1.

Gears
Way back so many years ago, the enhancement of technology was already been
practiced in a classical way to enhance ones needs for a better life. One of these
encounters are the use of tools, simple machines, water systems and etc. The
foundations of these elements were enhanced accurately by the people called inventors
who develop these ideas with variety of applications. Not far ago the use of gears was
already been established as a machine applied to transmit power and motion meshing
together. This motion may or may not be uniform and may also be accompanied by
changes in direction, speed and shaft torque. Technically by definition, a gear is a toothed
wheel that is usually, but not necessarily round. The teeth may have any of an almost
infinite variety of profiles [1].

1.1 Gear Types

1.2 Gear Nomenclature and formulas
1.2.1 Gear Nomenclature

Figure 1. Gear Nomenclature

 Figure 1 shows a part of the gear with its nomenclature defined. The pitch circle
and base circle have been defined above. The tooth thickness is measured at the pitch
circle, and the tooth space width is slightly larger than the tooth thickness. The difference
between these two dimensions is the backlash. The face width of the tooth is measured
along the pitch circle circumference measured from a point on one tooth to the same point
on the next. The circular pitch is the distance, measured on the theoretical pitch circle,
from a point on one tooth to a corresponding point on an adjacent tooth which is measured
in inches or in millimeters [3]. The tooth height is defined by the addendum (added on)
and the dedendum (subtracted from) which are referenced to the nominal pitch circle.
Referring to Figure 1, the dedendum is slightly larger than the addendum this is done to
provide a small amount of clearance between the tip of one mating tooth (addendum
circle) and the bottom of the tooth space of the other (dedendum circle) [2].

1.2.2 Basic Geometric Gear Formulas

Gear design is manufactured basically by using the formulas to create its
geometric appearance or structure. The American Gear Manufacturers Association
(AGMA) defines standard gear design and manufacture. They define a spectrum of
quality numbers and tolerances ranging from the lowest to the highest precision [2].

The face and the flank portion of the tooth surface are divided by the pitch cylinder.
The circular pitch ( ) is the distance, on the pitch circle, from a point on one tooth to a
corresponding point on the next. By definition,

. (1)
=

The ratio of the number of teeth and the pitch diameter is defined as, diametral pitch ( ).
Therefore,

= . (2)

Under U.S. specification of gears, the units of are teeth/in. or in.-1. As defined in . (2),
the equation can be simplified. Thus,
 . (3)
=

In SI units, Teeth size is specified by module or denoted as which is measured in

millimeters. We have,

= . (4)

where pitch diameter is measured in millimeters and is the number of teeth. Using
. (1), the expression could be reduced as,
=
. (5)

Basically module is inversely proportional to the diametral pitch. Thus,

1 . (6)
=

Some equations are shown in Table 1 with different geometric elements to be determined
for creating and designing a standard spur gear.

Table 1: Formulas for Dimensions of Standard Spur Gear

1.3 Basic Law of Gearing

Theoretically the main requirement of gear-tooth geometry is the provision that

angular ratios are exactly constant. Assuming that the teeth are perfectly formed, very
smooth and able to withstand stresses (rigid). According to the basic law of gearing states
that as the gears rotate, the common normal at the point of contact between the teeth
must always pass through a fixed point on the line of centers [4]. This point is reffered as
the pitch point () as seen in Figure 2. Thus, when two gears are in mesh, their pitch
circles roll on one another without slipping. Pitch line velocity can be determined by,

= 1 1 = 2 2 . (7)

where represents the pitch radii of either meshing gears and for the angular velocity
og gear. This relation can be also extended with related ratios which in general is defined
as the speed ratio. Thus,

Figure 2: Involute Gear Teeth Contact form and Pressure angle

 2 2 1 1
= = = = . (8)
1 1 2 2

where is the speed in rpm, for the number of teeth and for the pitch circle diameter.
The subscripts are referred for the meshing gears: 1 for driver and 2 for driven. Another
relation defining the center distance of the meshing gears can be geometrically equated
as,
1 + 2
=
2 . (9)

