< LBUT (NORPROLOEY hud Anlaromy - Gaia ———-——_. — Rollenchyna Histology is the study of tissues. All multicelfular ‘organisms possess groups of cells of similar structure and function assembled together to form tissues. A tissue can be defined as a group of physically linked cells and (2 BE associated intercellular substances that is specialised for a peer Toon or Tetons Tie ely oF woe geherally @ similar origin in the embryo. ‘Tissues improve the efficiency with which the body functions by allowing division of labour, that is sharing of tasks, with ceach tissue being specialised for a particular job. Higher levels of organisation than the tissue occur, parictarly in animals” A~tumber of Gases. wonng Segetic a funcional unit a called organ oreome fe eee Ge haath a ee ae ‘oven larger functional units known as systems, for example the digestive system (pancreas, liver, stomach, duodenum and so on) and the vascular system (heart and blood vessels). lnc Sues can be dvd into wo group © one typeofeell parenchyma Simple — ~ colienckyma CAlorenclope ~ selerenchyma © more than one type of cell Complen ~ xem ~ phloem ~ Simple plant tissues — tissues consisting of one type of cell Parenchyma ‘Structure ~The structure of parenchyma is shown ‘The cells may be roughly spherical or elongated. Functions and distribution ‘The cells are unspecialised and act as packing tissue between more specialised tissues, as in the central pith of stems and outer cortex of stems and 700i, ‘They form a large part of the bulk of the young piant ‘The osmotic properties of parenchyrna cells are important because, when turgid, they become tightly packed and provide support for the organs in which they are found, This is particularly important inthe stems of herbaceous plants wheré they form the main means of support. During periods of water shortage the cells of such plants lose water and this results in the plants wilting Although structurally unspecialised, the cells are metabolically active and are the sites of many of the vital activities ofthe plant body. © A system of ir spaces runs from the external environment where they open as stomata (pores in the Tcaf) of lenticels (special slits in woody stems). These air spaces run between the cells, thus allowing gaseous exchange to take place between living cells and the external environment. Oxygen for respiration and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis can thus diffuse through the spaces. ‘This occurs readily in the spongy ‘mesophyll layer of the leaf. © Parenchyma cells arc often sites of food storage, most, notably in storage organs, such as potato tubers wheres the parenchyma cortex stores starch. Rare examples occur of parenchyma cells storing food in thickenad cell walls, for example the hemicelluloses of date seed endosperm. ‘© The walls of parenchyma cells are important pathways of water and mineral salt transport through the plant (part of the ‘apopiast_pathvvay’ ~ 1. Substances may also move through plasmodesmata between neighbouring cells. © Pareachyma cells may become modified and more specialised in certain parts of the plant. = 7 Colleachyma consists, like parenchyma, of living cells but is modified to give support 2nd mechanical strength, Structure The structure of-collenchyma is shown £ It shows many of the features of parenchyma but is characterised by the deposition of extra cellulose at the comers of the cells. ‘The deposition occurs after the formation of the primary cell wall. ‘The cells also elongate parallel to the longitudinal axis of the organ in which they are found. Function and distribution Collenchyma is a mechanical tissue, providing support for those organs in which it is found. It is particularly important in young plants, herbaceous plants and in organs such as leaves where secondary growth does not occut. In these situations it is an