46

CHAPTER 3

BEHAVIOUR OF CFST COLUMNS AND

CODAL RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1 GENERAL

This chapter deals with the behaviour of composite columns and its
short term and long term behaviour are discussed elaborately. The modes of
failure and the bond between steel and concrete columns are discussed in the
subsequent headings comprehensively. Codal provisions and method of
design are also discussed in the last headings.

3.2 BEHAVIOUR OF COLUMNS

Short composite columns exhibit a failure mechanism characterized

by yielding of steel and crushing of concrete. Medium length columns behave
in-elastically and fail because of partial yielding of steel, crushing of concrete
in compression and cracking of concrete in tension. Stocky concrete filled
tubes are also susceptible to local buckling of the outer skin, and this is of
importance in very thin walled tubes which are nowadays often used in
building construction. A short or stocky column is so short that flexural
buckling will not occur, although local buckling may occur. Stocky columns
are designed primarily on the material strengths of the concrete and steel
elements.

The column is usually defined as a structural member who carries

only concentric axial compression. The member is a steel element and is
 47

subjected to bending as well as axial compression, as occurs when the load is

applied eccentrically; it is referred to as a beam-column. The various national
standards present load - moment interaction equations which are slenderness-
dependent, and which must be satisfied for the strength limit state. Composite
members subject to both compression and bending are referred to as columns.
Because of the presence of both steel and concrete in a composite column, the
behaviour of such a member is akin both to a steel beam column and a
reinforced concrete column. Generally speaking, short or stocky composite
columns are treated by the reinforced concrete approach based on section
material strengths. Slender composite columns, which do not contain
appreciable bending actions are treated by the steel approach which is based
on a design strength that is affected by the slenderness of the column.

There are a few structural considerations that must be borne in

mind when comparing and contrasting the fundamental behaviour of encased
columns and concrete filled steel tubes. Firstly, concrete filled steel tubes are
susceptible to local buckling of the steel skin, the prospect of which in many
cases is very thin. The second point pertains to the lateral confinement
provided by the tube to the expansion of the concrete core in compression,
which enhances the strength of short columns, but it is insignificant in slender
columns. Thirdly, the steel skin inhibits the egress of moisture that contributes
to creep and shrinkage effects. Research into monitoring the time dependent
deformations of concrete filled tubes has indicated a reduced creep and
shrinkage induced response.

In all column analysis approaches used at both ultimate and

serviceability limits, it is assumed that there is full interaction between the
concrete element and the steel element. This implies that the strain profile
across the section remains uni-linear, so that there is no step change or slip-
strain across the steel / concrete interface, as is often assumed in composite
 48

beam design. This assumption is reasonable, since the area of the interface is
generally and fairly large and hence a good bond is provided at relatively low
bond stresses. It is worth noting that the bond stresses in composite columns
are generally lower than those in beams, because the columns are mainly
subjected to compression.

3.3 SHORT TERM BEHAVIOUR

In a short concentrically loaded concrete filled steel tube, the

concrete core of the column is subjected to a confining stress, and as a result
the column can carry considerably larger axial forces than if the concrete was
unconfined. The results of triaxial tests on concrete have illustrated this,
where concrete subjected to a lateral confining pressure can carry a greater
axial load than unconfined concrete. Of course, this is utilized in reinforced
concrete construction where spirally reinforced columns provide a lateral
stress that increases the axial load carried by the concrete core. However, the
behaviour of an axially loaded steel tube filled with concrete will vary
according to the method in which the ends of the member are loaded as shown
in Figure 3.1. Essentially, there are three fundamentally different methods of
applying the loading, and these are discussed below.

(a) Load the Steel and not the Concrete - This condition of loading may not
increase the axial capacity of the column above that of the steel tube alone,
because the Poissons effect causes the steel tube to separate from the
concrete, once the adhesive chemical bond between the concrete and steel has
exceeded. The column will generally fail at the maximum load which the
hollow steel tube alone can carry, but the concrete core may tend to delay the
column local buckling. For slender columns, the failure load will increase
significantly due to the increase in flexural stiffness.
 49

(b) Load the Concrete and not the Steel - In this principle, which is the
most favorable loading method, the concrete takes the maximum load as the
steel does not resist axial load, but only provides a confining stress to the
concrete in an analogous manner to a spirally reinforced concrete column.
However, since there is some adhesion between the steel and concrete, the
condition is hard to attain as some axial load is produced in the steel.

(c) Load the Steel and Concrete - This is the method most often encountered
in practice, and it may be enforced by welding stud shear connectors to the
inside of the steel tube where practicable. If the steel is axially stressed in
compression as well as circumferentially because of the expansion of the
concrete, it will be subjected to a state of biaxial stress which, in accordance
with the von Mises yield criterion, will reduce the yield stress in the
circumferential direction. This has the effect of lowering the confining effect,
and hence reduces the maximum load on the concrete. Though the reduction
in the confining effect is offset, since the steel now carries some of the
compressive force the load-carrying capacity of the column is increased by
this steel and concrete.

