often referred to as BSP and NPT threads. These thread forms are those on which
a pressure tight joint is made on the thread itself.
Our standard female British Standard thread is to BS 21 and is designated Rp; it is an internal parallel
thread into which a male taper pipe thread designated R is screwed. The taper male is screwed into
the parallel female to the point where there is an interference fit and a pressure tight joint. This is the
ISO standard fit pipe fittings and why we have adopted its use as a Company. A female or internal
tapered thread also exists in BS 21, this is designated Rc; Spirax-Sarco rarely if ever produce this
option. Threads to BS 21 are technically equivalent to DIN 2999 Part 1 and ISO7/1.
The corresponding thread used by markets under American influence is that to ANSI/ASME B1.20.1;
the female or internal thread to this standard is always tapered and the joint is thus tapered male to
tapered female. The male is again screwed into the female such that an interference fit and pressure
tight joint is formed.

Seal made on the thread Seal on faces

(usually with a gasket)

BS21

BS2779

Nominal Size of Recommended Minimum Number of Teeth Pitch

Screwed End Length of Thread mm per Inch (TPI) mm
inches DN/mm BS/ANSI BS/ANSI BS/ANSI
1/4 8 11/10.2 19/18 1.337/1.41
3/8 10 11.4/10.5 19/18 1.337/1.41
1/2 15 15/13.6 14/14 1.814/1.81
3/4 20 16.3/13.9 14/14 1.814/1.81
1 25 19/17.4 11/11.5 2.309/2.21
1 1/4 32 21.4/18 11/11.5 2.309/2.21
1 1/2 40 21.4/18.4 11/11.5 2.309/2.21
2 50 25.7/19.2 11/11.5 2.309/2.21
2 1/2 65 30.1/29 11/8 2.303.175
3 80 33.3/30.5 11/8 2.303.175

There are two other thread connections worthy of mention: BS 2779 and API.

BS 2779 threads are often referred to as fastening threads and require the use of a face gasket if a
pressure tight joint is to be formed -see sketch above. These threads are designated G (internal
parallel), GA and GB (both external parallel). The GB thread is the normal external parallel thread and
the GA version is reserved for those applications in which close tolerances are essential. As a
Company, we sometimes produce products with the G parallel thread - when specified by customers.
There is no obvious difference between the BS 21 internal parallel thread Rp and that offered by BS
2779 (G), however, there is a difference in the way that the thread diameters are toleranced; the Rp
thread has a plus and minus tolerance whilst the G thread only has a plus tolerance. It should be noted
that the plus tolerance in BS 2779 is generally the same as that in BS 21 with the exception of the
1/4" and 3/8" threads where the values are slightly higher.
The BS 21 thread is gauged using a taper plug gauge whilst the BS 2779 thread is gauged using GO
and NO GO plug gauges. Spirax-Sarco stamps products having the G thread with the letter F.

EDB/1 6.23
API threads are almost identical to the ANSI/ASME B1.20.1 or NPT thread; the difference between
them relates to truncation at the crests and roots of the threads. The API thread has a ' lead- in'
machined on the female thread and is gauged by means of a tapered plug gauge measuring what is
called a stand off. The NPT thread is measured by means of an NPT tapered plug gauge in exactly
the same way as threads to BS 21. Note: for many years our technical literature quoted API as our
standard American thread; this was not strictly correct and we now quote NPT. There is still possible
confusion however, as products having NPT threads are stamped A for identification purposes.

End connections - socket weld

Most of products that are offered with this type of end connection have socket weld ends to BS 3799,
however, certain marketing and manufacturing advantages are sometimes achieved by using the
ANSI B16.11 standard as an alternative. Additionally, socket weld ends to DIN 3239 are sometimes
produced to customer request.

Socket weld fittings specified in BS 3799 and ANSI B16.11 are intended for assembly with plain end
pipe dimensioned in accordance with BS 1600 and API Std. 5L. It should be noted, however, that with
the exception of nominal size 2 1/2" (DN65) the socket dimensions are also suitable for use with plain
pipe to BS 3600 (ISO/R64).

Socket weld ends are usually Class related e.g. Class 3000, Class 6000 etc. and the design pressure/
temperature and other service conditions are limited by the applicable piping code or regulation for the
material of construction of the body material.

Nominal Bore Minimum Depth of Bore of Socket (mm) Minimum Socket Wall
inches mm Socket (mm) max min Thickness (mm)
BS/ANSI BS/ANSI Class 3000 Class 6000
BS/ANSI BS/ANSI
1/4 8 9.7 14.4/14.6 14.1/14.09 3.3/3.3 -/-
3/8 10 9.7 17.9/18.0 17.6/17.5 3.5/3.5 -/-
1/2 15 9.7 22.1/22.2 21.8/21.7 4.1/4.1 5.2/5.18
3/4 20 12.7 27.7/27.5 27.4/27.0 4.3/4.3 6.1/6.0
1 25 12.7 34.4/34.3 34.1/33.8 5.0/5.0 7.0/6.9
1 1/4 32 12.7 43.2/43.0 42.9/42.5 5.3/5.3 7.0/6.9
1 1/2" 40 12.7 49.3/49.1 49.0/48.6 5.6/5.6 7.8/7.8
2 50 15.7 61.3/61.6 61.0/61.1 6.1/6.1 9.5/9.4
2 1/2" 65 15.7 74.2/74.4 73.8/73.8 7.7/7.7 10.4/-
3 80 15.7 90.0/90.4 89.7/89.8 8.3/8.3 12.2/-

End connections - butt weld

Butt weld ends are common where high pressure, high temperature fluids are encountered -
particularly in power plants. The Company produces few products with butt weld ends and the principal
reference standard is ANSI B16.25. This standard covers the preparation of butt welding ends of piping
components to be joined into a piping system by welding. It includes requirements for welding bevels
for external and internal shaping of heavy-wall components, and for machining of internal ends
including dimensions and tolerances. With this type of connection the wall thickness of the end
connection should be equal to or greater than the thickness of the pipe to which it connects.

Nominal Bore Pipe O/D Dia A Nominal Internal Diameter and Wall Thickness of
inches mm (mm) (mm) End Connection When Connecting to Pipe (mm)
max min Thickness (mm)
Schedule 40 80 160
ID/Tmin ID/Tmin ID/Tmin

1/2 15 21.3 22 15.76/2.77 13.84/3.73 11.74/4.78

3/4 20 26.7 28 20.96/2.87 18.88/3.91 15.58/5.56
1 25 33.4 35 26.64/3.38 24.3/4.55 20.7/6.35

6.24 EDB/1
 slight
chamfer

Body Pipe T

1.5T O/D A
I/D

Welding end for connection to wall thickness under 4mm

1
37 2 + 21
2
30 Max

Body
Pipe T

1.5T 1.6 + 0.8 I/D O/D A

Weld preparation for connection to wall thicknesses from 5 to 22mm

EDB/1 6.25
Quick reference materials comparison
GRADE SYMBOLS
Product Type DIN AFNOR BS ASTM/AISI
Grey C.I. GG 20 Ft 20 220 Class 30 GG 25
Ft 25 260 Class 35
Nod. C.I. GGG 40 FGS 400 12 420/12 604018
(S.G.) GGG 40.3 FGS 37017 370/17
Mall. C.I. GTW 4005 MB4005 W410/4 40010
(Whiteheart)
Mall. C.I. GTS 3510 MN 35010 B340/12 32510
(Blackheart)
Cast carbon GS-C25 A42 CM 161480E WCB Cast steel
GS-21 Mn 5 FBM 161430LT40 LCB
Forged carbon steel C 22.8 XC 18 223430 A 105
Carbon steel C 35 XC 38
bar (nuts) 1622H
Carbon steel sheet/strip Gr.15 1018
Carbon steel plate 17Mn4 Gr.430 Gr.C
Carbon steel tube St.45 HFS 410 Gr.B
St. 45.8 HFS 410 Gr.B
Low alloy cast steel GS 22 Mo4 20D 5 M 245E WC1
Carbon moly. forging 15 Mo3 15D 3 245420 F1
Steel
Cr/Moly forging steel 13 Cr Mo44 15CD 4.05 620440 F12
Spring steel Cr/Moly 735A50 A231/A689
Low alloy 24 Cr Mo5
bolt steel 42 CD4 621A(B7) B7
40CrMoV47 42 CDV B16 B16
Tool steel X 165 CrMoV 12 BD2 D2
Low alloy forging steel 10 Cr Mo9.10 10 CD 9.10 622-560 F22
Cast stainless steel G-X20 Cr14 Z25 CF 13 1630-CM (OH278) CA 40F
Stainless steel W/S 1.4304 Z10 CN 18.09 302S31 302
Stainless steel X12 CrNiS18.8 Z10 CNF 18.09 303S31 303
Stainless steel X2 CrNi 18.9 Z2 CN 18.10 304S11 304L
Stainless steel X5 CrNi 18.9 Z6 CN 18.09 304S15 304
Stainless steel X5 CrNiMo18.12 Z6 CND 17.12 316S33 316
Stainless steel X10CrNiTil 8.9 Z6 CNT 18.10 321S31 321
Stainless steel Z10 CNF 18.9 325S31 303
Stainless steel X30 Cr13 Z30 C13 420S37 420
Stainless steel X22 CrNi17 Z15 CN 16.02 431S29 431
Stainless steel X89 CrMoV181 Z100 CD 17 440 B

6.26 EDB/1
Quick reference materials comparison (contd)
GRADE SYMBOLS
Product Type DIN AFNOR BS ASTM/AISI
Investment cast
Stainless steel ANC 2
Stainless steel Z12 CrS13 Z12 CF13 416S37 416 420S29
Cast stainless steel GX5
CrNiNb18.9 Z6CNNb18.10M 347C17F CF8C
Stainless steel
sheet . strip X20CR13 Z20 C13 420 S45 420
Gunmetal GCuSn5ZnPb CuPb5Sn5Zn5 LG2Gp A UNS 83600
Brass sheet . strip CuZn37Pb0.5 Cu Zn 36 CZ 108 UNS 27200 UNS 33500
Brass stamping CuZn 40Pb2 CZ 122 UNS 37700
Brass bar Cu ZN39Pb3 CZ 121 4PbB16 M
Cast aluminium CA1Si 7 Mg.wa A-S7G LM 25 A356
Dezincification CZ 132
resistive alloy
Gunmetal

Typical mechanical properties SG iron, gunmetal, cast steel

and cast iron
Ultimate 0.2% Proof Elongation Impact Strength
Relevant Tensile Stress % (Shock
Material Standard Strength (Elasticity) (Ductility) Resistance)
Cast Steel DIN17245 430/540 N/mm2 230/280 N/mm2 13/22 % 2025 J 20oC
SG Iron DIN1693
GGG 40.3 400 N/mm2 250 N/mm2 18% 16J 20oC
(Related standard min min min
BS2789)
Gunmetal BS1400 LG2 200 N/mm 2
100 N/mm2 13% min 15J 20oC
min min min
Grey Cast DIN1691 180 N/mm2 *143 N/mm2 Less than 1% Less than 1J
Iron (Related standard min min at 20oC
BS1452)
* 0.1% Proof Stress only.