important strengthening tissue supplementing the effects of turgid parenchyma, Tt is the first of the; strengthening tissues to develop in the primary plant body and, because it is living, can grow and stretch ‘without impositfg limitations on the growth of other cells around it In stems and petioles its value in support is increased by its location towards the periphery of the organ. It is often found just below the epidermis in the outer region of the cortex nnd gradually merges into parenchyma towards the inside, thus forming a hollow cylinder in three dimensions. Alternatively, strengthening ridges may be formed, as along the fleshy petioles of celery (Apium graveolus) and the angular stems of plants such as dead-nettle (Laminin). tn dicotyledonous leaves it appears as solid masses running the length of the midrib, providing support for the vascular bundles Selerenchyma ‘The sole function of sclerenchyma is to assist in providing support and mechanical strength for the plant. Its distribution within the plant is related to the stresses to which different organs are subjected. Unlike collenchyma, the mature cells are dead and incapable of elongation so they do not mature until elongation of the living cells around them is complete. Structure There are two types of sclerenchyma cell, namely which are elongated cells, and selexgids or stoné cells, Me te usualy sowghy opieSeathough both may vary considerably in size and shape. Their structures are shown} 4. In both cases the primary ceil wall is heavily thickened with deposits of lignin, a hard substance with great tensile and compressional strength. A high tensile strength means that it does not break easily on stretching, and a high compressional strength means that it does not buckle easily. Deposition of lignin takes place in and on the primary cellulose cell wall and, as the walls thicken, the living ‘contents of the cells are Jost with the result that the mature cells are dead. In both fibres and sclereids structures called simple pits appear in the walls-as they thicken, These represent areas where lignin is not deposited on the primary wall owing to the presence of groups of plasmodesmata ‘bres ~ Tadindaal fibres 100€8 — Tn didi Feching le 5 ees F Phe We, Leak cell, They are los cat TK Don re k ede CS08 HM end alls) Chlorenchyma cells are parenchyma cells involved in photosynthesis; they have abundance of ropa, tnd the hess of Uh walls advantageous fo lo light and carbon dioxide to pass through to the chloroplests. ¢ee ee ee est raene eee een) ere (| | pe eeeeeneeeeer rere! | | meee | Tissue ‘Main functions Living or dead Wall material Cell shape Distribution Parenchyma Packing tissue. Support Living Cellulose, pectins Roughly spherical Cores, pith, medullary ie a in herbaceous plants. ‘and hemicelluloses to elongated rays in wood and packing Melaboially active. tse in aylem and Intercell spaces ohloem allow pasous exchange. Food sorage, Transpo of maecals trough cols ox ell walls. f se Modified parenchyma (a)epidernis Promotion rom desiccation Living Cellulose, pectnsRlongated and Single ayer of cells an infection, Hal nd fi heniceloloses, —fatenes covering eae plary jlands may have fed covering of ein plat body itona! funtion, (@)mesoptyll Photoryahess(eotsins ‘Living Cellulose, pectas Roughly spherical, Between the uppee and chloroplasts). td hemsceIuloses—izegular (spongy) lower epidermis of leaves Storage of starch, or colina sbaped tale epting (© endodermis Seesive baie to Living Cellulose, pees As eidermis Around vascular tissue ‘movement of wile sd iceuloses, Ganternos layer of cortex) fd inca alts betreen tal deposits of aubecn cortex and xylem) in roots. ‘Starch sheath with possible ‘Blin gy eae (peccycte Yn soot itretains Liviog Colle, petins As paenchyme In 00 botween central meristems activity snd bemiceuosee vascular fasue and producing