aImproving the circular economy via hydrothermal

processing of high-density waste plastics

Rising environmental concerns on climate changes are causing an increasing attention on

circular economies. The plastic economy, in particular, is in focus due to the accelerating

consumption of plastics, mainly derived from virgin feedstock, combined with the lack of

plastic recycling strategies. This work presents a novel outlook on the potential of using

supercritical hydrothermal processing of waste plastic fractions for tertiary recycling. The

study investigates hydrothermal processing of nine different, high-density types of

plastics into original resin monomers and other value-added chemical compounds. The

outlook presents conversion yields, carbon balances, and chemical details on the products

obtained. It is found that all the investigated resins are prone to hydrothermal treatment,

and that high yields of monomers and high value compounds (up to nearly 100%),

suitable for chemicals and fuels applications, can be obtained. For instance, for

polycarbonate, styrene-butadiene, poly(lactic acid), poly(ethylene terephthalate), and

poly(butylene terephthalate), original monomeric compounds can be reclaimed for

manufacturing new resins

Reference: Thomas Helmer Pedersen, Federica Conti, Improving the circular economy
via hydrothermal processing of high-density waste plastics, Waste Management, 2017,
ISSN 0956-053X, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2017.06.002.
(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956053X17304403)

1
 A novel process for separation of polycarbonate,
polyvinyl chloride and polymethyl methacrylate
waste plastics by froth flotation
A novel process was proposed for separation of ternary waste plastics by froth flotation.

Pretreatment of plastics with potassium permanganate (KMnO4) solution was conducted

to aid flotation separation of polycarbonate (PC), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and

polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) plastics. The effect of pretreatment parameters

including KMnO4concentration, treatment time, temperature and stirring rate on

flotation recovery were investigated by single factor experiments. Surface treatment with

KMnO4 changes selectively the flotation behavior of PC, PVC and PMMA, enabling

separation of the plastics by froth flotation. Mechanism of surface treatment was studied

by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

and X-ray photoelectron spectrum (XPS). Effect of frother concentration and flotation

time on flotation behavior of plastic mixtures was further studied for flotation separation.

The optimized conditions for separation of PC are KMnO4 concentration 2 mmol L1,

treatment time 10 min, temperature 60 C, stirring rate 300 rpm, flotation time 1 min and

frother concentration 17.5 mg L1. Under optimum conditions, PVC and PMMA mixtures

are also separated efficiently by froth flotation associated with KMnO 4 treatment. The

purity of PC, PVC and PMMA is up to 100%, 98.41% and 98.68%, while the recovery

reaches 96.82%, 98.71% and 98.38%, respectively. Economic analysis manifests

remarkable profits of the developed process. Reusing KMnO4 solution is feasible,

enabling the process greener.

2
Reference: Chong-qing Wang, Hui Wang, Luo-luo Huang, A novel process for
separation of polycarbonate, polyvinyl chloride and polymethyl methacrylate waste
plastics by froth flotation, Waste Management, Volume 65, 2017, Pages 3-10, ISSN
0956-053X, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2017.04.006.
(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956053X17302398)
Keywords: Froth flotation; Surface treatment; Potassium permanganate; Separation;
Waste plastics

3
 Thermal degradation kinetics of plastics and model
selection
The thermal decomposition behaviour of high and low-density polyethylene (LDPE and

HDPE), polypropylene (PP), poly(lactic acid) (PLA) were investigated under inert

condition by dynamic thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) in the temperature range of

303973 K at seven different heating rates. Determination of distributed activation

energy at various stages of degradation process and their implication in degradation

process was investigated with the help of isoconversional methods. Reaction models

(f()) were predicted using Criados masterplots. Corresponding values of pre-exponential

factors were calculated using compensation effect. A comparative study of various

isoconversional methods/models like Friedman, Kissinger-Akahira-Sunnose, Ozawa-

Flynn and Wall (OFW), Starink and advance isoconversional method (AIC) was discussed

and reliability of all these methods was examined. Reconstruction of the conversion

profiles for different thermal history was performed and compared with experimental

data to select the appropriate model.