EDB/1 6.27
Stainless steels properties and composition
Chemical Composition % Mechanical Properties

Elongation %
Hardness
Strength

Strength
Tensile
Type Cr Ni Mo C Mn Si P S

Yield
MPa

Mpa

HB
Martensitic
AISI 410 11.5-13.5 0.15 35 70 30 150
Ferritic
AISI 430 16-18 0.12 1.0 1.0 0.04 0.03 40 75 30 160
Austenitic
AISI 304 18-20 8-10.5 0.08 2.0 1.0 35 82 60 149
AISI 304L 18-20 8-10.5 0.03 2.0 1.0 33 79 60 143
AISI 316 16-18 10-14 2.0-3.0 0.08 2.0 1.0 36 82 55 149
AISI 316L 16-18 10-14 2.0-3.0 0.03 2.0 1.0 34 81 55 146

6.28 EDB/1
EDB/1

Materials: austenitic steels (group B)

Materials Plate Forgings Castings

British Standard Comparable British Standard Comparable British Standard Comparable Group
ASTM standard ASTM standard ASTM standard No.
Austenitic BS 1501: Part 3 ASTM A240 - 304L BS 1503 - 304S11 ASTM A182 Grade F304L BS 1504 - 304C12 ASTM A351 Grade CF3
chromium-nickel -304S12 B1
(low carbon) steel
Austenitic BS 1501 : Part 3 ASTM A240 - 304 BS 1503 - 304S31 ASTM A182 Grade F304 BS 1504 - 304C15 ASTM A351 Grade CF8
chromium-nickel -304S15 ASTM A240 - 304H BS 1503 - 304S51 ASTM A182 Grade F304H B2
Steel
Austenitic BS 1501 : Part 3 ASTM A240 - 347 BS 1503 - 347S31 ASTM A182 Grade F347 BS 1504 - 347C17 ASTM A351 Grade CF8C
chromium-nickel - 347S17 ASTM A240 -347H BS 1503 - 347S51 ASTM A182 Grade F347H B3
(niobium BS 1501 : Part 3
Stabilized) steel - 347S49
Austenitic BS 1501 : Part 3 ASTM A240 - 347 BS 1503 - 347S31 ASTM A182 Grade F321
chromium-nickel - 312S49
(titanium BS 1501 : Part 3 ASTM A240 - 321H BS 1503 - 321S51 ASTM A182 Grade F321H
stabilized) steel - 312S49 B3
Austenitic BS 1501 : Part 3 ASTM A240 - 316L BS 1503 - 316S11 ASTM A182 Grade F316L BS 1504 - 316C12 ASTM A315 Grade CF3M
chromium-nickel -316S12 B4
molybdenum
(low carbon) steel
Austenitic BS 1501 : Part 3 ASTM A240 - 316 BS 1503 - 316 ASTM A182 Grade F316 BS 1504 - 316C16 ASTM A315 Grade CF8M
chromium-nickel -316S16 : Part 3 ASTM A240 - 316H BS 1503 - 316H ASTM A182 Grade F316H B5
molybdenum steel
Austenitic BS 1501 : Part 3 ASTM A240 - 310S BS 1503 - 310S31 ASTM A182 Grade F310 BS 1504 - 310C40 ASTM A351 Grade HK40
25% chromium- - 310S24 ASTM A351 Grade CK20 B5
25% nickel steel
6.29
Product limitations

a b
is the maximum temperature the product is the maximum pressure which can be
can be used at. It is usually a function of tolerated within the body of the product. It
the body material, fasteners, gland or an is a function of the PN rating and body
internal component limitation. design (materials, fasteners, gasketing
etc)

c d
is a prohibited area and the product the steam saturation curve is added
must not be used in this area. (where relevant) to enable users to easily
find the specific operating points, e.g. 10
bar g saturated steam, 10 bar g steam
with 20oC superheat or 10 bar g/250oC
steam.

e f
sometimes end connections may restrict Spirax Sarco do not recommend the use
the operating envelope of the product of the product in this area. This is based
below the standard rating. Care must on design and/or operating experience.
therefore be taken is selecting appropriate
end connections. In this case only the area
to the left of line e can be used.

6.30 EDB/1
Product limitations (contd)

g The finished diagram

if a product (e.g. a control valve) is to
be used above this temperature it may
be necessary to use a spacer before
the product can be operated by an
actuator having a lower temperature
rating.
1. In this region use high temperature
spacer with Self Acting Control
Systems.
2.Flanged end connections BS10
table E.
3.Flanged end connections BS10 table
H, BS4504 PN 25 and ANSI 300.

Care must also be taken concerning differential pressure limitations and these are tabulated in addition
to the Operating range diagram where relevant.

EDB/1 6.31
Pressure/temperature rating
Pressure/Temperature ratings
o
PN C Cold
Rating Material 120 200 220 230 250 260 300 350 400 450 500 Hyd
bar(g) Test
Copper LG2
Alloy CZ 122 13 10 7
Grey GG 20 13
C.I. GG 25
Mall. GTW 35 14 13 11
Iron GTW 40
PN 16 Nodr. GGG 40 16 24
14 13 11 10
Iron GGG 40.3
GS-C25:GSCk24 14 13 11 10 8
C 22.8:304*
Steel 151430 14 13 11 10
161430
Copper LG2
Alloy CZ 122 21 16 10.5
Mall. GTW 35 22 19 17
Iron GTW 40
PN 25 Nodr. GGG 40 25 22 20 18 14 38
Iron GGG 40.3
GS-C25:GSCk24 22 20 18 16 13
C 22.8:304*
Steel 151-430
161-430 22 20 18 16
Copper LG 2
Alloy CZ 122 30 24 17
Nodr. GGG 40
GGG 40.3 35 32 28 22
Iron
PN 40 GS-C25:GSCk24 40 60
C22.8:304* 35 32 28 24 21
G-X 20 Cr14*
Steel 151-430
161-430 35 32 28 24
G-X 20 Cr14* 58 55 50 45 42
PN 63 Steel GS-22 Mo4 63 63 63 55 50 47 45 95
15 Mo 3
13 Cr Mo 44 63 63 63 61 58 56 47
GS-22 Mo4 100 100 87 78 74 70
PN 100 Steel 15 Mo 3 100 150
13 Cr Mo44
100 100 100 95 91 87 74

* Company Standard only

6.32 EDB/1
Pressure/temperature rating for group B austenitic steel flanges on a
basis of 0.2% proof stress
o
PN Material group Temperature C
- see table on 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
page 6.29 Maximum non-shock working gauge pressure-bar
2.5 B1 2.2 1.8 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.0
B2 2.3 1.9 1.8 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.2
B3 2.4 2.2 2.1 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.5
B4 2.4 2.1 1.9 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.3
B5 2.5 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.4
6 B1 5.1 4.2 3.8 3.5 3.2 2.9 2.8 2.6 2.5 2.4
B2 5.4 4.5 4.14 3.7 3.5 3.2 3.0 2.9 2.8 2.7
B3 5.7 5.2 4.8 4.5 4.2 4.0 3.8 3.7 3.5 3.5
B4 5.7 4.8 4.4 4.0 3.7 3.5 3.3 3.2 3.0 2.9
B5 6.0 5.1 4.6 4.2 4.0 3.7 3.5 3.4 3.3 3.2
10 B1 8.5 7.1 6.3 5.8 5.3 4.9 4.6 4.3 4.2 4.0
B2 9.0 7.6 6.8 6.2 5.8 5.4 5.1 4.8 4.6 4.5
B3 9.5 8.6 8.1 7.6 7.1 6.6 6.3 6.1 5.9 5.8
B4 9.5 8.1 7.3 6.7 6.2 5.8 5.5 5.3 5.0 4.9
B5 10.0 8.5 7.7 7.1 6.6 6.2 5.9 5.6 5.5 5.4
16 B1 13.7 11.3 10.1 9.2 8.4 7.8 7.3 6.9 6.6 6.3
B2 14.4 12.1 10.9 9.9 9.2 8.6 8.1 7.7 7.4 7.2
B3 15.2 13.7 12.9 12.1 11.3 10.6 10.1 9.8 9.4 9.3
B4 15.2 12.9 11.7 10.7 9.9 9.3 8.8 8.4 8.0 7.8
B5 16.0 13.7 12.3 11.3 10.5 9.9 9.4 9.0 8.7 8.6
25 B1 21.4 17.7 15.9 14.4 13.2 12.2 11.5 10.9 10.4 9.9
B2 22.6 18.9 17.1 15.5 13.4 14.4 12.7 12.0 11.6 12.2
B3 23.8 21.5 20.1 18.9 17.7 16.6 15.9 15.3 14.8 14.5
B4 23.8 20.1 18.3 16.7 15.5 14.5 13.8 13.2 12.6 12.2
B5 25.0 21.4 19.3 17.7 16.5 15.5 14.6 14.0 13.7 13.4
40 B1 34.2 28.3 25.4 23.0 21.1 19.5 18.4 17.4 16.6 15.8
B2 36.1 30.2 27.3 24.8 23.0 21.5 20.3 19.1 18.5 18.0
B3 38.0 34.4 32.2 30.2 28.3 26.58 25.4 24.4 23.6 23.2
B4 38.0 32.2 29.3 26.7 24.8 23.2 22.0 21.1 20.1 19.5
B5 40.0 34.2 30.8 28.3 26.4 24.8 23.4 22.4 21.8 21.5

NOTE. The selection of bolting materials for use with austenitic steel flanges is the responsibility of
the user and reference should be made to BS 4882.

EDB/1 6.33
Sundries
The cost of steam
The cost of steam is usually expressed in terms of the cost to raise 1000kg. The calculation itself
is relatively straight forward.
Example: Boiler operating pressure - 10 bar g, feedwater temperature 80OC. Fuel used is heavy
oil at 0.14/litre and boiler efficiency is 80%.

Steam pressure 10 bar g Feedwater temperature 80 OC

Mathematical Units
operation
Heat input required (see page 7.02) 2445 KJ/kg
..................................
X 1000 kg
= Total heat input 2445000
.................................. kJ
Calorific value of fuel (see page 7.03) kJ/kg coal or oil
42500
.................................. kJ/Therm gas
= Net fuel needed 57.53 kg coal or oil
.................................. Therm gas
85% x 1.18
X 80% x 1.25
Boiler efficiency 75% x 1.34 1.25
..................................
70% x 1.43
= Actual fuel needed kg coal or oil
71.9
.................................. Therm gas

COAL
Mathematical
operation
1000 kg/tonne

= .................................. tonne

x .................................. /tonne

= .................................. /1000 kg steam

EDB/1 7.01
 OIL
Relative Density
Heavy 0.97
Mathematical Medium 0.95
operation Light 0.935
Gas 0.835
0.97
..................................
= 74.1
.................................. litre
x 0.14
.................................. /litre

= 10.38 /1000 kg steam

..................................

GAS
Mathematical
operation
x .................................. /Therm

= /1000 kg steam
..................................

Heat input in kilojoules (kJ) required to raise one kilogram (kg) of steam.

Boiler Feedwater temperature OC

pressure
bar g 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
1 2665 2623 2581 2539 2497 2455 2413 2371 2329 2287 2245
5 2715 2673 2631 2589 2548 2506 2464 2421 2381 2338 2295
6 2722 2680 2638 2596 2555 2513 2471 2428 2388 2345 2302
7 2727 2685 2643 2601 2560 2518 2476 2433 2393 2350 2307
10 2740 2697 2655 2613 2573 2531 2489 2445 2406 2363 2319
12 2746 2704 2662 2620 2578 2536 2494 2452 2410 2368 2326
15 2752 2710 2668 2626 2584 2542 2500 2458 2416 2374 2332
17 2755 2713 2671 2629 2587 2545 2503 2461 2419 2377 2335
20 2759 2717 2675 2633 2591 2549 2507 2465 2423 2381 2339
25 2762 2720 2678 2636 2594 2552 2510 2468 2426 2384 2342

7.02 EDB/1
Calorific value of various fuels (approximate values)

TYPE CALORIFIC VALUE (kJ/kg)

ANTHRACITE 32,500
COAL GOOD BITUMINOUS COAL 30,000
GOOD AVERAGE INDUSTRIAL COAL 28,000
POOR AVERAGE INDUSTRIAL COAL 21,000
VISCOSITY
GRADE RELATIVE CALORIFIC
DENSITY VALUE (kJ/kg)
RED.1
cSt SECS
GAS OIL 4 35 0.835 45,600
OIL LIGHT 50 210 0.935 43,500
MEDIUM 230 950 0.95 43,000
HEAVY 900 3500 0.97 42,500
GAS 105,500 kJ/THERM

Reasonable average steam produced per unit of fuel

1 kg of coal will produce about 8kg of steam
1 kg of oil will produce about 15kg of steam
1 l of oil will produce about 14kg of steam
1 therm of gas will produce about 36kg of steam

Area of circles and cubic capacity in litres/metre of length

Diameter, mm Area, mm2 Area, m2 Cubic capacity per
metre of length litres
4 12.6 0.0126
8 50.3 0.0503
12 113.1 0.1131
16 201.1 0.2011
20 314.1 0.3141
25 491.0 0.4910
34 907.9 0.9079
38 1134 1.134
42 1385 1.385
46 1662 1.662
50 1963 1.963
55 2376 2.376
60 2827 2.827
65 3318 3.318
70 3848 3.848
75 4418 4.418
80 5026 5.026
85 5674 5.674
90 6362 6.362
95 7088 7.088
100 7854 7.854
110 9503 9.503
120 11310 0.011 11.310
130 13273 0.013 13.273
140 15394 0.015 15.394
150 17671 0.018 17.671
160 20106 0.020 20.106
170 22698 0.023 22.698

