Ecology: Botany by DR Geetendra Mbbs MD @

BOTANY BY DR GEETENDRA MBBS MD @ BIOMENTORS CLASSES ONLINE
ECOLOGY
Ecology/hexicology/ethology/bioecology/environmental science is study of inter-relationships b/w organism &
environment.
Reiter gave the term and Haeckel gave the deffination(reciprocal relations between organism and
environment).
Warming is father of Plant Ecology : He wrote the first book on plant ecology Oecology of Plants (1895).
Father of Indian Plant Ecology is Ramdeva Misra. Ecological studies were initiated in India by W. Dudgeon.
Ethology : Term used by Hilarie (1859) for ecology but now called science of animal behavior.
Hexicology : Term used by Mivart (1894) for ecology.
Bioecology : Term used by Shelford and Clements for study of both plant and animal ecology.
Main branches of ecology:
(i) Autecology/Species Ecology : Study of reciprocal relationships between organism/ population/species and its
environment.
(ii) Synecology/Community ecology : It is the study of reciprocal relationships between communities and their
environment..
Schroeter and Kirchner (1896) coined the terms autecology and synecology.
(iii) Applied Ecology : It is special type of ecology which is related with human welfare. e.g.agronomy, agriculture,
animal husbandry, forestry, wildlife management, consevation, pollution ecology.
(iv) Systems Ecology : It deals with interpretation of ecology in terms of mathematical formulae.
(v) Genecology : Study of genetic composition and changes in relation to the origin of ecads, ecotypes, new species,
etc.
Ecological Hierarchy: Organism Population Species Community Ecosystem Biome Biosphere
Individual Organism
It is a distinct living entity or distinct package, which has all life processes in body, separate from those in other
individuals.
Organism is basic unit of ecological hierarchy as it continuously exchanges materials and information with its
environment.
Individuals of the same race may differe due to :
(i) Developmental Stages : They differ from adults, e.g., larva, pupa, juvenile or young gametophytic/sporophytic
stages.
(ii) Sexual Dimorphism : Presence of male and female individuals, e.g. Cycas, Date, Papaya, Mulberry, humans.
(iii) Polymorphism : Presence of different forms of individuals within same organism.e.g., Physalia, Obelia, Volvox,
Honey Bee.
Population
It is a grouping of similar individuals in a particular geographical area of space at a time.
The different populations of the same organisms present in particular geographical areas are called local
populations/demes.
A local population adapted genetically to its particular environment is called ecotype.
Local populations may have many tribes, breeds, races etc.
Tribes
Two human tribes living in same geographical area, Zulu (short, 1.2 m or 4) and Watusi (tall, 2.2 m or 7) are
different.
Breeds
They are externally demarcated groups maintained by controlled breeding, e.g., several breeds of dogs (alstian,
bull dog, terriers, greyhounds, chow, Eskimo), pigeons, cattle etc.
Races
They are similar to breeds, which are maintained by localised/selective breeding.
Human beings have seven races
(i) Negroid: Dark skin, thick lips, broad flat nose, black wooly/curly hair.
(ii) Mongoloid: Yellow to brown skin, lips medium to thin, eyes brown with eye folds, fewer facial hair.
(iii) Caucasoid: Light to dark skin, medium to thin lips, nose long and narrow, more facial hair, eyes blue to dark, hair
straight.
(iv) Polynesian: Brown skinned, inhabitants of Polynesia.
(v) American-indian/red Indians: Aboriginals of America.
(vi) Australoid: Aboriginals of Australia.
(vii) Bushman:
Varieties/Subspecies
They are variations found in a species which are quite different in structure and behaviour, e.g. Indian
Crow/Srilankan
Crow/Burmese Crow, Cauliflower/Cabbage/Knol Kohl.
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Species
It is a natural inbreeding or panmictic population or group of natural populations, which have essentially similar
morphological traints, are genetically distinct and reproductively isolated from others.
Races, tribes, varieties, populations of a species remain interfertile. So gene flow amongst them maintains
integrity of species.
Reproductive isolation or absence of interbreeding maintains the identity of different species.
But this cannot be used for asexually reproducing organisms (apomictic).
Interbreeding can also occur in certain species. Sterile hybrids are produced between
(i) Donkey and Horse (mule if male donkey and hinny if female donkey).
(ii) Bull Frog and Leopard Frog (hybrids die before reproductive maturity).
Fertile hybrids can be obtained in captivity between Mullard Duck and Pintail Duck, Polar Bear and Alaskan
Brown Bear.
Tiger and Lion (liger with tigress and tigon with lioness).
Morphological, cytological and biochemical traits are used for delimiting species at lower level.
YE BHI JAN LO
Local Poulation or Deme : A group of freely interbreeding individuals present in an area.
It is also called mendelian population as the inbreeding individuals share a common gene pool.
Ecophenes (= Ecads, Habitat Forms). Populations with the same gene pool but with different morphological or
physiological characteristics due to differences in environment of habitats.
Ecotype : A local population, genetically, structurally and functionally adapted to its environment .
Biotype : All the individuals with identical genotype.
Biotope : An area with uniform environmental conditions and biotype.
Ecocline : A transient area between two ecotypes where intermediate forms are found.
Gene Flow : Spreading genes entering a local population through outcrossing and their subsequent incrossing.
Speciation
It is the evolution of new species from the pre-existing ones. Speciation is of four types :
(a) Abrupt Speciation : A new species is formed abruptly due to mutation, polyploidy or interspecific hybridization
(allopolyploid)
(b) Gradual Speciation : Accumulation of variations forms a new speices in isolated population over a long period of
time.
(c) Allopatric Speciation : Formation of new species from a spatially isolated population due to accumulation of
variations, mutations and genetic drift is called allopatric speciation.
(d) Sympatric Speciation : It is in situ formation of new species from a segment of population due to mutation that
isolates the segment ecologically and later reproductively from the rest.
Factors of Speciation
(i) Genetic Drift/Wright Effect : It is the change in gene frequency due to random fluctuation in small isolated
populatiosn causing certain alleles to be lost while other alleles become more evenly distributed.
Accumulation of new variations produces produces structural and functional changes to form new species.
(ii) Physcial/Geographic Barrier (Allopatric Barrier; Wanger 1868): It isolates populations preventing interbreeding
between them (even opposite ends of a long range), causing accumulation of different mutations, resulting in
change in structure, colour and behaviour. It ultimately leads to formation of new species.
(iii) Reproductive Barrier : It develops due to absence of interbreeding caused by variations that change the timings
of sexual activity, differences in courtship patterns, songs and plumage.
(iv) Mutations : They are the fountain head of all variations and evolution. At times they produce new varieties and
even new species all of a sudden, e.g., Cicer gigas, Ancon Sheep.
(v) Polyploidy : It prevent interbreeding with diploid individuals and ultimately leads to formation of new species.
Occasional interspecific hybridization followed by polyploidy immediately results in new species, e.g.,
Wheat, American Cotton.
Interactions amongst Members of a Species
They are of two kinds, cooperative and competitive. Cooperative interactions include mating, parental care,
aggregations, altruistic behaviour and communication.
(i) Mating : In all dioecious individuals, cooperation between male and female individuals in a must for reproduction.
(ii) Parental Care : It is looking after or caring the young ones/eggs in the state of their helplessness.
Fertilised eggs are often carried by females (e.g., Surinam Toad, Marsupial Frog) but by males (e.g., Sea Horse, Tree
Frog).
Both the sexes may do so but in some cases only by female (Fowl). Crows incubate eggs of Cuckoo (nest parasite).
Mother takes care of young ones in Scorpion, Surinam Toad and Marsupial Frog.
Parental care is best developed in placental mammals. It is maximum in parimates/and human beings.
(iii) Aggregations :
Family formation is characteristic feature of few animal but also present in some insects.
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Human society is due to learnt behaviour and psychosocial evolution but in insect due to instinct
behaviour and biological evolution.
(a) Spiders, Owls, Tiger, Wood Chaks and Hamsters lead solitary life, coming together only for mating.
(b) No fixed partnership occurs in rats and mice.
(c) Sparrows develop seasonal partnership.
(d) White Banded Gibbon, Wolf, Fox and Swan are monogamous with partnership lasting for life.
(e) Deer, Zebra and Seal are polygamous with a dominant male living along a harem of females.
Groups called herd (deer, zebra, lion, elephant), troop (monkey), flock (sheep, goat, bird), swarm (locust), shoal (fish).
If group is dominated by male called patriarchy (mostly) or by female called matriarchy (African Elephant, Red Deer).
There is a ranking among the subordinates. A peck order is found in hens for this.
(f) Bee and Termite societies are polymorphic living in nests (hive in bees and mound or ant-hill in termintes).
(iv) Altruistic Behaviour : It is sacrificial behaviour of individuals for protecting remaining members. e.g. old weak
individuals in a herd of Spotted Deer come in the path of predator. Male of wild Turkey also does so.
(v) Communication : It is the exchange of information amongst members of a group or species.
(a) Visual Communication : By seeing. Scout bees indicate the distance and direction of food source by different types of
dances round dance for upto 75m and waggle dance for more than 75m.
(b) Auditory Communication : By hearing. Male Cicada, male Cricket, male Frog produce characteristic mating calls.
Songs of birds indicate mating calls, alaram calls, territory, sex and location.
(c) Tactile Communication : By touch. Preenign in birds, grooming in primates, antenna contacts in ants.
(d) Chemical Communication : By olfaction.Pheromones are chemicals given out by animals to function as sex
attractants (a bitch in heat can be smelled by a dog from about one kilometre), alarm (territory marking), trail marking
in ants.
Pheromones are of three types.
(1) Primer Pheromone. It causes physiological change in receiver. e.g. Locustrol in feaces of adult stimulates nymph
development.
(2) Release Pheromone : It brings immediate change in receiver, e.g. Alarm pheromone of harvester ant..
(3) Informer Pheromone. It provides information.
(vi) Competition : It can be intraspecific (amongst members of a species) and interspecific (amongst members of different
species).
Intraspecific competition occurs in obtaining the same resource, territory, rank, mate etc. It is common for sparrows or
wall lizards to be fighting for a particular space. No seedling able to reach maturity under the shade of a tree because of
competition from latter.
Species Equilibrium Theory : Mac Arthur and Wilson (1967) proposed species equilibrium theory which states
that there is a dynamic equilibrium of species in an area due to two processes, colonization and extinction.
Home Range
Area, where an individual/breeding group/group of individuals/breeding groups roam freely in search of food,
water & mates.
Its bondary is usually natural and demarcated by allochemics. The boundary is seldom defended.
Home ranges of two groups of same species may overlap.
Territory
It is an area smaller than home range which is occupied by a breeding/social group for shelter, feeding and
nursing.
It has a bondary often marked by pheromones in excreta and is defended from other members of the same species.
Besides nesting, some animals have feeding territory to defend (e.g., Green Heron, Wagtails, Prairie Dogs).
Higher Levels of Organisation
Biotic community is a group of species which interact and live harmoniously in a given locality.
Ecosystem consists of a biotic community and its abiotic environment.
Biome is a major ecosystem delimited by geographical area or climate.
Biosphere is the highest level of organization consisting of all the organisms and the inhabited part of the earth.
POPULATION
It is a near permanent group of interbreeding individuals of a species found in a space or geographical area at a
particular time.
Population ecology is the study of all aspects of a population and the various factors affecting it in its growth,
density, size, multiplication, natality, mortality, competition, tolerance, etc.
The parameters employed for describing a poulation are (i) Total number of individuals or pou;ation size (ii) Kind
and ratio of individuals like male and female pre-reproductive and post-reproductive (iii) Space of area (iv) Time.
Population Density : It is the number of individuals (of a species) per unit area/space at a given time.
In case of aquatic habitat, the space is measured in three dimensions (e.g., cubic metre) while the area of a
terrestrial habitat is measured in two dimensions (e.g., square, metre).
Population Density : Study of changes in growth and density of population in relation to various parameters.
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Relative Density : It is number of individuals of a species relative to the number of individuals of all species in a
unit area.
Niche Density : Density of a population in its habitat or place of living.
Ecological Equivalents : Differetn organisms occupying similar niches in different geographical areas.
Stridulation : Production of sound by rubbing of body parts as in some insects (especially male).
BIOTIC COMMUNITY
Group of different but interacting populations of different species. e.g. pond community, lawn community, forest
community.
Community may further be split into animal community, plant community and microbe community.
Interactions
Community may have neutral, positive (beneficial) or negative (antagonistic) effects.
Symbiosis (now used for mutualism) includes in its original from all type of interactions. Diff interactions are :
(1) Scavenging (+/0) : Feeding on dead bodies. Animals feeding on flesh of dead animals are called scavengers e.g.
Vulture, Jackal, (eat left over from lion/tigers kill), Crow (actually omnivorous) Ant (actually ominvorous).
Scavenging keeps earth clean.
(2) Comensalism (+/0) : One is benefited without harming other. It is of two types, periodic contact and continuous
contact.
(a) Periodic Contact :
(i) Fierasfer in cloaca of Cucumaria (Sea Cucumber) and Polynox in the burrow of Chaetopterus are able to obtain
shelter and food.
(ii) Clone Fish is able to protect itself by living in the company of Sea Anemones.
(iii) Pilot Fish (Naurates, free) and Remora/Sucker Fish (Echeneis, attached) accompany Shark.
(iv) Jackal and Hyena accompany Tiger/lion for eating over small bits of prey.
(b) Continuous Contact-
(i) Barnacles are often attached to the surface of whales for shelter and obtaining more food.
(ii) Escherichia coli in human intestine.
(iii) Epiphytes perched on other plats for space only.
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Sea Anemone (Adamsia pallicata) and Hermit Crab (Eupagurus prieauxi) inside snails shell with former
providing protection while the latter gives free ride and food particles. However, most workers consider it
a case of commensalisms as Sea Anemone is not much benefited. Other workers consider it a case of
protocooperation.
(3) Mutualism/Symbiosis(+/+) : It is a mutually beneficial relationship/interaction between individuals of two
different species.
Yet symbiosis was formerly considered to be any positive interaction between two different organisms.
(a) Association between fungus (protection, fixation and obsorption of water) and alga (food manufacture) in lichen.
(b) Rhizobium (nitrogen fixation) and root (shelter, food) in nodulated legumes.
(c) Fungus (e.g., Boletus for mineral absorption and protection) and root (food shelter) in mycorrhiza.
(d) Trichonympha (cellulose digesting flagellate) in intestine of Termite.
(e) Hydra and zoochlorellae. (f) Insects obtain nectar and perform pollination in flowers.
(g) Yucca and Pronuba moth. (h) Ficus and Gall waspe.
(i) Some ants take shelter and food from fruit trees. They protect trees from other animals called myrmecophily.
A specialized example of myrmecophily is association between ants and South American Acacia sphaerocephala.
The plant secretes food substances at tips of leaflets (Belts Corpuscles) and have hollow spines for providing shelter
to the ants.
Myrmecophory : An indirect type of mutualism has also been observed ants mediated dispersal of seed in
many plant.
(4) Protocooperation (+/+): Non-obligatory beneficial relationship that develops when two different organisms get
associated.
Cattle Egret (Bubalcus ibis) feeds on lice and ticks of cattle, Ox Pecke (Buphagus species) on skin parasites of
Rhino.
Crocodile Bird (Pluvianis) rids Crocodile of leeches sticking inside its mouth while Shrimp eats up the parasites on the
body of fish.
(5) Amensalism (-/0): Without deriving much benefit, one inhibits the other by secreting allochemics, called
antibiosis.
Smoother crops do not allow weeds to grow, e.g., sorghum, Sunflower, Barley.
Sacred Basil (Ocimum sanctum, vern. Tulsi) does not allow other plants to flourish nearby.
Convolvulus arvensis inhibits germination of wheat seeds. Trichoderma checks growth of Aspergillus.
Chlorella in case of diatom Nitzschia frustrulum.
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Tagetes kills soil nematodes while Walnut (Juglans regia) produces jugloen for check growth of Apple Tomato,
Alfalfa, etc.
The process of preventing growth of other organisms through secretion of chemicals is called allelopathy.
Silver Oak (Grevillea robusta) shows autopathy as it does not allow its own seeds to germinate.
(6) Competition (- /-): It is rivalry for obtaining the same resource. Competition is of two types, intraspecific and
interspecific.
(a) Intraspecific Competition : Competition amongst members of the same species for a common resource.
Intraspecific
competition is for food, space and mate.
Cannibalism (eating members of the same species) reduces this competition (e.g., snakes, scorpions).
Establishment of territories in animals is a means of pushing out the extra number, securing shelter mate and even
food for rest.
(b) Interspecific Competition : Competition amongst members of different species.
The severity of competition depends upon similarity in the requirement of food and shelter.
No two types of organism can have same niche, one of the two is eliminated called Gause hypothesis or principle
of competitive exclusion.
Gause inoculated Paramecium aurelia and P. caudatum in same culture after some time P. Aurelia completely
eliminated P. caudatum
Different organisms develop different types of variations in order to exploit separate niches, e.g. 14 species of
Finches in Galapagos Islands for 20 species of Antelopes in Serengeti plains, roots to different depths.
(7) Mimicry (+/0 or -) : Mimicry is resembling another organism, structure or surroundings (camouflage).
The resembling object is called model while the animal which imitates is known as mimic or mimetic.
Bates : First to scientifically study mimicry.
Batesian Mimicry : Resemblance of the mimic to a dangerous or unpalatable model so as to benefit the mimic.
Mullerian Mimicry : Resemblance of two animal species especially insects, unpalatable and ferocious, to their
mutual benefit.
Mimicry is of two type
(a) Protective : Occurs in prey and of two types.
(i) Concealing type: Provides protection from predators e.g., Stick Insect, Leaf Insect, Dead Leaf Butterfly.
(ii) Warning type:Mimic resembles a ferocious/poisonous/distasteful organism,e.g.Vicerory Butterfly mimics
Monarch Butterfly.
In conscious mimicry, the mimic looks like dead, becomes listless and stone like, e.g., tenebrinoid beetles.
(b) Aggressive : Occurs in predator and of two types.
(i) Concealing type: Predator resembles the surroundings, e.g., Praying Mantis.
(ii) Alluring type: Predator has resemblance with a favoured article.
Mouth of African Lizard resembles a flower. Flowers of Ophyrs resemble female wasp (Colpa).
(8) Parasitism (+/-): One organism called parasite obtains nourishment from another organism called host.
(a) Nonpathogenic (e.g.Entamoeba coli) and pathogenic (e.g., Entamoeba histolytica, Taenia solium, Ascaris, Vibrio
cholerae).
(b) Temporary/Intermittent (e.g., female mosquito, leech, bed bug) and permanent (e.g., Entamoeba, Ascaris).
(c) Ectoparasite (e.g., Aphids, Lice, Mites) or endoparasite (e.g., intracellular Plasmodium, tissue parasite
Trichinella, body fluid parasite Trypanosoma, gut parasite Taenia).
(d) Holoparasite/complete parasite (animal parasites, Cusuta, Raffesia) or hemiparasite/semiparasite(Viscum/Mistletoe,
Lorathus).
(e) Stem parasite (e.g., Cuscuta, Viscum, Stem Borer, Aphid) and root parasite (e.g., Rafflesia, root nematodes).
(f) Hyperparasite : Parasitic over parasite, e.g., Cicinnobolus cesatii on powdery mildew.
Some time parasite spreads in epidemic form and causes misery. Cuscuta has almost eliminated Kadam from
Mathura.
(9) Predation (+/-): One organism called predator captures, kills and eats another organism called prey.
Predators are carnivorous but some herbivores which destroy whole plants/seeds are also called predators.
Carnivorous plants are also predators, e.g. Nepenthes, Drosera, Utricularia.
Biological Control
Keeping popualtion of an organism/harmful pests /weeds under check by means of their natural predators, parasite
and amensals.
(i) Weed Opuntia in Australia brought under control through introduction of Cactoblastis.(ii) Red Locust in Mauritus by
Mynah.
(iii) Parthenium hysterophorus by beetel zygoramma bicolorata.(iv) Red Ant (Crematoguster) by Rufus Wood Pecker
(Microptermus brachyurus).(v) Gambusia and Guppy fish for mosquito larvae.(vi) Fennel intercropping for aphids
afflicting mustard.
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Biotic Stability
Absence of major fluctuations and ability of a community to undergo homoeostasis or achieving equilibrium after a
disturbance.
It depends upon species diversity, presence of biological control, population density and carrying capacity of
environment, biogeochemical cycling Seedling growth, degree of disturbance, climax/seral community, etc.
The larger the number of species present in a biotic community the more stable it is. ( Stability Diversity )
Most divers and stable ecosystem is ocean.
Biotic/Ecological Succession (Hult, 1885)
It is the successive development of different biotic communities at the same site till a climax community develops
there.
The cocept of succession was givin by Warming, Cowles, Clements and term was given by Hult in 1885.
Succession is univesal and unidirectional in vegitation during ecological time.
Primary Succession (prisere): Biotic or ecological succession on a primary bare area. It takes long time of 1000
years or more.
Secondary succession (Subsere): Biotic succession on a secondarily bare area, e.g., forest fire, deforestation. It
takes 50-100 years (for grass land) and 100-200 years (for forest).
Ferns are generally the first to grow after forest fire because of their underground rhizomes.
Secondary succession is not complete if invaded by weeds, e.g., Sphagnum, Eichhornia, Lantana, Eupatorium.
Pioneer Community: First biotic community on a bare area.
Seral Community: Transitional community appearing in an area during biotic succession.
Seule Community: Transitional community appearing in an area during microbial succession.
Climax Community: Stable, self-perpetuating and final community appearing in an area at the end of biotic
succession which is in perfect harmony with climate of the area-hence climatic climax community.
Dominant Species: It is the most numerous and generally the largest of species present in a seral/climax
community which exerts the maximum influence.
Sere: It is the sequence of development stages from pioneer to climax communities, e.g., lithosere (on rock),
psammosere (on sand), hydrosere (in water).
Xerarch/Hydrarch: Series of developmental stages in arid area/water body.
Biotic sucession involves changes to long lived plants, greater species diversity, niche specialization, increasein
biomass, higher soil humus, food webs, stable biotic community and mesic conditions.
Causes of succession
(i) Baring of an area (ii) Changes caused by pioneer and seral communities not favourable to them but favourable
to next ones.
Steps of succession
(i) Baring of an area or nudation is caused by climatic changes, physiographic changes or biotic agents.
(ii) Migration of pioneers into bared area. (iii) Their establishment or ecesis. (iv) Aggregation (v) Invasion of other
organisms (vi) Competition (vii) Coaction amongst organisms. (viii) Reaction or modification of the environment.
They ultimately lead to stabilization or development of climatic climax community.
Lithosere-Xerosere (Succession on Bare Rock)
(i) Lichen Stage : Bare rock is invaded first by crustose lichens (e.g., Gaphis, Rhizocarpon). They corrode the rock
at places causing foliose lichens (e.g., Parmelia, Dermatocarpon).
In tropics, blue-green algae are pioneers instead of lichens.
(ii) Moss Stage : Mosses capable of tolerating drought invade the humus rich holes created by foliose lichens, e.g.,
Tortula, Grimmia, Polytrichum. They create more humus and shade to eliminate lichens.
(iii) Annual Grass Stage : Annual hardy grasses and herbs invade the humus rich moss dominated rock surface, e.g.,
Aristida, Poa. Their roots cause fragmentation of the rock, creating more soil, humus and noisture.
(iv) Perennial Grass Stage : Annual grasses are slowly replaced by perennial grasses with runners and rhizomes, e.g.,
Heteropogon, Cymbopogon. Several small animals begin to reside. Herbivorous animals visit the site.
(v) Shrub stage : Shurbs begin to grow in area occupied by perennial grasses. They increase soil and humus content
besides moisture, e.g., Rubus, Rhus, Capparis, Zizyphus.
(vi) Climax Community : Initially hardy, light demanding small trees invade the area. They make the habitat shadier
and more moist. Ultimately, trees shrubs and herbs representing the climax community begin to grow in the area.
Hydrosere
(i) Plankton Stage : Phytoplanktons (diatoms, flagellates, BGA and green algae) are pioneers in a freshly formed
water body.
Plankton growth produces organic matter which gets mixed with bottom silt for growth of next stage.
(ii) Submerged Stage : Hydrilla, Potamogeton and Najas form dense growth at bottom enriched with organic matter.
(iii) Floating stage : In the shallower regions appear plants with tuberous rhizomatous and creeping stems and
leaves floating on the surface of water. e.g., Numphaea, Nelumbo. At places, free floating plants also appear (e.g.,
Azolla, Wolffia, Lamna).
Humus rich bottom begins to rise making water shallower.
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(iv) Reed Swamp Stage : In shallower water, amphibian plants (with emergent leaves) begin to grow e.g., Sagittaria,
Typha, phragmites). They add more silt and humus at the bottom so that shores built up.
(v) Sedge/Marsh Meadwo Stage : On newly built up shores, Carex (Sedge), Juncus, Cyperus, some grasses and
herbs (Themeda, Caltha, Polygonum) grow rapidly and lower the water table.
(vi) Woodland stage : Rhizome bearing shrubs and small trees capable of tolerating excessive light and water logged
conditions appear on the edges of sedge/marsh meadow, e.g., Cornus, Cephalanthus, Populus, Alnus.
(vii) Climax Stage : New trees shrubs and herbs appear which are in perfect harmony with the climate of the area.
Community Characteristic
(a) Species Composition : Every biotic community has a specific grouping of plants, animals and other organisms.
Disappearance of any species of a community indicate a serious disturbance in habitat or change in
environmental conditions.
(b) Dominance : It is the ability of one or more species of a biotic community to influence other members due to their
abundance or density, frequency, height, biomass, etc.
Upto 12 dominant species of trees occur in the tropical rainforests of Andaman Islands.
(c) Physiognomy : It is the general external appearance of the community which is due to the total effect created by
its vertical structure and type of vegetation based especially over its dominant species.
Forest has a high physiognomy. Grassland possesses a low physiognomy. Savanna produces an intermediate
physiognomy.
(d) Stratification: Stratification is the occurrence of different vertical layers in a biotic community due to different
heights to which organisms grow.Vertical stratification also occurs in pond and lake communities.
(e) Species Diversity : It is the number and relative abundance of species within a community.
(f) Keystone Species : It is a species which though having a small population has a major influence on the
composition of the community because of its key role in maintaining the community structure through regulation
of trophic level in routine or during adverse conditions (Hunter and Price, 1992).
Removal of the keystone species brings about drastic changes in biotic community.
Paine (1966) found that removal of Star Fish (predator of Mussel) causes a rapid increase in population of mussel.
Removal of sea urchin results in domination of some palatable algae and crowding out of others.
In tropical rain forests, figs act as keystone species. Animals like monkeys, birds bats and other vertebrates
subsist on figs.
(g) Critical Link Species : The are species which play a crucial role in maintaining the biotic community of an area
by supporting network species in nutrient supply, pollination of flowers and dispersal.
Tropical rain forests have a large number of critical link species in the form of mycorrhizal fungi, animal
pollinators.
(h) Ecotones : Ecotone is the transition zone between two communitics.
It is quite narrow between a pond and grassland community, wide between a deciduous and evergreen forest or
savanna.
It has species of both the adjacent community. It may also have some species of its own. So, has more species with
dense population than either of the communities is known as edge effect or principle of edges. (has edge
species)
Study of plant communities is called phytosociology.
Climax Community
It is most stable and last community of succession which maintains an equilibrium with the environment (self
perpetuating).
Clements (1936) proposed monoclimax theory to explain importance of climate in attainment of climax. He
suggested the climatic factors are of primary importance and are responsible for climax stage.
However, other ecologists believe that climax is attained by interaction of several factors like the soil (edaphic
factors), living organisms (biotic factors) and climate (climatic factors) a polyclimax theory ( Tansley1939).
Succession on Sand Dunes (Psammosere)
Psammosere is also a type of xerosere which occurs on bare sand dunes under xeric environment.
Here pioneer community is drought enduring blue-green algae which grow over sand dunes and add humus to
make it fertile.
After several years of algal growth,soil binding grasses and sedges (Saccharum, Cenhrus, Cyperus, Ammophila,
etc.) start appearing in patches as the firsseral community of the succession.
They add enough organic matter into the soil as they are short lived. The soil gradually becomes enriched with
nutrients and humus and develops capability of supporting growth of herbaceous plan or even the shrubs.
Shrubs act as wind break or shelter belt to stabilize wind. Shrub stage represents the last of seral community as
this stage is terminated into woodland stage or forest stage which form the climax of the psammosere.
Trend of seral communities in lithosere and psammosere is almost same, the difference lies in the nature of their
pioneers.
Life Forms
Raunkiaer has distinguished plants into five forms on basis of size, shape, branching, crown, life span and
perennation.
P a g e 7 | 35
(i) Therophytes : Annual plants which perennate in the from of seeds.