Reference: Pallab Das, Pankaj Tiwari, Thermal degradation kinetics of plastics and
model selection, Thermochimica Acta, Volume 654, 2017, Pages 191-202, ISSN 0040-
6031, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tca.2017.06.001.
(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040603117301454)
Keywords: Plastics; Thermal degradation kinetics; Isoconversional methods; Kinetic
model selection

4
Plastics and microplastics in the oceans: From emerging
pollutants to emerged threat
Plastic production has increased dramatically worldwide over the last 60 years and it is

nowadays recognized as a serious threat to the marine environment. Plastic pollution is

ubiquitous, but quantitative estimates on the global abundance and weight of floating

plastics are still limited, particularly for the Southern Hemisphere and the more remote

regions. Some large-scale convergence zones of plastic debris have been identified, but

there is the urgency to standardize common methodologies to measure and quantify

plastics in seawater and sediments. Investigations on temporal trends, geographical

distribution and global cycle of plastics have management implications when defining the

origin, possible drifting tracks and ecological consequences of such pollution. An elevated

number of marine species is known to be affected by plastic contamination, and a more

integrated ecological risk assessment of these materials has become a research priority.

Beside entanglement and ingestion of macro debris by large vertebrates, microplastics are

accumulated by planktonic and invertebrate organisms, being transferred along food

chains. Negative consequences include loss of nutritional value of diet, physical damages,

exposure to pathogens and transport of alien species. In addition, plastics contain

chemical additives and efficiently adsorb several environmental contaminants, thus

representing a potential source of exposure to such compounds after ingestion. Complex

ecotoxicological effects are increasingly reported, but the fate and impact of microplastics

in the marine environment are still far to be fully clarified.

Reference: Carlo Giacomo Avio, Stefania Gorbi, Francesco Regoli, Plastics and
microplastics in the oceans: From emerging pollutants to emerged threat, Marine
Environmental Research, Volume 128, 2017, Pages 2-11, ISSN 0141-1136,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marenvres.2016.05.012.

5
(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0141113616300733)
Keywords: Plastic; Microplastics; Distribution; Accumulation; Marine organisms;
Ecotoxicological effects

6
 Catalytic pyrolysis of waste plastics using staged
catalysis for production of gasoline range hydrocarbon
oils
The two-stage pyrolysis-catalysis of high density polyethylene has been investigated with

pyrolysis of the plastic in the first stage followed by catalysis of the evolved hydrocarbon

pyrolysis gases in the second stage using solid acid catalysts to produce gasoline range

hydrocarbon oil (C8C12). The catalytic process involved staged catalysis, where a

mesoporous catalyst was layered on top of a microporous catalyst with the aim of

maximising the conversion of the waste plastic to gasoline range hydrocarbons. The

catalysts used were mesoporous MCM-41 followed by microporous ZSM-5, and different

MCM-41:zeolite ZSM-5 catalyst ratios were investigated. The MCM-41 and zeolite ZSM-5

were also used alone for comparison. The results showed that using the staged catalysis a

high yield of oil product (83.15 wt.%) was obtained from high density polyethylene at a

MCM-41:ZSM-5 ratio of 1:1 in the staged pyrolysis-catalysis process. The main gases

produced were C2 (mainly ethene), C3(mainly propene), and C4 (mainly butene and

butadiene) gases. In addition, the oil product was highly aromatic (95.85 wt.% of oil)

consisting of 97.72 wt.% of gasoline range hydrocarbons.

In addition, pyrolysis-staged catalysis using a 1:1 ratio of MCM-41: zeolite ZSM-5 was

investigated for the pyrolysiscatalysis of several real-world waste plastic samples from

various industrial sectors. The real world samples were, agricultural waste plastics,

building reconstruction plastics, mineral water container plastics and household food

packaging waste plastics. The results showed that effective conversion of the real-world

waste plastics could be achieved with significant concentrations of gasoline range

hydrocarbons obtained.

7
Reference: Devy K. Ratnasari, Mohamad A. Nahil, Paul T. Williams, Catalytic pyrolysis
of waste plastics using staged catalysis for production of gasoline range hydrocarbon
oils, Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, Volume 124, 2017, Pages 631-637,
ISSN 0165-2370, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2016.12.027.
(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165237016306015)
Keywords: Pyrolysis; Catalyst; Plastics; Waste; Gasoline

8
 Separation of plastics: The importance of kinetics
knowledge in the evaluation of froth flotation
Froth flotation is a promising technique to separate polymers of similar density. The

present paper shows the need for performing kinetic tests to evaluate and optimize the

process. In the experimental study, batch flotation tests were performed on samples of

ABS and PS. The floated product was collected at increasing flotation time. Two variables

were selected for modification: the concentration of the depressor (tannic acid) and

airflow rate. The former is associated with the chemistry of the process and the latter with

the transport of particles. It was shown that, like mineral flotation, plastics flotation can

be adequately assumed as a first order rate process. The results of the kinetic tests showed

that the kinetic parameters change with the operating conditions. When the depressing

action is weak and the airflow rate is low, the kinetic is fast. Otherwise, the kinetic is slow

and a variable percentage of the plastics never floats. Concomitantly, the time at which

the maximum difference in the recovery of the plastics in the floated product is attained

changes with the operating conditions. The prediction of flotation results, process

evaluation and comparisons should be done considering the process kinetics.