EDB/1 7.03
Area of circles and cubic capacity in litres/metre of length (cont'd)
Diameter, Area, mm2 Area, m2 Cubic capacity per
mm metre of length litres
180 25447 0.025 25.447
190 28353 0.028 28.353
200 31416 0.031 31.416
210 34636 0.035 34.636
220 38013 0.038 38.013
230 41547 0.042 41.547
240 45239 0.045 45.239
250 49087 0.049 49.087
260 53093 0.054 53.093
270 57255 0.057 57.255
280 61575 0.062 61.575
290 66052 0.066 66.052
300 70686 0.071 70.686
325 82958 0.083 82.958
350 96211 0.096 96.211
375 110447 0.110 110.447
400 125664 0.126 125.664
425 141862 0.142 141.862
450 159043 0.159 159.043
475 177205 0.177 177.205
500 196349 0.196 196.349
525 216475 0.216 216.475
550 237583 0.238 237.583
575 259672 0.260 259.672
600 282743 0.283 282.743
625 306796 0.307 306.796
650 331831 0.332 331.831
675 357847 0.358 357.847
700 384845 0.385 384.845
725 412825 0.413 412.825
750 441786 0.442 441.786
775 471730 0.472 471.730
800 502655 0.503 502.655
825 534562 0.535 534.562
850 567450 0.567 567.450
875 601320 0.601 601.320
900 636172 0.636 636.172
925 672006 0.672 672.006
950 708822 0.709 708.822
975 746619 0.747 746.619
1000 785398 0.785 785.398
1025 825159 0.825 825.159
1050 865901 0.866 865.901
1075 907626 0.908 907.626
1100 950332 0.950 950.332
1125 994019 0.994 994.019
1150 1038689 1.039 1038.689
1175 1084340 1.084 1084.340
1200 1130973 1.131 1130.973
1225 1178588 1.179 1178.588
1250 1227185 1.227 1227.185
1275 1276763 1.277 1276.763
1300 1327323 1.327 1327.323

7.04 EDB/1
SI base and supplementary quantities and units
SI unit symbol
("abbreviation") use roman
Quantity or "dimension" SI Unit (upright) type
Base quantity or "dimension"
length metre m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
electric current ampere A
thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
amount of substance mole* mol
luminous intensity candela cd
Supplementary quantity or "dimension"
plane angle radian rad
solid angle steradian sr
* When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified; they may be atoms,
molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or specified groups of such particles.

Derived units of SI which have special names

Quantity Unit Symbol Expressed in terms of
SI base or
supplementary units
frequency (of periodic phenomenon) hertz Hz = 1/s
force newton N = (kg.m)/s2
pressure, stress pascal Pa = N/m2
energy, work, quantity of heat joule J = N.m
power, radiant flux watt W = J/s
quantity of electricity, electric charge coulomb C = A.s
electric potential, potential difference, volt V = W/A
electromotive force capacitance farad F = C/V
electric resistance ohm = V/A
conductance siemens S = 1/
magnetic flux weber Wb = V.s
magnetic-flux density tesla T = Wb/m2
inductance henry H = Wb/A
luminous flux lumen lm = cd.sr
illuminance lux lx = lm/m2

SI Prefixes
Multiplication factor Prefix Symbol
1 000 000 000 000 000 000 =1018 exa E
1 000 000 000 000 000=1015 peta P
1 000 000 000 000 =1012 tera T
1 000 000 000=109 giga G
1 000 000=106 mega M
1 000=103 kilo k
100=102 hecto* h
10=101 deka* da
0.1=10-1 deci* d
0.01=10-2 centi c
0.001=10-3 milli m
0.000 001=10-6 micro
0.000 000 001 =10-9 nano n
0.000 000 000 001 =10-12 pico p
0.000 000 000 000 001=10-15 femto f
0.000 000 000 000 000 001 =10-18 atto a
* Generally to be avoided.

EDB/1 7.05
Conversion tables
Table 1 LENGTH
From To millimetre centimetre metre kilometre inch foot yard mile
millimetre 1 0.1 0.001 - 0.03937 - - -
centimetre 10 1 0.01 - 0.393701 0.032808 - -
metre 1000 100 1 0.001 39.3701 3.28084 1.09361 -
kilometre - - 1000 1 - 3280.84 1093.61 0.621371
inch 25.4 2.54 - - 1 0.083333 0.027778 -
foot 304.8 30.48 0.3048 - 12 1 0.33333 -
yard 914.4 91.44 0.9144 0.000914 36 3 1 0.000568
mile - - 1609.344 1.609344 - 5280 1760 1

Table 2 AREA
From To cm2 m2 km2 in2 ft2 yd2 acre mile2
cm2 1 0.0001 - 0.155 0.001076 0.0001196 - -
m2 10000 1 0.000001 1550 10.7639 1.19599 0.0002471 -
km2 - 1000000 1 - - - 247.105 0.386102
in2 6.4516 0.000645 - 1 0.006944 0.000772 - -
ft2 929.03 0.092903 - 144 1 0.111111 0.000023 -
yd2 8361.27 0.836127 - 1296 9 1 0.0002066 -
acre - 4046.86 0.004047 - 43560 4840 1 0.001562
mile2 - - 2.589987 - - - 640 1

Table 3 MASS
From To kg tonne lb UKcwt UK ton US cwt US ton
kg 1 0.001 2.20462 0.019684 0.000984 0.022046 0.001102
tonne 1000 1 2204.62 19.6841 0.984207 22.0462 1.10231
lb 0.453592 0.000454 1 0.008929 0.000446 0.01 0.0005
UK cwt 50.8023 0.050802 112 1 0.05 1.12 0.056
UK ton 1016.05 1.01605 2240 20 1 22.4 1.12
US cwt 45.3592 0.045359 100 0.892857 0.044643 1 0.05
US ton 907.185 0.907185 2000 17.8571 0.892857 20 1

Table 4 VOLUME AND CAPACITY

From To cm3 m3 litre (dm3) in3 ft3 yd3 UK pint UK gall US pint US gall
cm3 1 - 0.001 0.061024 0.0000353 - 0.001760 0.00022 0.002113 0.000264
m3 - 1 1000 61023.7 35.3147 1.30795 1759.75 219.969 2113.38 264.172
litre (dm3) 1000 0.001 1 61.0237 0.035315 0.001308 1.75975 0.219969 2.11338 0.264172
in3 16.3871 - 0.016387 1 0.0005787 0.0000214 0.028837 0.003605 0.034632 0.004329
ft3 28316.8 0.028317 28.3168 1728 1 0.037037 49.8307 6.22883 59.8442 7.48052
yd3 764555 0.764555 764.555 46656 27 1 1345.429 168.1784 1615.793 201.974
UK pint 568.261 0.0005683 0.568261 34.6774 0.020068 0.000743 1 0.125 1.20095 0.150119
UK gall 4546.09 0.0045461 4.54609 277.42 0.160544 0.005946 8 1 9.6076 1.20095
US pint 473.176 0.0004732 0.473176 28.875 0.01671 0.000619 0.832674 0.104084 1 0.125
US gall 3785.41 0.0037854 3.785411 231 0.133681 0.004951 6.661392 0.832674 8 1

7.06 EDB/1
Table 5 PRESSURE
From To atmos mm Hg m bar bar pascal in H20 in Hg psi
atmos 1 760 1013.25 1.0132 101325 406.781 29.9213 14.6959
mm Hg 0.0013158 1 1.33322 0.001333 133.322 0.53524 0.03937 0.019337
m bar 0.0009869 0.750062 1 0.001 100 0.401463 0.02953 0.014504
bar 0.9869 750.062 1000 1 100000 401.463 29.53 14.504
pascal 0.0000099 0.007501 0.01 0.00001 1 0.004015 0.0002953 0.000145
in H20 0.0024583 1.86832 2.49089 0.002491 249.089 1 0.073556 0.036127
in Hg 0.033421 25.4 33.8639 0.0338639 3386.39 13.5951 1 0.491154
psi 0.068046 51.7149 68.9476 0.068948 6894.76 27.6799 2.03602 1
Pascal=1N/m2

Table 6 VOLUME RATE OF FLOW

l/s
From To (dm/s) l/h m/s m/h cfm ft/h UK gall/m UK gall/h US gall/m US gall/h
l/s
(dm/s) 1 3600 0.001 3.6 2.118882 127.133 13.19814 791.8884 15.85032 951.019
l/h 0.000278 1 - 0.001 0.000588 0.035315 0.003666 0.219969 0.004403 0.264172
m/s 1000 3600000 1 3600 2118.88 127133 13198.1 791889 15850.3 951019
m/h 0.277778 1000 0.000278 1 0.588578 35.3147 3.66615 219.969 4.402863 264.1718
cfm 0.471947 1699.017 0.000472 1.699017 1 60 6.228833 373.73 7.480517 448.831
ft/h 0.007866 28.3168 - 0.028317 0.016667 1 0.103814 6.228833 0.124675 7.480517
UK gall/m 0.075768 272.766 0.0000758 0.272766 0.160544 9.63262 1 60 1.20095 72.057
UK gall/h 0.001263 4.54609 - 0.004546 0.002676 0.160544 0.016667 1 0.020016 1.20095
US gall/m 0.06309 227.125 0.0000631 0.227125 0.133681 8.020832 0.832674 49.96045 1 60
US gall/h 0.001052 3.785411 - 0.003785 0.002228 0.133681 0.013878 0.832674 0.016667 1

Table 7 POWER
From To Btu/h W kcal/h kW
Btu/h 1 0.293071 0.251996 0.000293
W 3.41214 1 0.859845 0.001
kcal/h 3.96832 1.163 1 0.001163
kW 3412.14 1000 859.845 1

Table 8 ENERGY
From To Btu Therm J kJ Cal
Btu 1 0.00001 1055.06 1.055 251.996
Therm 100 000 1 - 105 500 25 199 600
J 0.00094 - 1 0.001 0.2388
kJ 0.9478 0.000009478 1000 1 238.85
Cal 0.0039683 0.0039683 x 10-5 4.1868 - 1

EDB/1 7.07
Table 9 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
From To Btu/lbOF J /KgOC
Btu/lbOF 1 4186.8
J/kgOC 0.00023 1

Table 10 HEAT FLOW RATE

From To Btu/ft2 h W/m2 kcal/m2 h
Btu/ft2 h 1 3.154 2.712
W/m2 0.3169 1 0.859
kcal/m2 h 0.368 1.163 1

Table 11 THERMAL CONDUCTANCE

From To Btu/ft2 OF W/m2 OC kcal/m2h OC
Btu/ft2h OF 1 5.67826 4.88243
W/m2 OC 0.176110 1 0.859845
kcal/m2h OC 0.204816 1.163 1

Table 12 HEAT PER UNIT MASS

From To Btu/lb kJ/kg
Btu/lb 1 2.326
kJ/kg 0.4299 1

Table 13 LINEAR VELOCITY

From To ft/min ft/s m/s
ft/min 1 0.016666 0.00508
ft/s 60 1 0.3048
m/s 196.850 3.28084 1

TEMPERATURE CONVERSION
Can be achieved by using the following formulae:
O
F = (OC x 1.8) + 32

O
C = (OF 32)
1.8

7.08 EDB/1
Summary table of approximate conversion factors
Temperature
50OF = 10OC 140OF = 60OC
68OF = 20OC 176OF = 80OC
Length
40 in 1m 1 yd 0.9 m
1 ft 0.3 m 5 mile 8 km
Velocity
100 ft/min 5 m/s
1 mile/hour 0.5 m/s
Area
1000 in2 0.6 m2 10 ft2 0.9 m2
Volume
500 in3 8 litre 100 gal 450 litre
100 ft3 3 m3
Fan duty
100 ft3/min 50 l/s
Mass
20lb 9kg 1ton 1.02 tonne
1 ton(sh) 0.9 tonne
Pump duty
10 000 lb/h 1.3 kg/s
1 000 gal/min 75l/s
Moisture Content, etc
100 grain/lb 14g/kg
Force (weight)
1 lbf 4.5N
Pressure
1 lbf/in2 7000 N/m2 70 mbar
1 lbf/ft2 50 N/m2
1 kgf/m2 10 N/m2
1 in H2O 250 N/m2 2.5 mbar
1 standard atmos. (34ft H2O, 10m H2O) 1013 mbar
1 mm Mercury 130 N/m2 1.3 mbar
1 m H2O 9800 N/m2 98 mbar
10 mm H2O 100 N/m2 1 mbar
Quantity of heat, energy
1 Btu 1 kJ
Flow of Heat
10 Btu/h 3 W(J/s) 5 kcal/h 6 W(J/s)
Calorific value (Latent heat, etc)
10 Btu/lb 23 kJ/kg
Thermal Transmittance, conductance
5 Btu/h ft2 OF 30 W/m2 OC (J/s m2 OC)
5 kcal/h m2 OC 6 W/m2 OC
Conductivity
10 Btu in/h ft2 OF 1.4 W/m OC