(ii) Cryptophytes : Perennial plants with underground storage parts :
(a) Geophytes : Subterranean perennating structures (root, root tuber, bulb, stem tuber, rhizome, corm).
(b) Helophytes (Marshy plants) : Perennating structures are embedded in mud.
(c) Hydrophytes : Aquatic plants.
(iii) Hemicryptophytes : Perennating structures occur at ground level. Aerial shoots die at starting of winter e.g.
rosette plants.
(iv) Chemaephytes : Small plants of cold areas where perennating buds of shoot apices lie at or above the ground
level.
(v) Phanerophytes : Perennial herbs, shrubs and trees, epiphytes, succulents, lianas, etc. where perennating buds
occur at 10 cm or more height above ground level.
Note
(a) Chasmophytes : Plants growing in rock crevices.
(b) Predator Fungi : They trap small animals. e.g., Dactylella, Arthrobotrys, Zoophagus, Trichothercium.
(c) Halophytes : Plants growing in saline soils and waters. e.g. Salsola, Sueda.
(d) Oxylophytes (Oxyphytes) : Plants growing in acidic soils.
(e) Psammophytes : Growing on sand and gravel.
(f) Lithophytes : On rocks.
(g) Eremophytes : Growing in deserts and steppes.
(h) Chersophytes : Piants growin on waste lands or shallow soils.
(i) Psychrophytes : Plants growing on cold soils.
(j) Calciphytes/Clacicoles/Calciphiles : Plants growing on calcareous soils.
Factors Affecting Population
(i) Natality (Birth Rate) : It is the rate of production of new individuals per unit of population per unit time. The
maximum natality or birth rate achieved under ideal conditions is called biotic potential (potential natality). It is
very high. The actual birth rate found under existing conditions is termed as realized natality. In human beigns,
natality or birth rate is calculated per thousand per year.
(ii) Mortality (Death Rate) : It is the rate of loss of individuals per unit time due to death. In human population it is
calculated per thousand per year.
Natality
Vital Index = 100
Mortality
Population Growth : A population can have two types of growth curves S shaped and J-shaped. There is an
initial phase of slow growth called lag phase. It is followed by phase of rapid growth called exponential growth or
log phase.
In S-shaped or sigmoid growth curve, ther eis a point of inflection whereafter growth slows down and reaches an
equilibrium or stagnant phase.
In J-shaped growth curve, the exponential phase continues beyond the carrying capacity of the environment.
Equilibrium phase does not occur.
Instead a steep or sharp decline in population tekes place. It is called crash phase.
(iii) Population Dispersal : It is the movement of individuals or propagules into or out of population for preventing
overcrowding, obtaining food, avoiding predators and other adverse conditions. Popualtion dispersal can be of
three types:
(a) Emigration : Permanent outward movement of individuals from a given population. It decreases the size of local
population.
(b) Immigration : Permanent inward/coming of individuals from outside into a population. It increases the size of
local popualtion.
(c) Migration : It is a two-way movemtn of entire population to avoid unfavourable conditions. It does not change the
size of population.
(iv) Age Distribution : A population having larger number of young individuals will show rapid increse (positive
growth). It will have a slow increase or become static (zero growth) if various age groups are evenly balanced. A
population with large number of post reproductive or older individuals can show a negative growth rate.
(v) Popualtion Growth Rate : It is the number of individuals added per unit population per unit time due to higher
rate of births and immigration over the rate of death and emigration. N/ t. The percentage ratio of natality to
mortality is called vital index (N/M 100).
(vi) Carrying Capacity/Resources : A population survives on the resources present in an area. Resources include
food, water and space. Carrying capacity of a habitat/locality/environment is the maximum number of
individuals of a population which can be provided with all the necessary resources for their healthy living. Beyond
carrying capacity, the size of population betins to decrease due to lower natality, higher mortality and emigration.
(vii) Abiotic Factors : Population size and population growth are influenced by duration of light, light intensity,
temperature, humidity, rainfall, snow, wind and other weather conditions. Cold conditions induce hibernation and
migration.
P a g e 8 | 35
(viii) Biotic Factors : Growth rate of certain populations decreases with the increase in density (density dependent)
before the carrying capacity of the environment is reached. Predators also keep the size of a population under
check.
(ix) Popualtion Fluctuations :
(i) Irruptive : The population size continues to increase without any obvious reason. After reaching a peak, it
decreases duddenly.
(ii) Cyclic : There is a regular cyclic increase in population size followed by a decline due to food/environmental
conditions and popualtion dynamics. Lemmings continue to increase in number in Canada and Norway for four
years, after which most of them die due to disease or mass scale suicide by moving to sea and getting drowned.
Demography
It is the study of a population in all aspects like number, sex ratio, age group, birth rate, death rate in various age
groups, education, status, etc. and predicting future trends including effect of planned development. This is the
done through census. In India, census is carried out after every ten years 1951, 1961, 1971, 1981, 1991. The
1991 census has indicated Indian population as Total. 84, 63, 02, 688. Sex Ratio. 927 females per 1000 males.
Education. 52.21%. Educated Males. 64.13%. Educated Females. 39.29%. Population Growth Rate. 2.14%.
Population Density. 267/km2. Most Thickly Populated State : West Bengal (previously Kerala). Most Thinly
Poplated State. Arunachal Pradesh. Most Thickly Populated Coutry. Bangladesh, previously Japan. Most
Thinly Populated Country. Greenland followed by Australia. Asia 56% of world popualtion.
Human Population
It is countrolled by three types of factors geographic, demographic and socio-economic.
(i) Geographic Factors :
(a) Resources : Human settlements have occurred near water banks. Mineral resources allow development of
industries and townships. Availability of fuel/energy stimulates the same.
(b) Edaphic Factors : Arid areas and deserts have little popualtion. Fertile soils support good settlements
(c) Climate : Very cold areas have thin population. Most dense population occurs in near-tropical conditions.
(ii) Demorpgraphic Factors : The are natality, mortality, age groups, sex ratio, emigration and immigration. Certain
countries allow selective immigration (e.g., U.S.A. Australia) . India has a large proportion of pre-reproductive
individuals/children. Naturally, the rate of population growth is bound to increase for some time.
(iii) Socio-Economic Factors :
(a) Development/Industrialisation : Population is stable or has less than 1% growth rate in developed countries.
Austria has a negative growth. Less developed countries have high population growth Mexico (3.6%), India
(2.14%).
(b) Employment : Gainful employment reduces birth rate.
(c) Age at Marriage : Late marriages reduce number of births.
(d) Social Status : Higher economic and social status checks birth rate.
(e) Religion : Certain religions prohibit family planning. Such religion based countries have high growth rate of
population, e.g. 3.4% in south Arabia.
(f) Child Labour : More children.
(g) Population Education
(h) Health Care.
(i) Diet.
At a glane :
(i) Ecology : Environmental biology. Depending upon the branch studied, it is of several types like population
ecology, ecosystem ecology, pollution ecology, habitat ecology, fresh water ecology (limnology), marine ecology
(oceanography), forest ecology, conservation ecology, production ecology, radiation ecology, microbial ecology,
space ecology, ecological energetics.
(ii) Father of Plant Ecology : He wrote the first book on plant ecology Oecology of Plants (1895). Father of
Indian Plant Ecology is Ramdeva Misra. Ecological studies were initiated in India by W. Dudgeon.
(iii) Ethology : Term used by Hilarie (1859) for ecology.
(iv) Hexicology : Term used by Mivart (1894) for ecology.
(v) Bioecology : Term used by Shelford and Clements for study of both plant and animal ecology.
(vi) Species Equilibrium Theory : Mac Arthur and ilson (1967) proposed species equilibrium theory which states
that there is a dynamic equilibrium of species in an area due to two processes, colonization and extinction.
(vii) Schroeter and Kirchner (1896) : Coined the terms autecology and synecology.
(viii) Population Density : Study of changes in growth and density of population in relation to various parameters.
(ix) Relative Density : It is number of individuals of a species relative to the number of individuals of all the
species in a unit area.
(x) Niche Density : Density of a population in its habitat or place of living.
(xi) Ecological Equivalents : Differetn organisms occupying similar niches in different geographical areas.
(xii) Stridulation : Production of sound by rubbing of body parts as in some insects (especially male).
P a g e 9 | 35
ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystem (Tansley) or biocenosis (Mobius,1877) or microcosm (Forbes) or geobiocoenosis ( Sukachev ) or
holon (Koestler).
It is a segment of nature/biosphere consisting of a community of living being and the abiotic/physical
environment both interacting and exchanging materials between them.
Ecosystem can be temporary (e.g., rain water pond) or permanent, (e.g., lake, forest).
It is natural if developed under natural conditions without human support (e.g., forest, sea), artificial or man-
made if the ecosystem is created and maintained by human beings, e.g., garden, piggery, popultry, apiary,
agriculture or agro-ecosystem.
It lacks one or other component, is called incomplete ecosystem, e.g. sea bottom, freshly formed rain water
pound.
Depending upon size, ecosystem is very large or mega-ecosystem (e.g., Sea), large or mesoecosystem (e.g.,
deciduous tropical forest, coniferous forest), small sized microecosystem (e.g., pond, lake, crop land) and very
small sized nanoecosystem (e.g., aquarium, kitchen garden, log of wood).
Ecosystem has two components : (a) Biotic or Standing crop or biomass (b) Abiotic or Standing state
Biotic Component
They include all living beings present in an ecosystem producers, consumers and decomposers.
Biomass : It is the amount of living matter present in the individual/population/community/trophic
level/ecosystem.
Biomass is measured on both fresh and dry weight basis.
(i) Producers : Autotrophs that manufacture organic compounds/food from inorganic raw materials with help of
solar energy.
Producers are also called transducers as they convert solar radiations into chemical energy.
(ii) Consumers/Secondry producer : Heterotrophes, which feed on other organisms, also c/d phagotrophs as they
ingest food.
Predators are organisms that feed directly upon other living organisms by killing the prey or even without killing.
Thus they include all herbivores, carnivores and omniovores of the ecosystem but they do not include
decomposers or detritivorous and scavengers as they feed over the dead organic remains.
Broad category of Predators also include parasites (those feeding on hosts) and pathogens (causing diseases in
hosts).
Predators are thus Liver-feeders or the organisms that feed directly on other living organisms in order to survive.
Monophagous predators : Those feeding on a single prey only
Oligophagous type : Those feeding over at least on 5-6 types of prey.
Polyphagous type : Those feeding over wide varieties of prey.
Types of consumer
(a) Herbivores/First Order Consumers: Feed on producers. Also called key industry animals (Elton, 1927), e.g.,
Deer, Rabbit, Cattle, Goat/Sheep, Grasshopper, protozoans, molluscs, many crustaceans.
(b) Carnivores: Depends on herbivores.
Primary Carnivores/Second Order Consumers: Feed on herbivores, e.g., Frog, Wild Cat, Fox, Snake.
Secondary Carnivores/Third Order Consumers: Feed on primary carnivores. e.g. Owl, Peacock.
Top Carnivores: Carnivores which are not preyed upon and feeds on all other consumer. e.g., Lion.
In Sunderbans, Tiger does not have its natural preys. It feeds there on fish and crabs.
(iii) Decomposers/Reducer : They are saprotrophs, which decompose the organic remains by secreting reducers.
They are also known as mineralisers as they change the organic remains into inorganic minerals.
Detrivores/Scavenger are consumers that feed on a small part of a living being.
Trophic Levels
They are steps of divisions of food chain characterized by specific method of obtaining food.
Producers belong to T1 or first trophic level, herbivores/primary consumers T2, primary carnivores/secondary
consumers T3, secondary carnivores/ tertiary consumers T4, tertiary carnivores/quaternary consumers T5 etc.
Parasites and omnivores ( human, ant, crow ) do not have any fixed trophic level.
Decomposers constitute the last T6 or detritus trophic level.
Guild is the group of species belonging to the same trophic level and consuming the same resource.
Food Chain
Sequence of trophic levels through which food tavels while passing from producers to ultimate consumes is called
food chain.
In food chain the phenomenon of eat and be eaten operates, i.e., an organism which is predator at one trophic
level becomes prey for organisms of higher trophic level. Food chains are of three types :
P a g e 10 | 35
(a) Predator-Prey or Grazing Food Chain : It is common, started from smaller organism( prey) & completed on
larger (predator).
(b) Parasitic Food Chain : It terminates at level of parasites, e.g., Grass Cattle Pneumococcus. Parasitic food
chain is also called subsidiary or accessory food chain. It started from larger organism (host) and completed on
smaller (parasite).
(c) Detritus Food Chain (Saprotrophic Food Chain) : It proceeds from dead bodies and organic remains.
The major compoents of this food chain are scavengers and decomposers.
Some time scavengers, detrivores and decomposers may become food for carnivores( component of predator food
chain)
Fragments and organic remains Decomposers
Scavenger Corpse Detrivores Small Fish Large Fish