Case (a) Case (b) Case (c)

Figure 3.1 Loading conditions of specimens

 50

3.4 LONG TERM BEHAVIOUR

The behaviour of concrete filled steel tubes when undergoing creep

and shrinkage caused by a sustained load is different from that of encased
I-section columns. The main difference is attributable to the reduction in
moisture loss that is directly related to the creep and especially the shrinkage
properties. In steel tubes with very thin walls the time-induced load shedding
may increase the compression in the steel markedly, and thus precipitate local
buckling. Researchers undertook a series of experiments to measure the creep
and shrinkage response of concrete in thin circular steel tubes. It was
concluded that the moisture loss that took place in these tubes might be very
small or could be eliminated totally, with a consequent reduction in the effects
of creep and shrinkage.

3.5 LOAD TRANSFER MECHANISM

It has been observed that the ultimate axial capacity of concrete

filled tubular columns is larger than the sum of uncoupled steel and concrete
at failure loads. The increase in failure load is caused by the confining effect
of steel tube on the concrete. The structural behaviour of concrete filled
tubular sections is considerably affected by the difference between the
Poissons ratios of the steel tube and concrete. In the initial stage of loading,
the Poissons ratio for the concrete is lower than that of steel. Thus the steel
tube has no confining effect on the concrete. As the longitudinal strain
increases, the lateral expansion of concrete gradually becomes greater than the
expansion of the steel tube. At this stage the concrete becomes tri-axially
stressed and the steel tube bi-axially stressed.

The steel tube under a biaxial state of stress cannot sustain the
normal yield stress, causing a transfer of load from the steel tube to the
concrete. In the first stage of loading, the steel tube sustains most of the load
 51

until it yields. At this stage there is a load transfer from the steel tube to the
concrete. The steel tube exhibits a gradual decrease in load sharing until the
concrete reaches its maximum compressive strength. After the first stage of
loading there is a redistribution of load from the concrete to the steel tube,
whereas the steel exhibits a hardening behaviour which is almost same as the
uni-axial stress-strain hardening relationship.

3.6 STRESS - STRAIN RELATIONSHIP OF COMPOSITE

COLUMNS

Concrete filled circular tubular columns exhibit different patterns of

cross-sectional stress distribution in concrete. In the case of circular columns,
the cross-sectional stress distribution is uniform. The axial and lateral stress
distributions at the cross section are radially uniform. Circular hollow sections
provide a significant amount of confinement while this effect is negligible in
the case of rectangular sections. Additional strength occurs because of the
increase in compressive strength of the concrete core that is restrained
laterally by the surrounding steel tube. This increase in concrete strength out
weights the reduction in the yield strength of steel in vertical compression due
to the confinement tension needed to contain the concrete. Beyond this limit,
steel exhibits a strain softening behaviour until it reaches the plastic limit.
When the concrete reaches its maximum compression capacity, the steel tube
exhibits a softening behaviour because a decrease in the stiffness of concrete
core begins. The higher internal pressure causes larger hoop stress, which
results in a reduction in compressive stress in steel tube. Short composite
columns exhibit a failure mechanism characterized by yielding of steel and
crushing of concrete. Medium length columns behave inelastically and fail by
partial yielding of steel, crushing of concrete in compression and cracking of
concrete in tension.
 52

3.7 ROLE OF STEEL TUBE IN COMPOSITE COLUMNS

In composite column with concrete filled circular sections, the

confinement effects of concrete increases the concrete resistance, but at the
same time reduces the axial resistance of the steel section. Strength and
ductility of plain concrete are highly dependent on the degree of confinement.
As concrete is axially compressed, the rate of lateral expansion is a function
of the axial shortening by a stable value of Poissons ratio upto approximately
50% of the compressive strength. During this stage, stable propagation of the
bond cracks between cement and aggregate occurs, and negative volumetric
strain indicates compaction of the concrete mass. Approximately 50% of the
strength, micro cracks develops within the matrix causing the concrete to
behave in highly non-linear manner and the lateral stain also increases in a
non-linear manner.

The volumetric strain is however, still negative upto the critical

stress level of approximately 87% of the compressive strength. Past this
loading stage, the volumetric strain, lateral strain start to increase at a much
higher rate of micro cracking, evolving into dominant cracks that propagate
within the concrete mass causing failure. It is therefore believed that
controlling the lateral expansion of concrete by confinement is the key to
enhance the strength and ductility of concrete. One of the methods used to
achieve confinement is to cast concrete in a steel tube. When the concrete is
axially loaded, lateral expansion is partially restrained by the tube, resulting in
radial pressure at the interface. The amount of radial pressure depends on the
stiffness of the steel tube in the circumferential direction. As the load
increases, the tendency for lateral expansion increases and the confining
pressure also increases. Because the material properties of the steel tubes are
typically linear and (or) elastic linearly, the induced confinement is variable.
For steel tubes, after the steel yields, the confining pressure is constant and
independent of the axial load level.
 53

3.8 COMPARISON OF CFST COLUMNS WITH HOLLOW

COLUMNS

The CFST columns increase earthquake resistant capabilities due to

the concrete filling inside the steel tubes and are particularly suitable for
buildings subjected to large axial compressive stress. More over, the columns
are fire resistant and reduce the thickness of traditional fire-resistant coating
or even eliminate the need for it. Thus the columns simplify the construction
process and increasing interior space in a building. Conventional structures
like reinforced concrete structures can be replaced by CFST structures system
with a high degree of generality and at the same time reduce costs to a
minimum. It is especially useful in high-rise buildings where high work speed
is required and flexibility of open space is desired for a maximum range of
applications. CFST columns may also be used in a situation where the cross
sections of hollow columns are unacceptably large. There are numerous
applications for which composite columns provide excellent solution to
structural problems when compared with hollow steel column. The composite
column has superior load retention at higher temperature, are more resistance
to local buckling, greater stiffness and abrasion resistance when compared
with hollow steel column. The composite column supports more thrust than
any other traditional reinforced concrete column of the same dimension.

