R Programming For Quantitative Finance: Guy Yollin

Computational Finance and Risk Management
R Programming
for Quantitative Finance
Guy Yollin
Applied Mathematics
University of Washington
Guy Yollin (Copyright 2014) R Programming for Quantitative Finance R Basics 1 / 53

Outline
1 R language overview and history
2 R language references
3 Short R Tutorial
4 The R help system
5 Web resources for R
6 IDE editors for R

Lecture references
J. Adler.
R in a Nutshell: A Desktop Quick Reference.
OReilly Media, 2010.
Chapters 1-3
W. N. Venables and D. M. Smith.

An Introduction to R.
2013.
Sections 1-3

Outline
3 Short R Tutorial
4 The R help system
6 IDE editors for R

The R programming language
R is a language and environment for statistical computing and

graphics
R is based on the S language originally developed by John Chambers

and colleagues at AT&T Bell Labs in the late 1970s and early 1980s
R (sometimes called GNU S" ) is free open source software licensed

under the GNU general public license (GPL 2)
R development was initiated by Robert Gentleman and Ross Ihaka at

the University of Auckland, New Zealand in the 1990s
R is formally known as The R Project for Statistical Computing

www.r-project.org

Strengths of the R programming language
HAM1 Performance
4.0
HAM1
EDHEC LS EQ
3.5
SP500 TR
3.0
Cumulative Return
2.5
Data manipulation
2.0
1.5
1.0
Data analysis
0.05
Monthly Return
0.00
0.05
Statistical modeling
0.0 0.10
0.1
Drawdown
0.2
Data visualization
0.3
0.4
Jan 96 Jan 97 Jan 98 Jan 99 Jan 00 Jan 01 Jan 02 Jan 03 Jan 04 Jan 05 Jan 06 Dec 06
Date
Plot from the PerformanceAnalytics package

S language implementations
R is the most recent and full-featured

implementation of the S language
Original S - AT & T Bell Labs
S-PLUS (S plus a GUI)

Statistical Sciences, Inc.
Mathsoft, Inc.
Insightful, Inc.
Tibco, Inc.
R - The R Project for Statistical

Figure from The History of S and R, John Chambers, 2006
Computing

Founded by UW Professor Doug Martin, CompFin Program Director
R timeline
1991
1999
Statistical Models in S
John Chambers
(white book)
1998 ACM Software Award
S3 methods
2001
1984 R 1.4.0
S: An Interactive Envirnoment for (S4) 2002 2010
2000
Data Analysis and Graphics 1988 Modern Applied Statistics R&R
R 1.0.0
(Brown Book) The New S Language with S Given ASA
1993 (S3)
Written in C 4th Edition Statistical Computing
R on Statlib 2004
(Blue Book) (S+ 6.x, R 1.5.0) and Graphics Award
Work on S 1997 R 2.0.0
Version 1 R on CRAN
GNU Project
1976 2011
Modern Applied Statistics

StatSci Licenses S Exponential
S-PLULS with S-PLUS
1993 2nd Edition growth of
developed by
Modern Applied Statistics 1997 Modern Applied Statistics R Users and
Statistical Sciences, Inc.
with S-PLUS with S-PLUS R packages
1988
1994 Programming with Data 3rd Edition
(Green Book) (S+ 2000, 5.x)
(S+ 5.x) (R complements)
1998 1999
S era S-PLUS era R era

Recognition of software excellence
Association for Computing American Statistical

Machinery Association
John Chambers received the 1998 Robert Gentleman and Ross
ACM Software System Award Ihaka received the 2009 ASA
Dr. Chambers work Statistical Computing and
will forever alter the Graphics Award
way people analyze, In recognition for their
visualize, and work in initiating the R
manipulate data Project for Statistical
Computing