Predator or Grazing Food Chain
It is the common type of food chain which is composed of producers, consumers and decomposers. Consumers
generally occupy second to fifth trophic levels. Producers constitute the first trophic level.
Decomposers form final trophic level. Yet, they are seldom mentioned separately in food chain because they are
universally present.
Two type of predator food chains occur in pond. One in based on phytoplankton. The other starts with aquatic
plants.
Larger Fish Crocodile
(i) Phytoplankton Zooplankton Small Crustaceans Water Insects Small Fish
King Fisher
(ii) Aquatic Plants Tadpole and Herbivorous Fish Small Carnivorous Fish Large Carnivorous Fish
Crocodile.
King Fisher
Oceanic Food Chains
Angiospermic plants do not occur in oceans (exception Zostera). Sea weeds, other algae, phytoplankton are
abundant.
Phytoplankton Zooplankton Crustaceans Small Fish Large Fish Shark..
Whale
Terrestrial Food chains
They are of many types, which may end at level of herbivore, primary carnivore, omnivore, secondary carnivore or
tertiary carnivore.
Vegetation Bee Bear
Grass Insect Predator Insect Insectivorous Bird Hawk.
Vegetation Rabbit Fox Wolf Tiger
Crop Aphid Lady Bird Beetle Insectivorous Bird Hawk.
Detritus Food Chain
It is a food chain supported by dead organic matter (organic wastes, dead parts and dead bodies).
More energy passed through detritus food chain than any other food chain. Detritus/saprotrophic food chain is
the shortest.
Detritus is eaten by three type of detritus feeders - scavengers, detrivores and decomposers.
Scavenger are animals which feed on dead bodies (e.g., Crow, Vulture). They leave large fragments of dead bodies.
Detrivores are small sized animals which feed on organic fragments, e.g., termites, millipedes, earthworms,
beetles, larvae, etc.
The fine organic matter is solubilised by digestive enzymes secreted by decomposers.
Decomposers are bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi. Mineralisation and humus formation occur during
decomposition.
Solubilised organic substances are absorbed by decomposers. Decomposers are preyed upon by small animals
which in turn are eaten by larger animals. Similarly detrivores become food of small carnivores which are preyed
upon by larger carnivores.
A common terrestrial detritus food chain based on earthworm is Detritus Earthworm Sparrow Falcon
In a mangrove, detritus is eaten by a number of detrivores (larvae, crabs, nematodes, mollusks), which are eaten
by small fish. Small fish become food of larger fish.
Fallen Leaves Detrivores Small Fish Large Fish Shark
Birds Humans
P a g e 11 | 35
Food Web
It is a network of food chains, which are interconnected at different trophic levels so as to form a number of
feeding connections amongst members of a biotic community.
It increases the food quantity and quality at each trophic level.
Ecological Pyramids/Eltonian Pyramids (1927)
It is graphic representation of an ecological parameter (number, biomass, energy) sequence-wise in trophic levels of a
food chain.
Quantity at each trophic level is indicated by length of bar in the graph so also called bar diagrams.
It can be upright ( gradual decreasement of parameter ), inverted ( gradual increasement of parameter ) or spindle-
shaped ( first increasement then decreasement of parameter ).
(i) Pyramid of Numbers : It is an ecological/eltonian pyramid which employs the number of individuals per unit area
at various trophic levels sequence-wise with producers at the base and various consumers at successively higher
levels.
It is generally upright as maximum number of individuals occur at the producer level, followed by smaller number
of herbivores, fewer primary carnivores and still fewer higher levels of carnivores.
However, when a single large-sized tree can provide food to several herbivores (e.g., birds, squirrels) which
support a few carnivores. Such a pyramid of number is spindle shaped.
When the herbivores support a large number of ectoparasites, which are further parasitised by still larger number
of hyperparasites, the pyramid of numbers is inverted.
(ii) Pyramid of Biomass : It is ecological/eltonian pyramid which represents the biomass in various trophic levels.
It is more real than the numbers at various trophic levels.
Acc. to 10% law, 1000 kg (one tonne) vegetation shall form only 100 kg of herbivore, 10 kg of primary carnivore, 1
kg of secondary carnivore and only 0.1 kg of tertiary carnivore.
Pyramid of biomass is upright, except in aquatic food chain involving short lived plankton.
(iii) Pyramid of Energy : It gives graphic representation of amount of energy trapped by different trophic levels per unit
area.
It is more accurate than other type of pyramid.
It is always upright because during transfer of energy from one trophic level to the next, a lot of wastage occurs
respiration.
Biological Rhythms/Biological Clocks
They are rhythmic or recurring variations in structure, function and behaviour of organism.
The science dealing with the study of biological rhythms is called chronobiology.
Rapport et. al. (1999) have reported light sensitive protein cryptochrome to be involved in mammalian
biorhythms.
(i) Circadian Rhythms : They are those biological rhythms which have a periodicity of about a day (20-80 hours),
e.g., periods of maximum and minimum activity, cell division, nyctinasty, opening and closing of stomata.
(ii) Tidal/Lunar Rhythms : They are those biological rhythms which have a periodicity of about Lunar month of 29.5
days, with daily tidal cycle of 12.4 hours. The rhythms are also seen in many organisms of intertidal region, e.g.,
Dictyota.
Many invertebrates time heir spawning according to lunar cycle.Menstrual cycle has a rhythm of 28 days.
(iii) Annual/Seasonal or Periodic Rhythms : They are those biological rhythms which have a periodicity of about one
year e.g.Hibernation, aestivation, migration, moulting, mating, shedding of leaves, bearing of new leaves, flowering,
etc
(iv) Endogenous and Exogenous Rhythms : Endogenous rhythms are those biorhythms which continue even under
uniform environmental conditions when the external timing signals have stopped.
Exogenous rhythms are those biological rhythms, which stop as the external timing device is changed.
Homeostasis/Homoeostasis/Balance of Nature/Biological Equilibrium
It is the maintenance of a functional dynamic balance or state of equilibrium amongst various components of a an
ecosystem.
Homeostasis is maintained through a number of controls/cybernetics/limitations like -
(i) Carrying Capacity : Max. No. of individuals can be supported by environment. It depends on availability of resources &
shelter.
Near carrying capacity, the rate of population growth begins do decline. Beyond it, the population decreased
rapidly.
(ii) Recycling of Wastes : It controls the availability of raw materials and space.
(iii) Self Regulation : Mortality decreases and natality increases in case of small population vice- versa in case of
larger .
(iv) Feedback System : It is of two types, positive and negative. In positive feedback the increase availability of a
resource increases the number of utilisers. e.g. predator population will increase with the increase in population of
prey.
P a g e 12 | 35
In negative feedback, the increase in number of members of a higher trophic level will decrease the number
of individuals at the
lower level which in turn shall reduce their number as well.
The term was coined by Walter O. Cannon (1920)
Abiotic Components
(i) Temperature : On the basis of temp. tolerance organism are of following type.
(a) Stenothermal. Organisms living at nearly constant temperature cannot tolerate variations.
(b) Eurythermal. Organisms which can tolerate wide variations in temperature.
On the basis of temp. tolerance plants are of following type.
(a) Megatherm: Living at high temperature throughout year and climate is called tropical.
(b) Mesotherm: Living at high summer temperature and low winter temperature and climate is called subtropical.
(c) Microtherm: Living at moderate warmth in summer, low temperature in winter and climate is called temprate.
(d) Hekistotherm: Living with short summer below 10oC and long winter with very low temperature & climate is
arctic/alpine tundra.
Poikilothermal ( Ectothermal/Cold Blooded): Temperature varies with the surroundings.
Homoiothermal ( Endothermal/Warm Blooded): Temperature constant due to internal regulation.
Thermoperiodicity controls phenology in several, cases.
Bergmanns rule states that avian and mammalian forms are generally of larger size in colder region as compared
to warmer.
(ii) Light: Controls tissue differentiation, growth, pigmentation, plant movement, period of activity, reproduction in plant &
animals.
Plants growing in strong light are called heliophytes (sun plant) while those grow in shade are called sciophytes
(shade plant).
Sun plants have smaller thicker leaves, shorter internodes, greater stem branching, extensive root system, more
mechanical tissue, sunken stomata and abundant flowering.
Shade plants have large and thinner leaves with less mechanical tissues, less stem branching, fewer roots, longer
thinner internodes and lesser flowering.
Depending upon the period of activity, animals are diurnal (active during day, e.g, Sparrow, Pigeon, Butterfly),
nocturnal (active at dawn/dusk, e.g., Rabbit).
Depending upon period of breeding, animals and plants are called long day (Turkey, Ferret, Radish), short day
(Sheep, Deer, Xanthium, Dahlia) or day neutral (Guinea Pig, Tomato).
Amount of light is measured by Luxmeter/photometer, radiometer.
(iii) Wind/Air Current : It determines cloud formation, pollination and dispersal in many organisms.
It restricts flight animals, nest formation and height in plants. It enhances soil erosion, transpiration and develops
flag trees.
(iv) Humidity/Precipitation : Epiphytes can be found only in humid areas. Arid areas do not have them.
Transpiration is inversely proportional to atmospheric humidity. Low atmospheric humidity produces aridity and
xerophytism.
Measurement of Atmospheric Humidity
Hygrograph, hygrometer, dry and wet thermometer. Thermohygrograph measures both temperature and
atmospheric humidity.
(v) Water : Waming divided plants into four ecological groups hydrophytes, xerophytes, mesophytes and
halophytes.
(1) Xerophytes: Plants of arid areas and deserts are called xerophytes. Shant classified xerophytes into four groups-
(a) Ephemerals/Drought Escaping : Plants live for a few weeks during rains, e.g., Chenopodium rubrum, Euphorbia
prostrata.
(b) Annuals/Drought Evading : Live for a few months & have modifications to reduce transpiration, e.g., Solanum
surattense.
(c) Succulents/Drought Resisting : They have mucilage and water storing organs chylloclade/chylophilly ( in
leaves, e.g., Aloe, Agave, Tradescantia), chylorhizy (in root, e.g. Ceiba parviflora, Asparagus) and chylocauly ( in
stem e.g. Opuntia, Euphorbia, Aspharagus, Homocladium)
Water storing cells usually contain mucilage for retaining water and perform crassulacean acid metabolism
(CAM).
In chylocaulous succulents, stem is often green and photosynthetic phylloclade/cladophyll.
Leaves are reduced or modified into spines. Cuticle is extremely thick and stomata are sunken (opening only at
night).
(d) Nonsucculent Perennials/Drought Enduring : True xerophytes. They have smaller epigeal growth but extensive
root system.
Deep roots may reach water table. These phreatophytes indicate ground water e.g., Prosopis, Tamarix.
Leaves are vertical (Nerium, Eucalyptus), with either dense hair called trichophylly (Aerua, Gnaphalium), folding
during
P a g e 13 | 35
drought due to motor cells, (Ammophila, Psamma, Agropyron), modified into phyllodes (no lamina, flattened
petiole), spines.
Cuticle is thick with wax and silica, stomata sunken restricted to lower surface, development of hypodermis, more
of palisade parenchyma, more mechanical tissue, more cork, and smaller intercellular spaces.
Most of the xerophyte has proline amino acid which maintains osmotic balance in their leaves.
Chaperonins are heat shock proteins which provides high temperature tolerating power.
Some Special Xerophytes
Halophytes: Plants of saline environments have adaptations to grow in habitats possessing high salt content.
Halophytes can absorb water from such habitats because they maintain a high osmotic concentration of 40-150
bars.
Halophytes especially of hot and dry environments has succulence. They have large cells that store water and
mucilage.
Succulence has three benefits. (a) Dilution of salts. (b) Storage of water which is difficult to obtain (c) Retention of
water with the help of mucilage against the forces of evaporation and transpiration.
Halophytes occur in four types of habitats saline soils, coastal dunes, tidal marshes and mangroves. They are
broadly divisible into two types saline soil halophytes and mangrove plants.
Saline Soil Halophytes : The halophytes grow in soils having excess of salts. In heavy soils, plants are shallow
rooted while in sandy soils they are deep rooted. Succulence is present in leaves, stems of both, e.g., Salsola,
Sueda, Salicornia. Leaves are absent or reduced in some halophytes where the function of photosynthesis is taken
over by stem, e.g., Tamarix, Salicornia. Many plants possess slat glands or salt cells for excretion of excess salts,
e.g., Atriplex, Tamarix. Cuticle is thick. Stomata are sunken. Surface cells possess tannins, anthocyanins or oils
for reducing insolation.
Crinohalophytes : Salt secreting halophytes.
Mangrove Plants : They are halophytes found growing in saline marshes, river deltas and ocean edges in tropics.
Mangrove plants are faced with both excess salt and excess water in their rooting medium
(i) Salt Secretion : Some mangrove plants possess salt secreting glands over their leaves, e.g., Avicennia, Aegiatilis.
Certain mangrove plants exclude salts from their rooting medium by pumping back excess salt into rooting
medium.
(ii) Water Storage Tissue : Many mangrove plants possess special cells for storing water. Succulence also occurs in
some.
(iii) Supporting Roots : Plants develop supporting roots for proper anchorage in swampy areas, e.g., prop roots (e.g.,
Rhizophora), stilt roots, horizontal roots, etc.
(iv) Pneumatophores : They are lenticel bearing aerial roots which generally develop upright for a distance of 50-70
cm from horizontal under ground roots of mangrove plants. Pneumatophores help in gaseous exchange, e.g.,
Avicennia, Sonneratia.
Lenticels also occur on knee roots of Bouguiera and prop roots of Rhizophora for aeration.
(v) Vivipary : Mangrove plants do not disperse their mature seeds. Neither the seeds germinate directly in saline
swamps. Instead the seeds germinate in situ inside the fruits while the latter are attached to the plant.
A growing seedling falls down in swamp and epicotyl remains above the level of water, e.g., Rhizophora, Avicennia,
Ceriops.
(vi) Other Morphoanatomical Characters : Leaves are commonly leathery with thick cuticle and sunken stomata.
Aerenchyma occurs for transfer of gases. Surface cells contain anthocyanins, tannins and oils.
(vii) Organic Solutes : Mangrove plnats have high concentration of organic solutes like proline and sorbitol. They are
meant for raising osmotic concentration.
A green halophytic alga Dunaliela, found in hypersaline lakes, accumulates glycerol in its cells to help in
osmoregulation.
Camouflage
No animal in the wild has a colouration which does not help it in blending with the background. Elephant, Camel,
Lion, Tiger, Panther, etc. have a colouration and marking which make them inconspicuous in their surroundings.
They phenomenon of blending with the surroundings due to similar colour, marking and shapes is called
camouflage.
Leaflike Gasshopper (Arantia rectifolia) is green. It prefers to remain in between the green leaves.
Praying Mantis (Mantis religosa) is green and remains amongst the foliage waiting for its prey to arrive. It is
difficult to notice.
Stick Insect (Carausius morasus), Leaf Insect (Phyllium frondosum) or Dead Leaf Butterfly (Phyllocranic paradoxa)
unless and until they show movement.
Camouflage is useful to all types of animals. It provides protection to preys and advantage to predators in
remaining unnoticed.
Mimicry
It is resemblance of one animal with another so as to confuse a third animal as to its identity.
The animal which resembles another for driving a benefit is called mimic.
P a g e 14 | 35
The animal with which the mimic shows resemblance is known as model.
Mimicry is of two types, Batesian and Mullaerian.
(i) Batesian Mimicry. The mimic is palatable and defenseless. The model with which mimic resembles is dangerous
or unpalatable due to presence of toxins and irritating components.
So The predator not only leaves the model but also the mimic. Viceroy Butterfly (Limenites archippus), though
palatable is not preyed upon because it resembles highly distasteful and poisonous Monarch Butterfly (Donascus
plexipus).
(ii) Mullerian Mimicry : It is a mutual resemblance of two distasteful or dangerous animal so as to enhance their
chances of not being preyed. Mullerian mimicry is shown by Queen Butterfly and Monarch Butterfly.
(2) Mesophytes : These are plants of moist/humid habitats.
They have luxuriant epigeal as well as subterranean growth with thin flat leaves having thin cuticle, unsunken
stomata,without spines and thorns, moderate mechanical tissue, both palisade and spongy parenchyma, etc.
Hygrophytes are plants of damp and shady palces, often with water pores/hydathodes, e.g., Cynodon,
Ranunculus, Rumex.
(3) Hydrophyte: Plants of aquatic habitats are called hydrophytes. Here a protective mucilage is present all around.
Roots absent (Utricularia, Wolffia), poorly developed (Hydrilla) or used for balancing (Lemna, Pistia, Eichhorinia).
Root hairs absent or poor. Root caps are replaced by root pockets ( Lemna, Eichhornia).
Mechanical tissue is often absent and xylem is absent or poorly developed.
Aerenchyma stores gases and provides buoyancy. Aerenchymatous roots (Ludwigia/Jussiaea) or petioles (Trapa,
Eichhornia).
Submerged leaves are thin, small (Hydrilla), linear, ribbon-like (Vallisneria, Potamogeton), dissected
(Utricularia,Ceratophyllum)
Floating leaves are large with stomata and waxy coating only on the upper surface.
Heterophylly is present in aquatic plants with emerged parts (e.g., Ranunculus aquatilis, Sagittaria).
Types of hydrophytes(aquatic plants):
Plants living permanently immersed partially or completely in aquatic habitats are called hydrophytes.
(i) Submerged Hydrophytes : Occur inside water, either or suspended permanently in water, e.g., Vallisneria,.
(a) Attached: Attached to the substratum. e.g. Vallisnaria ( Eel grass/ Ribbon weed)
(b) Free floating: Suspended permanently in water. e.g Utricularia, Potamogeton, Ceratophyllum, Hydrilla (Root less)
(ii) Emergent Hydrophytes: Body above the water.These are of two type.
(a) Floating Hydrophytes : Float freely over the surface of water, e.g., Pistia, Lemna, Eichhornia, Trapa, Wolfia,
Azolla.
(b) Floating Leaved Anchored Hydrophytes : The plants are attached to bottom. The leaves float over the surface of
water, e.g., Nymphaea (Water Lily), Nelumbo (Lotus), Victoria.
(iii) Amphibious Plants: The plants grow in shallow waters or marshy areas. They are anchored to the bottom.
Part of their body is submerged in water while a part grows above the surface. e.g. Ranunculus, Limnophila,
Satittaria, Typha.
(v) Rainfall: Vegitation of a place is primarily determined by rainfall and rainfall is measured by rain gauge.
(1) Rainfall through year ----- Tropical rain forest, (2) Rainfall only in summer----- Grassland,
(3) Rainfall only in summer----- Sclerophyllous vegitation.
Vegetation and Annual Rainfall
(i) Evergreen Tropical Forest : 250 400 cm. (ii) Tropical Deciduous Forest : 100 200 cm.
(iii) Taiga : 100 250 cm. (iv) Temperate deciduous Forest : 75-150 cm.
(v) Chapparal : 50-75 cm (in winter). (vi) Grassland and Savannah : 25-75 cm.
(vii) Desert : Less than 25 cm.
(vii)Topography : Surface behaviour of earth determines environment including wind, rainfall, light and temperature.
(vi) Energy: Ultimate source of energy is sun.
Flow of energy
Ultimate source of energy in ecosystem is sun.
There is a unidirectional or one way flow of energy in the ecosystems. The source of all energy is radiant or solar
energy. 50% of incident solar energy is photosynthetically active radiation (PAR).
Storage and expenditure of energy in ecosystems is governed by the first two laws of thermodynamics.
Thus energy of sunlight is changed into chemical energy of food and heat. As food energy it passes from one
trophic level to the next. According to second law of thermodynamics no transfer or transformation of energy
occurs unless and unit it is accompanied by degradation or dissipation of energy from concentrated to dispersed
form.
The transfer to food energy from one trophic level or organism to another is accompanied by degradation and loss
of major part of food energy as heat. Only a small fraction of food energy, roughly 10% (Lindeman, 1942) is stored
as biomass.
Under fabourable condition, 1-5% of incident solar radiation of 2-10% of incident PAR (photosynthetically active
radiation) is captured by producers in their photosynthesis as gross primary productivity.
P a g e 15 | 35
Some 20% of the trapped energy in gross primary productivity is utilized by producers in their own respiration.
Therefore, net primary productivity (G.P.P. minus respiratory loss) is 0.8-4.0% of total incident solar radiation of
1.6 8.0% of PAR.
Net primary productivity is available to herbivores (and humans). Herbivory removes only a part of net primary
productivity.
The remaining unutilized net primary productivity is ultimately changed into detritus. It is energy source of
decomposers.
A good part of food energy remains unutilized at the herbivore level. Herbivores waste a lot of food energy during
ingestion.
The passage of about 10% of biomass energy from one trophic level to the next is called ten percent law.
It was proposed by Lindeman (1942). 90% of the biomass energy is passed over to detritus.
It is estimated that biomass energy available at herbivore level forms only 10% biomass energy at primary
carnivore level. There is a similar reduction in biomass energy at successive higher carnivore level.
As energy available at higher carnivore level becomes small, an ecosystem does not have more than 3-5 trophic
levels, e.g.,
Producer Biomass Herbivore biomass Carnivore I Biomass Carnivore II Biomass
1000 Kcal 100 Kcal 10 Kcal 1 Kcal
Ecosystem is continuously obtaining solar energy which is trapped by producers 1.15% in grasslands, 0.9% in
savannah, 0.81% in mixed forest, 5% in crops and 10-12% in sugarcane. The rest is dissipated as heat.
Flow of energy in an ecosystem is unidirectional.
(viii) Soil : It is the upper weathered humans containing part of earths surface which can substain terrestrial plant
life.
Weathering or breaking of rocks into fine powder can occur due to atmospheric changes, mechanical forces
(mechanical weathering), chemical changes (chemical weathering) and biological breakdown (biological
weathering).
The weathered mineral matter is changed to soil by the process of pedogenesis, which involves humification
(formation of humus), eluviation (washing down or leaching of minerals) and illuviation (deposition in lower
layers of minerals).
Types of soil: (pedology is science of soil)
Residual soils develop in situ. Transported soils are brought from other places through gravity (colluvial),
running water (deposited at flood plains and called alluvial), wind (eolian = aeollian) and glacier (glacial soil).
Siol Profile : It is cross-sectional appearance of morphologically and physico-chemically different layers or
horizons superposed over one another. There are four horizons A, B, C and D. The upper two constitute solum.
(i) A-Horizon : It is dark coloured spongy top soil which is rich in mineral and orgaic matter, shows maximum
biological activity and covered by Aoo (O1, organic litter) on top followed by Ao (O2, decomposing organic matter
with humus near soil surface). Top soil isdifferentiated into A 1 of dark colour and A2 of light coloru and maximum
eluvitation.
(ii) B-Horizon : Subsoil or horizon of illuviation with dark colouration in B1 and light colour in B2.
(iii) C-Horizon : Rich in moisture with irregular rock fragments or sedimentary deposit.
(iv) D/R-Horizon : Bed rock.
Soil Types :
(i) Red Soils : Most famous are acidic laterite soils which are deficient in lime, magnesium, phosphorus and
potassium but rich in organic matter, iron and aluminium, support tea coffee rubber cardamon areca-nut and
paddy.
(ii) Black soils : Also called black cotton soils/regurs with dark brown or black colour from organic matter,
clay/hydrated iron and aluminium silicates and differentiated B horizon.
(iii) Alluvial soils: Running water transported.
(iv) Terai/Babar Soils : Mostly colluvial, drained ones highly productive.
Soil Composition : Inorganic Matter/Mineral Particles-40%. Water 25%. Air 10%. Humus-10%. Living
Organisms-Variable.
Minerals particles are of four types.
Gravel (fine pebbles). 1-10 mm. Sand (Quartz or SiO2). 0.02-1.0 mm. Silt (very fine quartz grains). 0.002-0.02
mm.
Clay ( hydrated silicates of aluminum). Less than 0.002 mm. Clay and humus are the main determinates of soil
properties.
Silt and sand are chemically inert and do not hold water.
Clay and humus produce colloidal complex for holding water and ions and forming soil crumbs.
Sandy siols : Porous, loose with little water holding capacity and inorganic nutrients (10% clay, 10% salt, 80%
sand). Manured sandy soils are good or plants with underground parts, e.g., Groundnut. Clay Soils. Compact with
good hydration
but little aeratin, chemically fertile. Soils have 40% clay, remaining silt with little sand. Plant growth little.
Loam Soils :( 20% clay, 40% silt, 40% sand). They have good nutritive status, aeration and hydration. Ideal for
P a g e 16 | 35
plant growth.
Soil pH : Plants grow best is neutral or slightly acidic soils. Slight acidity favoures tee growth and forms forms
forests.
Slight alkalinity is helpful in growth of grasslands and some crop plants like legumes.
Soil Porocity : It is percentage and type of soil pores or interstices of two types, micropores and macropores.
Macropores : Noncapillary pores of more than 20 m diameter. Water percolation (gravitational flow) through
macropores of 50m. Macropores hold air. 20% in good soils.
Micropores : Capillary pores with diameter of 20 m or less. Hold water by capillarity. 30% in good soils.
(ix) Other Abiotic Components : Soil, pH, gases and minerals determine the type of plants and animals found in an
area.
Habitat
It is specific place/locality delimited by a combination of factors and barriers where an
individual/population/community resides e.g. pond, desert, river, bark of tree, burrow, intestine.
Microhabitat is part of the habitat having a specific property, e.g., forest floor, tree canopy, tree trunk, edge of a
pond.
Niche/Ecological Niche (Grinnel, 1971)
It is specific part of habitat occupied by individuals of a species, which is circumscribed by its range of tolerance,
range of movement, microclimate, type of food and its availability, shelter, type of predator, and timing of activity.
Tadpole and adult frog occupy different ecological niches as the former is herbivorous aquatic while the latter is
carnivorous.
What Bug & Water Boatman live in edges of ponds but occupy different niches as former is predator while latter is
scavenger.
Both Owl & Cat feed on Shrews and Mice. Occupy same niche although their habitat are different c/d ecological
equivalents
Major Biomes
They are of two types, terrestrial and aquatic. The terrestrial biomes include tundra, taiga, deciduous forest,
tropical rain forest, chapparal, tropical savannah, grassland and desert. Aquatic biomes include ocean, lake, pond,
marsh and stream.
(1) Latitude :
(i) Equator : 0o. (ii) Tropic of Cancer : 23.5oN (iii) Tropic of Capricorn : 23.5oS of equator.
(iv) Arctic Circle : 66.72oN. (v) Antarctic Circle : 66.72oS
(vi) Torrid Zone : Between Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn.
(vii) North Temperate : Between Tropic of Cancer and Arctic Circle.
(viii) south Temperature : Between Tropic of Capricorn and Antarctic Circle.
(ix) Frigid Zone : Between Arctic Circle and North Pole and Between Antarctic Circle and South Pole.
(2) Biotic Zones :
(i) Tropical : Pertaining to torrid zone (between 23oN and 23oS). (ii) Subtropical : Between 23o to 40o.
(iii) Temperate : Between 40o to 60o. (iv) Arctic : Between 60o to 70o N.
(3) Humboldt : 10 latitude or 300 ft altitude changes temperature by 1oF.
Tundra/Arctic Tundra
It lies north of 60oN in North America, Europe and Asia. Precipitation is 25cm/yr, mostly as snow. Winter
temperature is 30oC to 40oC. Summer is for 45-75 days with highest temperature of 10oC.
Lower part of soil is under permafrost. Tundra is arctic desert with mosses (e.g., Sphagnum), lichens (e.g.,
Cladonia), grasses, sedges, dwarf willow (Salix), dwarf birch (Betula) and a few shrubs.
Polar Bear hibernates during winter while Reindeer and Caribou migrate to less cold areas.
Taiga/North Coniferous Forests
Taiga occurs in temperate areas (mostly Northern Hemisphere, parts of New Zealand) with precipitation both as
snow and rain.
Winters are chilly while summers are pleasant. Marshes have Cotton Grass and Sphagnum.
Vegetation consists of evergreen conifers-Deodar (Cedrus), Larch, Juniper, Spruce, Fir, Pine, Hemlock, Yew.
The needle-like leaves lose very little in transpiration. Being green, they continue to manufacture food.
Broad-leaved Birch, Maple, Poplar and Aspen occur at some places. Lichens, mosses, ferns and herbs are
abundant.
Ground has thick covering of fallen needles as the latter decay slowly.
Temperate Deciduous Forests
The area have warm summer and moderately cool winter. Rainfall is 75-150 cm.
Dominant trees are Oak, Elm, Birch, Maple Ash, Chestnut, Hickory, Beech, Poplar and Magnolia.
A mixed coniferous-broad leaved deciduous forest occurs in Indian hills between 1500-3500 m. Tree height can
reach 30-40 m.
P a g e 17 | 35
Tropical Deciduous Forests