Reference: Matteo Censori, Floriana La Marca, M. Teresa Carvalho, Separation of

plastics: The importance of kinetics knowledge in the evaluation of froth flotation,
Waste Management, Volume 54, 2016, Pages 39-43, ISSN 0956-053X,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.05.021.
(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956053X16302537)
Keywords: Plastics separation; Waste plastics; Froth flotation; Flotation kinetics; ABS;
PS

9
 Thermal behavior and kinetic study for catalytic co-
pyrolysis of biomass with plastics
The present study aims to investigate the thermal decomposition behaviors and kinetics

of biomass (cellulose/Douglas fir sawdust) and plastics (LDPE) in a non-catalytic and

catalytic co-pyrolysis over ZSM-5 catalyst by using a thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA).

It was found that there was a positive synergistic interaction between biomass and plastics

according to the difference of weight loss (W), which could decrease the formation of

solid residue at the end of the experiment. The first order reaction model well fitted for

both non-catalytic and catalytic co-pyrolysis of biomass with plastics. The activation

energy (E) of Cellulose-LDPE-Catalyst and DF-LDPE-Catalyst are only 89.51 and

54.51 kJ/mol, respectively. The kinetics analysis showed that adding catalyst doesnt

change the decomposition mechanism. As a result, the kinetic study on catalytic co-

pyrolysis of biomass with plastics was suggested that the catalytic co-pyrolysis is a

promising technique that can significantly reduce the energy input.

Reference: Xuesong Zhang, Hanwu Lei, Lei Zhu, Xiaolu Zhu, Moriko Qian, Gayatri
Yadavalli, Joan Wu, Shulin Chen, Thermal behavior and kinetic study for catalytic co-
pyrolysis of biomass with plastics, Bioresource Technology, Volume 220, 2016, Pages
233-238, ISSN 0960-8524, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2016.08.068.
(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960852416311968)
Keywords: Catalytic co-pyrolysis; Kinetics; TGA; Biomass; Plastics

10
 Plastics in Greenhouse Production
The use of plastics has revolutionized the greenhouse industry. Plastic is used for

everything from the exterior greenhouse coverings, or claddings, to structural

components, to nearly all aspects of the interior production systems, including pots, trays,

irrigation systems and almost everything else. It is safe to say that without the use of

plastics the greenhouse industry would be unrecognizable. Prior to the introduction of

plastic covered greenhouses after WWII, greenhouses were covered with relatively small

glass panes. These were heavy and required a lot of supporting sash bars which were

generally wood, and that support required a lot of maintenance in the form of painting

and reduced light transmission into the greenhouse. These glasshouses were expensive

and time consuming to build. Plastic coverings, particularly polyethylene films changed

all that. Suddenly you could construct an inexpensive frame to support large sheets of

inexpensive plastic covering. This led to a rapid expansion of the use of greenhouses

around the world to produce all sorts of crops (Wittwer, 1993). These greenhouses could

have larger open spaces inside with fewer or in some cases no supporting columns

facilitating better space utilization and greatly improved productivity. The use of plastic

sheeting or film as a greenhouse covering probably had more impact on the greenhouse

industry as a whole than any other single application of plastics (Jacobson, 2011). But this

was not the only revolutionary change in greenhouse production that can be attributed to

the use of plastic. Another game changing application was the use of plastics in pots. By

the 1970s and 1980s plastic pots had almost completely replaced the clay pots that were

used previously. Clay pots were heavy and fragile which greatly limited growers ability to

ship and market flowering potted plants, potted nursery plants, and bedding plants.

Plastic pots were relatively inexpensive, rugged, and perhaps most importantly light

11
weight. The use of plastic containers caused another huge change in greenhouse

production in the 1980s. The development of plastic plug trays with small individual cells

combined with mechanical seeders capable of placing one or more seeds with precision

in each of those individual cells revolutionized propagation practices in the greenhouse.

