Chapter 10

Realization of Digital Filters

10.1 Consider the system function

1 + 2z 1 + z 2
H(z) =
1 0.75z 1 + 0.125z 2

Draw the following structures for the system: (i) Direct form-I, (ii) Direct form-II, (iii) Cascade,
and (iv) Parallel.

Solution 10.1

(i) Direct form-I structure is shown in Fig. S10.1.

x(n) 1 y(n)
+ +

z1
z1
2
+ +
0.75

z1 z1
1

0.125

Fig. S10.1

(ii) Direct form-II structure is shown in Fig. S10.2.

1
x(n) + + y(n)

z1
2
+ +
0.75
z1
1

0.125

Fig. S10.2
2 Digital Signal Processing

(iii)
1 + 2z 1 + z 2 (1 + z 1 )2
H(z) = =
1 0.75z 1 + 0.125z 2 (1 0.25z 1)(1 0.5z 1 )
1 1
  
(1 + z ) (1 + z )
= = H1 (z)H2 (z)
(1 0.25z 1) (1 0.5z 1)
Cascade structure is shown in Fig. S10.3.

1 1
+ + + +

z1 1 z1
1

0.25 0.5

Fig. S10.3

(iv) Using partial fraction expansion, we get

1 + 2z 1 + z 2 18 25
H(z) = =8 + = H1 (z) + H2 (z) + H3 (z)
1 0.75z 1 + 0.125z 2 1 0.25z 1 1 0.5z 1
Parallel form structure is shown in Fig. S10.4.

18
x(n)
+ + y(n)
0.25 z1

25
+

0.5 z1

Fig. S10.4

10.2 Realize the FIR system function

6
H(z) = 1 + 0.6z 1

in the following forms: (i) two different direct forms, and (ii) cascade of six first-order sections.

Solution 10.2

(i) Consider the given system function

6
H(z) = 1 + 0.6z 1 = 1 + 3.6z 1 + 5.4z 2 + 4.32z 3 + 1.94z 4 + 0.47z 5 + 0.047z 6

Direct form structure and its transpose is shown in Fig. S10.5.

(ii) Cascade of six first-order sections is shown in Fig. S10.6.

10.3 Given the FIR filter with transfer function

H(z) = 1 + 3.1z 1 + 5.5z 2 + 4.2z 3

Digital Signal Processing 3

x(n)
z1 z1 z1 z1 z1 z1

1 3.6 5.4 4.32 1.94 0.47 0.047

+ + + + + + y(n)
x(n)

0.047 0.47 1.94 4.32 5.4 3.6 1

z1 + z1 + z1 + z1 + z1 + z1 + y(n)

Fig. S10.5

x(n)
+ + + + + + y(n)

z1 0.6 z1 0.6 z1 0.6 z1 0.6 z1 0.6 z1 0.6

Fig. S10.6

(a) Sketch the direct form realization.

(b) Sketch the lattice realization of the filter.

Solution 10.3

(a) Direct form structure is shown in Fig. S10.7.

x(n)
z1 z1 z3

1 3.1 5.5 4.2

+ + + y(n)

Fig. S10.7

(b) Consider the given system function

H(z) = A3 (z) = 1 + 3.1z 1 + 5.5z 2 + 4.2z 3 = a3 (0) + a3 (1)z 1 + a3 (2)z 2 + a3 (3)z 3

Hence K3 = a3 (3) = 4.2. Since Bm (z) = z m Am (z 1 ), we get

B3 (z) = 4.2 + 5.5z 1 + 3.1z 2 + z 3

We know that
Am (z) Km Bm (z)
Am1 (z) = 2
1 Km
For m = 3, we get
A3 (z) K3 B3 (z)
A2 (z) = = 1 + 1.2z 1 + 0.45z 2 = a2 (0) + a2 (1)z 1 + a2 (2)z 2
1 K32
Hence K2 = a2 (2) = 0.45, and B2 (z) = 0.45 + 1.2z 1 + z 2 . For m = 2, we get
A2 (z) K2 B2 (z)
A1 (z) = = 1 + 0.83z 1 = a1 (0) + a1 (1)z 1
1 K22
4 Digital Signal Processing

f0(n) f1(n) f2(n) f3(n) = y(n)

+ + +
K3
K1 K2
x(n)
K1 K2 K3

z1 + z1 + z1 +
g0(n) g1(n) g2(n) g3(n)

Fig. S10.8

Hence K1 = a1 (1) = 0.83. The lattice realization of the filter is shown in Fig. S10.8.

10.4 Find the lattice structure for the digital filter with difference equation

y(n) = x(n) + 0.25x(n 1) + 0.5x(n 2) + 0.75x(n 3) + 0.5x(n 4)

Comment on its stability.