3.9 EVALUATION OF MODES OF FAILURE

Composite columns are usually categorized by their modes of

failure. Short or stocky columns usually attain the cross-sectional strength, so
that their failure is governed by the yield strength fy of the steel and the
cylinder strength fck of the concrete. Stocky columns are therefore material -
dependant. Long or slender columns, on the other hand, fail by so called
flexural buckling in much the same way as a slender steel column. Under such
conditions, the composite column becomes unstable, and buckles sideways
 54

with the buckling half wavelength being in the order of the length of the
column. Local buckling may also occur. However, if any of the steel elements
is free, then the steel element may buckle locally. However, the rigid concrete
medium forms a restraint against the free formation of buckles, so that local
buckling is less likely than if the concrete element was absent, as in a pure
steel member.

3.10 BOND BETWEEN STEEL AND CONCRETE COLUMNS

For axially compressed short CFST, bond strength may not be

necessary. It is needed only if there is significant shear force produced at the
interface. When the two elements only touch at an interface then they are
often tied together using mechanical forms of shear connection. When one
element encases the other element as in the columns and tube then the two
elements are tied together by interface forces, induced by the geometry of the
encasement and any bond strength. In all the cases, the bond must be designed
to resist the longitudinal shear forces at the steel / concrete interface.
However, the bond must also be designed to prevent separation between the
steel and concrete elements in order to ensure that the curvature in the steel
and concrete elements is the same. Hence the interface bond must be able to
resist both tensile forces normal to the steel / concrete interface, and shear
forces parallel to the steel / concrete interface.

3.11 THEORETICAL ANALYSIS

Concrete filled steel tubular columns are clearly an intermediate

between steel and reinforced concrete columns. However, the design
philosophy for each of these two structural members is fundamentally
different. Steel columns are treated as concentric in that they are loaded
through their centroids, but with due allowances being made for residual
stresses, initial out of straightness and slight eccentricities of the load. The
 55

basis of the design of steel column is instability or buckling, and any moments
which act at the ends of the column are then incorporated by reducing the
axial load by way of an interaction equation.

The approach for RC column is quite different from that for steel
column in that the loads are considered to be eccentric to the centroid. The
failure is generally, but not always, attributable to cross-sectional and material
failure, and is based on the interaction curve as given in IS 456-2000. Because
of the similarity of CFST columns to both steel and concrete columns, there
has been a great deal to debate by researchers as to which approach should be
adopted. Short or stocky columns are clearly governed by cross section
failure, while long or slender columns are prone to buckling. Perhaps the most
logical treatment to date is that which is provided by the Eurocode4. The
behaviour of CFST columns can be best treated by a combination of both
approaches.

3.12 HISTORY OF DESIGN CODES

The publication of codes of practice tends to lag behind current

engineering thoughts. It is therefore not surprising that the first national code
(The American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO) -
Specification for Composite Highway Bridges) was not published until 1944.
With its publication, official recognition and an approved design method were
available to designers and so an increasing number of composite highway
bridges were built in the USA over the years subsequently.

The soundness of the basic design principles available from a large

volume of concurrent research showed that there was a need for attention to
certain details. For this reason a new AASHO specification was published in
1957 and again in 1961. The other major country to develop an interest in
composite construction to the extent of publishing a Code of Practice (DIN
 56

1078) was Germany. Here the pressure of steel shortage immediately

following 1945 world war, forced engineers to adopt the most economical
design methods available in order to be able to cope up with the very large
amount of reconstruction of bridges and buildings destroyed in the 1939-45
war.

With two major codes of practice available (the American and

Germany) other countries were able to draw up their own, basing them
generally on the provisions of one or other of the major codes. The AASHO
code was in many ways much simpler than the German code. Possibly
because steel was much more easily obtained in the USA, the Americans did
not attempt to incorporate the structural complexity or detailed analysis found
essential by the Germans. They preferred to avoid the difficulties of using
continuous beams or pre-stressed decks which in German practice were
necessary in order to obtain maximum economy in the material that is used
for construction.

Over the last two decades, researchers have suggested analytical

methods and design procedures for composite columns and design codes have
been formulated. Each of these codes is written so as to reflect the design
philosophies and practice in the respective countries. Over the last two
decades, different specific codes for the design of concrete filled steel tubular
columns have been used.