Using eq. 8 and eq. 9, the center distance of the meshing gear can be equated as,
(1 + 2 )
= . (10)
2

Also from eq. 6, eq. 10 can be simplified using the diametral pitch and module relation
as,
1 + 2
= . (11)
2

1.4 The Involute Tooth Form

According to Norton, the involute is a curve that can be generated by unwrapping

a taut string from a cylinder (called evolute) as shown in Figure 3. Stated that the strings
is always tangent to the cylinder where basically the gear tooth profile is generated. Also
the center of curvature of the involute is always at the point of tangency of the string with
the cylinder. A tangent to the involute is then always normal to the string, the length of
which is the instantaneous radius of curvature of the involute curve [2].
 Figure 3: Development of the Involute Curve

1.5 Spur Gear Design and Selection

In designing a spur gear, different approach and analysis must be considered in

order to have an optimal design with proper selection in accordance to the standards. The
application of gears as stated in the previous topics is used to transmit force to create
work as well as power. The analysis also includes the allowable load on the spur gear
system, the load on the teeth, and how to factor in the impact and fatigue effects on the
gears [6].

1.5.1 Forces on Spur Gear Teeth

As discussed earlier, power is transmitted through mating gears with equal and
opposite forces occurring. However in actual position, these forces are not in tangent with
the intersection point of a meshing gears due to its involute shape. This involute shape of
the teeth force resulted to be normal to the involute angle of the point of contact (refer to
Figure 4). The angle of this point of contact is the angle of involute from the tangent to
the pitch circle at the mating point of the gear mating surfaces [6].

j
j

Figure 4: Forces acting on a Gear Tooth

Figure 4 shows the forces occurring on the teeth. The resultant force ( ) occurs between
the mating gears at the involute angle from the tangent to the pitch circle at the mating
point. Transmitted force ( ) is the force tangent to the pitch circle and normal force ( )
is the separating force. These forces now considered to be the important values which
will then predict the stresses during operation. With the given relations, mathematically
these forces can be equated. From Figure 4 Thus,

= . (12)

where the relation it is simply equated using the pythagorean theorem. Another relation
can also be equated using the same theory. Then this equation can be derived as,

= . (13)

From physics, power can be determined given the force acting on the machine element
rotating with amount of speed. Thus this relation is said to be equated as,

(14)
.
=
63,000
where the unit of power () is in horse power () and the torque () is in lb-in with the
rotational speed () in rpm. Since the tangential force acting on the gear gives enough
force to rotate the other gear. Thus tangential force can be equated as,
2
= . (15)

is the pitch diameter where the tangent force effectively creates a moment motion
perpendicular to the vertical line from the center point of the gear. The line collinear to the
resultant force straight forward to the contact where pressure angle is located, referred in
physics as the line of action.

1.5.2 AGMA Standards for Spur Gears

1.5.2.1 Coarse Pitch

The American Gear Manufacturers Association have done several publishes of

standards on choosing the right design in every application of the gear. The association
itself remarkably have done calculations for the geometric selection for the gear
nomenclature, stress and strenght analysis, life cycle of the gear and etc. Now our study
will have to refer all the data and information in accordance with the standard to create a
gear using our machine as the main topic for this study.Table 1 shows the AGMA
formulas for calculating spur gear geometry with 20 and 25 degree involute full depth
teeth using coarse pitch [7].

Table 4 and 5 shows the calculated standard data for addendum, dedendum,
circular pitch and etc. Basically these values were calculated on the basis of the formulas
that is shown on Table 2 and 3 for 20 and 25 degrees pressure angle for coarse pitch.
Standard diametral pitch was already been chosen by AGMA for standard geometry sizes
used for desired applications. When using equal addendums on pinion and gear the
minimum number of teeth on the pinion is 18 and the minimum total number of teeth in
the pair is 36 for 20-degree full depth involute tooth form and 12 and 24, respectively, for
25-degree full depth tooth form. The dedendum in this column is used when the gear
tooth is shaved. It allows for the higher fillet cut by a protuberance hob [7].
Table 2. Formulas for Tooth Parts, 20-and 25-degree Involute Full-depth Teeth ANSI
Coarse Pitch Spur Gear Tooth Forms ANSI B6.1-1968 (R1974)