Outline
3 Short R Tutorial
4 The R help system
6 IDE editors for R

Essential web resources
An Introduction to R R Reference Card 2.0

W.N. Venables, D.M. Smith Baggott & Short
R Development Core Team
R Reference Card cat(..., file="", sep=" ") prints the arguments after coercing to Slicing and extracting data
character; sep is the character separator between arguments Indexing lists
by Tom Short, EPRI Solutions, Inc., tshort@eprisolutions.com 2005-07-12 print(a, ...) prints its arguments; generic, meaning it can have differ- x[n] list with elements n
Granted to the public domain. See www.Rpad.org for the source and latest ent methods for different objects x[[n]] nth element of the list
version. Includes material from R for Beginners by Emmanuel Paradis (with format(x,...) format an R object for pretty printing x[["name"]] element of the list named "name"
permission). write.table(x,file="",row.names=TRUE,col.names=TRUE, x$name id.
sep=" ") prints x after converting to a data frame; if quote is TRUE, Indexing vectors
character or factor columns are surrounded by quotes ("); sep is the x[n] nth element
field separator; eol is the end-of-line separator; na is the string for x[-n] all but the nth element
Help and basics missing values; use col.names=NA to add a blank column header to
get the column headers aligned correctly for spreadsheet input
x[1:n] first n elements
Most R functions have online documentation. x[-(1:n)] elements from n+1 to the end
sink(file) output to file, until sink() x[c(1,4,2)] specific elements
help(topic) documentation on topic
Most of the I/O functions have a file argument. This can often be a charac- x["name"] element named "name"
?topic id.
ter string naming a file or a connection. file="" means the standard input or x[x > 3] all elements greater than 3
help.search("topic") search the help system
output. Connections can include files, pipes, zipped files, and R variables. x[x > 3 & x < 5] all elements between 3 and 5
apropos("topic") the names of all objects in the search list matching
On windows, the file connection can also be used with description = x[x %in% c("a","and","the")] elements in the given set
the regular expression topic
"clipboard". To read a table copied from Excel, use Indexing matrices
help.start() start the HTML version of help
x <- read.delim("clipboard") x[i,j] element at row i, column j
str(a) display the internal *str*ucture of an R object
To write a table to the clipboard for Excel, use x[i,] row i
summary(a) gives a summary of a, usually a statistical summary but it is
write.table(x,"clipboard",sep="\t",col.names=NA) x[,j] column j
generic meaning it has different operations for different classes of a
For database interaction, see packages RODBC, DBI, RMySQL, RPgSQL, and x[,c(1,3)] columns 1 and 3
ls() show objects in the search path; specify pat="pat" to search on a
ROracle. See packages XML, hdf5, netCDF for reading other file formats. x["name",] row named "name"
pattern
ls.str() str() for each variable in the search path Data creation Indexing data frames (matrix indexing plus the following)
dir() show files in the current directory x[["name"]] column named "name"
c(...) generic function to combine arguments with the default forming a
methods(a) shows S3 methods of a x$name id.
vector; with recursive=TRUE descends through lists combining all
methods(class=class(a)) lists all the methods to handle objects of elements into one vector
class a from:to generates a sequence; : has operator priority; 1:4 + 1 is 2,3,4,5
options(...) set or examine many global options; common ones: width, seq(from,to) generates a sequence by= specifies increment; length= Variable conversion
digits, error specifies desired length
library(x) load add-on packages; library(help=x) lists datasets and as.array(x), as.data.frame(x), as.numeric(x),
seq(along=x) generates 1, 2, ..., length(x); useful for for loops
functions in package x. as.logical(x), as.complex(x), as.character(x),
rep(x,times) replicate x times; use each= to repeat each el-
attach(x) database x to the R search path; x can be a list, data frame, or R ... convert type; for a complete list, use methods(as)
ement of x each times; rep(c(1,2,3),2) is 1 2 3 1 2 3;
data file created with save. Use search() to show the search path. rep(c(1,2,3),each=2) is 1 1 2 2 3 3 Variable information
detach(x) x from the R search path; x can be a name or character string data.frame(...) create a data frame of the named or unnamed is.na(x), is.null(x), is.array(x), is.data.frame(x),
of an object previously attached or a package. arguments; data.frame(v=1:4,ch=c("a","B","c","d"),n=10); is.numeric(x), is.complex(x), is.character(x),
Input and output shorter vectors are recycled to the length of the longest
list(...) create a list of the named or unnamed arguments;
... test for type; for a complete list, use methods(is)
load() load the datasets written with save length(x) number of elements in x
list(a=c(1,2),b="hi",c=3i); dim(x) Retrieve or set the dimension of an object; dim(x) <- c(3,2)
data(x) loads specified data sets
array(x,dim=) array with data x; specify dimensions like dimnames(x) Retrieve or set the dimension names of an object
read.table(file) reads a file in table format and creates a data
dim=c(3,4,2); elements of x recycle if x is not long enough nrow(x) number of rows; NROW(x) is the same but treats a vector as a one-
frame from it; the default separator sep="" is any whitespace; use
matrix(x,nrow=,ncol=) matrix; elements of x recycle row matrix
header=TRUE to read the first line as a header of column names; use
factor(x,levels=) encodes a vector x as a factor ncol(x) and NCOL(x) id. for columns
as.is=TRUE to prevent character vectors from being converted to fac-
gl(n,k,length=n*k,labels=1:n) generate levels (factors) by spec- class(x) get or set the class of x; class(x) <- "myclass"
tors; use comment.char="" to prevent "#" from being interpreted as
ifying the pattern of their levels; k is the number of levels, and n is unclass(x) remove the class attribute of x
a comment; use skip=n to skip n lines before reading data; see the
the number of replications attr(x,which) get or set the attribute which of x
help for options on row naming, NA treatment, and others
expand.grid() a data frame from all combinations of the supplied vec- attributes(obj) get or set the list of attributes of obj
read.csv("filename",header=TRUE) id. but with defaults set for
tors or factors
reading comma-delimited files
rbind(...) combine arguments by rows for matrices, data frames, and Data selection and manipulation
read.delim("filename",header=TRUE) id. but with defaults set which.max(x) returns the index of the greatest element of x
others
for reading tab-delimited files which.min(x) returns the index of the smallest element of x
cbind(...) id. by columns
read.fwf(file,widths,header=FALSE,sep="",as.is=FALSE) rev(x) reverses the elements of x
read a table of f ixed width f ormatted data into a data.frame; widths sort(x) sorts the elements of x in increasing order; to sort in decreasing
is an integer vector, giving the widths of the fixed-width fields order: rev(sort(x))
save(file,...) saves the specified objects (...) in the XDR platform- cut(x,breaks) divides x into intervals (factors); breaks is the number
independent binary format of cut intervals or a vector of cut points
save.image(file) saves all objects
Definitely obtain these PDF files from the R homepage or a CRAN mirror
Introductory texts
R in a Nutshell: A Desktop A Beginners Guide to R