Crop time was greatly reduced by eliminating transplant shock, and the whole process

became much more efficient, with large-scale specialty propagators, or plug producers

growing the plug seedlings while other growers focused on finishing the plants resulting

in great economies of scale and labor requirements (Styer and Koranski, 1997). Another

area where plastics completely changed a segment of the greenhouse industry is in their

use in hydroponics. Modern hydroponic production systems depend on the use of

plastics. Nutrient Film Technique, a common hydroponic production system for leafy

greens and herbs, would not be possible without extruded plastic troughs and trays (Resh,

2013).

Reference: Potential of Plastics in Agriculture, 2017, Pages 117-128

12
 The geological cycle of plastics and their use as a
stratigraphic indicator of the Anthropocene

The rise of plastics since the mid-20th century, both as a material element of modern life

and as a growing environmental pollutant, has been widely described. Their distribution

in both the terrestrial and marine realms suggests that they are a key geological indicator

of the Anthropocene, as a distinctive stratal component. Most immediately evident in

terrestrial deposits, they are clearly becoming widespread in marine sedimentary deposits

in both shallow- and deep-water settings. They are abundant and widespread as

macroscopic fragments and virtually ubiquitous as microplastic particles; these are

dispersed by both physical and biological processes, not least via the food chain and the

faecal express route from surface to sea floor. Plastics are already widely dispersed in

sedimentary deposits, and their amount seems likely to grow several-fold over the next

few decades. They will continue to be input into the sedimentary cycle over coming

millennia as temporary stores landfill sites are eroded. Plastics already enable fine

time resolution within Anthropocene deposits via the development of their different types

and via the artefacts (technofossils) they are moulded into, and many of these may have

long-term preservation potential when buried in strata.

Reference: Jan Zalasiewicz, Colin N. Waters, Juliana A. Ivar do Sul, Patricia L.

Corcoran, Anthony D. Barnosky, Alejandro Cearreta, Matt Edgeworth, Agnieszka
Gauszka, Catherine Jeandel, Reinhold Leinfelder, J.R. McNeill, Will Steffen, Colin
Summerhayes, Michael Wagreich, Mark Williams, Alexander P. Wolfe, Yasmin Yonan,
The geological cycle of plastics and their use as a stratigraphic indicator of the
Anthropocene, Anthropocene, Volume 13, 2016, Pages 4-17, ISSN 2213-3054,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2016.01.002.
(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213305416300029)
Keywords: Anthropocene; Plastics; Stratigraphy

13
 High-strength and super-tough PA6/PS/PP/SEBS
quaternary blends compatibilized by using a highly
effective multi-phase compatibilizer: Toward efficient
recycling of waste plastics
It is well known that polyolefins, styrene polymers and engineering plastics occupy the

largest share of the plastic market and constitute nearly 80% of the world's plastic.

However, these plastics are usually used or recycled in mixed state and immiscible with

each other. It is hard to define or separate these plastics, respectively, from recycled

materials. In this letter, a maleic anhydride (MAH) and styrene (St) dual monomers

grafted poly [styrene-b-(ethylene-co-butylene)-b-styrene] (SEBS), SEBS-g-(MAH-co-St)

was developed as a multi-functionalized compatibilizer for combining engineering

plastics, styrene polymers and polyolefins. With the help of the compatibilizer, the model

quaternary blend PA6/PS/PP/SEBS (70/10/10/10) transforms from brittle into tough

blends, and shows controllable morphologies and significantly improved mechanical

properties. This highly efficient compatibilization strategy casts new light on both the

development of high-performance multi-phase polymer blends and the recycling of waste

plastics.

Reference: Huanmin Li, Xianwei Sui, Xu-Ming Xie, High-strength and super-tough
PA6/PS/PP/SEBS quaternary blends compatibilized by using a highly effective multi-
phase compatibilizer: Toward efficient recycling of waste plastics, Polymer, Volume 123,
2017, Pages 240-246, ISSN 0032-3861,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2017.07.024.
(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032386117306833)
Keywords: Compatibilization; Superior mechanical properties; Recycling of waste
plastics