EDB/1 7.09
IP Classification of enclosures
1st characteristic numeral 2nd characteristic numeral
protection against solid bodies protection against liquids

0 no protection 0 no protection

1
Protected against 200mm
1 dripping water
Protected against
solid bodies greater
than 50mm

2
2 Protected against 200mm
Protected against dripping water of
o
solid bodies greater 15 angle
than 12mm

test time
3 10 mins
3 Protected against 30o
Protected against spraying water of
solid bodies greater o
60 angle
than 2.5mm
80kN/m2
test time
4 10 mins
4
Protected against Protected against
solid bodies greater splashing water
than 1.0mm 80kN/m2

3m

6.3mm
5
5 Protected against test time
Protected against water jets 1 min/m2
dust-limited ingress 12.5 l/min
30kN/m2

3m

6 6 12.5mm
Protected against Protected against
dust-dust tight heavy seas test time
1 min/m2
100 l/min
100 kN/m2

7
min 0.15m

min 1m

Protected against test time

30 mins
immersion

8
Protected against
submersion

7.10 EDB/1
Graphical symbols

Valves-actuating methods

Diaphragm Motor

Solenoid Spring

In line (any type or pattern) (Pressure reducing valve)

Valves-specific types

In line (simple screw down) Relief (angle, pressure)

Check (non-return) 3-way

Globe Ball

EDB/1 7.11
Graphical symbols (cont'd)

Trap functions

Trap drain, e.g. steam trap

Trapped vent e.g. automatic air valve (air vent)

Pipeline flexibility

Bellows

Sleeve extension

Expansion loop

Flexible hose

7.12 EDB/1
Graphical symbols (cont'd)
Pipeline features and general equipment

Strainer or filter Open vent

Separator Exhaust head

FALL 1:70
150

Indication of pipe size (e.g. 150mm) Indication of fall

150 100

Pipe bore change Point of measurement e.g. pressure

Sight flow indicator e.g. sight glass Ejector/injector

Centrifugal pump Strainer

EDB/1 7.13
Electrical circuit symbols and notations
Conductors

OR

2C
Number of conductors following Number of control conductors
the same route

Number of conductors forming Boundary line

a circuit

Reserved for special connections Control wiring

or jumpers

Load wiring (two-three time Group crossing (not more than five
normal thickness) parallel wires equally spaced should be
drawn in a group)

Screened cable earthed at one end Earth

Notes
Thermostats and pressure switches to be shown calling for operation.
Relays and other contacts to be shown in de-energized position.
H.P. or load to be shown on all machines.
Rotor amps to be given on slip-ring motors.
Tap to be stated on auto transformers.
Earth to be shown on low voltage transformers.
Rating of isolators and fuses to be stated.
Terminal numbers to be given on all components.
On isolators the neutral link to be shown on the right.

7.14 EDB/1
Switches, fuses and contacts
Panel outgoing terminals OR OR

Mains LV
Panel internal terminals OR

Control switch S.P.S.T

Control switch S.P.D.T OR

Fixed contact

Separable contact

Signal lamp

Neon indicator

Socket
Control plug and socket
plug
OR

Fuse with separable contacts Link with separable contacts

Fuse with bolted contacts Link with bolted contacts

Fuse-switch
(three pole , double break)

Fuse-switch
(three pole , single break)

EDB/1 7.15
Switches, fuses and contacts (cont'd)

Auxiliary switch (open) Contactor normally

(closed)
OR

Contactor with
mechanical interlock
Auxiliary switch (closed)
OR

Contactor open double

break
Auxiliary switch with
time lag (on closing)

Contactor closed double

break
Auxiliary switch with
time lag (on opening
and closing)

Circuit breaker (general

symbol)
Push-button switch
(open)

Push-button switch
(closed)
Switch of isolator single
pole, rotary

Contactor normally
(open)

Passing contact arrow

denotes direction of drive

7.16 EDB/1
Circuit components

Resistance OR

Resistance (practically non-inductive)

Resistance bulb or electronic thermostat

Moveable contact OR

Resistance starter (for three-phase motor)

Transformer OR

Current transformer

Contactor coil OR

Relay coil OR OR

Inductor or choke (with magnetic core)

Capacitor

Electrolytic capacitor non-polarized

Electrolytic capacitor polarized

Variable capacitance

EDB/1 7.17
Circuit components (cont'd)
Instruments Controllers

Ammeter Pressure

Hour meter Temperature

Voltmeter Humidity

Pressure difference
Motor (general symbol)

Power transformer
(general symbol)

Electric bell

Electric buzzer

Electric horn

Heater

Rectifier

Overload element

Electro-magnetic
actuator

7.18 EDB/1
Thermal expansions of pipes
Temperature MATERIALS
O
C.steel 12% Cr steel 18/8 s.s Duct.iron Copper
C
mm/10m mm/10m mm/10m mm/10m mm/10m
-30 -4,99 -5,05 -7,79 -4,54 -7,16
-25 -4,44 -4,49 -6,92 -4,04 -6,38
-20 -3,90 -3,94 -6,05 -3,53 -5,59
-15 -3,35 -3,38 -5,19 -3,03 -4,79
-10 -2,80 -2,82 -4,32 -2,52 -4,00
-5 -2,24 -2,26 -3,46 -2,02 -3,20
0 -1,69 -1,69 -2,59 -1,51 -2,41
5 -1,13 -1,13 -1,73 -1,01 -1,61
10 -0,56 -0,57 -0,86 -0,50 -0.80
15 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
20 0,57 0,57 0,86 0,50 0,81
25 1,14 1,13 1,73 1,01 1,61
30 1,71 1,70 2,59 1,51 2,42
35 2,29 2,27 3,46 2,02 3,24
40 2,86 2,84 4,32 2,52 4,05
45 3,44 3,42 5,18 3,21 4,87
50 4,03 3,99 6,05 3,75 5,68
55 4,61 4,56 6,91 4,28 6,50
60 5,20 5,14 7,78 4,82 7,33
65 5,79 5,72 8,64 5,36 8,15
70 6,39 6,29 9,50 5,89 8,98
75 6,98 6,87 10,37 6,43 9,80
80 7,58 7,45 11,23 6,96 10,63
85 8,18 8,03 12,09 7,50 11,47
90 8,79 8,62 12,95 8,03 12,30
95 9,39 9,20 13,82 8,57 13,14
100 10,00 9,78 14,68 9,10 13,97
110 11,23 10,96 16,41 10,53 15,66
120 12,47 12,13 18,13 11,64 17,35
130 13,72 13,32 19,85 12,75 19,04
140 14,97 14,50 21,58 13,86 20,75
150 16,24 15,69 23,30 14,97 22,46
160 17,52 16,89 25,02 16,60 24,19
170 18,81 18,08 26,75 17,74 25,92
180 20,11 19,29 28,47 18,89 27,65
190 21,43 20,50 30,19 20,03 29,40
200 22,75 21,71 31,91 21,18 31,15
210 24,08 23,04 33,63 23,38
220 25,42 24,28 35,35 24,58
230 26,78 25,53 37,07
240 28,14 26,78 38,79
250 29,52 28,04 40,51
260 30,90 29,30 42,23
270 32,30 30,57 43,94
280 33,70 31,85 45,66
290 35,12 33,13 47,38
300 36,55 34,42 49,09
310 37,98 35,71 50,81
320 39,43 37,01 52,53
330 40,89 38,32 54,24
340 42,36 39,63 55,95
350 43,84 40,94 57,67
360 45,33 42,26 59,38
370 46,83 43,59 61,10
380 48,35 44,93 62,81
390 49,87 46,27 64,52
400 51,40 47,61 66,23
410 48,96 67,94
420 50,32 69,66
430 51,68 71,37
440 53,05 73,08
450 54,43 74,79
460 55,81 76,49
470 57,19 78,20
480 58,58 79,91
490 59,98 81,62
500 61,38 83,33
Note: Reference temperature: 15OC

EDB/1 7.19
Corrosion resistance of metals and elastomers
A - excellent B - good C - poor D - not recommended - no information

Material
CI1 - cast iron
A1 - stainless steels AISI 410/420 CI2 - nickel plated cast iron
A2 - stainless steels AISI 430 ST - steel
A3 - stainless steel AISI 304/304L/321/347 EM - EPDM
A4 - stainless steels - AISI 316/316L/317/317L BN - Buna N
AB - aluminium bronze NR - natural rubber
HB - Hastelloy B NE - neoprene T.ref= reference
HC - Hastelloy C HY - Hypalon temperature
MK - monel K VI - Viton
AL - aluminium SI - silicon bg = boiling
O
CHEMICAL T.ref C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL CI1 CI2 ST EM BN NR NE HY VI SI

Acetates
Aluminium acetate
10% 100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 - - B B
100 - - C - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Amyl acetate (100%) 20 B B A A A A A - A B C B - D D - C C -
Butyl acetate (100%) 20 B A A A A A A - A A B A C D D D D D -
Copper acetate
10% 20 B A A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 - B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 - - B B - A A B D - D - - - - - - - -
Ethyl acetate (100%) 20 B B B B - - A A - - C A D C D D D D D
Lead acetate (100%) 20 - - - A - B B - D - D - A B B - - - -
Methyl acetate (100%) 20 B - - A - - A A - B C B C D D D - - -
Potassium acetate (100%) 20 - - - A - - - - - - - - A - - - - - -
Sodium acetate
5% 20 C - - A A - A B - - D - A B B - D - -
10 - 60% 20 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Acids
Acetic acid
0 - 20% 20 C C A A - A A - A - - - - - - - - - -
50 D C - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
65 D C A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 - - B A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20 - 60% 20 D B A A - A A B A - - - - - - - - - -
65 D B A - D A A B A - D - B B D A A D A
100 - C B A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
60 - 80% 20 D C - A - A A B A - - - - - - - - - -
65 D C A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
75 C B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 - D C A - B A A C - - - - - - - - - -
80 - 95% 20 D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
65 D B A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
75 - C C - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 - D D A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
95 - 100% 30 B C A A D - A - - - D - D D D D B D -
Arsenic acid (100%) 20 - - - A - - - - - - D - A A - A A A A
Benzoic acid
5% 20 B - - A - A A B B B D B - C - C C A -
10 - 50% 100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
10 - 100% 20 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
60% 100 B - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
70% 100 B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Boric acid
5% 20 A A A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
90 C - - A C A A B B - D - A A - - A - A
10% 100 B B A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20 - 50% 80 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 C C B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
150 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

7.20 EDB/1
 O
CHEMICAL T.ref C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL CI1 CI2 ST EM BN NR NE HY VI SI

Boric acid
100% 20 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
200 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Butyric acid
5% 20 A A A A - - A B - - D - D D D D C D -
65 - A A A - B A - A - - - - - - - - - -
10% 100 C C B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20% 100 - C B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20 - 80% 20 C C B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20 - 100% 50 D C B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
30 - 50% 100 - C C B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
60 - 100% 100 - D D B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Carbonic acid
10% 20 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 B B - - - A A B B - D - A A B B - A A
100 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Chloroacetic acid
10 - 100% 20 D D D - - B B D D - - - - - - - - - -
Chromic acid
5% 20 - B A A D D C - C B D B D D - D A A -
10% 20 C C B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
bg - C B B - D B D C - - - - - - - - - -
25% 20 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50 - - D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
30% 20 D - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50 - D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50% 20 D D B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50 D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 - D D C - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
bg - - D D - D B D - - - - - - - - - - -
70% 20 D - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Citric acid
5% 20 - A A A - A A A B - - - - - - - - - -
60 - A A A C A A B B - D - A B D A - A A
10% 20 B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50 B B B A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
80 C C B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 D C B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
15% 20 A - A B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
bg - - A B A - A A B - C - - - - - - - -
20 - 50% 20 D B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50 D B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 D C B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 50 D D D B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 - - D B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
concentrated bg - - - D B - A A B - B - - - - - - - -
Fatty acids bg - - B B - B A A B - - - - - - - - - -
Fluosilicic acid (100%) 20 - - D D - A B B D - D - - A - B A - -
Gallic acid
5% 20 A A A A - B B B C - D - - B - B C B -
65 A A A A - B B B D - - - - - - - - - -
10 - 30% 100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
40 - 100% 100 - B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Hydrobromic acid (90%) 20 D D D D - B C C D - D - D D D D D D -
Hydrochloric acid
all concentrations 20 D D D D D A - D D - D - - - - - - - -
15% 20 - - - - - - B - - - - - B B - D A A -
37% 20 - - - - - - B - - - - - D D - D A A -
Hydrofluoric acid
20% 20 C - - D D - A C - - D - - D D B C A -
60 D - - D D - A D - - D - - D D D D A -
concentrated 20 - - D D - B B A D - - - - - - - - - -
80 - - D D - B B B D - - - - - - - - - -