aera oo and tdoderas Eontbadng to vecondary trowth i tis occurs [NB Te perc the stem is made of scleercyma and has diferent cin ' Colleciyma Support (amectaoioal «Living Cluloss pestis Tlongated and Outer regions of cortex, funtion) tid hemicelulosss polygonal wits eg. angles of sims, i : thgengeads_ tusibof leaves | Seemann \ (eyfbree Suppor purely Dead Mainly gn. —-Hlongated and Outer pion af cortex, mechanical) Collolasy pectins polygonal with peceycle of stems, i and hemiceluioses tapering 4ylem and phloem i fh present interoekng ends | ()eclereids —Supportor mechanical «Dead As fibres Ronglly spheical Coriex, pth, pblocm, shells { proestion orireguler and stones ofits, seed coats Xylem Mixtuce of living and dead cells. Xylem also contains Sibres and pareachyma which are ws previously dascribed, Uwacheids and ‘Teanslocation of water. Dead Mainly lignin Hlongated ané Vascular system vessels and mineral salts. Collulose, pectin thular Suppost. and hemiceliuloses 4 also presen. Phloem ‘Mixture of living and dead cells. Phlocm also contains fibres and scleeids which are as previously described. (@)sieve mbes Translocation of organic Living Cellulose, ectins —Flongated and ——_Vaseular system solntes (food) smd hemiceluloses ubalar @compesion Workin sociation with Living Tlongated and —_-Vaseular system. cells sieve tubes arrow | cobcdudk Phere Hersfk [£ pn crecsed she, |e Pearl arrassemet as Shards a She | ussne; Aha? exchrds yn rhe (engi fodinal ireifan, \v% red erds prhrlock bok eack ofher- erharang | herr’ Camimede okersfh. Lotetin fee ose. | Because fisrec ling a. ferSe ome jo Oren ree ShOs th and ees pomp ofaaf bb tote Carfains a hicndance of Stee, Gard rick fsres; [rrokh asain (aseih, Pope ok.Tr . : : | Sc lererels Kok rouskly Spherrenl, | Sfrons aJatts, AGh dsr fied,” Seleren Charan SSA mate op of Ccfereee of hn Sie, ank (ners nk jr ford ip, nefrnblfe | Sor ces Hike Festa, SAM Lo tdlifnube BS yorps” en le poves! 2 Aeros Ak pkacks» Tr rhe fear and fs Omak FOL and. “5 Un, Ga, Sritiness" LoKeK Caen. vee Em ( YESS ELS ate Veeses £lenens) ZoRGm Within xylem are two types of conducting cells: tracheids and vessel Alements _ bot ae types of scleenchyna felis « Te pes HE or c of secondary wall, nganaed 12 set, ae. called gnnular thickening intertor face of the primary wall . This arrangement prevides large surface ate lor aes wen into and out of the cel ut it toes not provide much strength. The walls must be strong because the TPES. OF OF movement of the water tends to cause themt to collapse inward Wi hele Patio - Gprel) ‘Mekeing he secondary wall exits sone ovo hes nrc to he pins well (9) f2/ * . Selaifnm thickening provides mach mere suength haces fhe dar wal covers most ofthe ins race ofthe pimaty wall el weet ee Just a ‘8 nonconducting slerenchym, the area where secondary wall is absent is called roan , elements with reiglae thickening, the secondary wall I epestedin te shape of anet, as the name suggests. The most derived and strongest ents are those with circular bordere BV y-Insuch Serene Tita a Re yal the pay walle by the secondary wall. The are weak points in the wall, but the weakness is reduced ial around the pit—hence the name. | Wessel element, these are prddanl coy aed produce a os aoe lou (Sefre fhey che ovidee gtiof fo prove tale La Dees ae clk fess Kicpron~ Darin | final SAGES development 2 Lyon nae Called o ation! 1s dypisRe ava lar fhe Latl, ofr removing SAe ba fire 7 walls SL Re efemenf. 