Quick Reference Zuur, Ieno, Meesters
Joseph Adler Springer, 2009
OReilly Media, 2009
Both texts available online through UW library

Introductory texts
R in Action The Art of R Programming

Robert Kabacoff Norman Matloff
Manning Publications, 2011 No Starch Press, 2011
THE
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Statistics with R
Introductory Statistics with R Modern Applied Statistics

2nd Edition with S, 4th Edition
P. Dalgaard Venables and Ripley
Springer, 2008 Springer, 2002

Experience with other statistical computing languages
For those with experience in MATLAB, David Hiebeler has created a

MATLAB/R cross reference document:
http://www.math.umaine.edu/~hiebeler/comp/matlabR.pdf
For those with experience in SAS, SPSS, or Stata, Robert Muenchen has
written R books for this audience:
http://r4stats.com

Outline
3 Short R Tutorial
4 The R help system
6 IDE editors for R

Interacting with R
R is an interpreted language
An R interpreter must be running in order to evaluate R commands or
execute R scripts
RGui which includes an R Console window
RStudio which includes an R Console window

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpreted_language
R expression evaluation
R expressions are processed via Rs Read-eval-print loop :

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-eval-print_loop
Interacting with the RGui
The RGui is an interactive command

driven environment:
Type R commands (expressions)

into the R Console
Copy/Paste multiple R
commands into the R Console
Source an R script
An R script is simply a text
file of multiple R commands
Commands entered interactively into the R console

Interacting with RStudio
The RStudio is an Integrated

Development Environment (IDE) R:
Embedded R Console
RStudio runs an R interpreter
automatically
Program editor for R

Plot window
File browser
RStudio includes an embedded R Console
Integrated version control
R debugger

Calling functions
sin(pi/2)
R makes extensive use of functions
## [1] 1
Functions can be defined to take
print("Hello, world")
zero or more arguments
## [1] "Hello, world"
Functions typically return a value
a return value is not required abs(-8)
Functions are called by name with ## [1] 8

any arguments enclosed in
cos(2*sqrt(2))
parentheses
even if the function has no ## [1] -0.95136313
arguments the parentheses are
required date()
## [1] "Sun Aug 31 17:08:42 2014"