EDB/1 7.21
 O
CHEMICAL T.ref C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL CI1 CI2 ST EM BN NR NE HY VI SI

Hydroformic acid
5% 20 D C B A - C A B C - - - - - - - - - -
65 - - B B A C A C C - D - - D D A B D -
10 - 75% 20 C C B B - C A B C - - - - - - - - - -
50 - C B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
bg - - D D - C B C D - - - - - - - - - -
10% 80 D D A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20 - 80% 100 D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
90% 100 - D A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 B A A A - B A C C - - - - - - - - - -
Lactic acid
5% 20 C B A A D B B B A - D - - C - A A - A
65 D B B A - B B C B - - - - - - - - - -
10% 20 D D B B - B B B A - - - - - - - - - -
50 D D B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 D D B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20% 50 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 D D D B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
30 - 40% 20 - B B A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50 - - B A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50% 50 - - B A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 - - D B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
60% 20 - - B A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50 - - - A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
70% 20 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
80% 20 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 100 D C C B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Maleic acid
10% 20 B B - B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 - B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20% 100 D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50% 100 - B - B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 C B - B D - - A - - D - D D D D A A -
100 - B - B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Nitric acid
0 - 10% 20 - - A A D D B D D - D - A D D D - C -
80 B B A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
bg C B A A - D C D D - - - - - - - - - -
20% 20 B - A A D D B D D - D - A D D D - C -
50 C B A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
bg D B A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
150 - - C - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
30% 20 B B A A D - B D D - D - A D D D - C -
50 C B A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
bg D B A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
40% 20 B B - - D - B D - - D - A D D D - C -
50 C B A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
80 D C A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
bg D D A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50% 20 B B A A D D B D C - D - - - - - - - -
50 D B A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
80 - C A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
bg - D A A D D D D D - - - - - - - - - -
60% 20 B B A A D D B D D - D - A D D D A A -
50 D B A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
80 D C A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
90 - D A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
bg - - B B D D D D C - - - - - - - - - -

7.22 EDB/1
 O
CHEMICAL T.ref C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL CI1 CI2 ST EM BN NR NE HY VI SI

Nitric acid
70% 20 B B A A D D B D D - D - A D D D A A -
50 D B A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
80 - D B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
90 - D B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
bg - - C C - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
80% 20 B B A A D D B D B B D B A D D D A A -
50 D C A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
80 - D B B - D D D D - - - - - - - - - -
90 - - C C - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
bg - - C C - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
90% 20 B B A A D D B D D B D B A D D D A A -
50 D D B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
80 - - C C - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
bg - - D A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 D C B B D D B D D A D A A D D D A A -
50 D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 - - D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Oleic acid
10 - 100% 20 B B B B - B B A B - - - - - - - - - -
100% 38 B B B B B B B A B - D - B D B B B A -
100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
150 - C B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Oleum (fuming) 20 - - C B - B B D B - D B D D D D D A -
50 A A B B - C B D D - - - - - - - - - -
100 D D B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
150 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Oxalic acid
5% <100 B A A A - B B B D - - - - - - - - - -
10% 20 D B - B - B B B B - - - - - - - - - -
bg - - D D - B B C D - - - - - - - - - -
10-60% 100 D D - D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20% 20 B D - B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
25% 20 C - - B D - B - - - D - B D B B B A -
25-50% 100 D D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
30-50% 20 B B - B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50% bg - - D D - B B C D - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 D D - D - B B B B - - - - - - - - - -
bg - - D D - B B C D - - - - - - - - - -
Palmitic acid (100%) 20 B - B B B B B B B - D - - A B A D A -
Phenic acid (100%) 20 - - B B - B B B B - - - - - - - - - -
Phosphoric acid
1% 20 A A A A - A A B B - - - - - - - - - -
bg C B A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
10% 20 D D C A D A A B - - D - B B C B A A -
bg D D B A - A A D D - - - - - - - - - -
25% bg - - D C - A B D D - - - - - - - - - -
50% 20 - - A A - A A B D - - - - - - - - - -
bg D D B B - A B D D - - - - - - - - - -
80% 20 D D B A - A A A D - - - - - - - - - -
bg D D C C - A D C D - - - - - - - - - -
concentrated 20 C C B A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
bg D D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Picric acid
10 - 100% 20 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
80% 20 - - - A - - A C - - D - D - - B A A -
100% 100 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Stearic acid
100% 20 - - B B - A A A A - - - - - - - - - -
100 B D B B C - A C - - D - - B - B B - B
150 - B D B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
200 D D D B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

EDB/1 7.23
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CHEMICAL T.ref C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL CI1 CI2 ST EM BN NR NE HY VI SI

Sulphuric acid (not aerated)

5% 20 - - C B - A A C C - - - - - - - - - -
bg - - D C - B C B D - - - - - - - - - -
10% 20 D D - D D A A D C - D - B B C - A A -
bg - - D D - B C B D - - - - - - - - - -
20-80% 20 D D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50% 20 D D D D D A B D D - D - D D D - A A -
bg D D D D - A D D D - - - - - - - - - -
90% 20 D - - B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50 - - - D D - D D D - D - D D D D B A -
100 D D D D D - D D D - D - D D D D B B D
100% 20 C C C B - - - - - B - B - - - - - - -
50 - - - B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Sulphuric acid (aerated)
5% 20 - D D B - A A C D - - - - - - - - - -
bg - D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
10% 20 C C D B D - - D - - D - B B C - A A -
100 - - - B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20-70% 20 D D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
80% 20 D D - B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50 - - - C - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
80 - - - D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 D D - B D - D D D - D - D D D D B B D
80 - - - D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 - - - C - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Sulphurous acid
10% 20 - D D B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20% 20 - B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
80% 38 D - - D D - A D - - D - D D D - B A -
100% 20 D D B B - D B D C - - - - - - - - - -
50 D D D B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
80 D D D B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Sulphydric acid
10% 20 - - D A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
90% 20 D D D A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50 - - - A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 B C C B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
315 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Tannic acid
10% 20 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50 B B D - B - A - - - D - - D C B B A -
100 B B D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
30% 20 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50% 100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
70% 20 - B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
90% 20 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 C B B B - B B B C - - - - - - - - - -
50 D C B B - B B B D - - - - - - - - - -
100 D C B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Tartaric acid
10% 20 - - A A - B B A A - - - - - - - - - -
100 - A A B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20-40% 100 - B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
30% 50 - - C - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50% 80 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 D B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

7.24 EDB/1
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CHEMICAL T.ref C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL CI1 CI2 ST EM BN NR NE HY VI SI

Alcohol
Alcohol amyl
100% 20 - - - A A - - B C - C - - C - C B B -
Alcohol butyl
100% 20 B - - A A - A A - - C - - C - B D - -
Alcohol ethyl
10% 20 B B A A - - - - - B - B - - - - - - -
100 - - A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
30% 100 - - B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
40% 100 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 B A A A A A A A A - D - A B B B B B -
80 - A A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 - B B B - A A B B - - - - - - - - - -
Alcohol isopropyl
100% 20 A - - A A - A A - - C - - B - C A A -
Alcohol methyl
0-100% 20 B B B B A A A A A B D B A B B B B D -
100% 80 C C C B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 - C C B - A A B C - - - - - - - - - -
Alcohol propyl
100% 20 - - - A A - - A - B D B A D - A A A -

Bicarbonates
Ammonium bicarbonate
0-50% 100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50-90% 100 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 100 - - - C - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Potassium bicarbonate
20% 20 - - - A D - - - - - D - A D D - - A A
Sodium bicarbonate
all concentrations 20 A A A A D B B B C - D - A B B B A A A
5% 70 A A A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Bichromates
Potassium bichromate
10-20% 20 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
30% 20 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 - - B B - C B C C - - - - - - - - - -
Sodium bichromate
100% 20 - - - A D - - - - - D - A D - - - A A

EDB/1 7.25
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CHEMICAL T.ref C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL CI1 CI2 ST EM BN NR NE HY VI SI

Bromides
Potassium bromide
10-40% 100 - - - B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50-60% 100 - - - B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 - - C B - B B B C - - - - - - - - - -
Silver bromide
10% 20 D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 D D C B - B B - - - - - - - - - - - -

Carbonates
Ammonium carbonate
1-5% 20 A A A A - - - - - B - B - - - - - - -
0-50% 100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50-70% 100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 - - B B D B B B A - D - A D B B - - -
Barium carbonate
100% 20 B B B B B - A B - B D B A A - A - - -
Bismuth carbonate (dry)
100% 20 A - A A A - - - - - A - A A - - - - -
Calcium carbonate
10% 100 B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 B B B B - B B B B B C B A A A A A A -
Copper carbonate
10% 20 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 - - A A - A A A - - - - - - - - - - -
Magnesium carbonate
100% 20 - - B B D B B B - - D - A B - A A A -
Potassium carbonate
10-50% 100 B B B B - - - - - B - B - - - - - - -
60-70% 100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 B B B B A - - - - - D - A D - - - - -
Sodium carbonate
5% 20 A A A A - B B B D - - B - - - - - - -
65 A A A A - B B B D - - B - - - - - - -
10-30% 100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 B B B B B - A A - - D - A A A - A A -

Chlorates
Calcium chlorate
10% 20 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
65% 20 B - - A - - A B - - - - - - - - - - -
Potassium chlorate
10% 100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20-30% 100 B B B B - - - - - B - B - - - - - - -
100% 206 - - B B D C B B B - D - A C A B A A -
Sodium chlorate
10% 20 - - B B D - B - B - - - - - - - - - -
25% 20 - - B B D - B - B - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 - - - A D - - B - - D - A C - - - - -
Chlorobenzene
90% 20 A - - A A - - A - - C - D D - D D B -
Chlorobenzol
concentrated 20 - A A A - A A A - - - A - - - - - - -
Chloroform
100% 20 B B A A B B B A A - D A D D D D D A D
60 - A A A - - - - - B - B - - - - - - -

7.26 EDB/1
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CHEMICAL T.ref C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL CI1 CI2 ST EM BN NR NE HY VI SI

Chlorides
Aluminium chloride
10% bg - D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
10-40% 20 D D D D - B B B D - - - - - - - - - -
25% bg - - D D - B C C D - - - - - - - - - -
50-75% 20 D D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 D D D D D - - A - - D - A A A A A A -
80 D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ammonium chloride
1% 20 A A A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
5% 80 C - - B D - A B - - D - - - - A A - -
10% 20 C C B B - B B B D - - - - - - - - - -
80 D - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 - - A C - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
bg - - C B - D - - - - - - - - - - - - -
25% 20 D D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
80 - B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 - B D B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
bg - - D C - B C B D - - - - - - - - - -
50% 100 - D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
90% 30 - D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Barium chloride
5% 20 - A A A - B B B D - - - - - - - - - -
10% 20 C B B B - - - - - B - B - - - - - - -
100 D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 - B D C - B B B D - D - A A A A A A -
150 - B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Calcium chloride
10% 20 B C C C - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20-70% 100 D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
25% 20 - B C - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50 - D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
35% 50 - D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
30-70% 20 B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 - B C C C B A B C - C - A A B A A A -
50 D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Copper chloride
1% 20 B B B A - C B D D - - - - - - - - - -
5% 20 B B C B - C B D D - - - - - - - - - -
5% (aerated) 20 D D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
10-40% 20 D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% (dry) 20 D - - C D - - C - - D - A B - B B A A
Ethyl chloride
5% 20 B - - A A - A B - - C - A A C C D A -
100% (dry) 20 - - A A - B B B A - - A - - - - - - -
315 A A A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ethylene chloride
100% 20 - B A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ferric chloride
1% 20 D B B A - D B D D - - - - - - - - - -
bg - D D D - D C D D - - - - - - - - - -
5% 20 D D D D - D B D D - - - - - - - - - -
10-40% 20 D D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 D - - - D - D A - - D - B B B B B A A
Ferrous chloride
10-20% 20 D D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
30% 20 - D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
40-50% 20 - - - D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