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Sproir one. ef gy cleonecdoned redirccd Uiaue and do PN a alin Fiienmcy dunchor open o_hex prctislices f- es Most cacdess foodg i> Gans excel KE torts ig 1 elise and Hhendfoe wets be Xeetllncl setae of yD fer seinaale ep Aertel packed Hey poulde shutll gnu wine turtigt ant Aeyuig effete gaat bell, te te fit - a Bote errwllfen,TLEADRILS — Ceoppet) ae ee Cpe caren pation” : blade 97 Lamune but Wey com Heap tae ane! “ltl wane faeciSocn te proulde support forthe ant» They torkten [eee gen ea Wa, ae tomer cemetbuse must Hot Guin Hen He ably He cox — foro Blain of Thar plana bne Rendeth torn tn Wobnet WL, Slow, He’ id of ind) nt tess cen wedtibepes pera) fata tla tls tie Li de toe pies Hay ens i os . U fale Le pat gen of Ue aad | : USCLER PHY LOUS Lees. iu intel espe Ube Spent Heng hoe abundant Wflbnen bait Hoy atau hewn phobatyp Mabie abibihy - MrwadaL holeren thr, febrer Theos Heats Ags dary = | and Voare frwe Lay Cepreate TE aoe uruasCmaed” B Ve gone Herefore Hay are lors led . 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Thee leauta me Male and flac fang Visits and flashes & Shape Moot | redescen deurfiner to volume Tale and Vlrefor Yat furmere Aad comservation’ » “te ar yaces and Yoy haus a Mach fete -Moereplyy b neliled fre lemf ter[mee by etl, toh [otge veewctin ond thts Ole onE ao. hess filly ngaunsZ wlowes Jermtlgnr + There trans Gm eleo cota recsilage lai Yenc» 10 bend [bald Wal sookin'y 1 conciny fol welir 19 ky Shmed «il |e beamed» Varartan fStue b decried 9 heup | comsoredl, There. ee not a Uc of ene ie cme ll tp cid — Lopiced enample GEO, ALOR KCrA ud sateo Ceategrale) -0% oAs eg tte mites tone coedfahet of forst 1s Nhatievouctrnoy tontersvers There become - A Sessile Tyla acid onceomipenen leases Vda: prot _ @illerg Whe plead or bude olureng dbermancy - Becnree thu pote i parily pees Hag basse diffeect otrivchine rece - ermal learter + they hae rrerk C5AK Oo er oe tae Iensita- thay consent finn Cesk Ourdy Ths Predluaten a | teas leper of Cow; pte pane Me = pockvoms of bear whee peransotes geeslae. pitechio. Uran peerpee 0c eg preter Lemar. Mad 2 Hae Onley lame of leaf Corte prodace Mi lapeaf Sy ak any fiaad Oo Mec te, Bi cia Shoot ayy taf merifems fron a (0: on dying ata of Win dkin boi: . frypertics Lr propics lan be Peon in rusher Pees, maken ¢ Jado adobe - ectems a ‘asigned Cx replate lef aa i Mie fade: Clacdode ao ba Cram Me ep hofyn feehe Siem eg oe Paul de - Ze prt: pt, lant Co peat the petiole YF Ye Le PAT [ilee LY 5 lane joches for ere phor® gee roleLEAF MODIFICATION: TRAP LEAVES FOR NITROGEN ACQUISITION Trap leaves are found in inseetivorous/carnivorous plants. They live in places where soil may be deficient in nitrogen. They can acquire nitrogen from insects trapped and digested with highly modified leaves ‘Trap leaves can be classified as active traps — move during capture process e.g. Venus flytrap and ‘Sundew or passive — do not move e.g, Pitcher plant PITCHER, Pitcher- passive trap. Found in Nepenthes sp. Forms pitchers (cups) that hang from trees. The leaf is an elaborate highly modified lamina that is tubular/oup shaped forming a pitcher. ‘The pitfall trap lures its prey by a combination of odours and sometirnes a red colouration. As trap/pitcher develops it ‘swells and drops due to its weight, as it matures it inflates with air and begins to fll with liquid then opens revealing the interior. ‘The top of the trap has a lid that initially covers the pitcher until growth complete, When leaf fully grown, the lid opens and the trap is ready. Interior surface has abundant flaky wax. Itis lined with glands producing digestive juices/acid/enzymes. ‘The epidermis of digestive region is absorptive rather than impermeable. Appearance and smell attracts insects, may attract insects with odour of nectar. Ithas downward pointing trichomes/haits, at throat of pitcher, together with flaxy wax which prevents insects/prey from climbing out and escaping once inside trap. Flaky wax on interior surface peels off as insect struggles to climb, eventually falls into pool of water at base “Motion caused by struggling prey stimulate dijestive glands to produce acid/enzymes for digestion, ean digest small insect within hours. P{lant