Climate is warm with alternate wet and dry periods. Rainfall is 100-200 cm.
Vegetation includes broad-leaved trees which shed their leaves during dry season, e.g. Butea, Bombax, Shorea,
Dalbergai.
Famous Sal (Shorea), Teak (Tectona) and Sandal (Santalum) forests of India belong to their category.
Tropical Evergreen/Rain Forests
These occurs over equatorial/subequatorial regions with high warmth and rainfall (200-1000 cm/yr) almost
throughout year.
Impenetrable (jungle) with maximum diversity, ( 200 type of tree in one hectare, 70-80% of all insects and 80-
85% of all birds)
Productivity is also maximum, 12000 kcal/m2/yr as compared to 2000 kcal/m2/yr for taiga.
These forests occur in famous Congo basin of Africa and Amazon basin in South America.
In India they occur in Western Ghats, Assam and Andamans.
Vegetation shows stratification (layering)-emergent tree layer (50 m or more), dense canopy tree layer (35-40m),
understorey tree layer, shrub layer and ground layer. Epiphytes, climbers, mosses, ferns and orchids are
abundant.
Trees include Cinnamon, Mahogony, Ebony, Rosewood, Rubber Tree, Nutmeg, Artacarpus, Fig, etc.
Chapparal
It is broad-leaved scrub forest (sclerophyllous or thick leaved shrubs and small trees) found in Mediterranean and
pacific coast of several countries with winter rain and dry summer.
Bush fires are common. Several plants are fire resistant. Plants include Sage, Arctostaphylos, Adenostemma and
Coenothus.
Tropical Savannah
Warm climate plain with coarse grasses, scattered shrubs and trees, seasonal rain (wet and dry periods) and
frequent fire.
Savannah is named after dominant tree like Acacia, Phoenix, Eucalyptus.
Grassland
Grasses are dominant with non-graminaceous herbs, scattered bushes and occasional tree, e.g., prairies of
U.S.A./Canada, pampas of South America, steppes of Eurasia, tussocks of New Zealand, downs of Australia and
veldts of South Africa.
There is hot summer, cold witner, seasonal 25-75 cm rainfall. Grasses can be short of long.
Desert
It occupies 1/5 of land. It lacks rain (less than 25 cm) due to either being present in rain shadow (area beyond
high mountains which cut off clouds e.g. Tibet), lack of cloud intercepting mountains (e.g., Thar) or lying away
from cloud seeding regions, e.g. Death Valley (Great Western Desert) of U.S.A. Sahara (Africa), Gobbi, Arabian
and Thar of Asia ( Rajasthan ).
Desert can be cold (e.g., Tibet, Gobi) and hot (e.g., Thar, Sahara). Ground is sandy or rocky.
Vegetation is rare and contains cacti, euphorbia (succulents), Acacia, Phoenix, Tamarix, Echinops, Aerua, etc.
Alpine/Alpine Tundra
It is tree-less area on high mountains (above 3500 m), which has snow for long months.
It is well drained and slopy. Plants include lichens, mosses, grasses, herbs, small shrubs (e.g., Artemesia, Primula,
Arenaria, Anemone) and dwarf trees (e.g., Rhododendron, Abies, Juniperus). Long tree are absent.
In eastern Himalayas (i) Up to 1600 m elevation Subtropical vegetation (ii) Between 1600 and 3600 m
Temperature (iii) Between 3600 and 4600 m Alpine tundra.
Timber Line/Tree Line:
It is the zone in latitude and altitude beyond which trees cannot grow. Only shrubs (elfin scrub) and herbs
(alpine/arctic meadow) occur. It is between 3100-3600 m in western Himalayas.
Snow Line:
It is the zone in latitude and altitude beyond which snow occurs permanently.
Up to 1500m, every 100m elevation decreases temperature by 0.55oC but beyond it every 100m elevation decreases
temp. By 1.0oC.
Coldest Place:
Antarctic with air temperature of 80oC. Second coldest Dhar (India) with 72oC.
Oceanic Biome
Oceans occupy 73% of earths surface with salinity of 3.5% (0.5% in Red Sea and 1% Baltic Sea).
Continental shelf is gradually sloping (0.1 o) seashore up to 160km and depth of 8-200 m. It passes into
continental slope (3o6o) which leads to ocean floor at a depth of 6km-10 km.
There is littoral zone is continental shelf and a neritic zone above the same.
P a g e 18 | 35
The open sea/pelagic part is differentiated into photic zone (upto 200m depth, light penetrates the zone), aphotic
zone (200-2000 m depth, little light) and abyssal zone (dark zone), epipelagic (= photic zone), mesopelagic
(aphotic zone), bathypelagic (2000 m to near ocean floor) and abyssopelagic (ocean floor).
(a) Open Ocean : Productivity is 1000 kcal/m2/yr. The surface has phytoplankton (diatoms, dinoflagellates, other
unicellular and multicellular algae, some luminescent flagellates), zooplankton (protozoans, larvae, crustaceans)
and neuston (photosynthetic like Sargassum, phagotrophic like some crabs, gastropods, jelly fishes, Physalia).
The surface as well as lower part has nekton/nekton or swimming animals like turtles, snakes, squids, fishes,
marine birds.
Producers are absent in deep water.
The abyssal zone contains only carnivores/predators. Some of them have luminescent organs (e.g., Devil Fish,
Hatchet Fish), baits (e.g., Angler Fish), large heads (Granadier Fish, Gulper Eel).
The benthonic region has scavengers and decomposers.
(b) Coastal Region : Productivity is 2000-6000 kcal/m2/yr. The important producers of intertidal region are
Dictyota, Ulva, Fucus, Polysiphonia, Enteromorpha, Cladophora, Zostera (the only seed plant) besides
phytoplankton.
Consumers include zooplankton, bivalves, snails, crabs, barnacles, sponges, bryozoans, Neries, Star Fish, Sea
Urchin, tunicate.
In littoral zone there are strong waves. Attached algae include Laminaria, Macrocytis, Nereocystis, Alaria,
Gelidium, Corallina.
Neritic zone (constant water, pelagic) has plankton, neuston and nekton.
Coral reef is the area of maximum productivity and diversity. It develops in shallow coastal warm waters.
(c) Estuary : Tidal mouth of river/coastal bay where there is mixing of fresh and sea water.
Highly productive due to turbulence( measured by Secchi disc). There are fluctuations in temperature and salinity.
Flora containes phytoplankton (blue green algae, green algae, diatoms, dinoflagellates), zooplankton (protozoans,
crustaceans, rotifers), nekton (fishes and some crustaceans) and benthon (attached algae, snails, clams, prawns,
etc).
Euryhaline : Organisms which can tolerate wide fluctuations in salt concentration.
Stenohaline : Organisms which cannot toerate fluctuations is salt concentrations but live at nearly constant
concentration.
Catadermous (migrating into marine water) and Anadermous (migrating into fresh water)organisms are
found.
Ponds and lakes are stationary fresh waters.
Deep lakes and brackish lakes are oligotrophic with sparse biota due to little circulation of nutrients.
Shallow lakes and ox-bow (from main stream of river) lakes are eutrophic with rich biota and quick circulation of
nutrients.
Producers include phytoplankton (diatoms, Chlorella, Chlamydomonas, Spirogyra, Oedogonium,), free floating
macrophytes (Lemna, Pistia, Azolla), suspended Macrophytes (Utricularia, Ceratophyllum, Hydrilla), submergd
anchored plants (Vallisneria), floating leaved anchored plant ( Nelumbo, Nymphaea) and emergent plants (
Scripus, Sagittaria Phragmites).
A number of decomposers also occur on the bottom.
Marsh Biome : Turbid muddy biome with little plankton, having emergent hydrophytes, e.g. Typha, Phragmites,
Sphagnum.
Lotic/River Biome : It has high speed and low temperature in upper reaches. Detritus from land constitutes
important component of food. Producers grow along shallow banks with very slow moving water. Little vegetation
on upper stream.
Man-Made/Artifical Exosystems
They include aquaria, dams, parks, gardens, orchards, plantations, human settlements and agriculture.
These ecosystems have little diversity (generally monocultures), little recycling of nutrients and no self regulatory
mechanisms.
Agriculture created an agroecosystem, which differs from place to place depending upon climate, topographic and
edaphic factors.
Agroecology is study of relationships between agricultural crops and their surrounding animate as well as
environment.
Biotic community is richest when crops and their surrounding animate as well as inanimate environment and has
crop, seed, pests, birds, pollinators, nematodes, earthworms, insects, rodents, birds and decomposers.
Since there is little circulation of nutrients, agroecosystem is artificially irrigated, provided with biogenetic
nutrients, protected from weeds, pests and pathogens. There is little accumulation of biomass.
Ecological Efficiency
It is ratio of energy assimilated to energy available between trophic levels.
Ecological efficiency is also called progressive efficiency or productivity efficiency.
No organism is 100 % efficient.
P a g e 19 | 35
Productivity of Ecosystem : Rate of accumulation of energy containing organic matter by an ecosystem per unit
area per unit time.
Primary Productivity : It is amount of energy accumulation in green plants per unit area per unit time.
Maximum primary productivity occurs in coral reefs and estuaries followed by sugarcane fields and tropical
forests. Moderate productivity occurs in agricultural crops and temperate forests. Low productivity is found is
grassland followed by ponds lakes and oceans respectively. Very low productivity is present in deserts and arctic
regions.
Gross Primary Productivity : It is the total organic matter synthesized by the producers in the process of
phytosynthesis per unit area per unit time.
Net Primary Productivity : It is the total organic matter stored by produces per unit area per unit time.
Secondary Productivity : Secondary productivity is synthesis of organic matter by consumers per unit area per
unit time.
At a glance :
(12) Measurement of Wind Velocity : Anemometer.
(13) Measurement of Biomeass : Bomb Calorimeter.
(16) Eutrophic : Water body having good quantity of minerals and hence supra optimum growth of plants.
(17) Oligotrophic : Water body deficient in minerals and organic growth.
(18) Dystrophic : Rich in undecomposed organic mater, e.g. bogs, marshy lakes.
(19) Cryophytes/Psychrophtes : Plants growing in snown/permafrost/very cold area.
(20) Macroconsumers : Large-sized consumers. Phagotrophs or animals (herbivores, carnivores, omnivores) which
ingest other organisms or their particulate organic matter.
(21) Reducers : Decomposers, as they are able to degrade the dead bodies of organisms.
(22) Microconsumers : Saprotrophs/decomposers as they are small-sized consumers/heterotrophic organisms.
Generally constitute T6.
(23) Standing Crop : Amount of living material present in an ecosystem or biome at any time. If it is measured as
weight, the standing crop is called standing biomass.
(24) Standing State : The amount of biogenetic/inorganic materials present in the abiotic environment per unit area
at any time.
(30) Sunderbans : A marshy area having a mangrove vegetation. Tigers found in the area feed on crabs and fish due
to absence of their natural prey.
(31) Lentic (= Lenitic) : Pertaining to standing water, swamp or lake.
(32) Lotic : Pertaining to running water, river or brook.
(33) 10% Law: Proposed by Lindeman (1942). Applicable to both transfer of food (biomass) and energy from one
trophic level to the next.
(34) :
(i) GPP : Gross primary productivity.
(ii) NPP : Net primary productivity (GPP respiratory loos)
(iii) SP : Secondary productivity.
(35) Epilimnion : Upper stratum of (lake) water exposed to solar radiations warm in summer and cooler in winter
Circulates.
(36) Hypolimnion : Basal stratum of (lake) water which is always cool.
(37) Metalimnion : Transition zone between epilimnion and hypolimnion. Maximum temperature change occurs in
the middle called thermocline.
(39) Keystone Species : Species which influence ecosystem and determine is properties.
(41) Heathlands : Low shrubby areas, natural or secondary, as chapparal.
(42) Raunkier Forms :
Raunkier (1905, 1928, 1935) has divided plants into five forms on the basis of their height, perennating buds and
other adaptations to climate phanerophytes (perennating buds at height of more than 10 cm), chamaeophytes
(perennating buds just above ground level), hemicryptophytes (perennating buds at ground level), cryptophytes
(buds below ground level) and therophytes (annuals, perennatingas seds).
It is the sequence of population/organisms through which food and its contained energy pass in an ecosystem
with members at one step becoming food of later step of the sequence. Common food chains are predator food
chains. The third type of food chain is auxiliary (subsidery/ parasitic). It is terminated by parasite.
(i) Aquatic Food Chain : Phytoplankton Zooplankton Small Crustaceans Water Insects Small Fish Larger
Fish King Fisher.
(ii) Land Food Chain : Grass Grasshopper Frog Snake Pea Cock/Falcon/Eagle.
P a g e 20 | 35
Incident Solar Radiation