EDB/1 7.27
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CHEMICAL T.ref C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL CI1 CI2 ST EM BN NR NE HY VI SI

Magnesium chloride
1-5% 20 - B A A C A A B C - C - A A A A A A -
5% hot - - D D - A B A D - - - - - - - - - -
10% 20 C D C B - A A A C - - - - - - - - - -
50 B A C - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20% 50 - B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
30% 20 D B B B - A A A C - - - - - - - - - -
50% 20 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 - B C - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 - - C B - A A A C - - - - - - - - - -
Mercury bichloride 2% 20 - - D D - D B D D - - - - - - - - - -
Mercury chloride
10% 20 D D D D - - - - - - - - - - D - D A -
100% 20 D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Methyl chloride
100% (dry) 20 B - B B A B B B D - - - - - - - - - -
Nickel chloride
10-30% 20 D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 - - B B - A A C D - D - - A - A - - -
Potassium chloride
1-5% 20 A A A A - B A A C - - - - - - - - - -
bg - - D D - B B B D - - - - - - - - - -
10% 20 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20% 20 D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
25% 60 - - - B B - - A - - D - A B B B A A A
30% 75 - - A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Silver chloride
10% 20 D D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 D D D D - D B - - - - - - - - - - - -
Sodium chloride
5% 20 B B A A - B B A C - - - - - - - - - -
65 B B A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
10% 20 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50 D D D B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20% 20 - - B B - B B A C - - - - - - - - - -
100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
30% 80 C - - A A - A A - - D - A A A A A A A
100 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
saturated 20 - - B B - B B A C - - - - - - - - - -
Stannic chloride
5% 20 - - D C - B B D D - - - - - - - - - -
bg - - D D - C B D D - - - - - - - - - -
10-40% 20 D D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 50 D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
80 - - D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Stannous chloride
10% 20 D D D A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 - - - A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20-40% 20 D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 D C C C - B B C D - - - - - - - - - -
Sulphur chloride
100% 20 - - C B - D B B B - - - - - - - - - -

7.28 EDB/1
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CHEMICAL T.ref C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL CI1 CI2 ST EM BN NR NE HY VI SI

Zinc chloride
5% 20 - - C B - B B B B - - - - - - - - - -
70 D - - C D D - B B - B - D A B A A A A
bg - - D C - B C B D - - - - - - - - - -
10% 100 D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20% 20 - - D B - B B B C - - - - - - - - - -
bg - - D C - B C C D - - - - - - - - - -
50% 20 - A A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
80 D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
bg - B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
80% 20 D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 100 D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Chromates
Potassium chromate
100% 20 - - - A D - - - - - D - A C - - - - -
Sodium chromate
100% 20 - - - A D - - B - - D - A C - - - - -

Cyanides
Copper cyanide
10% 80 B B A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 D D A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20% 100 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50% 20 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 100 B B B B - B B C - - - - - - - - - - -
Mercury cyanide 20 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Potassium cyanide 20 - - B B D B B B D - - B - - - - - - -
Sodium cyanide
100% 20 - - B B D B B B D - D B A A A - - - -

Fluorides
Aluminium fluoride
5% 20 - - D C - B B A D - - - - - - - - - -
10-20% 20 D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 D D D B - - - B - - D - - B - B - B -
Sodium fluoride
5% 20 - - B B C B B B - - D - - - - - - A -
10% 20 C C C - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Gases
Blast furnace gas
100% 20 B - - A A - - - - - B - D A - - - A -
Coke gas
100% 20 B - - A D - - B - - B - D B D D D A -
Natural gas
100% 20 A - A A A - - - - - B - D A D D A A -
Town gas
100% 20 B - - A A - - A - A B A D A D B D A -

EDB/1 7.29
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CHEMICAL T.ref C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL CI1 CI2 ST EM BN NR NE HY VI SI

Hydrates
Aluminium hydrate
10% 100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Calcium hydrate
10% 100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20% 100 - - A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50% 100 - - C B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ferric hydrate
100% 20 B B A A - A A A - - - - - - - - - - -
Potassium hydrate
5% 20 A A A A - B B A D - - B - - - - - - -
10-40% 100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
25% bg - - B B - B B A D - - - - - - - - - -
50% 80 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
bg - - B B - B B A D - - - - - - - - - -
60-70% 100 D B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 A A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
260 D D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Sodium hydrate
10-20% 100 B B A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
10-30% 50 B A A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
10-50% 150 D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
30% 100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
40% 100 C B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50% 100 C D B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
70-90% 100 D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Hydroxides
Aluminium hydroxide
100% 20 - - - B - - - - - - D B - B - B - B -
Ammonium hydroxide
100% 20 B - A A D A A C B - D - A B D A A B -
Barium hydroxide
100% 20 A - - A D - - - - - C - - A D A A - -
Calcium hydroxide
5% 20 - - B B - A B A D - - B - - - - - - -
10% bg - - B B - B A A D - - - - - - - - - -
20% bg - - B B - B A A D - - - - - - - - - -
50% 10 A - - A D - A A - - C - A A A A A A -
bg - - D B - A A A D - - - - - - - - - -
Magnesium hydroxide
100% 20 A - - A B - - - - - C - A B B A A A -
Potassium hydroxide
5% 20 B - - A D - A A - - C - A A B A A A -
Sodium hydroxide
5% 20 - - B B - A B A D - - - - - - - - - -
20% bg - - B B - A B A D - - - - - - - - - -
50% 50 C - - B D - A B - - D - A B B B A D -
80 C - - B D - A B - - D - A B D - B D -
bg - - B B - A B A D - - - - - - - - - -
75% bg - - D C - B B B D - - - - - - - - - -

Hypochlorites
Calcium hypochlorite
2% 20 - B B A - C B C D - - - - - - - - - -
10% 20 C C C - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 D D D - - - - - - - - - A C - B A A -

7.30 EDB/1
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CHEMICAL T.ref C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL CI1 CI2 ST EM BN NR NE HY VI SI

Potassium hypochlorite
100% 20 - - D C - D B D D - - - - - - - - - -
5% 20 - - - B D - A A D - - - B D D B B A -
10% 20 D D C - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Nitrates
Ammonium nitrate
5% 20 B - - A D - A B - - C - - A - A C - -
10-50% 20 B A A A - - - - - - - B - - - - - - -
100 - B A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50-100% 100 B B A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 - - B B - D A C A - - - - - - - - - -
bg - - B B B B B D D - - - - - - - - - -
Barium nitrate
10-20% 20 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20% 100 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 100 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Copper nitrate
1% 20 A A A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
5% 20 A A A A - D B A - - - - - - - - - - -
10% 100 B B A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20-80% 100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50% hot - - B B - D B B - - - - - - - - - - -
90% 100 A B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 100 B B A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Magnesium nitrate
100% 20 - - - B B - - B - - D - A A A A A A -
Potassium nitrate
1-5% 20 - - B B - C B B B - - B - - - - - - -
10% 100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
10-20% 100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
30-50% 100 D D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
60-80% 100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 B B B B C - A B - - C - A A A A A A A
280 - B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Silver nitrate
10-60% 100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
70-90% 100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 - - B B - B B D - - - - - - - - - - -
300 D D B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Sodium nitrate
10-40% 20 B B A A - - - - - - - B - - - - - - -
100 - - A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50% 20 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50-70% 100 - - A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 B A B B B D B B B - D - A B B A A - -
80 - - D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Oils
Castor oil 20 - - - A A - - - - B D B D A A - - A A
Coconut oil 20 - - - A A - - - - - D - B A - - - - A
Cod liver oil 20 - - - A D - - - - - D - D A - - - - A
Crude oil 20 - A A A C A A B - - D - D A D B B A -
Diesel oil 20 A A A A B A A A - - C - D A - - - A -
Linseed oil 20 C B A A - - - - - A - A - - - - - - -
Lubricating oil 20 A A A A A - A A A A A A D A D B B A -
Maize oil 20 - - - A A - - - - - D - D A - - - - A
Mineral oil 20 - A A A - - A - - B C B D A D B B A -
Olive oil 20 - - - A - - - - - B - B B A D B B A -
Vegetable oil 20 - - - A D - - - - B D B D A - - - - A

EDB/1 7.31
CHEMICAL T.ref OC A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL CI1 CI2 ST EM BN NR NE HY VI SI

Phosphates
Ammonium phosphate
100% 20 C - - B D - B B - - D - A A B A A - -
Potassium phosphate
100% 20 - - - B - - - - - - D - - A - A - A -
Sodium phosphate
5% 20 B - - A - - A B - - D - A A A A A A A
Trisodium phosphate
100% 20 B - B B B B B B D - B B A B B B B A -

Sulphates
Aluminium sulphate
10% 20 - D A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
10-30% 100 - D A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
40-50% 100 - - A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 D D B B D B A B B - D - - A - A A - A
Ammonium sulphate
1-5% 20 B A A A - B B A A - - - - - - - - - -
10% 20 D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 D D D A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 C - D B D - B B - - D - A A - A A A -
Calcium sulphate
10% 20 - B - B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 B B B A A - - B - - C - A A A A A A A
Copper sulphate
5% 20 A A A A - D B D D - - - - - - - - - -
10% 100 - B A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20-30% 20 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
60-70% 100 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ferric sulphate
1-5% 20 A A A A D D B C D - D - A A A A A A A
5% bg - - B B - D B D D - - - - - - - - - -
10% 100 C C C B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ferrous sulphate
10% 20 B B B B - B B B B - - - - - - - - - -
20-40% 20 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 - B B B D B B B D - C - B A B B B B -
Magnesium sulphate
10-30% 20 D A A A - - - - - B - B - - - - - - -
100 - A A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
40% 100 - A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50% 20 - A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 100 C B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Potassium sulphate
1-5% 20 A A A A - B B B B - - B - - - - - - -
10% 100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Sodium sulphate
5% 20 - A A A - - - - - - - B - - - - - - -
10% 50 D D A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20-30% 20 D B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 D D A A - B B B B - - - - - - - - - -

7.32 EDB/1
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Zinc sulphate
5% 20 - A A A - B B A B - - B - - - - - - -
10% 100 D A - A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
25% 80 B - A A A B B B C - D - A A B A A - A
100% 20 - B B A - B B A B - - B - - - - - - -

Sulphides
Potassium sulphide
10% 20 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 - - B B - B B B D - D - - A - - - - -
Sodium suphide
10% 20 D D B B - - - - - B - B - - - - - - -
20-50% 100 - D - B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
70% 20 B - - B D - A - - - D - - - - - - A -
100% 20 B D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Sulphites
Ammonium sulphite
10% 20 D D B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Potassium sulphite
100% 20 - - - A - - - - - - D - B C - B B - -
Sodium sulphite
5% 20 - C A A - D B B B - - B - - - - - - -
10% 65 - - A A - D B B B - - B - - - - - - -
20% 100 - - B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 - - - B D - A B - - D - B A B B B A -

Water
Water bromine 20 - D D D - D B D D - - - - - - - - - -
Water chlorinated (sat.) 20 D D C B B D B D D B D B A A - - B - -
Water demineralised 20 - - - A A - - A - - D - A B B A B - -
Water distilled 20 D - A A D A A B A - - - - - - - - - -
Water fresh 20 A - A A A - A A B - C - A B A A B - -
Water mineral 20 B - A A A - A A - B C B A B - - C - -
Water sea 20 - C A A B A A A C - D - A B - A B A -
Water waste 20 - - A A A - A A - - D - A B - - B - -

EDB/1 7.33
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Others
Acetaldehyde 20 D - - A D - A C - B D B B D C D D - B
Acetic anhydride
10% 20 C C B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50% 20 C D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
90% 100 D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 C C B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
140 - - C B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Acetone
10 - 50% 20 - - A - A - - A - - B - A D D - - D -
50% 20 - A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 200 - A A A - A A - A - - - - - - - - - -
Acetylene (100%) 20 A A A A A A A - A A B A B C B D D B -
Acrylonitrile 20 B - - A A - - A - B B A D D D D D D -
Alum
10% 20 - - B B - B B B B - - - - - - - - - -
bg - - B B - C B B C - - - - - - - - - -
100% bg - - C B - C B B C - - - - - - - - - -
Aluminium oxide
100% 20 B - - B B - A B - - B - A A B C B B -
Amines 20 C - A A - A A A B - D A - C - - - - -
Ammonia
10-30% 80 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
40-50% 20 A A A A D - A B - A C A A B B B B D -
100% 20 A A A A - B B C C - - - - - - - - - -
100 B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
vapour 65 D - D D - - - D D - D - B - - - D - A
anhydrous 20 B - - A D - - - - B D A A B - - - D -
Aniline
3% 20 - A A A - A A B A - - B - - - - - - -
10% 20 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
90% 20 B - - A C - A - - - C - B D D D D A -
100% 20 B B B B - - - - - - - B - - - - - - -
Aromatic hydrocarbons 20 - - A A B A A A A B - A - - - - - - -
Asphalt 20 A A A A A - A A - - A - - D D D D A -