Table 3. Gear Tooth Parts for American National Standard Coarse Pitch 20- and 25-Degree
Pressure Angle Gears
 Table 4. Continuation of Gear Tooth Parts for American National Standard Coarse Pitch
20- and 25-Degree Pressure Angle Gears

1.5.2.2 Fine Pitch

According to the AGMA standards, the main differences of fine and coarse pitch is
the greater clearance specified for fine pitch. The increase in clearance provides for any
foreign material that may tend to accumulate at the bottoms of the teeth and also the
relatively larger fillet radius resulting from proportionately greater wear on the tips of fine-
pitch cutting tools. Fine pitch are manufactured with a standard pressure angle of 20
degrees which is recommended for most applications. Also the preferred diametral
pitches for fine pitch are: 20, 24, 40, 48, 64, 72, 80, 96, and 120 in English system. From
1
table 5, standard formulas is used for fine pitch specification with 14 2, 20 and 25 degrees

pressure angle. Also Table 6 shows the calculated values for addendum, dedendum,
circular pitch, circular thickness and etc. For the working depth, it is simply equal to twice
the addendum as generally used in the standards.
 Table 5. Tooth Proportions for Fine-Pitch Involute Spur Gear of 1412-, 20-, and 25-
Degree Pressure Angle ANSI B6.7-1977

1.6 Stresses in Spur Gears

Table 6. American National Standard Fine Pitch Standard Gear Tooth Parts
1412-, 20-, and 25-Degree Pressure Angles
 Design of gear stress requires a complete analysis to determine how strong the
gear against any load at any applications in different varieties. Some analysis requires
software tools to elaborate every single effects with different parameters to be identified
during meshing of gears. This study will discuss few important parameters in stresses of
gears just to show the importance of the goal and the studies behind any design and
fabrication of the spur gears.

1.6.1 Bending Stress of Spur Gears

In gear teeth, there are two factors that affect the gear teeth: fatigue fracture due
to bending stresses and the surface fatigue. Primarily, these two failures must be checked
in designing gears. Since most heavily gears are made of ferrous materials that do have
bending endurance limit, infinite life can be obtained for the bending loads. However
materials do not exhibit an endurance limit for repeated surface-contact stresses.
Therefore it is not possible to design gears with infinite life against surface failure.

1.6.1.1 The Lewis Equation

The first equation used for the bending stress was the Lewis equation way back in
1892. This is derived by treating the tooth as simple cantilever and with tooth contact
occurring at the tip. With forces occurring on the tip, only tangential force is considered.
It is also assumed that only pair of teeth in contact. Stress concentrations at the tooth root
filter is ignored. Since the bending stress formula of a cantilever is,

6
=
2 . 16
where is the moment. Referring to Figure 5, the equation can then be expanded as,

6
=
2
where is the width of the tooth in the axial direction, and l and h are the height and
thickness.
 Figure 5: Beam Strength of Gear Teeth

2
Since is purely a geometric property of the shape and size of the tooth. Therefore this
6
factor can be a function of the circular pitch. Thus,

2
=
6
where is the pure number called the Lewis factor which depends upon the number of
teeth of gear and the system of gearing. Substituting Eq. (18) to Eq. (17), the relation can
be written as,
=

Lewis factor is used with different number of teeth as shown in Table 7. The factor is
sometimes expressed as which includes the factor of . Therefore,

This equation can then be related to the diametral pitch of the gear by using Eq. (3) to
Eq. (20) then substitute to Eq. (19). Then,

=

where is the diametral pitch of the gear. Eq. (16) gives merely the capacity of the tooth
to resist a bending load and makes no reference to the actual load of the teeth may be
carrying.