Solution 10.4 Consider the given difference equation

y(n) = x(n) + 0.25x(n 1) + 0.5x(n 2) + 0.75x(n 3) + 0.5x(n 4)

Y (z)
= H(z) = A4 (z) = 1 + 0.25z 1 + 0.5z 2 + 0.75z 3 + 0.5z 4
X(z)
= a4 (0) + a4 (1)z 1 + a4 (2)z 2 + a4 (3)z 3 + a4 (4)z 4

Hence K4 = a4 (4) = 0.5. Since Bm (z) = z m Am (z 1 ), we get

B4 (z) = 0.5 + 0.75z 1 + 0.5z 2 + 0.25z 3 + z 4

We know that
Am (z) Km Bm (z)
Am1 (z) = 2
1 Km
For m = 4, we get
A4 (z) K4 B4 (z)
A3 (z) = = 1 0.17z 1 + 0.33z 2 + 0.83z 3
1 K42
= a3 (0) + a3 (1)z 1 + a3 (2)z 2 + a3 (3)z 3

Hence K3 = a3 (3) = 0.83, and B3 (z) = 0.83 + 0.33z 1 0.17z 2 + z 3 For m = 3, we get
A3 (z) K3 B3 (z)
A2 (z) = = 1 1.43z 1 + 1.51z 2 = a2 (0) + a2 (1)z 1 + a2 (2)z 2
1 K32

Hence K2 = a2 (2) = 1.51, and B2 (z) = 1.51 1.43z 1 + z 2 . For m = 2, we get

A2 (z) K2 B2 (z)
A1 (z) = = 1 0.57z 1 = a1 (0) + a1 (1)z 1
1 K22

Hence K1 = a1 (1) = 0.57. The lattice realization of the filter is shown in Fig. S10.9.

10.5 Given the following digital filter:

z(z + 1)
H(z) =
z 2 z + 1.06
(a) Find the direct form II structure.
(b) Find the lattice-ladder structure.
Digital Signal Processing 5

f0(n) f1(n) f2(n) f3(n) f4(n) = y(n)

+ + + +
K3 K4
K1 K2
x(n)
K1 K2 K3 K4

z1 + z1 + z1 + z1 +
g0(n) g1(n) g2(n) g3(n) g4(n)

Fig. S10.9

Solution 10.5 Consider the given system function

z(z + 1) z2 + z 1 + z 1
H(z) = = =
z 2 z + 1.06 z 2 z + 1.06 1 z 1 + 1.06z 2
(a) The direct form II structure is shown in Fig. S10.10.

y(n)
+ + y(n)
1
z1
1 1
+

z1
1.06

Fig. S10.10

(b) First we realize the all-pole lattice. Here N = 2 and M = 1. Consider the given system function

1 + z 1
     
1 V (z) Y (z)
H(z) = = [C1 (z)] =
1 z 1 + 1.06z 2 A2 (z) | {z } X(z) V (z)
| {z } zeros | {z } | {z }
poles all-pole system all-zero system

where the polynomial A2 (z) is

A2 (z) = 1 z 1 + 1.06z 2 = a2 (0) + a2 (1)z 1 + a2 (2)z 2

Hence K2 = a2 (2) = 1.06. Since Bm (z) = z m Am (z 1 ), we get

B2 (z) = 1.06 z 1 + z 2 = b2 (0) + b2 (1)z 1 + b2 (2)z 2

We know that
Am (z) Km Bm (z)
Am1 (z) = 2
1 Km
For m = 2, we get

A2 (z) K2 B2 (z)
A1 (z) = = 1 0.49z 1 = a1 (0) + a1 (1)z 1
1 K22

Hence K1 = a1 (1) = 0.49, and B1 (z) = 0.49 + z 1 = b1 (0) + b1 (1)z 1 .

Now, we determine the ladder parameters, i . Consider the numerator polynomial C1 (z).

C1 (z) = 1 + z 1 = c1 (0) + c1 (1)z 1

6 Digital Signal Processing

We know that for M = 1 [Eq. (10.132)]

1 = c1 (1) = 1
0 = c1 (0) 1 b1 (0) = 1 (1 0.49) = 1.49

The lattice-ladder structure is shown in Fig. S10.11.

x(n) = f2(n) f1(n)

+ + f0(n) = z

K1

g1(n) K1

g2(n) + z1 + z1 g0(n)

1 = 1 0 = 1.49

+ y(n)

Fig. S10.11

10.6 Obtain the polyphase structure for the following IIR system

3 + z 1
H(z) =
1 + 3z 1

Solution 10.6 Given that

3 + z 1 3 z 1
H(z) = , H(z) =
1 + 3z 1 1 3z 1

Using Eqs. (10.46) and (10.47), we get

1 3 + z 1 3 z 1 6 6z 2
 
2 1
E0 (z ) = [H(z) + H(z)] = + =
2 2 1 + 3z 1 1 3z 1 1 9z 2
1 3 + z 1 3 z 1 16z 1
 
1
z 1 E1 (z 2 ) = [H(z) H(z)] = =
2 2 1 + 3z 1 1 3z 1 1 9z 2

Therefore,

6 6z 2
   
2 1 2 1 16
H(z) = E0 (z ) + z E1 (z ) = +z
1 9z 2 1 9z 2

The polyphase structure is shown in Fig. S10.12.

x(n) y(n)
E0(z2) +

z1

E1(z2)

Fig. S10.12
Digital Signal Processing 7

10.7 An FIR filter is described by the difference equation

10  |5k|
X 1
y(n) = x(n k)
2
k=0

Determine and draw the block diagrams of the following structures.