3.13 DESIGN CODES

Currently comprehensive design standard can be utilized for the

design of CFST columns. Compact limits for most international design codes
limit the slenderness values to less than 40 (Brain Uy 2001). However, some
guidance for the design of CFST columns is provided by the European
Committee for Standardization, the American Concrete Institute and the
 57

Chinese Code. The design codes are based on several different theories,
which can produce different results, and the assistance provided in terms of
application varies significantly. A number of design standards take local
buckling into account through the use of an effective diameter or an effective
area method. At present, there is no Indian Standard covering the design of
composite columns. The method of design suggested in this chapter largely
follows EC4, which incorporates the latest research on composite
construction. Indian Standards for composite construction (IS: 11384-1995)
does not make any specific reference to composite columns. The provisions
contained in IS: 456-2000 are often invoked for design of composite
structures. Extension of IS: 456-2000 to composite columns results in the
following equation:

Pp = Aa p y + Ac pck + As psk (3.1)

where p y = 0.87 fy ; pck = 0.4(fck)cu and p sk = 0.67fy

The design of composite column is based on limit state method.

Eurocode4 is generally followed for composite column design as there is no
Indian Standard covering the design of composite columns. For structural
adequacy, the internal forces and moments resulting from the most
unfavourable load combination should not exceed the design resistance of the
composite cross-sections. While local buckling of the steel sections may be
eliminated, the reduction in the compression resistance of the composite
column due to overall buckling should definitely be allowed for, together with
the effects of residual stresses and initial imperfections. Moreover, the second
order effects in slender columns as well as the effect of creep and shrinkage of
concrete under long term loading must be considered, if they are significant.
The reduction in flexural stiffness due to cracking of the concrete in the
tension area should also be considered.
 58

Isolated symmetric columns having uniform cross sections in

braced or non-sway frames may be designed by the simplified design method,
which adopts the European buckling curves for steel columns. However, this
method cannot be applied to sway columns. When a sufficiently stiff frame is
subjected to in-plane horizontal forces, the additional internal forces and
moments due to the consequent horizontal displacement of its nodes can be
neglected, and the frame is classified as non-sway.

3.13.1 American Concrete Institute (ACI 318-89)

The code ACI 318 uses the traditional reinforced concrete

approach, with a minimum load eccentricity used to determine the column
strength under nominal axial load. The American Standard excludes the
influence of concrete confinement by the steel tube and accounts for column
slenderness by a minimum load eccentricity. The code ACI 318 is appropriate
for the design of thick walled steel tubes filled with normal strength concrete.
The code ACI 318 is different in concept to the Eurocode4. However the
Australian Standards uses a similar approach to the code ACI 318.

According to ACI 318-89, a composite column is a concrete

column reinforced with a structural steel shape or tubing in addition to the
reinforcing. In order to consider the slenderness effects, an equivalent radius
of gyration and flexural stiffness are used with a parameter of sustained load
ratio, and hence without any sustained load, radius of gyration should be
taken as zero. A parameter for the softening influence of creep in concrete
that is subjected to sustain compressive loading is included.

3.13.2 Load and Resistance Factored Design Method (AISC-LRFD)

This is based on the same principles as ACI code. The design is

based on equations for steel columns. The nominal strength is estimated on
 59

the basis of ultimate resistance to the load, and reduction factors are then
applied. The nominal axial load capacity is reduced according to the
slenderness ratio. Neither the ACI-318 nor the AISC-LRFD provisions
explicitly consider confinement effects on strength or ductility of members
analysed. ACI provisions for calculating the strength interaction between
axial and flexural effects are essentially the same as those for reinforced
concrete column, whereas AISC-LRFD recommendations are based on the
bilinear interaction formulae which have the same form as those of steel
columns. In the above design methods, flexural stiffness is under-estimated
and the confining effect of the steel tube on the concrete core is ignored. The
influence of creep is ignored for the concrete in composite columns according
to AISC-LRFD specification.

3.13.3 Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ)

A composite structural system using concrete and steel is called

Steel Reinforced Concrete (SRC) in Japan. In this country an allowable
stress design is primarily employed, in which working stresses are calculated
based on the elastic stiffness of members and allowable strength by the
superimposed strength formulae. Cross section strength is calculated by
superimposing the strength of both steel and concrete sections, thereby
neglecting the interaction between steel and concrete and the effect of
confinement. Euler buckling load is used with reduced concrete stiffness and
factors of safety for both concrete and steel. The method is applicable to
asymmetrical sections and columns under biaxial bending.

3.13.4 British Standard (BS 5400-Part 5)

Code provisions in BS 5400 are based on limit state design with

loading factors and material safety factors. The ultimate moment is calculated
from plastic stress distribution over the cross sections, and an approximation
for the interaction curve for axial load and moment is used. Reduced concrete
 60

properties are used to account for the effects of creep and the use of un-
cracked concrete section in stiffness calculation. This method is applicable to
symmetrical sections only and restricted to the range of sections covered for
in the European buckling curves.

3.13.5 Australian Standards (AS)

Australian Standards are used in the ACI formula for calculating

the squash load. Neither code takes into consideration the concrete
confinement. The limiting thickness of steel tube to prevent local buckling is
based on achieving yield stress in a hollow steel tube under monotonic axial
loading which is not a necessary requirement for an in-filled composite
column.