acquire valuable nutrients including nitrogen Lid may prevent digestive juices becoming too diluted by rain. (Largest pitcher Rajah Pitcher can catch and digest mice) rapid movement snapping shut when stimulated by prey. ‘The lobes are held the flat position which is ‘maintained by cells along midrib, extremely turgid/swollen, Insect walks along trap brushes against trigger hairs, the two halves of lamina close rapidly (due to cells losing water and becoming flaccid) insect trapped by “interdigitating teeth” /hair like projections which intermesh with each other trapping inside within, Glands in lamina now secrete digestive juices/enzymes, Digestion complete lobes/ lamina reopen trap set. Trapping mechanism so specialised can detect live prey and non-live prey —raindrops VENUS FLY TRAP- Active trap. Dionaea sp. The leaf is divided into two regions: a flat, heart-shaped photosynthesis-capable petiole and a pair of terminal lobes hinged at the midrib forming the trap which is the true leaf. Lobes exhibit rapid plant movement, snapping shut when stimulated by prey Edges of lobes fringed by stiff hair like protrusions /extensions which closes and mesh together like “interdigitating teeth” preventing prey from escaping, ‘The trapping mechanism is tripped when prey contacts the sensitive trigger hairs/trichomes, sensitive to touch located on the upper surface of each of the lobes. Trapping mechanism so specialised can distinguish living prey and non-prey stimuli such as falling raindrops. Two hairs touched in succession within 20 seconds of each other. ‘The lobes are held in the flat position which is maintained by cells along upper side of midrib, these cells are extremely turgid and swollen ‘Once insect lands on leaf and walks along trap brushes against trigger hairs, the midrib cells lose water rapidly causing the two halves of lamina to close rapidly (due to cells losing water and becoming flaccid) insect tapped by “interdigitating teeth” /hair like projections which intermesh with each other trapping insect within, Glands in lamina now secrete digestive juices/enzymes, and digestion begins. Digestion complete lobes! lamina reopen and trap set, SUNDEW Active trap. Drosera sp, ‘The upper surface of leaf is covered with long glandular trichomes/tentacles. The stalks are tipped with glands that secrete nectar, adhesive compounds and digestive enzymes, Once an insect lands on leaf it becomes stuck to trichomes, nearby trichomes are also stimulated to bend towards insect and place sticky drop on insect. In many species the entire leaf can coil around the prey placing numerous trichomes with sticky digestive drops on insect. ‘These motions are usually slow taking minutes to hours to occur ‘Trichomes can bend in any direction, but once insect caught all tentacles know in which direction to bendcells often elongated parallel with the ‘engtudinal ans of ‘the organ they cover Length varabie (ot 400 im) suo a iad am TD Su (2) Te pus eat ogo uu une SmcoyeN) e1od woo te pa * aval ‘1 (4) ‘euno ur euoiiod elongated epidermal ca 20 aiming” 7B Ulu 4 0} dn) payebuoja axe sao eve S89 'S (8) ‘5990 (get oa od) pain as 51)@ 0 /——thin peripheral ayer of /—~ saps ucteus lange cen vacoule ,_—midetamela thin primary eatolose ‘ila nereluae air apace “Average diameter: about 25m Fig &_ Siucture of parenchyma cals a) TS, cells are Sy wohl Ela ea BTS ele elongated. fo) TS Helianthus stem pith Toa I. } i + iy 8 i fo i, gee Undid k ay eee Fig & sinsture of sleranctyma cells ongonaln outline (0) LS, cols are o Venable, commonly > 7 mn, up to 250 (6) Three-dimensional appearance. * Le dif -Parenchymna Fig 7 Teacher \mitoctondeion smal nd fee present smooth cndopla ttc [' ¢ ccasionally ” 7 Nocatee yp Wsioentte /) A tre ribosomes tnoughont eytoplasin cell watt plostia celles reticulum ‘yal sacked sheve pore —— close Alper of pivcoss cll surface