(100%)
(i) Absorbed- Gases, Water vapours

Photosynthetically Active (ii) Reflected Clouds
Radiation (PAR) (iii) Scattered Dust Particles
(50%) (50%)
Not Utilised
(45-49%)
Captured in Photosynthesis
(Gross Primary Productivity)
(1-5%)
Loss in Respiration
(0.2-1.0%)
Net Primary Productivity
(0.8-4.0%)
BIOSPHERE
Biosphere (Suess, 1875) or ecosphere is the living mantle or biologically inhabited part of earth (soil, water and
air from depth of oceans to tops of mountains) alongwith its abiotic/physicochemical components.
Biosphere extends to some 22.5 km. Life is most abundant at the interfaces of sea, air and earth.
Foundation/maintenance of life is based on (i) Flow of energy (ii) Circulation of nutrients or biogeochemical cycles.
Sub-divisions of Biosphere
Biosphere consists three interacting subdivisions - atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere
(i) Atmosphere : It is transparent gaseous mantle surrounding earth which extends to several kilometers and is
differentiated into- troposphere (10-18 km), stratosphere (10-50 km), mesosphere (50-100 km), thermosphere (100-
500 km) & exophere (500 -1600 km).
Troposphere shows lowering of temperature with height (15 oC to 55oC), cloud formation and manifestation of
weather conditions.
Dust particles are restricted to its lower part.
Stratosphere contains an ozonosphere or ozone layer (for filtering ultraviolet rays) at a height of about 25km.
Ozone (O3) is produced by action of UV on oxygen, resulting in splitting and interaction of oxygen molecules
(3O2 2O3).
Ionosphere is a region of thermosphere which is protective and radioreflective.
(i) Lithosphere : It is outer solid crust of earth. The exposed part or soil supports terrestrial life.
Lithosphere part of biosphere is, therefore, actually paedosphere (Odum). It has minerals, moisture and organic
matter.
(iii) Hydrosphere : Hydrosphere is liquid mantel of earth. It is differentiated into fresh water and sea water.
Closed and Open system
Earth is an open system for energy. It is continuously receiving solar energy. A fraction of it is trapped by
autotrophs.
Earth is closed system for materials, neither receiving (except for occasional meteorites) nor giving out any.
There is recycling of materials/matter between biotic and abiotic components of biosphere.
Energy flows unidirectionally - sun to producers, producers to consumers, consumers to consumers, organisms to
microbes.
Flow of energy
Bioenergetics is the study of flow of energy into biosphere, absorption by producers and transformation in living
beings.
Only 47% solar radiations reach the surface of earth (53% are reflected or absorbed by clouds, dust particles, etc.).
This energy controls atmosphere temperature, soil temperature, seasons (angle of radiations), climatic ones, air
currents, formation of water vapours, etc. Energy is ultimately dissipated.
Cycles of Matter/Biogeochemical Cycles/Recycling of Materials
They are exchanges/circulation of biogenetic nutrients between living and nonliving components of biosphere.
Biogenetic Nutrients/Biogeochemicals: They are essential elements required by organisms for their body
building and metabolism which are provided by earth and return to earth after their death and decay.
P a g e 21 | 35
Reservoir Pool: It is the reservoir of biogenetic nutrients from which the latter are slowly transferred to cycling
pool, e.g., Atmosphere, Lithosphere, hydrosphere.
Cycling Pool: Pool, which is being emptied and filled repeatedly by exchange between biotic and abiotic
components of biosphere.
Gaseous Cycles of Matter: Here the materials involved in circulation between biotic and abiotic components of
biosphere are gases or vapours and the reservoir pool is atmosphere or hydrosphere, e.g., Carbon, Hydrogen,
Oxygen, Nitrogen, Water.
Sedimentary Cycles of Matter: Materials involved in circulation between biotic and abiotic components of
biosphere are nongaseous and the reservoir pool is lithosphere, e.g., Phosphorus, Calcium, Magnesium.
Mixed cycle: Sulphur has both sedimentary and gaseous phases.
Gaseous cycles are rapid and more perfect as compared to sedimentary cycles.
Carbon Cycle
Carbon occurs as carbon dioxide in atmosphere (6 10 14 kg), bicarbonate, carbonic acid in hydrosphere (1.3 5.0
1015 kg) and in lithosphere (2.8 1021 kg) as carbonate, graphite, fossil fuels (coal, petroleum and natural gas).
Carbon dioxide is being added to the atmosphere through two types of processes :
(a) Biological : Respiration and decomposition release carbon dioxide.
CH4 is also produced during decomposition in rice fields, marshes and by ruminants.
In atmosphere, CH4 is oxidized to CO2.
(b) Nonbiological : Burning of biomass and fossil fuel release a lot of carbon dioxide. Burning of fossil fuels adds 6
1012 kg of carbon (as carbon dioxide) into atmosphere. 73% of its is produced by industrialized nations.
Photosynthesis fixes some 7 1013 kg of carbon. It releases oxygen (about 9 1013 kg).
One hectare of good forest picks up 30,000 kg of CO2/8000 kg of carbon and releases 10,000 kg of oxygen
annually.
Green House Effect
Arrhenius coined the term green house effect. The effect was discovered by Fourier (1827).
It is the warming effect found in green house by allowing solar radiations to pass in but preventing long wave heat
radiations to pass out due to glass panes, water vapours and carbon dioxide. Dusty/humid/cloudy nights are
warmer due to it.
The gases which are transparent to solar radiations but retina long wave heat radiations are called green house
gases.
The two most important green house gases are carbon dioxide (57%) and methane (12%). Others are
chlorofluorocarbons (15%), nitrogen oxides (6%), water vapours (5%) and ozone.
Halons : Fire extinguishers (CxFxBrx) cause global warming.
The major contributers are CO2 (57%), CFCs (15%), CH4 (12%) and nitrogen oxides (6%).
CFCs are 1500 times more active in warming than CO 2 while methane has 25 times more heat trapping potential
than CO2.
Methane is being added to atmosphere by paddy fields/marshes/cows (4-40 millions tones in India alone).
Carbon dioxide content is rising due to increased combustion of fossil fuels. Already CO 2 concentration of
atmosphere has risen from 0.027% to 0.033%.
Stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere are showing corresponding signs of cooling. Cooling in the
stratosphere is more harmful as it will create bigger ozone hole not only over Antarctica but also over Arctic region.
Cooling in thermosphere would disrupt radio communications and further warm the lower atmosphere. The latter
will cause melting of polar snow and glaciers to produce floods, raising of sea level and inundation of coastal
areas.
Greenland ice has melted between 20-100 cm during 1993-1998 (NASA).
In Kyotoconference of 1997, the rich natiosn have agreed to limit the emission of green-house gases.
Oxygen cycle
Oxygen occurs as free gas (20.99%) in atmosphere, dissolved in water, as component of CO 2, nitrogen oxides,
water, sulphate, phosphate and a number of other chemicals in the lithosphere.
(i) Consumption of Oxygen : Oxygen is consumed in respiration, combustion and chemical oxidations.
(ii) Liberation of Oxygen : Major source of oxygen liberation is photosynthesis.
Photodissociation liberates oxygen from water at higher altitudes. Decomposition and many chemical reactions
also liberate oxygen.
Nitrogen Cycle
78.03% of the atmosphere consists of nitrogen. It is most critical element. (for detailes see in physiology)
Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus is second critical element. It occurs in nucleic acids, nucleotides including ATP, bones, teeth,
phospholipids.
It is obtained from soil as phosphate. Organic phosphorus circulates in nature from plants to animals.
Phosphate is released by decomposers (phosphatising bacteria) back to soil. Some phosphate is lost through
leaching.
P a g e 22 | 35
It is extracted from mines of rock phosphate or metal phosphates. Guano (excreta of Sea Birds) and bone are used
to enrich soil.
Phosphorous circulates through hydrosphere and lithosphere. Atmospheric component is absent.
Sulphur cycle
Sulphur is a constituent of many proteins, vitamins, enzymes and coenzymes. It is obtained by plants as sulphate.
From plants, the organic sulphur circulates in food chain and is released to abiotic environment by decomposers.
Decomposers produce H2S and dimethyl sulphide (anaerobic breakdown from water logged soils, ponds, marshes),
S and SO2.
Both H2S and SO2 pass into atmosphere where H2S is oxidized to SO2.
Sulphur dioxide comes back to soil as sulphite/thiosulphate is extracted from mines (as S, metal sulphide and
sulphate).
Hydrologic/Water Cycle
It is regular circulation of water amongst different components of biosphere, 97% of water occurs in oceans. Only
3% is fresh water.
70% of fresh water (2.1% of total) is found as ice/snow, 22.4% (0.67%) as ground water while remaining is found
in lakes, rivers, etc.
Water evaporates from oceans, ponds, lakes, ground, plants (as transpiration) and animals (as sweat and in
breath).
Water vapours condense and form clouds which precipitate to produce rain and snow.
90% of ocean evaporation returns to it as rain while 10% extra falls on land surface. This forms lakes, rivers and
ground water.
Rivers are constantly pouring water into oceans. Ground water is pumped and withdrawn by plants.
At any time atmosphere contains 0.13 10 20 G (1G = 1020 g) water vapours. Annual precipitation is around 4.46
1020 G.
Hydrologic cycle has two components, global and local.
Local component is also short cycle. It involves evaporation of water from an area, its condensation high up in the
atmosphere and precipitation over the same area. Local rain also occurs is some forests.
Global component is long cycle that involves circulation of water vapours in the atmosphere, movement of clouds,
precipitation, movement of water from one area to another. Hydrological or water cycle is energized by solar
energy.
At a glance
Sources of Green House Gases
(a) Carbon Dioxide : Wood burning, fossil fuel burning, respiration.
(b) Nitrogen Oxides : From organic matter and nitrate fertilizers through dentrifying bacteria, also fossil fuel
buning.
(c) Methane : Biogas, rice fields, cattle and other herbivores.
(d) Chlorofluorocarbons : Refrigeration, air conditioners, aerosols, and other industries.
(ii) Ozone Depleting : NO2, chiorofluorocarbons, Halocarbons/halons, CO.
(iii) Standing State : The amount of biogenetic or inorganic material present in the abiotic environment per unit
area at any time.
(iv) Oxygen : Though constituting nearly 21% of the atmosphere, oxygen is the most abundant element,
constituting nearly 49%.
(v) Beijerinck (1888) : Isolated Bacillus radicicola and demonstrated its ability to produce root nodules.
(vi) Winogradsky (1891) : Discovered nitrogen fixation.
(vii) Guano : Excreta from sea birds and others which can be used as fertilizer due to being rich in phosphate and
uric acid.
(viii) Carbon : It constitutes 49% of organic matter.
(ix) Gangotri Glacier : Between 1842-1935, Gangotri glacier was receding at the rate of 7.3 m/yr while between
1935-1990 the rate was 18 m/yr. The current rate of retreat is 30 m/yr.
Rest
Nitrogen Cycle
78.03% of the atmosphere consists of nitrogen. Some is being added to it through volcanic eruptions, erosion of
sedimentary rocks and denitrification. Plants obtain nitrogen as nitrate (occasionally ammonia) which is available
only in certain rocks. Atmospheric nitrogen (N2) is not utilized. At one time only a small amount of utilizable
nitrogen is present in the soil and water bodies. Therefore, nitrogen is a critical element.. Besides very small
amount of dissolution from weathering rocks, nitrogen compounds are formed through nitrogen fixation of three
types :
(i) Atmospheric Nitrogen Fixation : With the help of lightning (electro-chemical) and high energy radiations
(photochemical reactions), a small quantity of nitrogen combines with oxygen to form nitrogen oxides that are
washed down with rain water.
Annual fixation is 35mg/m2 yr
P a g e 23 | 35
(ii) Biological Nitrogen Fixation : Free living bacteria (e.g., Azotobacter, Clostridium), symbiotic bacteria (e.g.,
Rhizobium, Frankia), free living cyanobacteria (e.g. Aulssira, Tolypothrix, Nostoc, Anabaena) and symbiotic
cyanobacteria (e.g., Anabaena species) convert N2 into ammonia which combines with organic acids to produce
amino acids. Annual fixation is 140-700 mg/m2/yr, 175 million tones, 70% of the total supply.
(iii) Industrial Nitrogen Fixation : Ammonia is produced industrially (N2 + 3H2 2NH3). It is also converted to urea.
Nitrate/ammonia is absorbed by plants, changed to ammonia, amino acids, proteins, nucleotides, etc. Animals
obtain their requirement of organic nitrogen from plants. Animal excretion, dead bodies of plants and animals, are
acted upon by decomposers or ammonifying bacteria (e.g., Bacillus vulgaris, B. ramosus) to liberate ammonia.
Ammonia is changed to nitrite by nitrite bacteria (e.g., Nitrosomonas, Nitrococcus) which is then oxidized to
nitrate by nitrate bacteria (e.g., Nitrocysits, NItrobacter). The last two are collectively called nitrifying bacteria.
There are some bacteria which reduce nitrates and change them into free nitrogen. They are called denitrifying
bacteria (e.g., Thiobacillus denitriicans, Pseudomonas denitrificans).
NATURAL RESORUCES AND THEIR UTILISATION