The squash load is determined by Nu = 0.85 Ac fc + As fy (3.2)

3.13.6 Chinese Code (DL/T5085-1999)

The code DL/T5085 is based on the unified theory that considers

the CFST member as a composite member, as opposed to the separate
components. The properties of CFST columns depend on the properties of the
steel and concrete, and their dimensions. The composite indices and
geometric properties are then used directly to obtain the ultimate strength. The
Chinese code differs from both the Eurocode4 and the code ACI 318. The
code also includes for shear and torsion, in addition to bending and axial load.
A design by the code DL/T5085 and Eurocode4 give similar results for a
column subjected to a high axial load and a small moment.

3.13.7 European Committee for Standardization (Eurocode 4)

Eurocode 4 is the most recently completed international standard in

composite construction. The code is based on the rigid plastic method of
 61

analysis which assumes fully crushed concrete and fully yielded steel. The
approach allows the full mean compressive strength of the cylinder to be
utilized. The code uses a column curve, similar to most modern steel design
codes, to determine the influence of slenderness in CFST columns. Local
buckling is ignored by limiting the plate slenderness to within compact plate
limits. The enhancement of the concrete due to confinement is included for
some specific cases and it is the only code that separately treats the effects of
long-term loading.

EC4 covers concrete encased and partially encased steel sections

and concrete filled sections with or without reinforcement. This code uses
limit state concepts to achieve the aims of serviceability and safety by
applying partial safety factor to loads and material properties. Based on
experimental results, it was recommended that the regulations of EC4
concerning factor of 0.85 should not be applied to hollow sections filled with
high strength concrete. All codes assume full interaction, but some impose
restrictions on the shear stress at all steel-concrete interface. It is customary to
use direct bearing or provide shear connectors, when the specified limiting
shear stress is exceeded. The code is appropriate for the design of thick-
walled steel tubes filled with normal strength concrete.

The ultimate axial force of a column is:

Nu0 = Aa fy 2 + Ac fc (1+ 1 (t fy /D fcy1)) (3.3)

3.14 METHOD OF DESIGN

The complexity of the local and global response of composite steel

- concrete systems, and the number of possible different situations in practice
led to the use of design methods developed by empirical processes. They are
based on, and calibrated against, a set of test data. Therefore, their
 62

applicability is limited to the range of parameters covered by the specific

experimental background. This feature makes the reference to codes and in
particular to their application rules of substantial importance for any test
dealing with the design of composite structures.

Several commonly used methods, which are now available for

designing composite columns, include Eurocode 4, BS 5400 and AISC-
LRFD. In the United States, design provisions for composite columns are
currently included in both the ACI-318 and LRFD specifications. The concept
of applying LRFD to composite columns was first presented by Furlong
(1967). The method of EC4 was based on the work of Roik and Bergmann
(1989) and others, while the recommendations given in the BS 5400 were
developed by Basu and Somerville (1969) and modified by Virdi and
Dowling (1973).

In general, a composite column must be designed for the ultimate

limit state. For structural adequacy, the internal forces and moments resulting
from the most unfavourable load combination should not exceed the design
resistances of the composite cross-sections. While local buckling of the steel
sections may be eliminated, the reduction in the compression resistance of the
composite column due to overall buckling should be allowed for, together
with the effects of residual stresses and initial imperfections. Moreover, the
second order effects in slender columns, as well as the effect of creep and
shrinkage of concrete under long-term loading, must be considered if they are
significant. The reduction of flexural stiffness due to cracking of the concrete
in the tension area should also be considered. These are provided either
explicitly or empirically, in EC4.

At present, there is no Indian Standard code covering composite

columns. The method of design suggested below largely follows EC4, which
incorporates the latest research in composite construction. Composite column
 63

design method outlined here is valid for prismatic composite columns with
doubly symmetrical cross-sections. The plastic compression resistance of a
composite cross-section represents the maximum load that can be applied to a
short composite column. Concrete filled circular tubular sections exhibit
enhanced resistance due to the tri-axial confinement effects. Fully or partially
concrete encased steel sections and concrete filled rectangular tubular sections
do not achieve such enhancement.

3.14.1 Basics of Design Method

In EC4-1-1, isolated columns are defined as compression members

that are integral parts of a braced or non-sway frame but which are considered
to be isolated for design purposes. As in other structural components, a
composite column must also be designed for the ultimate limit state. Isolated
symmetric columns having uniform cross-sections in braced or non-sway
frames may be designed by the simplified design method described in the next
section.

This method also adopts the European buckling curves for steel
columns as the basis of column design. It is formulated in such a way that
only hand calculation is required in practical design. The simplified method is
formulated for prismatic composite columns with doubly symmetrical cross-
sections. The calculations of various design parameters are covered and the
checks for structural adequacy of a composite column under applied loads are
presented below. Two methods of design for isolated composite columns in
braced or, non-sway frames are given within EC4-1-1.