Table 7. Form or Lewis Factor for Spur Gears with Load at Tip of Tooth

2. Single Point Tools

Single point tools are tools having one cutting part (chip producing element) and
one shank. They are commonly used in lathes, shapers, boring mills, and similar machine
tools. Figure shows parts of the tool. The most important features are the cutting edge
and adjacent surfaces. Figure 6 shows the standard form of a single-point tools with its
parts. The most important features in a single-point tools are the face, which is the surface
over which the chip flows; flank, which is the tool surface or surfaces over which the
surface produced on workpiece passes; cutting edge, is that edge of the face which is
intended to perform cutting; major cutting edge, is that entire part of the cutting edge
which is intended to be responsible for the transient surface on the workpiece; minor
 Figure 6: Typical Single-Point Tool

cutting edge, is the remainder of the cutting edge; and the corner, is the relatively small
portion of the cutting edge which may be curved or straight or it may be the actual
intersection of the cutting edges (9).

3. Shaping Machine

The study make use of the mechanics of the shaper machine because of its linear
motion in cutting a material. Here single-point tool is gripped in a toolhead mounted on
the end of a ram (see Figure 8). This ram is made to move backward and forward either
by mechanical drive system or a hydraulic piston and cylinder. The cutting stroke is the
forward stroke, and with either mechanical or hydraulic shapers the forward ram speed is
slower than the speed on the return stroke, causing the production time to be reduced as
much as possible. Figure 7 shows the quick return mechanism used by a shaper in
reducing production time.

Shapers are commonly used to machine flat surfaces on small components and
are only suitable for low-batch quantities. Typical tool-and and work-holding methods are
illustrated in Figure 8 where it can be seen that the toolhead is similar to the post and
compound rest used on the lathe. The toolhead can be rotated and clamped in various
positions in the vertical plane to allow inclined surfaces to be generated by hand feeding
of the tool.
 Figure 7: Quick-Return Mechanism for a Mechanical
Shaper

Figure 8: Tool and Work Holding in a Shaper

4. Mechanics of Metal Cutting

According to Finnie, who published a historical review of work in metal cutting,

early research in metal cutting started with Cocquilhat in 1851, and was mainly directed
toward measuring the work required to remove a given volume of material in drilling. In
1873 tabulations of the work required in cutting metal were presented by Hartig in a book
that seems to have been the authoritative work on the subject for several years.
 The shavings, or swarf, removed during the cutting of metal are culled chips, and
the first attempts to explain how chips are formed were made by Time in 1870 and famous
French scientist Tresca in 1873. Some years later, in 1881, Mallock suggested correctly
that the cutting process was basically one of shearing the work material to form the chip
and emphasized the importance of the effect of friction occurring on the cutting-tool face
as the chip was removed. Figure 9a shows how Mallock visualize the formation of chips
during the cutting process. Figure 9b also shows the misconception occurred in a toolbit
to cause it to crack as it cuts the metal.

a.)

b.)

Figure 10: Models of Cutting Process. a.) present-day model; b.) earlier misconception
4.1 Terms and Definition

Metal cutting has two different process namely the oblique cutting and the
orthogonal cutting. In oblique cutting, the tool is wedge-shaped, has a straight cutting
edge, and is constrained to move relative to the workpiece in such a way that a layer of
metal is removed the form of a chip (see Figure 11b). Also in orthogonal cutting, the
cutting edge of tool is arranged to be perpendicular to the direction of relative-tool motion
(see Figure 11a).

Figure 11. Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting. a.) Orthogonal Cutting; b.) Oblique Cutting

When cutting is done during the process. The chips flow along the so called
rake face where it collides to this surface and stay out after the process. The Flank also
is the surface ground back of the wedge-tool where it clears the new or machined
workpiece surface. During the cutting process a wedged-shaped clearance crevice
exists between the tool flank and the new workpiece surface (see Figure 12a).

Another important variables of metal cutting is the slope of the tool face, which
this slope or angle is specified in orthogonal cutting by the angle between the tool face
and a line perpendicular to the new work surface. This angle is known as the rake angle
( ). Figure 12 shows the illustration of it on how the sign of the angle is defined.
 Figure 12. Terms used in Metal Cutting. a.) Positive rake; b.) Negative rake

The tool plank plays no role in the process of chip removal. However, the angle
between the flank and the new workpiece surface can significantly affect the rate at which
the cutting tool wears and is defined as the clearance angle or the working normal
clearance. Thus the sum of the rake, clearance, and wedge angles are equivalent to 90
where the wedge angle is included angle between the face and the plank.