Noosphere
Human beings have evolved from hunting, fishing, food gatherer, agricultural, industrial and technological states.
Human beings have their own socio-cultural environment.
The biosphere has been changed to human dominated environment called noosphere.
Natural Resources/Earth Resources
They are those living and nonliving components of atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere which can be drawn
upon for supporting life or have potential of being used by humans for their requirements.
Resources may vary from society to society. Onge tribesmen of Andamans dont use silver/gold.(not resources for
them.)
Resources may be inorganic (e.g., minerals, water), organic (organisms or their products) or mixed (e.g., soil).
They can be national (minerals, land), multinational (certain rivers, migratory animals) or international
(sunlight, air).
Inexhaustible Resource: Found in such abundance that it is unlikely to diminish or get exhausted.e.g., air, clay,
sand.
Exhaustible Resource: Likely to diminish and then get exhausted due to continuous use or exploitation, e.g.,
minerals, fossil fuel, forests, pastures, aquatic organisms. These are of two types, renewable and non-renewable.
(a) Renewable Resource. It is a natural resource which gets replenished, recycled or reproduced and should not be
used beyond its enewability e.g., forest, underground water, wildlife, aquatic organisms.
(b) Nonrenewable Resource. It is a natural resource which is likely to get exhausted with the use because of its lack
of recycling (e.g., fossil fuel, Biological species) or very long recycling time (e.g., minerals).
Atmosphere/Air
It is the transparent gaseous mantle around the earth. It consists of nitrogen (78.03), oxygen (20.99%), argon
(0.94%), carbon dioxide (0.03%), traces of other gases, water vaporus, dust particles, etc. Atmosphere has five
parts
(i) Troposphere : It extends to about 10-18 km showing fall of temperature with height (15o C to 55oC), cloud
formation,
manifestation of weather conditions and presence of dust particles, pollen, spores, etc. in the lower part.
Troposphere is source of gases and medium of locomotion for flying animals.
Modern-day jet planes generally fly through upper part of troposphere and lower part of stratosphere.
Tropopause is transitional layer between troposphere and stratosphere.
(ii) Stratosphere : Between 10-50 km, rise of temp.with height (-55oC to 2oC), has ozone, lacks dust and water
vapours.
Ozonosphere/Ozone Layer : It is part of stratosphere where ozone is concentrated (about 25 km from earth).
Ozone layer filters out ultra-violet radiations from solar radiations.
Stratopause is transitional layer between stratosphere and mesosphere.
(iii) Mesosphere : Between 50-100 km and is characterized by decrease in temperature with altitude (-2o to 92oC).
Mesopause is transitional layer between mesosphere and thermosphere.
(iv) Thermosphere : Between 100-500 km altitude and shows rise of temperature with rise of altitude (-92oC to
1200oC).
Monosphere is a multilayered region of thermosphere which is characterized by presence of ions and free
electrons.
Ionosphere filters out cosmic and X-rays. Satellites are usually stationed in thermosphere.
Homosphere: Part of atmosphere upto 100 km altitude which is homogenous in composition due to circulation or
movement of air. Heterospher: It is outer part of atmosphere or thermosphere which shows variations in
composition.
(v) Exosphere : Outer most part of atmosphere (500-1600 km) where particles have tendency to escape into outer
space.
P a g e 24 | 35
Energy Resources
Daily per capita requirement of energy was 2000-4000 kcal in hunting and food gatherer stage.
In developing countries per capita energy consumption is 10,000 kcal (6000 kcal in 1970).
In industrial stage of 19th century, per capita consumption of energy rose to 70,000 kcal in advanced countries.
Today per capita energy consumption of U.S.A. is 250,000 kcal. Developed countries(30% population) are
consuming
80% of energy.
YE BHI JAN LO
(1) Renewable Energy: Solar, Biomass, Hydropower, Wind, Tidal energy, Geothermal , Ocean wave, Hydrogen energy.
(2) Non-enewable Energy: Fossil fuel, Atomic energy
(3) Conventional energy resources: Which are in common use or being used from old time, e.g., animal power, fuel
wood, fossil fuel, hydroelectric energy.
(4) Nonconventional energy resources: Which are either new or have not been in common use, e.g., solar energy,
nuclear energy, wind energy, geothermal energy, tidal energy.
Types of energy resources:
(i) Animal Power : It is a renewable conventional energy resource got from draught animals.
Draught animals are used in transport, drawing water and agriculture, e.g., bullocks, buffaloes, camels, horses.
(ii) Firewood/Fuelwood : It is a renewable conventional resource used for cooking and heating in villages.
More than 2 billion persons employ wood as fuel, consuming 1.8 billion m3 of it. In India, annual consumption of
firewood is around 300 million m3 with natural availability being only 60 million m3.
The rest is got from excessive tree felling leading to deforestation.
(iii) Organic Wastes : They constitute a renewable resource. Availability in India is over 3000 million tones. Out of this
1650 million tones is animal dung, night soil and wastes from food processing industry.
(iv) Energy Plantation : It is growing of firewood trees on nonforest and nonagricultural lands.
(v) Energy Cropping : Growing crops which yield fuel. Alcohol can be obtained from Potato, Sugarcane, Maize,
Tapioca.
Latex having long chain hydrocarbons is present in plants c/d petroplants, e.g. Jatropha, Euphorbia lathyrus,
Brickellia.
(vi) Fossil Fuels : Nonrenewable, conventional energy resources found inside earths crust where they have been
formed through heat and compression on forests and other organic matter buried underneath due to earthquakes,
landslides.
They gives 70% of total energy needs of the world and 87.4% of all commercial energy. Per capita index of energy
consumptionis MTOE (metric tonnes of oil equivalent).
Max. for Canada (9.15 MTOE), high for U.S.A. (7.3 MTOE), for Britain & France (3.8 MTOE) and for India(0.5
MTOE).
In India 58% of commercial energy is got from coal and 38% from petroleum along with natural gas. In India,
petroleum reserves are low, being mainly present in Assam, Gujarat, Bombay High and Narmada Basin.
They do not meet even 50% of total petroleum requirement. Despite limited reserves, demand for fossil fuels is
rising, annually by 6% on global basis and 15% in India. Therefore, alternate sources of energy are urgently
required.
Gasification of coal, compressed natural gas (CNG), gasohol (petrol + alcohol) are being tried.
(vii) Hydroelectric Power : It is cheap, conventional and almost inexhaustible source of energy where falling water
(now flowing also) runs turbines to generate power.
It requires dam/reservoir building which destroys forests, wildlife and displaces several villages.
Biggest dam of the world, Three Gorges Dam( China ). India produces only 6.8% of its commercial energy from it.
(viii) Nuclear Energy : It is non-conventional nonrenewable resource. Nuclear fission (now fusion also) of selected
ratio-active materials yields large amount of heat energy.
First nuclear reactor(Three Mile Island) built in U.S.A. (Dec. 2, 1942) . France get 73% of commercial energy from
it.
India get hardly 1% of commercial energy Kalpakkan (T.N.) Narora (U.P.) Tarapur (Maharashtra), Kota
(Rajasthan).
(ix) Solar Energy : Solar energy is inexhaustible nonconventional resource.
(x) Wind Energy : Inexhaustible resource, which was used in very old times in grinding grains, lifting water & propelling
ships.
The instrument that converts wind energy into electric energy is called wind mill. Netherland is land of wind
mills.
A steady wind of more than 25km/hr is required to run a wind mill, e.g., coasts, mountains, certain velleys and
plains.
Asias largest wind mill is at Lamba (Gujarat). In India, wind energy production was only 2MW in 1989 and 950 MW in
1998.
P a g e 25 | 35
(xi) Geothermal Energy : Non-conventional source, where heat present in hot interior rocks or hot water coming
out of them is used for generating electricity. A 5.0 kw geothermal (hydrothermal) power plant is working at
Manikaran in H.P.
(xii) Tidal Energy : It is a nonconventional inexhaustible source of energy. Tides moving in narrow areas are allowed
to run dual flow turbines. A tidal power plant is being established in Gulf of Kutch.
Water Resource
It is a major renewable inorganic resource which is an essential component of all living beings, a habitat for
several organisms, determinant of vegetation and climate, floods and droughts, required for drinking, bathing,
washing, cooling, construction work, disposal of sewage and industrial effluents, irrigation, etc.
It forms 3% of total water. Major part of 77.2% occurs as glaciers and ice caps, 22.4% as ground water and about
0.36% in reservoirs, lakes, ponds, rivers, canals, etc. Fresh water/inland fisheries yield 2.3 million tonnes of fish
(1998).
Oceans occupy 73% of earth, constitute 97% of total water, manufacture 85% of total biomass.
Land Resources
Solid exposed crust of earth occurring in 27% of area or 13393 million hectares. 30% of land has forests, 22%
meadows and pastures, 20% desert, 14.4% polar ice caps, glaciers, 2.6% human establishments and 11%
cultivated.
Mineral Resources
Minerals are larbely nonrenewable inorganic resources that are presently mined from lithosphere.
India has abundant Iron, Manganese, Limestone, Dolomite, Chromite and Mica but is deficient in Lead,
Potassium, Phosphorus, Nickel, Copper, Silver and Gold. Phosphate rocks have recently discovered in Jawar Kota
in Rajasthan
(i) Nonmetallic Minerals : Asbestos (insulation, ceramics), corundum (abrasive),feldspar (ceramics),fluorspar
(refrigerant)
(ii) Metallic Minerals : Beryllium (alloys, refractories, atomic energy), Titanium (pigments, alloys), zirconium
(ceramics, refractories), Columbium (stainless steel, nuclear reactors), Thorium (atomic energy), Uranium (atomic
energy).
Plant Resources
Renewable organic resource which, being producers, form the basis of biotic existence and man-made
environment.
Maintain balance of CO2/O2, provide shelter to animals, moderate the climate, increase rainfall and prevent soil
erosion.
Animal Resources
Out of 1.2 million animal species, only a few are domesticated and exploited
(i) Food : Fowls and ducks, goat, sheep, rabbit, pig (meat), cow, buffalo, reindeer, sheep (milk and meat), honey.
(ii) Pets : Dogs, Cats, Pigeons. (iii) Wool : Sheep, Angora Rabbit, Kashmiri Goat.
(iv) Silk (silkworm), lac (lac insect), musk (musk deer), ivory (elephant), cantharidine (blister beetle).
NOTE :
Human habitations have converted many animals into inquilines ( living in homes of others and sharing their
food), e.g., mice, lizards, cockroaches, scorpions.
There are others which flourish better in human habitations than in closed forest communites. They are called
opportunist inquilines, e.g., crows, mynah, weeds.
Many types of plants have been brought under cultivation. The ancestry of some of these have been lost. Plants
whose ancestry has become obscure and which cannot survive in nature without human help are called
cultigens, e.g., Tomato, Cabbage, Miaze.
Alterations in Environment
Physical environment : Human beings have altered 55% of earths surface and considerably changed 20% of
total land through.
(i) Reclamation of culturable wasteland. (ii) Digging canals, ponds, lakes, dams, etc. (iii) Quarrying (iv) Building of
roads and railway lines through mountains, pastures, forests, etc.(v) Clearing of forests and grasslands for human
settlements and croplands. (vi) Disposal of sewage and industrial effluents spoil quality of water and soil. (vii)
Excessive pumping of ground water, use of fertilizers and pesticides have caused aridity, acidification, salination
and desertification. (viii) Over-exploitation of forests has resulted in deforestation that is accompanied by excessive
soil erosion, floods, change in rainfall and climate. (ix) Excessive use of fossil fuels has given rise to acid rain
(destructive to vegetation and buildings) and global warming.
Biotic Environment (i) Clearing of forests and grasslands has destroyed a large number of plant and animal
species. Development of croplands has changed complex stable ecosystems into simple vulnerable ecosystem.
(ii) Excessive use of irrigation and fertilizers has changed fertile land into wasteland.
(iii) Human habitations have converted many animals into inquilines (commensals, living in homes of others and
sharing their food), e.g., mice, lizards, cockroaches, scorpions. There are others which flourish better in human
habitations than in closed forest communites. They are called opportunist inquilines, e.g., crows, mynah, weeds.
(iv) Several animals have been domesticated. A few are captured and kept as pets.
P a g e 26 | 35
(v) Many types of plants have been brought under cultivation. The ancestry of some of these have been lost. Plants
whose ancestry has become obscure and which cannot survive in nature without human help are called
cultigens, e.g., Tomato, Cabbage, Miaze.
(vi) Human beings have introduced plants and animals into new areas. For example, one third of insects in U.S.A.
are foreign in origin. Agriculture, horticulture and animal husbandry have involved large scale introductions.
However, such transfers have also brought serious weeds and pests into new areas. Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia
crassipes) has becomes a serious water weed in India. Opuntia became a weed in Australia till it was controlled
through introduction of Cochineal Insect (Cactoblastosis). Elephant in Nicobars, Cheetal/Spotted Deer in
Andamans, Rabbit in Australia, Indian Mongoose in West Indies are such imbalanced introductions. The latest
weed to enter India is Cotton Grass (Parthenium hysterophorus, 1956).
At a glance:
1. IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (1948).
2. Geological/Natural/Normal Erosion : Slow erosion due to physical agencies of water and wind under normal
environmental equilibria. It is generally less or equal to amount of new soil being formed from below through
weathering.
3. Accelerated/Artificial Erosion : The Erosion is more than the amount of new soil being formed from below e.g.,
excessive rainfall, acute drought, overgrazing, deforestation, scraping, removal of litter, etc.
4. Landslide/Slip Erosion : Rock masses become loosened due to repeated rainfall and percolation. Hence slip
erosion along the slope.
5. Riparian Erosion : Caused by siltation of river beds and overflowing in rainy season. Bank cutting is also riparian
erosion.
6. Wave Erosion : Due to striking of water waves on the shores.
7. Wind Velocity : 2.5 times more at 1 m height as compared to 2 cm above land surface.
8. Wind Erosion : Small particles (less than 1 mm) get suspended in wind, medium sized (1.0-1.5 mm) show
saltation and temporary suspension while large sized particles creep along the ground in the direction of wind.
9. Stratosphere : Supersonic jets fly in the stratosphere. Their exhausts deplete the ozone layer.
10. Edaphic, Pertaining to soil like edaphic factors.
11. Pedology/Edaphology : Soil science.
12. Pedogenesis :
(i) Formation of soil. It involves addition of hums (humification) into weathered mineral matter. Certain workers
include both weathering and humification under pedogenesis.
(ii) Reproduction in larval stage as axolotl larva.
13. Physiologically Dry soil : A soil having sufficient water but the same is not absorbed by plants due to high salt
content and nonavailability of oxygen or presence of low temperature.
14. Effect of Climate on Soil :
(i) Gleization : Formation of structureless layer in the soil which is sticky and compact, poor in aerationand iron
(glei/gley) as in wet and cold tundra.
(ii) Podsolisation : Base poor acidic soil formed by leaching of basic minerals with the help of organic acids
formed during slow decomposition of organic matter in temperate area. Podsols are generally covered by a petty
fibrous layer.
(iii) Laterisation : It is the formation of iron rich clayey soil due to rapid decomposition of organic matter,
solubilisation and leaching of silica, silicates and bases in tropical soils with both high temperature and high
rainfall. Top soil is pink while subsoil is reddish.
(iv) Calcification : In semi-arid areas.
15. Chernozem : Calcium rich dark coloured humus rich soil which does not show distinction of A and B horizons
due to activity of burrowing animals including earthworms.
16. Azonal Soils : Soils without a profile due to either immaturity or transportation (e.g., alluvial soil brought by
water and eolian soil brought by wind).
Soil Erosion : It is removal of top soil by the agency of water (water erosion) and wind (wind erosion). Run-off
water brings about
(i) Sheet Erosion : Removal of extremely thin layer or sheet from soil surface.
(ii) Rill Erosion : Development of finger like or groove-like narrow depressions or rills due to running water.
(iii) Gully Erosion : Deeper, wider channels developed by cutting power of running water 15-30 m deep gullies are
called ravines.
Wind erosion is caused by carrying of very fine soil particles as dust, saltation and surface creep of larger
particles.
Control of Soil Erosion/Soil Conservation :
(i) Crop Rotation : It is the practice of sowing different crops, usually legume and nonlegume, in successive seasons
on the same piece
of land for maintaining soil fertility.
(ii) Mixed Cropping : Two or more crops simultaneously on the same land.
(iii) Mulching : Covering of harvested filed with plant litter or polyethene (LDPE or low density polyethylene) in order
to decrease run
P a g e 27 | 35
off, prevent growth of weeds and retention of water.