(i) General Design Method

This comprehensive method is used for composite columns with

non-symmetrical or non-uniform cross-section over the column length. It is
also used for composite columns of doubly symmetrical and uniform cross-
 64

section over the column height, when the limits of applicability for the
simplified design method are not satisfied. In these circumstances, some of
the important design issues which should be considered using the general
method are geometrical and material non-linearity, second order effects (on
slender columns), creep and shrinkage of the concrete under long-term
loading, contribution of the tensile strength of the concrete between cracks,
imperfections for the calculation of internal forces and moments about both
axes, distribution of internal forces and moments between the steel section
and the concrete by means of a clearly defined load path, transfer of
longitudinal shear stress at the interface between the steel section and the
concrete under large transverse shear and chemical bond and friction together
with mechanical shear connectors if necessary. In order to allow for these
design considerations, it is necessary to use sophisticated computer software,
which operate with both geometrical and material non-linearity. In general,
the design effort is considerable. Thus, this method is not preferred for use in
practical design.

(ii) Simplified Design Method

This method is used for composite columns of doubly symmetrical

and uniform cross-section over the column height. It is based on certain
assumptions relating to the geometrical configurations of the composite cross-
sections. Moreover, it also adopts the European buckling curves for steel
columns as the basis of column buckling design. It should be noted that this
method is formulated in such a way that only hand calculation is required in
practical design.

3.14.2 Local Buckling of Steel Hollow Sections

Before the plastic resistance of the concrete filled hollow section is

calculated, it should be ensured that local buckling of the steel does not occur.
 65

In order to prevent premature local buckling, the width to thickness ratio of

the steel section in compression must satisfy the flowing limits:

For concrete filled rectangular hollow sections (RHS) h/t 52

For concrete filled circular hollow sections (CHS) d/t 902

where

t is the wall thickness of the steel hollow section in mm.

h is the larger outer dimension of the rectangular hollow section in mm.

d is the outer diameter of the circular hollow section in mm.

= (235/fy)

fy is the yield strength of the steel section in MPa.

Local buckling in some rectangular hollow section with large h/t

ratios may be critical. No specific design recommendation is given within
EC4, and design using sections which exceed the local buckling limits should
be verified by tests.

(i) Concrete filled Rectangular Hollow Sections (RHS)

The plastic resistance of a concrete filled rectangular hollow section

(i.e., the so-called squash load) is given by the sum of the resistance of the
components as follows:

Npl,Rd = Aa fy / a + As fsk / s + Ac fck / c (3.4)

where

Aa is the area of the steel section

As is the area of the reinforcement

Ac is the area of the concrete
 66

fy is the yield strength of the steel section

fsk is the characteristic yield strength of the steel reinforcement bars

fck is the characteristic compressive strength (cylinder) of the concrete

For ease of expression, fy / a , fsk / s and fck / c are presented as

design strengths of the respective materials as fyd, fsd and fcd respectively. As
a result of this simplification, the above equation for the plastic resistance of
the composite column can be rewritten in the following compact form:

Npl,Rd = Aa fyd + As fsd + Ac fcd (3.5)

(ii) Concrete filled Circular Hollow Sections (CHS)

For composite columns with concrete filled circular hollow

sections, the increased resistance of concrete due to the confining effect of the
circular hollow section may be included. This restraint to transverse strain in a
three dimensional confinement results is increased concrete resistance. At the
same time, circular tensile stresses in the circular hollow section also arise,
which reduce its axial resistance.

In general, the resistance of a concrete filled circular hollow section

to compression may increase by upto 15 % under simple axial loads when the
effect of tri-axial confinement is considered. However, this effect on the
resistance enhancement of concrete depends also on the slenderness of the
composite columns and is significant only in stocky columns. For composite
columns with a non-dimensional slenderness of > 0.5 (where is defined
non-dimensional slenderness ratio), this effect should be neglected and the
plastic resistance assessed as for rectangular hollow sections.

In addition, further linear interpolation is necessary to take account

of any effective load eccentricities. However, the eccentricity, e of the applied
 67

load may not exceed the value d/10, where d is the outer diameter of the
circular hollow section.

e = Msd / Nsd (3.6)

where,

Msd is the maximum design moment (second order effects are ignored).

Nsd is the design applied load.

The plastic compression resistance of a concrete filled circular

hollow section may be obtained as follows:

Npl,Rd = Aa fyd 2 + As fsd + Ac fcd (1+ 1 (t fy /d fck)) (3.7)

where

t is the wall thickness of the steel hollow section in mm.

1 = 10 (1-10e/d)
for 0 < e d/10
2 = 20 + (1- 20) 10e/d

1 = 0
for e > d/10
2 = 1.0

The basic values 10 and 20 depend on the non-dimensional

slenderness ratio , and are defined as follows:

10 = 4.9 18.5 + 17 2 but 10 0

20 = 0.25 (3+2 ) but 20 1.0

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If the eccentricity e exceeds the value d/10, or if the non-

dimensional slenderness ratio exceeds the value 0.5, then 10 = 0 and
20 =1.0. Table 3.1 gives the basic values 10 and 20 for different values of .