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_programming
Assigning values to variables
y <- 5
y
Like other programming languages, ## [1] 5
values can be stored in variables assign("e",2.7183)

e
Variables are typically assigned

## [1] 2.7183
in 1 of 3 ways:
s = sqrt(2)
assignment operator: <- s
assignment function: assign

## [1] 1.4142136
equal sign: =
must be used to assign r <- rnorm(n=2)
r
arguments in a function call
## [1] -1.0067110533 -0.0020828847
s*e+y
## [1] 8.8442567

Object orientation in R
Everything in R is an Object
Use functions ls and objects to list all objects in the current

workspace
x <- c(3.1416,2.7183)
m <- matrix(rnorm(9),nrow=3)
tab <- data.frame(store=c("downtown","eastside","airport"),sales=c(32,17,24))
cities <- c("Seattle","Portland","San Francisco")
ls()
## [1] "cities" "e" "filename" "m" "r" "s"

## [7] "tab" "x" "y"

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-oriented_programming
Object classes
m
All R objects have a class
## [,1] [,2] [,3]
The class of an object determines ## [1,] 0.374352397 0.586864810 -0.73778598
what it can do and what you can ## [2,] -0.071532765 -0.262264339 -0.19904931
## [3,] 0.790144078 0.012603635 1.96472235
do with it
class(m)
Use function class to
## [1] "matrix"
display an objects class
tab
There are many R classes;
## store sales
basic classes are: ## 1 downtown 32
numeric ## 2 eastside 17
character ## 3 airport 24
data.frame
class(tab)
matrix
## [1] "data.frame"

Vectors
R is a vector/matrix programming language (also know as an array
programming language )
vectors can easily be created with c, the combine function
most places where single value can be supplied, a vector can be
supplied and R will perform a vectorized operation
my.vector <- c(2, 4, 3, 7, 10)
my.vector
## [1] 2 4 3 7 10
my.vector^2
## [1] 4 16 9 49 100
sqrt(my.vector)
## [1] 1.4142136 2.0000000 1.7320508 2.6457513 3.1622777

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Array_programming
Creating vectors with the c function
constants <- c(3.1416,2.7183,1.4142,1.6180)

constants
## [1] 3.1416 2.7183 1.4142 1.6180
my.labels <- c("pi","euler","sqrt2","golden")

my.labels
## [1] "pi" "euler" "sqrt2" "golden"
names(constants) <- my.labels

constants
## pi euler sqrt2 golden

## 3.1416 2.7183 1.4142 1.6180
The [1] in the above output is labeling the first element of the vector
The c function can be used to create character vectors, numeric
vectors, as well as other types of vectors
Indexing vectors
constants[c(1,3,4)]
## pi sqrt2 golden
## 3.1416 1.4142 1.6180
Vectors indices are placed with constants[c(-1,-2)]

square brackets: []
## sqrt2 golden
## 1.4142 1.6180
Vectors can be indexed in any of the
following ways: constants[c("pi","golden")]
vector of positive integers ## pi golden

## 3.1416 1.6180
vector of negative integers
constants > 2
vector of named items
logical vector ##
##
pi
TRUE
euler
TRUE
sqrt2 golden
FALSE FALSE
constants[constants > 2]
## pi euler
## 3.1416 2.7183

Creating integer sequences with the a:b operator
The sequence operator will generate a vector of integers between a and b
Sequences of this type are particularly useful for indexing vectors, matrices,
data.frames etc.
1:5
## [1] 1 2 3 4 5
-(1:4)
## [1] -1 -2 -3 -4
letters[1:15]
## [1] "a" "b" "c" "d" "e" "f" "g" "h" "i" "j" "k" "l" "m" "n" "o"
letters[16:26]
## [1] "p" "q" "r" "s" "t" "u" "v" "w" "x" "y" "z"
letters[-(1:15)]
## [1] "p" "q" "r" "s" "t" "u" "v" "w" "x" "y" "z"

Comparing vector and non-vector computing
# vectorized operation
# taking the log of each element in a vector
x <- c(97.87,96.18,95,86.39,88.18,90.8,86.06,82.27,83.32,85.3,83.25,82.13,78.54)
log(x)
## [1] 4.5836401 4.5662214 4.5538769 4.4588719 4.4793802 4.5086593 4.4550447