14
Electricity-based plastics and their potential demand for
electricity and carbon dioxide

In a future fossil-free circular economy, the petroleum-based plastics industry must be

converted to non-fossil feedstock. A known alternative is bio-based plastics, but a

relatively unexplored option is deriving the key plastic building blocks, hydrogen and

carbon, from electricity through electrolytic processes combined with carbon capture and

utilization technology. In this paper the future demand for electricity and carbon dioxide

is calculated under the assumption that all plastic production is electricity-based in the

EU by 2050. The two most important input chemicals are ethylene and propylene and the

key finding of this paper is that the electricity demand to produce these are estimated to

20 MWh/ton ethylene and 38 MWh/ton propylene, and that they both could require

about 3 tons of carbon dioxide/ton product. With constant production levels, this implies

an annual demand of about 800 TWh of electricity and 90 Mton of carbon dioxide by

2050 in the EU. If scaled to the total production of plastics, including all input

hydrocarbons in the EU, the annual demand is estimated to 1600 TWh of electricity and

180 Mton of carbon dioxide. This suggests that a complete shift to electricity-based

plastics is possible from a resource and technology point of view, but production costs

may be 2 to 3 times higher than today. However, the long time frame of this paper creates

uncertainties regarding the results and how technical, economic and social development

may influence them. The conclusion of this paper is that electricity-based plastics,

integrated with bio-based production, can be an important option in 2050 since biomass

resources are scarce, but electricity from renewable sources is abundant.

15
Reference: Ellen Palm, Lars J. Nilsson, Max hman, Electricity-based plastics and their
potential demand for electricity and carbon dioxide, Journal of Cleaner Production,
Volume 129, 2016, Pages 548-555, ISSN 0959-6526,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.03.158.

(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652616302529)

Keywords: Electrification; CCU; Ethylene; Propylene; Fossil-free plastics

16
 Co-production of hydrogen and carbon nanotubes from
catalytic pyrolysis of waste plastics on Ni-Fe bimetallic
catalyst
To explore the mechanism of the influence of Ni-Fe bimetallic catalyst for the producing

high-value carbon nanotubes (CNTs) with clean hydrogen from waste plastic pyrolysis,

the pyrolysis-catalysis of plastics were performed using a two stage fixed bed reaction

system with Ni and Fe loading at variant molar ratios. The catalysts and produced carbon

were analysed with various characterization method, including temperature-programed

reduction/oxidation, X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy or/and Raman

spectroscopy. Both the H2 concentration and H2 yield reached maximum values of

73.93 vol.% and 84.72 mg g1plastic, respectively, as the ratio of Ni:Fe at 1:3. The amount

and quality of CNTs were greatly influenced by the catalyst composition, and Ni and Fe

display different roles to the overall reactivity of Ni-Fe catalyst for the pyrolysis-catalysis

of waste plastics. Catalyst with more Fe loading produced more hydrogen and deposited

carbon, due to higher cracking ability and the relatively lower interaction between active

sites and support. The presence of Ni in Ni-Fe bimetallic catalyst enhanced the thermal

stability and graphitization degree of produced carbons. The thermal quality of

filamentous carbons might be associated with carbon defects.

Reference: Dingding Yao, Chunfei Wu, Haiping Yang, Yeshui Zhang, Mohamad A. Nahil,
Yingquan Chen, Paul T. Williams, Hanping Chen, Co-production of hydrogen and
carbon nanotubes from catalytic pyrolysis of waste plastics on Ni-Fe bimetallic catalyst,
Energy Conversion and Management, Volume 148, 2017, Pages 692-700, ISSN 0196-
8904, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2017.06.012.
(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0196890417305551)
Keywords: Waste plastics; Hydrogen; Carbon nanotubes; Ni-Fe bimetallic catalyst

17
Separation of plastics by froth flotation. The role of size,
shape and density of the particles
Over the last few years, new methods for plastic separation in mining have been

developed. Froth flotation is one of these techniques, which is based on hydrophobicity

differences between particles. Unlike minerals, most of the plastics are naturally

hydrophobic, thus requiring the addition of chemicals that promote the selective

wettability of one of its components, for a flotation separation.

The floatability of six granulated post-consumer plastic - Polystyrene (PS), Polymethyl

methacrylate (PMMA), Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET-S, PET-D) and Polyvinyl

Chloride (PVC-M, PVC-D) - in the presence of tannic acid (wetting agent), and the

performance of the flotation separation of five bi-component plastic mixtures -

PS/PMMA, PS/PET-S, PS/PET-D, PS/PVC-M and PS/PVC-D - were evaluated.