(iv) Strip Cropping : Sowing of perennial crops alternating with annulas, or annuals with different seasons of sowing
and harvestig.
(v) Terracing : Slope is divided into a number of flat fields for slowing down the flow of water.
(vi) Contour Bunding : Raising small bunds on edges of fields to prevent loss of top soil through water or wind.
(vii) Wind Breaks : Growth of several alternate rows of trees and shrubs at right angles to prevalent direction of wind
for reducing its speed and preventing carrying of soil particles.
(viii)Afforestation and Reforestation : Plantation of forests in new area is afforestation and refrestation in deforested
area.
(ix) Controlled Grazing : Grazing is allowed in certain seasons and only for a limited number of animals.
Reduction of Soil Fertility : It is caused by
(i) Overuse that withdraws minerals from the upper layers. (ii) Leaching of minerals (iii) Salination and alkalization
(iv) Water-logging (v) Change in pH (vi) Absence of humus (vii) Overgrazing. (viii) Monoculture or non-rotation of
crops.
Restoration of Soil Fertility : (i) Stoppage of overuse or over-cropping. (ii) Rotation of crops (iii) Green manuring
(iv) Addition of manure and required fertilizers (v) Proper irrigation (vi) Maintenance of soil pH and porocity
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Pollution
Pollution is any change in physical, chemical or biological characteristics of the environment that has the
potentiality to hrm human life, life of other desirable species, natural resources, cultural assets and industries.
World Environment Day : 5th June.
Ecotoxicology : Study of passage of toxic materials in ecosystems, their transformation, degradation and
persistence.
Contamination is presence of harmful organism or their toxins that cause discomfort or disease.
Natural pollution: Pollution caused by natural sources, e.g., volcanic eruptions, release of methane by paddy
fields and cattle, release of carbon monoxide by plants and animals, emission of natural gas, ozone, nitrogen
oxides, soil erosion, dust storms, cosmic rays, ultra-violet rays etc.
Man-made or anthropogenic pollution: Pollution resulting from human activities like burning of fossil fuels,
deforestation, mining, sewage, industrial effluents, pesticides, fertilizers, etc.
It is hardly 0.05% of total but is more dangerous because of its concentration in certain localities.
On the basis of emission of pollution, it can be
(i) Point Source Pollution : From a single point, e.g., chimney, municipal sewer.
(ii) Line Source Pollution : Pollution is passed along a narrow belt, e.g. roads due to automobile exhausts.
(iii) Area Source Pollution : In a definite area. e.g., mining area, industrial estate.
(iv) Diffuse Source Pollution : It is over a large area, e.g., sprayed pesticides or fertilizers through run-off.
Pollutant
It is a substance(chemical or factor), which has potentiality to adversely affect natural characteristics of
environment.
Pollution may be a substance in wrong place, e.g., fertilizer causes water pollution.
Primary Pollutant : Pollutant persisting in the environment in the form it is produced e.g., carbon monoxide.
Secondary Pollutant : Pollutant formed from a primary one through change or reaction.
Nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons react photochemically to produce peroxyacyl nitrates and ozone.
The secondary pollutants may be more toxic than the primary ones. The phenomenon is called synerigism.
Qualitative Pollutant : It causes harm due to its nature. It is often produced due to human activity, e.g.,
insecticides.
Quantitative pollutant : pollutant only when its concentration reaches beyond a threshold value, e.g., CO 2, CO.
Degradable Pollutant : Degrades after some time either automatically (e.g. heat) or by microorganisms (e.g.,
sewage).
Nondegradable Pollutant : Does not get degraded or broken down into harmless material, e.g., DDT, plastics.
Atmospheric Pollution
It is the addition of particulate matter, gases and other ingredients into air.
It is total about 1 1012 tonnes. Man-made only 5 108 tonnes or 0.05% of the total.
Major sources of atmospheric pollution are (i) Combustion of fossil fuels in homes, factories, thermal plants,
automobiles, aircrafts, railways, etc. (ii) Mining and processing (iii) Chemical industries. (iv) Procesing industries,
etc.
52% of air it by CO, 18% by SO2, 12% by hydrocarbons, 10% by particulates, 6% by NOx and 2% by the remaining.
(1) Particulate Matter : It has soot, flyash, dusts, fur, hair, spores, pollen grains, etc. It is differentiated into:
(a) Settleable: Larger than 10 m and settle down from after some time.
(b) Suspended: Less than 10 m.
SPM (suspended particulate matter) is maximum in Calcutta (Tokyo is the most polluted city of the world).
P a g e 28 | 35
It is differentiated into aerosol (less than 1 m) dust (more than 1 m) and mist (liquid, more than 1 m).
Particles of 2-4 m size are mostly deposited in the respiratory tract.
Soot (incomplete burning of carbohydrates), smoke, flyash (fine particulate matter passed out alongwith gases
during of coal) and dust deteriorate the quality of articles, closes stomata, produce allergic reactions,( bronchial
asthma )
Grey Snow : Occurred in Norway due to soot from industrial Ruhr area of Germany.
(2) Carbon Monoxide: Produced due to incomplete combustion and naturally by plants as well as animals.
70% emissions are from automobiles. Carbon monoxide combines with haemoglobin, produces
carboxyhaemoglobin.
At 50 ppm, CO converts 7.5% of haemoglobin into carboxy-haemoglobin within 8 hours.
It impairs oxygen transport resulting in , headache, decreased vision, cardiovascular malfunction and asphyxia.
(3) Carbon Dioxide : It is a green house gas, the concentration of which is constantly rising (0.033 from 0.029 and
expected to be doubled by 2020). In excess it causes headache and nausea.
CO2 Concentration : 316 ppm in 1960 and 539 ppm in 1994.
(4) H2S : It is a product of putrefaction, treatment of sulphur containing ores, refineries.
It causes mottled chlorosis and defoliation in plants, decolourises paints, produces eye and throat irritation.
(5) Hydrocarbons : They are produced naturally (e.g., marsh gas) as well as due to incomplete combustion.
Hydrocarbons, especially polynuclear aromatic (with 2 or more fused benzene rings) or PAH, are carcinogenic,
cause irritation of eyes and mucous membrane and bronchial constriction.
Methane (marsh gas) is produced naturally during decomposition of organic matter. Paddy fields, cattle and
incomplete combustion. It is a green house gas, which is oxidized in the atmosphere to SO2.
(6) Sulphur Dioxide : It is produced during combustion of fossil fuels and smelting of sulphur containing ores.
Sulphur dioxide produces smog. Maximum SO2 pollution is found in Calcutta.
It damage membrane, destruction of chlorophyll (changed to phaeophytin), necrosis & water soaked
appearance.
Lichens are the most sensitive to SO2 pollution. Mossess and Garden Pea are also destroyed.
SO2 corrodes metals, equipment, damages buildings, marble, paper and textiles.
SO2 (alongwith NOx) produces acid rain that destroys vegetation and degrades various articles (like SO2).
Threat to Taj from Mathura refinery is due to SO 2, H2S and Nox, convert CaCO3 (marble) into CaSO4 & Ca(NO3)2
(7) Nitrogen Oxides : They are formed electro-photo-chemically in air, burning of fossil fuels and denitrifying
bacteria.
Maximum NO2 pollution is recorded from Baroda.
NO2 cause necrosis, defoliation, dieback and death of plants, Like SO 2, they corrode metals and deteriorate paints.
Produce eye irritation, lung oedema, injury to liver & kidneys. Carcinogenic, from secondary pollutants.
(8) Fluorides : They are given out during refining of minerals (e.g., aluminium, also from ground water).
13 states of India possess high flurodie content in drinking water (more than 1.5ppm or mg/l).
Fluorides cause florosis. In plants there is chlorosis and necrosis of leaf tips and leaf margins, followed by
abscission.
Causes abnormal calcification of bones and teeth (making weak), frequent diarrhoea and swelling of knee bones.
Causes mottling of teeth, weak bone, boat-shaped posture, knocking knee, gastrointestinal & neuromuscular
disorders.
(9) Chlorofluorocarbons/Chlorofluoromethane/Freon/Aerosols : They are chemicals used as refrigerants,
propellants and solid plastic foams. The chemicals are released as aerosol by jets flying at high altitudes.
Along with nitrogen oxides, chlorofluorocarbons react with ozone of ozonosphere and depletes the same.
Hole in the ozone shield over Antarctic region has widened from 129 to 133 dobson units in 1994 alone.
This can increase the amount of ultraviolet radiations reaching the earth.
(10) Photochemical Oxidants : They are secondary pollutants (ozone, peroxy-acyl nitrates, aldehydes and phenols)
produced due to photochemical reactions between nitrogen oxides and unsaturated hydrocarbons.
(i) Ozone : Destroys chlorenchyma, produces necrosis, hardens rubber, damages textile, injure mucous membranes.
(ii) Proxy-Acyl Nitrates (PAN, also PPN): Parenchyma destroyed, Silvering, glazing, bronzing & necrosis in leaves.
(iii) Aldehydes : Irritation in gastro-intestinal and respiratory tracts.
(iv) Phenols : Damage to kidneys, liver spleen and lungs.
Bhopal gas tragedy (Dec, 1984) was due to release of phosgene and methyl isocyanate. Dec. 3, 1984. Methyl
isocyanat (MIC) leaked out from pesticide unit of Union Carbide.
It actually cause the water pollution. It killed over 2000 and injured over 250,000 persons.
National Pollution Prevention Day : 2, December
(12) Automobile Exhausts : It causing 80% of air pollution and 75% of noise pollution in urban areas.
They release hydrocarbons (13.7%), CO2(77.2%), NO2 (7.7%), SO2, NH3, aldehydes and lead (90% of total lead poisoning).
Polonium 210 : Radioactive carcinogen probably as companion of antiknock lead added to gasoline in
automobile.
(13) Smog (Des Voeux, 1905): It is dark fog having condensed water vapours, dust, smoke and gases (SO2, H2S, NO2,)
P a g e 29 | 35
It causes silvering/glazing and necrosis in plants, allergies and asthma/bronchitis in humans.

Famous smogs of worlds are Los Angeles smog (1946), London smog (1952), Tokyo (Rome, New York,
Sydney1970).
Smog is of two types :
(i) Classical (London)/Sulphurous Smog : Occurs at low temp., has sulphur gases (H2 S, SO2), smoke and dust
particles.
It has reducing atmosphere, contains oxides of sulphur, smoke, moisture and requires low temperature.
(ii) Photochemical (Los Angleles) Smog : Occurs at high temperature over cities and towns due to emission of
nitrogen oxides and carbohydrates from automobile exhausts and solar energy.
It has oxidizing atmosphere, no or little smoke, and requires photochemical reaction for producing secondary
pollutants
Nitrogen dioxide splits into nitric oxide and nascent oxygen. Nascent O 2 combines with molecular O2 to from O3.
O3 reacts with carbohydrates to form aldehydes and ketones. NOx, O2 and ketones combine to form peroxy-acyl-
nitrates (PAN) .
(14) Pollen/Spores : They cause allergic reactions or hay fever in certain persons. e.g. parthinium, caster,
convolvulus.
Control of Air Pollution
(1) Automobiles :
(i) Two-stroke engines fitted in two wheelers (waste fuel 20-30%) be changed to either four-stroke engines of fitted
with catalytic converters specially designed for them. A low cost catalytic converter has been developed at BHU.
(ii) Leaded petrol by replaced with unleaded one and diesel with low sulphur diesel.
(iii) Tune-ups (for high air-fuel ratio) and catalytic converters (for oxidizing CO CO2 and reducing NO N2) be fitted
in automobiles.
(2) Begasse and Rice Husk : Begasse should not be used as fuel. Rice husk should be first converted into briquetts.
(3) Fly Ash : About 38% fly ash is produced by coal based thermal plats. It should be removed through wet method.
(4) Industrial Pollution :
(i) Tall Chimneys : They disperse smoke more thoroughtly.
(ii) Gravity Settling Chambers : Particles larger than 50 m settle down.
(iii) Wet Scrubbers : A fine spray of water or alkaline fluid is used to remove soluble gases and particles.
(iv) Bag Filters : Porous bags of teflon or polyester filter out particulate matter.
(v) Cyclone Collectors : They cause setting down of particulate matter through centrifugation.
(vi) Electrostatic Precipitators (ESPs) : Electrically charged plates or electrodes, which remove most of particles
present in exhausts.
(5) Vegetation : A broad strip of vegetation along road and around industrial areas reduces particulate pollution.
CO metabolized by Ficus variegata, Coleus, Daucos, Phaseolus) and nitrogen oxides metabolise by Vitis, Pyrus,
Robinia, Rhamnus) .
NOTE: I.A.P. : Indices of atmospheric pollution. Prepared with the help of lichens (sensitive to SO2).
Emission Norms : Emission norms for petrol driven cars have been designated as euro-1 (June 1999) and euro 2
(April 2000). They are related to mainly three parameters-hydrocarbons, CO and particulate matter.
Present Euro 1 Euro 2
Hydrocarbons and Nitrogen 3-4.6 ppm 0.97 0.5
CO 6.68 12.00 2.72 0.2
Particulate Matter Not Enforced 0.14 Nil
(i) N.E.E.R.I. National Environmental Engineering Research Institute.(ii) C.P.C.B. Central Pollution Control Board.
(iii) U.N.E.P. United Nations Environment Programme.
Acid Rain
The term was coined by Robert Augus (1872). Acid rain is rainfall and other forms of precipitation with a pH of less
than 5.
The most acidic rain has occurred over West Virginia (U.S.A.) with a pH of 1.5.
It is caused by large scale emission of acidic gases into the atmosphere from thermal power plants, industries and
automobiles.
The common ones are sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and hydrogen chloride. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides are changed in the atmosphere into sulphuric acid (65%) and nitric acid (35%) by combining with oxygen
and water.
Acid rain damages plants by direct effect on foliage ad growing points chlorosis, necrosis, defoliation, dieback.
It causes leaching of essential minerals of soil. Toxic minerals left in the soil further kill the plants. 50% of natural
forests have been destroyed by acid rain in Germany, Sweden, north east U.S.A. Romania, Poland, etc.
Acid rain corrodes metals, marble, painted surfaces, slate, stone, etc. The phenomenon is called stone leprosy.
Ozone Depletion
O3 layer is present in tropopause or stratosphere at 25% km. It protects earth from short-wave UV rays (below 300
nm)
P a g e 30 | 35
by changing them into infra-red rays.