(a) Direct form.
(b) Linear-phase form.
(c) Cascade form.
(d) Frequency sampling form.

Solution 10.7

(a) Consider the given difference equation

10  |5k|
X 1
y(n) = x(n k)
2
k=0
1 1 1 1
y(n) = x(n) + x(n 1) + x(n 2) + x(n 3)
32 16 8 4
1 1 1
+ x(n 4) + x(n 5) + x(n 6) + x(n 7)
2 2 4
1 1 1
+ x(n 8) + x(n 9) + x(n 10)
8 16 32
Y (z) 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 1 1
= H(z) = + z + z + z + z + z 5 + z 6 + z 7 + z 8
X(z) 32 16 8 4 2 2 4 8
1 9 1 10
+ z + z
16 32
(b) Consider the system function
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
H(z) = + z 1 + z 2 + z 3 + z 4 + z 5 + z 6 + z 7 + z 8 + z 9 + z 10
32 16 8 4 2 2 4 8 16 32
1 1 1 1 1
= [1 + z 10 ] + [z 1 + z 9 ] + [z 2 + z 8 ] + [z 3 + z 7 ] + [z 4 + z 6 ] + z 5
32 16 8 4 2
(c) Consider the system function
1 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 1 1
H(z) = + z + z + z + z + z 5 + z 6 + z 7 + z 8
32 16 8 4 2 2 4 8
1 9 1 10
+ z + z
16 32
1  
= 1 + 2z 1 + 4z 2 + 8z 3 + 16z 4 + 32z 5 + 16z 6 + 8z 7 + 4z 8 + 2z 9 + z 10
32
1
H(z) = (1 + 0.55z 1 )(1 + 1.83z 1 )(1 2.08z 1 + 3.78z 2 )(1 + 1.74z 1 + 3.5z 2 )
32
(1 0.55z 1 + 0.27z 2 )(1 + 0.5z 1 + 0.29z 2 )
(d) Consider the system function
1 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 1 1 1 9 1 10
H(z) = + z + z + z + z + z 5 + z 6 + z 7 + z 8 + z + z
32 16 8 4 2 2 4 8 16 32
The given system is of length M = 11 (odd). Impulse response is given by

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
h(n) = , , , , , 1, , , , ,
32 16 8 4 2 2 4 8 16 32

The 11-point DFT of h(n) is given by

H(k) = {2.94, 1.8 j0.53, 0.75 + j0.47, 0.35 j0.42, 0.16 + j0.35, 0.05 j0.34,
0.05 + j0.34, 0.16 j0.35, 0.35 + j0.42, 0.75 j0.47, 1.8 + j0.53}
8 Digital Signal Processing

Note that H(0) IS real and H(10) = H (1), H(9) = H (2), H(8) = H (3), H(7) = H (4) and
H(6) = H (5). The system function H(z) is given by [Eqs. (10.22) and (10.23)]
 
1 z M
H(z) = Hc (z)Hr (z) = Hr (z)
M
M 1 h i
j 2

1 z M X 2[H(k)] 2 H(k)e
k
  2 M z 1 H(0)
= +
1 2 cos 2


M M
k z 1 + z 2 1 z 1
k=1
h i
j 2

1 z 11 X 2[H(k)] 2 H(k)e
k
  5 11 z 1 H(0)
= +
1 2 cos 2


11 11
k z 1 + z 2 1 z 1
k=1
h i h i
  " 2[H(1)] 2 H(1)ej 2 11 z 1 2[H(2)] 2 H(2)ej 11 z 1
4
1 z 11
H(z) = +
1 2 cos 2


1 2 cos 4


11 11
z 1 + z 2 11
z 1 + z 2
h 6
i h 8
i
2[H(3)] 2 H(3)ej 11 z 1 2[H(4)] 2 H(4)ej 11 z 1
+
1 2 cos 6


1 2 cos 8


11
z 1 + z 2 11
z 1 + z 2
h 10
i
2[H(5)] 2 H(5)ej 11 z 1
#
H(0)
+ +
1 2 cos 10


11
z 1 + z 2 1 z 1
 
1z 11 h
3.6 + 3.6z 1
1.5 1.5z 1
0.7 + 0.73z 1 0.32 0.32z 1
H(z) = + + +
11 1 1.7z 1 + z 2 1 0.83z 1 + z 2 1 + 0.3z 1 + z 2 1 + 1.3z 1 + z 2
0.1 + 0.1z 1
2.94 i
+ +
1 + 1.9z 1 + z 2 1 z 1