Beer 20 - - A A D A A A A - D - A - - - - A A
Benzaldehyde 20 A - A A A - - - - - C - B D D D D D -
Benzene
10-70% 100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 B - B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 C B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Benzol
100% 20 A - - A A - A B - B C B D D D D D B -
hot - A A A - B B B A - - - - - - - - - -
Borax
5% 20 - - A A - A A A C - - B - - - - - - -
100% 20 C - - A D - A A - - D - - B B A A - -
Bromine (dry) 20 D D D - - B B C D - D - D D D D D B -
Butadiene
100% 20 B - - A B - - - - - C - - B - - - B -
Butane
100% 20 A - - A A - A A B B B B D B D B B B -
Butter 20 - - - A D - - - - - D - D A - - - - A
Calcium bisulphite
100% 20 - - C B - C B D C - - - - - - - - - -

Carbon dioxide 20 A - - A A - - - - B C A B B B B A A A
Carbon disulphide
100% 20 B B B B - B B C B - - B - - - - - - -

7.34 EDB/1
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CHEMICAL T.ref C A1 A2 A3 A4 AB HB HC MK AL CI1 CI2 ST EM BN NR NE HY VI SI

Carbon tetrachoride
10% 20 D C D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 B A B B B B A A B B D B D D D D D A -
100 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Caustic lime
100% 20 - - - B A - - - - - D - A C - - - - -
Chlorine (gas)
90% 20 D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% (dry) 20 C C D C - B A B B B - B - - - - - - -
100 - D B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% (wet) 100 D D D D - D D D D - - - - - - - - - -
100% (dry) 200 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
260 - - D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Chromium plating soln 20 - A A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Coffee 20 D - - A D - - - - - D - A D A A A A -
Creosote
90% 100 - C B B - - - - - - - B - - - - - - -
100% 100 B B B B - - - - - - - B - - - - - - -
Cyanogen
100% 20 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Cyclohexane
100% 20 A - A A A - - - - - C - D A D D D A -
Detergents 20 - - - A B - - - - - D - A B - - - - -
Dextrose
100% 20 D - - A - - - - - - D - - A - - - - -
Diacetone
100% 20 - - - - A - - - - - D - A D D D D D A
Dichloroethane
100% 20 - - - C - - - - - - D - D D D D D B -
100% bg - - B B - B B B - - - - - - - - - - -
Diethylamine
100% 20 A - - A A - - - - A C A C D C D D D -
Dowtherm hot A - A A A A A - C - B A D D D B B A -
Ethyl ether
100% 20 B B A A A B B B A B D A D D D D D - -
Ethylene glycol
100% 20 B B A A A A A A A B B B A A B B A A -
Fluorine
100% 20 D A A A D B B B C - D - - B - C B - -
100% 200 D A A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Formaldehyde
10-20% 100 - - A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
30-40% 100 B A A A - - - - - B - A - - - - - - -
70% 50 - - - A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
80% 50 - - A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 B B A A A B B B B - D - A B - A A A -
Freon 12
100% (dry) 20 B - A A B A A A A - D A D A - B - - -
100% (wet) 20 - - C C - B B B B - - - - - - - - - -
Fruit juices 20 D - A A D A A B A - D - B B - B - - -
hot A A B A - B A B B - - - - - - - - - -
Furfurol
30% 100 A A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
40% 20 A A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
60% 20 - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
80% 100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
90% 100 B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 - - B B - B B B B - - - - - - - - - -
100 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Glucose
100% 20 C - B B B - A B B B D B - A - A - A -

EDB/1 7.35
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Glycerine
10% 50 - - A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 B B B B B A A B A B C B - A - A A A -
Helium
100% 20 B - - A B - - - - - D - A A - - - - -
Heptane
100% 20 B - - A A - - - - B C B D A D B B A -
Hexane
100% 20 B - - A A - - - - - C - D B D B B A -
Hydrogen 20 B - A A C - - - - B C B A A A A A A -
Hydrogen peroxide
10-30% 20 - A A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
40% 100 B - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
90% 20 D - A A D - A A - - D - - D D D A B -
50 - - A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 - B B B - B A B - - - - - - - - - - -
100 - C C A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Hydrogen sulphide
100% 20 C - - B C - - - - - C - A D D B C D -
Ink 20 B - - A C - - B - - D - A D - A C A -
Iodine
20-80% 20 D D D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% (dry) 20 B D D D - C B C D - - - - - - - - - -
100% (wet) 20 - - D D - D B D D - - - - - - - - - -
Isopropyl ether
100% 20 A - - A A - A A - B C A D A D C B A -
Latex 20 - - A A - A A A A B - B - - - - - - -
Magnesium oxide
100% 20 B - A A D - - A - - B - A B - B A A -
Methane
100% 20 B - A A A - - - - - B - D A D B B A -
Milk 20 D B A A - A A B A - D - A A A A A A -
Naphta 20 B B A A A B A B B B C B D C D C D A -
Naphthalene
100% 20 A - A A A - - - - - C - D D D - - B -
Nitrogen 20 B - A A B - - - - - B - A B - - - - -
Paint solvents 20 A - A A A - - A A - D - D D D D D D -
Paraffin 20 A A A A A A A A - B A A D A D D C A -
Petrol 20 A - A A B A A B A B C A D A D C D A -
Phenol
10% 100 - A A A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20% 100 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 - - - B - - A A - - D - D D D D D A -
35 - B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
135 B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
150 C - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
bg - - B B - B B B B - - - - - - - - - -
Potassium borate
100% 20 - - - A D - - - - - D - A B - - - - -
Potassium ferrocyanide
5% 20 - A A A - B B B B - - - - - - - - - -
10% 20 D D B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
75 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
10-30% 100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
40-60% 100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Propane 20 A - B A A - - - - B C B D A D A A A -

Sewage 20 B - A A - - - - - - D - A B - - - - -
Starch 20 B - - A B - - A - - B - A A - A A A -
Sugar solution 20 - A A A D - - - - B D B - A - A B - -

7.36 EDB/1
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Sulphur
melted (dry) 20 D - B B D B B B C B D B A - - A A - -
melted (wet) 20 - - C B - - - C C - - - - - - - - - -
Sulphur dioxide
90% 20 D D D B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
150 - - B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100% 20 B - - A C - A A - - D - B D D D C A -
370 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
650 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
dry vapour 260 - - B B - C B B B - - - - - - - - - -
wet vapour 20 - D D A - C B C C - - - - - - - - - -
Sulphur trioxide
100% 20 B - - A - - A - - - D - - D D D D A -
Tar hot A A A A A A A A - - C - D D D D D B -
Toluene
100% 20 A - A A A - - - - A D A D D D D D B -
Trichloroethylene
100% (dry) 20 B - B B A B A B B B D B D D D D D A -
100% (wet) 100 B B B B - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Turpentine
100% 20 D - A A B A A A A B D B D D D D D A -
Urea
100% 20 - - - A - - - A - - D - B B - A - D D
Vinegar 20 A A A A - A A - B - D - B A - B B A A
Xylene
100% 20 - - - A A - - - - - C B D D D D D D -

EDB/1 7.37
 Compressed Air
Engineering Data
Power required to compress air
Gauge Pressure Theoretical Adiabatic Power kW/100dm3/s Free Air
bar Single stage Two Stage Three Stage

0.5 4.0 - -
1.0 7.5 - -
2.5 15 14 -
5.0 23 20 19
7.0 28 24 22
10.0 34 28 27
14.0 40 32 30

Discharge of air through an orifice

Gauge Discharge of Free Air in dm3/s for Various Orifice Diameters
Pressure
bar 0.5mm 1mm 2mm 3mm 5mm 10mm 12.5mm
0.5 0.06 0.22 0.92 2.1 5.7 22.8 35.5
1.0 0.08 0.33 1.33 3.0 8.4 33.6 52.5
2.5 0.14 0.58 2.33 5.5 14.6 58.6 91.4
5.0 0.25 0.97 3.92 8.8 24.4 97.5 152.0
7.0 0.33 1.31 5.19 11.6 32.5 129.0 202.0
Note: 1 bar = 100kPa
Figures assume a coefficient of discharge of 1. For sharp edged orifice a figure of 0.7 may be
assumed.

Condensation in the compressed air system

Atmospheric air always contains a proportion of water vapour. The amount of water vapour it
contains depends on the relative humidity. The moisture carrying capacity of a given volume of
air is dependent on its temperature and conversely, and perhaps of greater importance, it
decreases with a fall in temperature - see table below:

The moisture carrying capacity also falls as the pressure is increased. When 'free air' containing
water vapour enters the compressor two things will generally happen. Its ability to hold the water
will decrease as the air is compressed to a smaller volume but will increase because of the higher
temperature resulting from the compression. Under average conditions the air will leave the
compressor just able to carry its initial water content. It will follow that any subsequent cooling must
cause the air to shed its excess water vapour by condensation.

Intercooling: an intercooler is fitted between the stages of multi stage compressors primarily to
reduce its volume and save energy on further compression, but it also serves the very useful
purpose of condensing out the surplus water vapour which, if allowed to pass to the next
compression stage could condense on the cylinder walls with resultant damage to the compressor.

Aftercooling: an aftercooler should be fitted immediately after the compressor so as to remove as

much water as possible before the air reaches the receiver.

How much condensation? : this is best illustrated by an example - air inlet conditions 20 OC and
70% relative humidity. The compressor delivers 1 m3/s of free compressed air to 7 bar g at 25
O
C. Compressor takes in 1 m3/s; from the chart above, water taken in will be:

EDB/1 8.01
 0.18 x 70 = 0.0126 kg/s
10 x 100
Compression ratio at 7 bar g is 7.91 (taken from table below ). Since its volume is proportional
to the absolute temperature and to 1/compression ratio, 1 m3 will occupy:

1 x (273 + 25) = 0.128 m3

7.91 (273 + 20)

From the relative humidity chart 10 m3 of air at 25 OC can carry 0.24 kg of water. Therefore 0.128
m3 of air can carry:

0.128 x 0.24 = 0.00307 kg/s

10

Therefore the amount of water that will separate out is:

0.0126 - 0.00307 = 0.00953 kg/s ( = 34.3 kg/h)

Ratio of compression
Pressure bar g 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 14 18
Ratio of compression 1.5 1.99 2.97 3.96 4.95 5.94 6.92 7.91 8.9 10.87 12.85 14.82 18.77

Air receiver sizing

This is usually sized on the actual output in 1 minute from the compressor but where consumption
is high and fairly constant the air is in the receiver for too short a time to cool down. Where this
is so, it is better to size the receiver on plant consumption rather than output. One typical formula
used to size air receivers is:

Receiver Capacity m3 = m3 of free air required

Allowable pressure drop bar

Example: A compressed air service (machine) requires 3 m3 - available pressure is 7 bar g.

Minimum suitable pressure for the service is 5.5 bar g. Hence receiver size should be:

3/1.5 = 2 m3

Distribution system
Drainage: there should be a general fall in the direction of flow of 1% (i.e. 1m in 100m). The distance
between drainage points should not exceed 30m. Drainage points should be provided using equal
tees.
Separators: are recommended and should be installed on the air outlet from the receiver.
Separators are usually sized to match the pipeline diameter.

Sizing:

velocity method - mains are generally sized on a velocity of 6-9 m/s which is sufficiently low to
prevent excessive pressure drop. Sizing by velocity presents an easy form of determining the
pipe size, but it must be remembered that the duty of a compressor and the demand of an application
is usually expressed in dm3/s of free air and that when compressed the volume will be less.
Example: determine the size of a main to carry 100 dm3/s of free air at a working pressure of 7
bar g. Referring to the above table Ratio of Compression it can be seen that at 7 bar g the ratio
of compression is 7.91. Therefore the compressed air volume is 100/7.91 = 12.64 dm3/s. It is now
possible to use the table on Page 8.03 to select a pipe size against the various velocities. It would
appear that a DN50 pipeline will satisfy the duty - velocity approximately 6 m/s.

pressure drop method - for long runs the pressure loss through mains sized using the velocity
method may be higher than desirable and it is always a good idea to check what the actual pressure
loss will be. It is of course only possible to obtain rough estimates as so much depends on the
type and condition of the pipe and on the resistance of the various fittings. It is usual to make
allowances for fittings by considering them in terms of equivalent (straight) length.