A large hole has appeared in ozone shield over Antarctica (first detected by Farman, 1982) & a smaller one over North
Pole.
Size of the holes varies with the seasons. Thinning of ozone shield has also been reported elsewhere (e.g., 8%
between 30o 50o N).
Depletion of ozone layer allows harmful ultra-violet radiations to reach earth. It is the major cause of skin cancer,
cataract, dimming of eye sight, decrease in immune system and increased susceptibility to herpes.
Thinning of ozone shield is being caused by a number of pollutants like chlorofluorocarbons (14% of total
depletion), nitrogen oxides (3.5% depletion), sulphur dioxide, halon, carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform,
chlorine, etc.
Many of these are being relesed by jets flying in the stratosphere and rockets being fired into space.
Maximum ozone depleting potential or ODP is of chlorofluorocarbon due to release of chlorine by it.
A single chlorine atom converts 1 lakh molecules of ozone into oxygen.
Now a days chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are being replaced by hydrofluorocarbons due to release of chlorine by it.
Carbon tetrachloride, halon and methyl chloroform also deplete ozone by a similar method.
Nitric oxide (NO) and other gases released by jets directly react with ozone to form oxygen.
NO + O3 NO2 + O2
Ozone Day : September 16.
Water Pollution
It is the degradation of quality of water due to addition of substances (inorganic, organic, biological), factors (e.g.,
heat) that makes it health hazard, unfit for human use and growth of aquatic biota. It is of two types :
(a) Natural sources of Water Pollution : Clay & silt from soil erosion, leaching of mineral, mixing of organic matter
from banks.
(b) Anthropogenic or Man-Made Source of Water pollution : Domestic waste, sewage, soaps, & detergents, run-off
from agricultural fields having fertilizers and pesticides, industrial wastes, heat, waste from animal sheds and
slaughter houses, oil pollution, etc.
(1) Organic Wastes/Sewage : Food residue, animal & human excreta, detergent, discharge from commercial,
industrial establishment.
It containes
(i) Raw sewage contains a number of pathogens.
(ii) It stimulates the activity of several decomposer organisms collectively called sewage fungus.
The property of becoming decomposed through microbial activity is known as putrescibility.
Oxygen in milligrams required for five days in one litre of water at 20 oC for the microorganisms to metabolise/
decompose organic waste called B.O.D. (Biochemical oxygen demand)..
Degree of impurity of water due to organic matter is measured in terms of B.O.D.
Low pollution below 1500 mg/1, medium pollution 1500 4000 mg/l and high organic pollution above 4000
mg/l.
(iii) Water has a brown colouration and an unpleasant odour due to formation of secondary pollutants like CH4, NH3, H2S.
(iv) Scum and sludge (H2S + metallic ions).
(v) There may be algal blooms and eutrophication. The latter is also due to phosphates present in detergents.
(vi) Animals may die due to depletion of oxygen by sewage fungus.
(2) Fertilizers:Part of fertilizers added to crop fields are passed down to water bodies during rains through surface run-off.
Presence of extra nutrients brings about dense growth of plant and animal life, called eutrophication.
Eutorphication leads to organic loading, depletion of oxygen, death of animals and fouling of water.
(3) Pesticides : Pesticides sprayed over crops also pass into water bodies due to surface run-off.
Persistent pesticides (e.g., organochlorine or chlorinated hydrocarbons like DDT) pass into food chain and
increase in amount per unit weight of organisms with the rise in trophic level due to their accumulation in fat,
called biomagnification / bioconcentration / biological amplification, e.g. 0.01-0.05 parts per billion in water, 10
parts per billion or 0.001 ppm in water birds like Sea Gulls.
Silent Spring : Novel written by Rachel Carson (1962) mentioning effect of DDT on birds. DDT use has been
banned in U.S.A. since then. But in India banned since 1985.
(4) Silt : Slit from soil erosion makes water muddy and unit for plant growth. Silt may clog gills of fishes.
(5) Thermal Pollution : Hot effluents and hot water (e.g., thermal plants/atomic reactors) increases water
temperature.
Warm water has less O2 , lower putrescibility resulting in increased organic loading, replacement of green algae by
BGA.
Many animals fail to reproduce e.g., Trout, Salmon.
El Nino is warm ocean or Peru current that recurs after 5-8 years, kills animal and plant in Peru & Ecudor
coasts.
(6) Oil Pollution : Refinery discharges cause oil pollution, reduces oxygenation, inhibits plant growth and kills
animals.
P a g e 31 | 35
(7) Industrial Effluents :

(a) Mercury : It is changed to water soluble dimethyl mercury which undergoes biomagnification.
Eating poisoned animals causes deformity known as minamata (minimata) disease which is characterized by
diarrhoea, hemolysis, impairment of various sense, meningitis and death. Named after Minamata day of Japan
where mercury rich waste from an industrial complex was dumped.
(b) Copper : Hypertension, uremia, occasional fever and coma.
(c) Lead (also common from automobile exhausts): It interferes with haem synthesis, oxygen and glucose
metabolism.
Harmful effects include anaemia, vomiting, convulsions, loss of appetite, damage to liver, kidneys and brain.
(d) Zinc : Vomiting, cramps, renal damage.
(e) Cobalt : Diarrhoea, hypotension, bone defects and paralysis.
(f) Chromium : Gastro-intestinal ulcers, nephritis and nervous system disorders.
(g) Cadmium : Anaemia, hypertension, testicular atrophy, damage to liver and kidneys, diarrhoea and skeletal
deformities called itai- itai (ouch-ouch, first reported in 1947 in Toyoma city of Japan).
Controll of water pollution:
Sewage pollution can be prevented by treating sewage before passing into water course.
(a) Primary Treatment : This consists of shredding, churning, floatation, screening and sedimentation.
(b) Secondary Treatment : The organic matter is decomposed through sewage fungus by either trickling filter
method (passing through thick bed of gravel) or activated sludge method (aeration/oxidation tanks).
The cleared water is now chlorinated to kill pathogens.
The water can be passed into fields as manured water or into water courses where it may cause eutrophication.
(c) Tertiary Treatment : Water is to be recycled, chlorinated waste is mixed alum, ferric chloride for precipitation of
slat.
Zirconium is also a good precipitant. Another technique is reverse osmosis.
I.W.P. : Indices of Water pollution. Daphnia and trout are sensitive to water pollution.
Faecal Pollution : Indicated by Escherichia coli. MPN in most probable number of E. coli. (indicator of water
pollution.)
Ganga Action Plan : For controlling pollution in Ganes ; strated 1985.
National Environment Policy Act : 1969.
Soil Pollution
Change in soil caused by removal or addition of substance, which decrease productivity, quality of plant, ground
water.
Negative soil pollution is reduction in soil productivity due to erosion and over-use.
Positive soil pollution is reduction in soil productivity due to addition of undesirable substances (e.g., pesticides,
fertilizers, industrial wastes, air pollutants washed down by rain, faulty sanition).
Landscape/third pollution is converting fertile land into barren one by dumping wastes (e.g. ash, sludge,
garbage, rubbish, industrial wastes, broken cans, bottles, etc.) over it.
Third poison : Ground water pollution due to seepage of minerals, toxic chemicals and sewage.
(1) Pesticides : They include insecticides, fungicides, algicides, rodenticides and weedicides.
Pesiticides are genrally broad spectrum and function as biocides.
(2) Fertilizer : Excessive use causes soil deterioration through decrease of natural microflora.
Leaching down causes pollution of underground water (third poison). Salts entering crop plants in excess may
prove harmful. e.g., nitrate rich leaves, fruits and water produce nitrite in alimentary canal that centers blood,
combines with haemoglobin forming met-haemoglobin and reducing oxygen transport. It may prove fatal in
infants.
Organic farming: Use of biofertiliser, manure, pesticide of organic origin, biological control and resistant varieties.
(3) Mine Dust : It destroys vegetation and produces many deformities in animals and human beings.
Soil Salination
It is increase in salt concentration of soil making the latter halomorphic. Salination is often accompanied by white
incrustation over the surface. If makes the soil barren. Only halophytes can grow over it.
Soil salination is caused by (i) Parent rock (ii) Poor drainage and elevated water table (iii) Salt rich ground/canal
water (iv) Excessive fertilizers (v) Salts blow from rocks/sea. (vi) Plants that absorb acidic ions. (vii) Formation
from rocks having excess of Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium, etc. (viii) Nearness to sea shore, salt lake or salt mine.
(ix) Irrigation water rich in basic salts
It is the presence of excess salts especially those of Sodium, Potassium and Magnesium.
India has about 6 million hectares of saline soils.
Soil salinity measured by Conductivity Meter.
Depending upon colour, saline soils are of two types white solonchak and blackish solonetz.
Saline soils support only a few plants called halophytes, e.g., Tamarix, salvadera, salsola, sueda.
Saline soils are called usar, reh, thur, rakkar, chopan, etc.
They can be reclaimed or converted into fertile nearly neutral soils by
P a g e 32 | 35
(i) Removal of surface incrustation (ii) Digging of trenches and flooding (iii) Addition of gypsum or calcium sulphate,
sulphur, press mud. Sugar factory waste, etc. (iv) By N2 fixing blue-green algae, manuring, Rice cultivation etc.
Land Degradation
Land becomes slowly unfit for plant growth due to
(i) Jhuming/Shifting/Swidden Cultivation: It is the practice of cutting down forest trees, burning of remains,
raising crops on cleared area for a few years and then abandoning it.
This degrades forests and disturbs soil stability. Practice is carried out even now by some tribes in eastern India.
(ii) Soil Erosion : It is removal of top soil by the agency of water (water erosion) and wind (wind erosion).
Soil erosion denudes additional 40,000 ha of land annually in India.
(i) Sheet Erosion : Removal of extremely thin layer or sheet from soil surface.
(ii) Rill Erosion : Development of finger like or groove-like narrow depressions or rills due to running water.
(iii) Gully Erosion : Deeper, wider channels formed by cutting of running water 15-30 m deep gullies are called
ravines.
Wind erosion is caused by carrying of very fine soil particles as dust, saltation and surface creep of larger
particles.
Control of Soil Erosion/Soil Conservation :
(i) Crop Rotation : It is the practice of sowing different crops, usually legume and nonlegume, in successive seasons
on the same piece of land for maintaining soil fertility.
(ii) Mixed Cropping : Two or more crops simultaneously on the same land.
(iii) Mulching : Covering of harvested filed with plant litter or polyethene (LDPE or low density polyethylene) in order
to decrease run off, prevent growth of weeds and retention of water.
(iv) Strip Cropping : Sowing of perennial crops alternating with annulas, or annuals with different seasons of sowing.
(v) Terracing : Slope is divided into a number of flat fields for slowing down the flow of water.
(vi) Contour Bunding : Raising small bunds on edges of fields to prevent loss of top soil through water or wind.
(vii) Wind Breaks : Growth of several alternate rows of trees and shrubs at right angles to prevalent direction of wind
for reducing its speed and preventing carrying of soil particles.
(viii) Afforestation and Reforestation : Plantation of forest in new area is afforestation and refrestation in deforested
area.
(ix) Controlled Grazing : Grazing is allowed in certain seasons and only for a limited number of animals.
Reduction of Soil Fertility : It is caused by
(i) Overuse that withdraws minerals from the upper layers. (ii) Leaching of minerals (iii) Salination and alkalization
(iv) Water-logging (v) Change in pH (vi) Absence of humus (vii) Overgrazing. (viii) Monoculture or non-rotation of crops.
Restoration of Soil Fertility : (i) Stoppage of overuse or over-cropping. (ii) Rotation of crops (iii) Green manuring
(iv) Addition of manure and required fertilizers (v) Proper irrigation (vi) Maintenance of soil pH and porocity.
(iii) Desertification : It is the conversion of fertile land into barren sandy tract. Desertification is due to
(a) Overgrazing (b) Drying of rivers/irrigation canals/dry weather. (c) Clean tiling, fire and felling of trees. (d)
Nearness to sandy beach sand storms and shifting sand dunes. (iv) Development activites like mining, urban
encroachment, human settlements, industrial estates, canals, roads, rail tracks, etc.
Land and Water Management
India has a (a) Total land mass 305 million ha (b) Urban/Industrial area 18 million ha (c) Rocky/Snow
Bound 21 million ha (d) Forests/Pastures 83 million ha of (e) Agricultural 143 million ha (f) Culturable
Wasteland 17 million ha (g) Fallow 23 million ha.87 million ha of land is erosion prone.
Himalayas constitute major watershed (drainage or water flow area) with high sedimentation due to absence of
plant .
(1) Treatment of Catchment Area : Perennial grasses and trees be planted every where with negligible grazing.
(2) Canal Irrigation : The irrigation channels be brick-lined. Irrigation should not lead to water-logging and salination.
(3) Ground Water : Abundant in India, but only 30% of the replenishable water is being drawn for agriculture.
However, depletion has occurred in Punjab and Haryana.
Wasteland Development
Land not put to economic/ecologic use is wasteland.
A lot of wasteland occurs even in the thickly populated country like India. Two types- culturable and
nonculturable.
Prospects of Land Reclamation
India has immediate prospects of reclaiming the following degraded lands.
(i) Revines and Gullines : 4 million has (ii) Culturable Wastelands : 16.73 million ha
(iii) Current Fallows : 9.82 million ha (iv) Alkaline Soils : 2.5 million ha (v) Coastal Sandy Areas : 5.5 million
ha.
In VII plan an area of 1.5 million ha was taken up for reclamation. It was increased to 2.3 million ha in 2000. By
end of March 1995, an area of 1.2 million ha has been reclaimed. Currently work is in progress on the remaining
million ha.
Radioactive Pollution
Degradation of environment due to release of radioactivity (,, rays) by change in nuclides of radioactive
P a g e 33 | 35
elements.
Radioactive pollutant causes short range and long range harmful effects on living beings including humans.
Radioactivity is measured in units called roentgens or r.
(i) Background Radiation : Found naturally in biosphere due to cosmic rays reaching earth & radio-nuclides found
in earths crust. e.g.Ur-238, Ur-235. Th 232. Th 232, Radium 224, Radon 222, Potassium 40 and Carbon
14.
Maximum background radiation is found in Kerala beach where 75% of thorium deposits of the world are found.
(ii) Mining and refining : Due to mining and refining of radioactive elements like Plutonium, Uranium and Thorium,
nuclear power plants and fuels, preparation of radio-active isotopes, production and explosion of nuclear weapons.
(iii) Nuclear Weapons : They use Ur 235 Plutonium 239 for fission and hydrogen or lithium as fusion material.
A nuclear explosion produces (i) Uncontrolled chain reactions (ii) Tremendous heat (iii) Neutron flux that changes
other elements to radioactive state, e.g., Ba 142, Cs 137, I 131, Krypton 91, Sr 90, Cobalt 60,
Phosphorus-32.
(iv) Unused explosive and activation products
(v) A lot of radioactive and other gases forming mushroom type cloud.
The radioactive particles are carried to all places polluting air, water, soil and food chains.
Nuclear bombing of Nagasaki and Hiroshima (1945), not only destroyed the two cities, killed thousands of
humans and animals but have left a chain of genetic deformitites. (Hiroshima Day : August 6. Nagasaki Day :
August 9.)
Iodine131 damages spleen, lymph nodes, leucocytes, bone marrow, produces lung tomour, skin cancer, sterility.
Strontium-90 causes bone cancer and tissue degeneration.
Cesium-137 brings about nervous, muscular and genetic charges.
Cattle, dairy milk, drinking water, vegetables, fruits and grains all pass on radioactivity to humans.
Certain animals accumulate radioactive elements. Oysters-Zn-65, Fish-Fe-55, Other Marine Animals Sr- 90.
Radon found to be emitted from several mineral ingredients causing leukemia, brain tumours and kidney cancers.
Atomic Reactors : They employ controlled radioactive fission/fusion for liberation of liberation of energy.
(i) Coolant water causes thermal pollution (ii) Small amount of radioactivity enters coolant water which undergoes
biomagnifications to some 75000 times in birds. (iii) They release halogens and inert gases. (iv) A mistake can be
dangerous as an atomic explosion, e.g., Chernobyl in Ukraine in April 1986. Reactor burst due to overheating
causing leakage of radioactive substances.
(v) Radioactive waste is highly pollutant and its dumping requires several precautions.
Radio-Isotopes : They are used in research (e.g., metabolic pathways), induction of mutations in plants and
microorganisms, radiotherapy, etc. e.g., Co-60, P-32, C 14, I 125.
Harmful Effects : They were first recorded in 1909 in uranium miners as skin burns and cancers.
Many plants are killed even at low level of radioactivity. Young and recently divided cells are more easily damaged.
Short Range Effects : Loss of nails and hair, subcutaneous bleeding, changed proportion of blood cells, changed
metabolism, damage to all organs, death in high dose.
Long Range/Delayed Effects : Tumours, cancers, mutations, genetic deformities, shorter life span.
Nonionising Radiations
They are ultra-violet rays (100-300 nm) which have low penetration.
Damage eye sight by damage of corneal cells, injury to germinative layer, rupture of subcutaneous capillaries,
blisters
They causes reddening of skin (sunburn), mutations, skin and other cancers due to inactivation of organic
molecules and formation of pyrimidine dimmers in DNA.
Damage to ozone layer will bring all these hazards.
Thick cuticle, sporopollenin and carotenoids protect plants from UV radiations, especially at higher altitudes.
Human beings can protect themselves by wearing sun glasses. They have an enzyme system for repair of UV
damage.
Absence of this protective system produces a deficiency called xeroderma pigmentosum.
Noise Pollution
Physical pollution that affects receiver directly, due to release of unwanted sound generally of 80dB and above.
Frequency of sound is measured in Hz (Hertz) while unit of sound is dB (deciBel).
Range of human hearing is 50 Hz to 15000 Hz.
Moderate conversation produces 60 dB sound, loud conversation 70dB.
Scooter 80 dB, plying of truck/bus 90dB, jet aeroplane 150 dB, rocket 180 dB.
A regular exposure to sound of 80dB (day time noise level in metropolitan cities) reduces hearing by 15dB in ten
years.
Noise becomes uncomfortable above 100 dB.
Sound Limits : (i) Silence Zone (Hospitals, Educational Institutes ) - 50 dB during day and 40 dB at night.
P a g e 34 | 35
(ii) Residential Zone 75 dB during day and 45 dB at night (iii) Commercial Zone : 65 dB in day and 55 dB at
night (iv) Industrial Zone 75 dB during day and 70 dB at night. 30 dB is considered calm. Whispering
producing a sound of 30 dB, resulting of leaves 20 dB while breathing has a sound level of 10 dB.
Effect : (i) Damage to ear drum and impairment of hearing (a ten year exposure to 80 dB impairs hearing by 15
dB).
(ii) Interference in conversation and hearing. (iii) Emotional disturbance, development of anxiety and stress (first
effect).
(iv) Damage to eye sight, colour perception, night vision etc. (v) Hypertension, decreased heart output and gastric
problems (vi) Startle reaction.
Control : (i) Delimitation of acoustic zoning (ii) Use of cotton plugs or ear muffs in occupational exposure. (iii)
Development of quieter machines. (iv) Restricted use of loud speakers (v) Acoustic furnishing and low voice
radio/TV. (vi) Regulation of noise on road (vii) Green muffler. (viii) Green Muffler : Green plants along road to
reduce noise pollution
Key Points:
(1) Gulf War (1990) : Fire from soil wells changed the colour of clouds and rain in north India.
(2) Prevention and Control of Pollution Act : 1974.
(3) DDT : Banned for agricultural use in India in 1985.
(4) Acid Rain : 60-70% due to SO2, SO3 ; 30 40% due to NO2 and NO3; 10% due to HCl.
(5) Dimethyl Sulphide : It is released by water bodies.
(6) Biodegradable Plastic : It is being developed from low density polyethylene mixed with starch. The new plastic
takes only two months to degrade inside the soil.
(7) Green Belt : It is an area left out form growth of vegetation. It is important in cities and towns for reduction of
noise, air pollution, reduction in level of CO2, release of O2, moderation of weather conditions, providing aesthetic
pleasure and open space for the residents.
Environmental Monitoring System
It is periodic checking or testing of environment for knowing levels of different pollutants, identifying the sources
and devising strategy for their control. National environment planning engineering organization (NEERI) is at
Nagpur
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(i) Therophytes : Annual plants which perennate in the from of seeds.

Scavenger Corpse Detrivores Small Fish Large Fish

Tropical Deciduous Forests

Incident Solar Radiation

(i) Absorbed- Gases, Water vapours

NATURAL RESORUCES AND THEIR UTILISATION

off, prevent growth of weeds and retention of water.

It causes silvering/glazing and necrosis in plants, allergies and asthma/bronchitis in humans.

by changing them into infra-red rays.

(7) Industrial Effluents :

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