Table 3.1 Basic values of 10 and 20 to allow for the effect to triaxial
confinement in concrete filled circular hollow sections

Non-dimensional
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
slenderness ratio
10 4.90 3.22 1.88 0.88 0.22 0
20 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00

3.14.3 Effective Flexural Stiffness

Composite columns may fail in buckling and one important

parameter for the buckling design of composite columns is its elastic critical
buckling load (Euler load), Pcr, which is defined as follows:

EI e
Pcr 2 (3.8)
l2

where,

(EI) e is the effective elastic flexural stiffness of the composite column

l is the effective length of column which may be conservatively

taken as system length L for an isolated non-sway composite column.

However, the value of the flexural stiffness may decrease with time
due to creep and shrinkage of the concrete. Two design rules for the
evaluation of the effective elastic flexural stiffness of composite column are
given below.
 69

(i) Short-term Loading

The effective flexural stiffness of the composite column (EI)e is

obtained from adding up the flexural stiffnesses of the individual components
of the cross-section:

(EI)e = Ea Ia + Es Is + 0.6 Ecm Ic (3.9)

where,

Ia, Is and Ic are the second moment of area, about the appropriate
axis of bending, for the steel section, the reinforcement and the concrete
(assumed uncracked) respectively.

Ea and Es are the elastic moduli for the structural steel and the
reinforcement respectively.

0.6 Ecm Ic is the effective stiffness of the concrete component (the

factor 0.6 is an empirical multiplier, which has been determined from a
calibration exercise, to give good agreement with test results).

Ecm is the secant modulus of elasticity for structural concrete

(ii) Long-term Loading

For composite columns under long-term loading, the creep and

shrinkage of concrete will cause a reduction in the effective elastic flexural
stiffness of the composite column, there by reducing the buckling resistance.
However, this effect is only significant for slender columns; as a simple rule,
the effect of long-term loading should be considered if the buckling length to
depth ratio of a composite column exceeds 15.
 70

If the eccentricity of loading is more than twice the cross-section

dimension, the effect on the applied bending moment distribution caused by
increased deflections, due to creep and shrinkage of concrete, will be very
small. Consequently, it may be neglected and no provision for long term-
loading is necessary. Moreover, no provision is necessary if the non-
dimensional slenderness of the composite column is less than the limiting
values given in the Table 3.2 below.

Table 3.2 Limiting values of for long-term loading

Braced non-sway Unbraced frames

Frame type
systems and/or sway frames
Concrete filled hollow 0.8 0.5
sections (1-) (1-)

The steel contribution factor , given in Table 3.2 above is defined

as follows:

= Aa fyd / Npl,Rd (3.10)

If the eccentricity of loading is less than twice the cross-section

dimension and the non-dimensional slenderness of the composite column is
less than the limiting values given within Table 3.2, the effect of creep and
shrinkage of concrete should be allowed for by reducing the effective elastic
modulus of the concrete to the value:

Ec = Ecd (1- (0.5 NG,Sd / NSd )) (3.11)

where,

NSd is the design applied load.

NG,Sd is the part of design load permanently acting on the column.

 71

Table 3.2 also allows the effect of long term loading to be ignored for
concrete filled hollow sections with 2.0, provided that is greater than 0.6
for braced (or non-sway) columns, and 0.75 for unbraced (and/or sway)
columns.

(iii) Slenderness Ratio

The definition of slenderness ratio in the codes of practice is

important to note that the value of Ec used in evaluating the column
slenderness ratio in LRFD does not include a factor of safety. However, in BS
5400, a partial factor of safety is included in the calculation of the column
slenderness ratio. If the factored value of Ec is used, there will be a reduction
in the column slenderness ratio, which will in turn lead to a reduction in the
load carrying capacity.

The slenderness ratio in LRFD is expressed in terms of the

modified radius of gyration, rm. The steel tube and the concrete portion of the
composite sections both contribute to flexural resistance. If the steel
dominates, the radius of gyration of the steel section should be used in
calculating rm. On the other hand, if the reinforced concrete section dominates
the flexural resistance, the radius of gyration of the concrete section should be
used for calculating the slenderness parameter. In the absence of a more
rigorous method, LRFD recommends that the larger of the radius of gyration
values for steel or concrete be used in calculating the slenderness index l/rm.

Once the member slenderness of a composite column is

determined, the compression resistance of the composite column may be
evaluated. The column buckling curves, which are essentially the British
Standards, are based on an extensive study. Their investigation highlighted
the effect which the shape of the structural steel section and its method of
fabrication have on its ultimate load carrying capacity. This is a result of the
differences in geometry of cross-section, magnitude and distribution of
 72

residual stresses and the member initial out-of-straightness. These curves are
identified as a, b and c and they have been found to apply equally well to
composite columns. As for LRFD, only one strut curve is used and the
position of the strut curve is close to the strut curve a, with a slightly smaller
value for slenderness parameter, less than 1 and a slightly larger value for
greater than 1.