Moreover, the effect of the contact angle, density, size and shape of the particles was also

analysed.

Results showed that all plastics were naturally hydrophobic, with PS exhibiting the

highest floatability. The contact angle and the flotation recovery of six plastics decreased

with increasing tannic acid concentration, occurring depression of plastics at very low

concentrations. Floatability differed also with the size and shape of plastic particles. For

regular-shaped plastics (PS, PMMA and PVC-D) floatability decreased with the increase

of particle size, while for lamellar-shaped particles (PET-D) floatability was slightly

greater for coarser particles. Thus, plastic particles with small size, lamellar shape and

low density present a greater floatability.

The quality of separation varied with the mixture type, depending not only on the plastics

hydrophobicity, but also on the size, density and shape of the particles, i.e. the particle

18
weight. Flotation separation of plastics can be enhanced by differences in hydrophobicity.

In addition, flotation separation improves if the most hydrophobic plastic, that floats, has

a lamellar shape and lower density and if the most hydrophilic plastic, that sinks, has a

regular shape and higher density.

The results obtained show that froth flotation is a potential method for plastics

separation, in particular for plastics with particle size greater than 2.0 mm.

Reference: Fernando Pita, Ana Castilho, Separation of plastics by froth flotation. The
role of size, shape and density of the particles, Waste Management, Volume 60, 2017,
Pages 91-99, ISSN 0956-053X, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.07.041.

(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956053X16304184)

Keywords: Plastic flotation; Separation; Particle size; Particle shap

19
 Pyrolysis-catalytic dry (CO2) reforming of
waste plastics for syngas production: Influence of
process parameters
Catalytic dry (CO2) reforming of waste plastics was carried out in a two stage, pyrolysis-

catalytic reforming fixed bed reactor to optimise the production of syngas (H2 + CO). The

effects of changing the process parameters of, catalyst preparation conditions, catalyst

temperature, CO2input rate and catalyst:plastic ratio were investigated. The plastics used

was a mixture of plastics simulating that found in municipal solid waste and the catalyst

used was Ni-Co-Al2O3. The results showed that changing each of the process conditions

investigated, all significantly influenced syngas production. An increase of 17% of syngas

production was achieved from the experiment with the catalyst prepared by rising-pH

technique compared to preparation via the impregnation method. The optimum syngas

production of 148.6 mmolsyngas g1swp was attained at the catalytic dry reforming

temperature of 800 C and catalyst:plastic ratio of 0.5. The increase of CO2input rate

promoted a higher yield of syngas.

Reference: Juniza Md Saad, Paul T. Williams, Pyrolysis-catalytic dry (CO) reforming of

waste plastics for syngas production: Influence of process parameters, Fuel, Volume
193, 2017, Pages 7-14, ISSN 0016-2361, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2016.12.014.

(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016236116312352)

Keywords: Waste; Plastics; Reforming; Carbon dioxide; Catalyst

20
 Evaluating the potential of waste plastics as fuel in
cement kilns using bench-scale emissions analysis
In an effort to reduce emissions and lower fuel costs, cement plants have explored the use

of waste materials to displace coal and petroleum coke. A potential candidate is non-

recyclable waste plastics. Knowledge of potential changes in cement kiln parameters with

a change in the composition of operating fuel prior to full-scale application is necessary

for obtaining permits and for plant preparedness. Most bench-scale performance studies

have targeted the prediction of full-scale stack emissions with variable degrees of success.

In this work, a bench-scale tube furnace and a heated grid reactor (HGR) have been used

to compare combustion and emission changes when waste plastics displace an equivalent

amount of heat from the coal/coke blend. Trends in the results from bench-scale

experiments on residual volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions matched full-scale

observations on kiln thermal performance. Bench-scale particulate matter (PM)

emissions indicated that no significant changes were likely in full-scale stack PM

emissions when using waste-derived fuel (WDF). This bench-scale fuel characterization

approach has been used to study the potential impact of waste plastics on the performance

of a local cement kiln.

Reference: Ebenezer A. Asamany, Mark D. Gibson, Michael J. Pegg, Evaluating the

potential of waste plastics as fuel in cement kilns using bench-scale emissions analysis,
Fuel, Volume 193, 2017, Pages 178-186, ISSN 0016-2361,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2016.12.054.
(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016236116312911)
Keywords: Waste plastics; Combustion; Alternative fuel; Coal; Cement kiln; Emission

21