## [8] 4.4100065 4.4226886 4.4461745 4.4218481 4.4083034 4.3636080
# non-vectorized computation
# taking the log of each element in a vector
n <- length(x)
y <- rep(0,n)
for( i in 1:n )
y[i] <- log(x[i])
y
## [1] 4.5836401 4.5662214 4.5538769 4.4588719 4.4793802 4.5086593 4.4550447

## [8] 4.4100065 4.4226886 4.4461745 4.4218481 4.4083034 4.3636080

Comparing vector and non-vector computing
# vectorized operation
# taking the log of each element in a matrix
x <- matrix(c(2,9,4,7,5,3,6,1,8),nrow=3)
x^2
## [,1] [,2] [,3]

## [1,] 4 49 36
## [2,] 81 25 1
## [3,] 16 9 64
# non-vectorized computation
# taking the log of each element in a matrix
y <- x
for( i in 1:nrow(x) )
for( j in 1:ncol(x) )
y[i,j] <- x[i,j]^2
y
## [,1] [,2] [,3]

## [1,] 4 49 36
## [2,] 81 25 1
## [3,] 16 9 64

Outline
3 Short R Tutorial
4 The R help system
6 IDE editors for R

The HTML help system
R has a comprehensive Html help

facility
Run the help.start function
R GUI menu item
Help|Html help
help.start()
## If nothing happens, you should open

## 'http://127.0.0.1:28913/doc/html/index.html' yourself

The help function
Obtain help on a particular topic via

the help function
help(topic)
?topic
help(read.table)

The help.search function
Search help for a particular topic via

the help.search function
help.search(topic)
??topic
??predict

Help tab in RStudio
RStudio incorporates a dedicated help tab which facilitates accessing the R

Html help system

Outline
3 Short R Tutorial
4 The R help system
6 IDE editors for R

R Homepage
http://www.r-project.org
List of CRAN mirror sites

Manuals
FAQs
Site seach
Mailing lists
Links

CRAN - Comprehensive R Archive Network
http://cran.fhcrc.org
CRAN Mirrors
About 45 countries
About 100 sites worldwide
About 15 sites in US
R Binaries
R Packages
5800+ packages
R Sources
Task Views
use your closest CRAN mirror site

CRAN Task Views
Organizes the 5800+ R packages by

application
Finance
Time Series
Econometrics
Optimization
Machine Learning

Stackoverflow
Stackoverflow has become the primary resource for help with R
http://stackoverflow.com/

R-SIG-FINANCE
Nerve center of the R finance

community
Daily must read
Exclusively for Finance-specific

questions, not general R
questions
https://stat.ethz.ch/mailman/listinfo/r-sig-finance

Googles R Style Guide
Naming convention
Coding Syntax
Program Organization
http://google-styleguide.googlecode.com/svn/trunk/google-r-style.html

Quick R
http://www.statmethods.net
Introductory R Lessons
R Interface
Data Input
Data Management
Basic Statistics
Advanced Statistics
Basic Graphs
Advanced Graphs
Site maintained by Robert Kabacoff, author of R in Action

R graphics details, colors, and other tech notes
Site of Earl Glynn of Stowers Institute for Medical Research
R Graphics and other useful information

R Color Chart
Using Color in R (great presentation)
Plot area, margins, multiple figures
Mixture models
Distance measures and clustering
Using Windows Explorer to Start R with Specified Working Directory
(under tech notes)
http://research.stowers-institute.org/efg/R/index.htm

Programming in R
Online R programming manual from UC Riverside:

R Basics
Finding Help
Code Editors for R
Control Structures
Functions
Object Oriented Programming
Building R Packages
http://manuals.bioinformatics.ucr.edu/home/programming-in-r

Other useful R sites
R Bloggers Aggregation of about 550 R blogs

http://www.r-bloggers.com
R Site Search Search R function help, vignettes, R-help

http://finzi.psych.upenn.edu/search.html
R Seek R specific search site

http://www.rseek.org/
Revolution Blog Blog from David Smith of Revolution

http://blog.revolutionanalytics.com
Inside-R R community site by Revolution Analytics

http://www.inside-r.org

Outline
3 Short R Tutorial
4 The R help system
6 IDE editors for R

RStudio
RStudio is a fully-featured open-source IDE

for R
R language highlighting
Paste/Source to R console
object explorer
tabbed graphics window
integrated version control
1-click kintr/Sweave compilation
RStudio also provides a server-based version (R running in the cloud)