membrane —— mitebondrion __— comranion cet, dense ope, numerous ihosomes and mitochondtia! lose etl wat very active die larelia FaZ_onyanmaic Ls of sieve ube elements end a companion cl as seen wi the electron mioacopeseem ae a 1 cellulose of. ieee . ree \ =| —tgnin sir cleus of parenchyma oe all Anontar Sia tkeng| i Heer re — 4 before MME uring | before after | — sething Mtg ine Ss Fie | ) us : pound inside Seema | ff —anilary bud which will develop into new lateral bulb ss, ‘sxllary bud which will become next year’s apical bud ~ fattened stem ——adventtious roots Aomer-beating sie of this year's plant — foliage leaves ofthis year’s plant hick leaves send 00d to developing flower-bearing stom end follage eaves ofthis year’s plant is year's shoots (Containing sitar buds ‘which develop into next year's shoots) swollen taproot normal pat of root B Root tubers bse ofthis yea’ stem swollen adventitious roots (foot tubers) normal rots Figure 2 Two opts of perenmating organs feted ftom, pote Bran sows ata tmovement of food materi om the Tle eaves of this years plant nto the erent Figure F_Diatrams of bulb, Solid arrows {indicate movement of food matevais fem peter, ating organ to new plant or new perennatiog ‘organ. Broken arrows fndicate movement of fad ‘atcrials from the foliage leaves ofthis year’s plant. Into the perennating organ,— apical bod which grows into this yeas plant —— postion of ext corm — suilay buds and leaf bases a swollen stem (corm) formed last year and fll of stored food sevens rots previous year’ corms flower-beasng stem ofthis year’s plant leaves ofthis yes plant f___|__ sew corm developing contractile roots another new corm developing ftom axillary bud next year's terminal bud materials from peren late movement of foodnica ud, grows form next season's pant, contains embryo ster, Fliage faves anda flower nex season’ stem and corm axillary bad, may aso orm anew plant brown ea eae, pote remains of ast seasons fla corm, formed by sweling of stem ba with {ood at end of growing season i ore of ast year Yoo timer eserensgminetieand Fig?" Diagrammatic section though a donment but, Bull new corm cown asa Fig 1» Diagrammatic section through a dormant corm. "embryo stem, foliage Keven el eer al bad of nex season uth _———-Hrom eae aro. flag ef ot aan see — te eo ete et (i “A, eat net sso pli, coniie [_—axilary bd, ‘ay also form ae plant short, Aattened stem Femainsoflast season’ tious coats Se Era ay asx / 2 aanged around the A tuber Each bd cn ive te te of arent tsctoanew ste eas thor scat ars dea endo Jemie for pa exchange Srowingeaton oe “ai soot rowing from sai apt swollen —_—_ t sere Food prdved by : ‘emia! Bt Tolageteaerot caret | € teat Hh emer i ES sma intra rots / : _-— nen prt mes te aier its She sear ‘Tarip entire | Fig 3 Tap roots of carrot and tumip. | on time sing in | — willy bl 3 | see Hea wih | tile ha = young saher ‘aller We Fa) Stomtuter of pot (0) Potato plant ery in the sebcon a see Foot tuber swollen adventitious Fig: 5 oot tubers of Dahia,ean of vaca buns year's \ old part often des not... eromth | roman aniaeybud stolen, shoot arches over ‘ind roots rom a nade the basa this nde stows into anew shoot — ical at stary sew shoot ~y\\ Fig “7: Genoratised plan ofa stolon. “> upper epidermis ON ith ia eat Fig The leit is shown in the rolled condition. Awe fo from the eaves passes ak othe ‘hizame ind enters anally bal which postion of canceled alr but ins Thod from the leaves continues goth of he Frirome: at theendof the new prowth an apa bod Wal develop: atthe beginning the nen season {rows und produces leaves un Owes the expense Si the food store paren pan eet, / ra Sy anica bu ah h saleleat ——adyetlons roots [we pas ‘aproat tater coos Af \S Fig Ys Plan ofa strawberry sunny. A transverse section of the xeromorphic leaf of Ammophila (marram grass) to show distribution of tissues,