(iv) Effect of Concrete Confinement

For composite column with concrete filled circular sections, the

confinement effect of concrete increases the concrete resistance, but at the
same time reduces the axial resistance of the steel section. In EC4, the
reduction of concrete strength by 0.85 may be omitted for concrete filled
composite columns since the development of concrete strength is better
achieved due to protection against the environment and against splitting of
concrete. The effect of confinement is considered when both the relative
slenderness, is less than 0.5 and the eccentricity of the normal force does not
exceed the value d/10, in which d is the outer diameter of the circular hollow
section. In BS 5400, the limitation of the confinement effect is less restrictive
than EC4. It is not dependent on the eccentricity of the axial loading and the
confinement effect is neglected when is greater than 1.0. For most practical
columns, = 1 corresponds to a length to diameter ratio between 24 and 29,
but for simplicity, BS 5400 set the limit of l/d to 25. In LRFD, no
confinement effect of concrete is taken into account for design of concrete
filled circular hollow sections.

3.14.4 Column Buckling Resistance

The plastic resistance to compression of a composite cross-

section Npl,Rd represents the maximum load that can be applied to a short
column. However, for slender columns, with low elastic critical load, overall
buckling considerations may be more significant.
 73

In Figure 3.2 (b), the buckling resistance of a column is expressed as

a proportion of the plastic resistance to compression Npl,R, thereby non-
dimensionalising the vertical axis compared to Figure 3.2 (a). The horizontal
axis may be non-dimensionalised similarly by use of the Euler buckling load
Ncr as is also shown in Figure 3.2 (b).

By incorporating the effects of both residual stresses and geometric

imperfections, the European buckling curves were developed on this basis as
shown in Figure 3.2 (c). These curves form the basis of column buckling
design for both steel and composite columns.

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 3.2 (a) Idealized column buckling curve, (b) Non-
dimensionalised column buckling curve, (c) European
buckling curves according to EC3
 74

The buckling resistance is calculated from the plastic resistance

and the Euler (elastic) critical load using the EC3-1-1 buckling curve 'a'. The
Euler buckling load is given by:

EI e
N cr 2 (3.12)
l2

where

(EI)e is the effective elastic flexural stiffness of the composite column.

l is the buckling length of the column.

EC4-1-1 suggests that the buckling length l of an isolated non-sway

composite column may conservatively be taken as equal to its system length
L. Alternatively, the buckling length may be determined using Annex E of
EC3-1-1.

The non-dimensional slenderness ratio is given by:

N ,
pl R (3.13)
N cr

where

Npl,R is the plastic resistance of the composite cross-section to

compression.

The resistance of a composite column in axial compression

(buckling load) is obtained from:

NRd = Npl,Rd (3.14)

 75

where

is the reduction co-efficient for buckling obtained from curve a

of EC3, and is dependant on the non-dimensional slenderness ratio

The reduction co-efficient may be determined from:

1
= but 1.0 (3.15)
+ 2 2
where

= 0.5 [1 + ( 0.2) + 2 ]

is an imperfection parameter depending on the buckling curve

considered.

3.14.5 Relevant Buckling Curves and Imperfection Factors

According to prEN 1994-1-1, circular or rectangular hollow section

columns filled with plain concrete or containing up to 3% reinforcement can
be designed using buckling curve 'a' with an imperfection factor, = 0.21.
However, concrete filled sections containing between 3% to 4%
reinforcement must be designed using buckling curve 'b' with an imperfection
factor, = 0.34 (see Figure 3.3 (a) and (b) and Table 3.3 below).

In addition, concrete filled circular hollow section columns as

shown in Figure 3.3 (c) containing an additional open section used as primary
steel can also be designed as a composite section using buckling curve 'b'
with an imperfection factor, = 0.34.
 76

Figure 3.3 Typical column cross-sections

The European buckling curves illustrated in Figure 3.2 (c) are

proposed to be used in composite columns. They are selected according to the
types of the steel sections and the axis of bending.

Curve a for concrete filled steel tubular sections.

Curve b for fully or partially concrete encased I-sections buckling

about the strong axis of the steel sections (x-x axis)

Curve c for fully and partially concrete encased I-sections bucking

about the weak axis of the steel sections (y-y axis)

Table 3.3 Imperfection factor for the buckling curves

European Buckling curve a b c

Imperfection factor 0.21 0.34 0.49

Although not explicitly stated, Clause 4.8.3.2 of EC4-1-1, while

defining the partial safety factors implies that isolated non-sway composite
columns need not be checked for buckling, if any of the following conditions
is satisfied:

(i) the axial force in the column is less than 0.1 Ncr ; or
(ii) the non-dimensional slenderness ratio is less than 0.2.
 77

3.14.6 Restrictions on the Simplified Design Method

The limits of applicability of this method are given in EC4, when

the limits are not satisfied, general design method should be used. The
application of the simplified design method is subjected to various
restrictions, as follows:

(a) The column is doubly-symmetrical and is of uniform cross-

section over the height of the column.

(b) The steel contribution ratio must satisfy the following

conditions: 0.2 0.9

If is less than 0.2, the column may be designed according to

EC2. If is larger than 0.9, the concrete is ignored in the
calculations, and the column is designed as a bare steel
section.

(c) The maximum non-dimensional slenderness ratio of the

composite column is limited to 2.0.

(d) The maximum amount of longitudinal reinforcement that can

be considered in the analysis is 6 % of the concrete area.
However, if design for fire resistance is not needed, according
to EC4, no minimum amount of reinforcement is normally
necessary within a filled SHS column; in other words: 0 %
As / Ac 6 %.