8.02 EDB/1
Volume of compressed air (dm 3/s) carried by medium grade
steel pipes to BS 1387 at given velocities
Velocity Pipe nominal bore mm
m/s 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 125 150 200
3.0 0.6 1.1 1.7 3.0 4.1 6.5 10.9 15.1 25.7 39.2 56.2 98.5
3.5 0.7 1.3 2.0 3.5 4.7 7.6 12.7 17.6 30.0 45.7 65.5 115.0
4.0 0.8 1.4 2.3 4.0 5.4 8.7 14.6 20.1 34.2 52.2 74.9 131.0
4.5 0.9 1.6 2.6 4.5 6.1 9.8 16.4 22.6 38.5 58.8 84.2 147.0
5.0 1.0 1.8 2.8 5.0 6.8 10.8 18.2 25.1 42.8 65.4 93.6 164.0
5.5 1.1 2.0 3.1 5.5 7.4 11.9 20.0 27.6 47.1 71.9 103.0 181.0
6.0 1.2 2.1 3.4 6.0 8.1 13.0 21.8 30.1 51.3 78.5 112.0 197.0
6.5 1.3 2.3 3.7 6.5 8.8 14.1 23.7 32.6 55.6 85.0 122.0 213.0
7.0 1.4 2.5 4.0 7.0 9.5 15.1 25.5 35.1 59.9 91.5 131.0 230.0
7.5 1.5 2.7 4.3 7.5 10.1 16.2 27.3 37.6 64.2 98.0 140.0 246.0
8.0 1.6 2.8 4.5 8.0 10.8 17.3 29.1 40.1 68.5 105.0 150.0 263.0
8.5 1.7 3.0 4.8 8.5 11.5 18.4 31.0 42.6 72.8 111.0 159.0 278.0
9.0 1.8 3.2 5.1 9.0 12.2 19.5 32.8 45.1 77.1 118.0 169.0 296.0

The table below show the equivalent lengths in metres for typical fittings:
Resistance of pipe fittings in equivalent length terms (m)
Pipe nominal bore mm
Type of Fitting 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 125
Elbow 0.26 0.37 0.49 0.67 0.76 1.07 1.37 1.83 2.44 3.20
Long 90O bend 0.15 0.18 0.24 0.38 0.46 0.61 0.76 0.91 1.20 1.52
Return bend 0.46 0.61 0.76 1.07 1.20 1.68 1.98 2.60 3.66 4.88
Globe valve 0.76 1.07 1.37 1.98 2.44 3.36 3.96 5.18 7.32 9.45
Gate valve 0.11 0.14 0.18 0.27 0.32 0.40 0.49 0.64 0.91 1.20
Run of standard tee 0.12 0.18 0.24 0.38 0.40 0.52 0.67 0.85 1.20 1.52
Through side of tee 0.52 0.70 0.91 1.37 1.58 2.14 2.74 3.66 4.88 6.40

By adding the equivalent lengths to the actual pipe length, the pressure loss in each section of a
system can be easily found.

The nomograms shown on pages 8.04 (pipe sizes 15 -100mm) and 8.05 (pipe/tube sizes
2.5 - 15mm) give a ready means of determining pressure drops through the general range of pipes
used in industry. They are based on the following formula which can also be used for pipe sizes
outside those shown in the nomograms:

Pressure Drop (bar) = 800 L Q2

R d 5.3

Where:
L = length of pipe m
Q = flowrate of free air dm3/s
R = ratio of compression at the beginning of the pipe
d = internal pipe diameter mm

Interconnecting Pipework (sizing): for interconnecting pipework it is normal practice to use

much higher compressed air velocities. The reason for this is that pipe runs are generally short
and therefore the higher velocities do not cause an unduly high pressure drop. For air pressures
in the range 5.5 - 7 bar g, velocities of 18 - 24 m/s are common. For lower pressures, however,
more care should be exercised. The nomogram on page 8.06 gives details of the relationship
between pipe diameter, air pressure, flow rate and velocity. It is important to note when using this
nomogram that the pipe diameter referred to is the actual bore of the pipe and not the nominal bore
of the pipe. The minimum internal diameters for steel tubes to BS 1387, copper tubes to BS 2871
Part 2 and nylon tube to CETOP RP54P are shown on page 8.07.

EDB/1 8.03
Pressure drop in steel pipes (15-100mm)

Example: determine the size of pipe needed to pass 300 dm3/s of free air with a pressure drop
of not more than 300 mbar in 125m of pipe. The air pressure is 9 bar g.

A 300 mbar pressure drop in 125m length is equivalent to 300/125 or 2.4 mbar/m. Join 9 bar g
on the air pressure line to 2.4 mbar/m on the pressure drop line and project to cut the reference
line at X. Join X to 300 dm3/s on the flow of free air line and project to cut pipe size at approximately
61 mm. Therefore, choose a pipe having a minimum bore of at least 61 mm - referring to the standard
pipe/tube dimensions table on page 8.07, it is clear that a DN65 pipe will carry the load with a small
safety margin.

8.04 EDB/1
Pressure drop in pipes and tubes (2.5 - 15 mm)

Example: determine the amount of air that can be passed through a nominal 12mm (OD) tube
to CETOP RP54P so that the pressure drop does not exceed 10 mbar/m.

The first point to note is that the pressure drop through nylon tube is about 20% less than that through
steel; hence before using the nomogram we need to increase the available pressure drop by a
factor of 1/80%, i.e to 12.5 mbar/m. Join 7 bar g air pressure to 12.5 mbar/m and produce to meet
the reference line at Z. Join Z to the pipe size for 12 mm nylon tube; where this line cuts the flow
of free air line is the maximum flow if the pressure drop is not to be exceeded -
3.1 dm3/s.

EDB/1 8.05
Pipe carrying capacities at varying velocities

Example: determine the velocity of compressed air flowing in a 12 mm diameter nylon tube, when
the flow rate is 3.1 dm3/s and the line pressure is 7 bar g. Join 7 bar g to 3.1 dm3/s and project
to cut reference line at Y. Join Y to pipe/tube diameter for 12 mm tube. Read the air velocity, in
this case it is just over 6 m/s.

8.06 EDB/1
Standard pipe/tube dimensions
Copper Tubes to Nylon Tube
BS 2871 Part 2 to CETOP RP54P
Steel Tubes to BS 1387 Table 4 medium Light Gauge

Nominal Med weight Heavy weight OD Thickness Min OD Min

Bore Min ID Min ID ID ID
mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
6 5.8 4.5 3 0.6 1.72 4 2.77
8 8.6 7.5 4 0.6 2.72 5 3.55
10 12.1 11.0 6 0.8 4.32 6 4.24
15 15.8 14.6 8 0.8 6.32 8 5.74
20 21.3 20.1 10 0.8 8.32 10 7.24
25 26.9 25.3 12 1.0 9.90 12 9.24
32 35.6 34.0 16 1.0 13.9 16 12.74
40 41.5 39.9 18 14.7
50 52.5 50.8 22 18.1
65 68.1 66.4 28 23.14
80 80.0 78.4
100 104.0 102.0
125 129.0 128.0
150 154.0 153.0

Typical air consumption of pneumatic tools and appliances at

5.5 bar g
Tool/appliance Detail dm3/s of Free Air
Drills 7mm 4.7- 7.5
10mm 7.1- 9.4
13mm 11.8- 14.1
25mm 28.3- 37.7
50mm 37.7- 56.6
75mm 47.2- 61.4
Grinders for mounted points 4.7- 11.8
For arbour mounted wheels Dia 50mm 9.4- 11.8
Dia 150mm 23.6- 28.3
Sanders and polishers 4.7- 21.1
Torque wrenches for nuts up to 7mm 4.7- 7.1
13mm 11.8- 16.5
25mm 18.9- 26.0
38mm 23.6- 33.0
Screwdrivers 3.3- 11.8
Nut runners 4.7- 14.1
Spray guns (at 3.4 bar g) Small 0.47- 2.4
Medium 2.4- 5.7
Large 5.7- 11.8
Blow guns 2.4
Air motors < 1 kW (per kW)14.1-16.5
1-4 kW (per kW)14.1
> 4 kW (per kW) 11.8

EDB/1 8.07
Typical compressed air installation
EDB/1 8.08
 Area of circles
Austenitic steels - comparison table

Calorific value of various fuels

Categories of hot water heating systems
Comparison of steam, high temperature hot water and high temperature oil
Compressed air:
condensation
consumption of pneumatic tools and appliances at 5.5 bar g
discharge of air through an orifice
drainage
pipe carrying capacities at varying velocities (nomogram)
power required to compress air
pressure drop in pipes and tubes 2.5-15mm (nomogram)
pressure drop in steel pipes 15-100mm (nomogram)
ratio of compression
Index receiver sizing
resistance of pipe fittings in equivalent length terms
sizing mains and interconnecting pipework
volume of compressed air carried by medium grade steel pipes
Condensate pipeline sizing:
flash steam velocity method
frictional resistance method
Control modes:
combinations of basic modes
derivative control (D control)
floating control
integral control (I control)
matching control modes and plant characteristics
on/off control
proportional control (P control)
P + I control
P + I + D control
summary of control mode characteristics
types
 Control valve:
capacities (typical Kvs/DN)
characteristics
conversion factors (Av/Cv/Kv)
leakage rates
rangeability
Controls terminology
Corrosion resistance of metals and elastomers
Cost of steam
Cubic capacity per unit of circular length

End connections:
flanges:
- dimensions:
- cast iron
- copper alloy
- sg (ductile) iron
- steel
Index - flange facings
- pressure ratings
- size definition
screwed
welded ends:
- butt weld
- socket weld

Flash steam
Flow coefficients (Capacity indices Av, Cv and Kv)

Graphical symbols:
circuit components
electrical circuit symbols and notations
pipeline features and general equipment
pipeline flexibility
switches, fuses and contacts
valves, actuating methods
valves, specific types
 Guidance notes

Heat emission from steel pipes freely exposed in surroundings at 20 C o

Humidification:
calculating humidification loads
relationship of RH, effective/wet-bulb/dry-bulb temperatures
relative humidity in percentage terms
steam .v. water

IP classification of enclosures (BS EN 60 529)

Kv :
sizing formulae
steam (saturated and superheated) sizing chart
water sizing chart

Masses of steel pipe (typical)

Index Materials comparison, quick reference

Pipe/tube dimensions
PN controls-combinations of valve and actuator actions
Pressure powered pump/float trap combination:
general
sizing
stall chart (to use)
Pressure/temperature ratings:
for austenitic steel flanges
general
product limitations
Process control devices, typical mix with system elements
Psychrometric chart:
explained.
to use
 Safety valve:
relationship of system design pressure to safety valve set pressure etc
selection and sizing
SI system of units:
base and supplementary quantities and units.
derived units
prefixes
Space heating information:
flow of fluids in pipes and ducts
flow of water at 75oC in black steel pipes
heat losses (air changes/infiltration)
rule of thumb heat loss
system characteristics
- effects of various condition alterations to pump characteristics
- pumps
- pump curves (typical)
Index - velocity head factor for pipe fittings etc.
typical HWS storage and boiler power
U values
U values, definitions and symbols
Specific heats and relative densities:
of gases and vapours
of liquids
of various materials
Stainless steels, properties and composition
Standards, National, European and International
Steam consumption:
air heater batteries
air heating pipes
drying cylinders
general 2.07
heating calorifiers
hot water storage calorifiers
steam tracer loads
 tank water heating
tanks and vats
Steam mains consumption:
one hour warm up/running loads (kg/h) per 50m of steam main
running losses
warming up losses
Steam metering:
errors due to absence of density compensation
terminology
Steam pipeline sizing :
chart (pressure drop method)
chart (velocity method)
saturated steam pipeline capacities at specific velocities
Steam produced per unit of fuel
Steam tables
Steam traps, energy requirements
Steam/energy wastage through leaks
Superheat, potential for after pressure reduction
Index Thermal expansions of pipes
Units:
approximate conversion factors
conversion tables

Valve authority
Water and water treatment:
boiler water TDS measurement
calculating the required blowdown rate
controlling the TDS
dealkalization
demineralization
hardness
pH chart
pH value
softening