4.2 Chip Formations

Basically there are three chip formations during the machining process. These are:
a.) Continuous Chip; b.) Continuous chip with build-up edge; c.) Discontinuous chip.
These chip formation depends on the material being machined and the cutting conditions
used.

4.2.1 Continuous Chip

Figure 13 shows the flow formation of the continuous chip. This type of chip is
common when most ductile materials such as wrought iron, mild steel, copper, and
aluminum, are machined. Being continuous flow means cutting this conditions is a steady-
state process. Basically for this operation is one of shearing the work material to form the
chip and sliding the chip along the face of the cutting tool.
 Figure 14. Continuous Chip

4.2.2 Continuous Chip with Built-up Edge

For this type of chip formation under some conditions, usually at relative low cutting
speeds, the friction between the chip and the tool is so great that the chip material welds
itself to the tool face. The presence of welded material further increases the friction, and
this friction leads to building up a layer upon layer of chip material. Figure 15 shows how
it welds the build-up into the tool during the cutting process.

Figure 15. Continuous Chip with Built-up Edge

4.2.3 Discontinuous Chip

During the formation of a chip the material undergoes severe strain and if the work
material is brittle, fracture will occur in the primary deformation zone when the chip is only
partly formed. Under these condition, the chip is segmented as seen in Figure 16. This
always produced during the machining of materials such as cast iron or cast brass but
may also be produced when machining ductile materials when machining at low speeds
but higher feeds.

Figure 16. Discontinuous Chip

4.3 Forces Acting on the Cutting Tool and their Measurement

Since the study focuses on the linear motion of the machine, ideally the orthogonal
type of cutting is used. In orthogonal cutting, the resultant force applied to the chip by
the tool lies in a plane normal to the tool cutting edge as shown in Figure 13. This force
is usually determined, in experimental work, from the measurement of two orthogonal
components: one in direction of cutting (known as the cutting force ), the other normal
to the direction of cutting (known as the thrust force ). The accurate measurement of
these two components of the resultant tool force has been the subject to considerable
effort in the past, and several types of cutting-force dynamometers have been developed.
 Figure 13. Cutting ( ) and thrust ( ) components of resultant tool force ( )

4.3 Specific Cutting Energy

The rate of consumption during machining is the product of the cutting speed
and the cutting force . Thus,

From the equation, both the rate energy consumption and material removal rate are
proportional to the cutting speed. Another parameter which is independent to the cutting
speed which indicated the efficiency of the process is the energy consumed per unit of
volume of the metal removed. This is referred to as the specific cutting energy given by,

= =

where is the metal removal rate and is the cross-sectional area of the uncut chip.
The specific cutting energy can vary considerably for a given material and is affected by
changes in cutting speed, feed, tool rake, and so on.
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Gear Design and Manufacture Taylor and Francis Group, New
York. pp 41
(2) Norton, Robert L. (1999), Design of Machinery: An Introduction to
the Synthesis and Analysis of Mechanism and Machines Worcester
Polytechnic Institute, Massachusetts. pp 440
(3) Shigley, Joseph E. (1996), Standard Handbook of Machine Design
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., Michigan. Chapter 33.1
(4) Ugural, Ansel C. (2004), Mechanical Design: An Integrated
Approach New Jersey Institute of Technology: pp. 428-429
(5) Norton, Robert L. (1999), Design of Machinery: An Introduction to
the Synthesis and Analysis of Mechanism and Machines Worcester
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(6) Wentzell, Timothy H. (2004). Machine Design Delmar Learning.
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H. (2012) Machinery's Handbook & Guide to Machinery's
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Prentice-Hall, New Jersey
(9) Knight, Winston A.; Boothroyd, Geoffrey (1989) Fundamentals of
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