Revolution R Enterprize Visual Development Environment
Revolution Analytics is a company

that sells a commercial distribution
of R including a desktop IDE
Revolution R Enterprize is free to

academic users
Paste/Source code to R
Source code debugger
object explorer
runs R in SDI mode
http://www.revolutionanalytics.com

WinEdt and R-Sweave
Based on WinEdt, an excellent

shareware editor with support for
LATEX and Sweave development
1-click Sweave compilation
Supports R in MDI mode
Paste/Source code to S-PLUS
http://www.winedt.com
http://www.winedt.org/Config/modes/R-Sweave.php

StatET - An Eclipse Plug-In for R
StatET is a plug-in for the

open-source Eclipse development
environment
Source code debugger
1-click Sweave compilation
Supports R in SDI mode
Excellent documentation by
Longhow Lam
http://www.walware.de/goto/statet

Notepad++ and NpptoR
NpptoR is an automation widget

(based on AuotHotkey) which allows
the very useful program editor
Notepad++ to interact with R
Supports R in SDI mode
http://notepad-plus-plus.org
http://sourceforge.net/projects/npptor

Computational Finance and Risk Management
http://depts.washington.edu/compfin

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R Programming For Quantitative Finance: Guy Yollin

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Formati disponibili

Computational Finance and Risk Management

Guy Yollin (Copyright 2014) R Programming for Quantitative Finance R Basics 1 / 53

1 R language overview and history

4 The R help system

5 Web resources for R

6 IDE editors for R

Guy Yollin (Copyright 2014) R Programming for Quantitative Finance R Basics 2 / 53

W. N. Venables and D. M. Smith.

Guy Yollin (Copyright 2014) R Programming for Quantitative Finance R Basics 3 / 53

1 R language overview and history

4 The R help system

5 Web resources for R

6 IDE editors for R

Guy Yollin (Copyright 2014) R Programming for Quantitative Finance R Basics 4 / 53

R is a language and environment for statistical computing and

R is based on the S language originally developed by John Chambers

R (sometimes called GNU S" ) is free open source software licensed

R development was initiated by Robert Gentleman and Ross Ihaka at

R is formally known as The R Project for Statistical Computing

Guy Yollin (Copyright 2014) R Programming for Quantitative Finance R Basics 5 / 53

Plot from the PerformanceAnalytics package

Guy Yollin (Copyright 2014) R Programming for Quantitative Finance R Basics 6 / 53

R is the most recent and full-featured

Original S - AT & T Bell Labs

S-PLUS (S plus a GUI)

R - The R Project for Statistical

Modern Applied Statistics

S era S-PLUS era R era

Guy Yollin (Copyright 2014) R Programming for Quantitative Finance R Basics 8 / 53

Association for Computing American Statistical

Guy Yollin (Copyright 2014) R Programming for Quantitative Finance R Basics 9 / 53

1 R language overview and history

4 The R help system

5 Web resources for R

6 IDE editors for R

Guy Yollin (Copyright 2014) R Programming for Quantitative Finance R Basics 10 / 53

An Introduction to R R Reference Card 2.0

R in a Nutshell: A Desktop A Beginners Guide to R

Both texts available online through UW library

R in Action The Art of R Programming

Guy Yollin (Copyright 2014) R Programming for Quantitative Finance R Basics 13 / 53

Introductory Statistics with R Modern Applied Statistics

Guy Yollin (Copyright 2014) R Programming for Quantitative Finance R Basics 14 / 53

For those with experience in MATLAB, David Hiebeler has created a

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1 R language overview and history

4 The R help system

5 Web resources for R

6 IDE editors for R

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The RGui is an interactive command

Type R commands (expressions)

Commands entered interactively into the R console

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The RStudio is an Integrated

Program editor for R

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Functions are called by name with ## [1] 8

## [1] "Sun Aug 31 17:08:42 2014"

Like other programming languages, ## [1] 5

values can be stored in variables assign("e",2.7183)

Variables are typically assigned

assignment function: assign