1.

Gears
Way back so many years ago, the enhancement of technology was already been
practiced in a classical way to enhance ones needs for a better life. One of these
encounters are the use of tools, simple machines, water systems and etc. The
foundations of these elements were enhanced accurately by the people called inventors
who develop these ideas with variety of applications. Not far ago the use of gears was
already been established as a machine applied to transmit power and motion meshing
together. This motion may or may not be uniform and may also be accompanied by
changes in direction, speed and shaft torque. Technically by definition, a gear is a toothed
wheel that is usually, but not necessarily round. The teeth may have any of an almost
infinite variety of profiles [1].

1.1 Gear Types

1.2 Gear Nomenclature and formulas
1.2.1 Gear Nomenclature

Figure 1. Gear Nomenclature

 Figure 1 shows a part of the gear with its nomenclature defined. The pitch circle
and base circle have been defined above. The tooth thickness is measured at the pitch
circle, and the tooth space width is slightly larger than the tooth thickness. The difference
between these two dimensions is the backlash. The face width of the tooth is measured
along the pitch circle circumference measured from a point on one tooth to the same point
on the next. The circular pitch is the distance, measured on the theoretical pitch circle,
from a point on one tooth to a corresponding point on an adjacent tooth which is measured
in inches or in millimeters [3]. The tooth height is defined by the addendum (added on)
and the dedendum (subtracted from) which are referenced to the nominal pitch circle.
Referring to Figure 1, the dedendum is slightly larger than the addendum this is done to
provide a small amount of clearance between the tip of one mating tooth (addendum
circle) and the bottom of the tooth space of the other (dedendum circle) [2].

1.2.2 Basic Geometric Gear Formulas

Gear design is manufactured basically by using the formulas to create its
geometric appearance or structure. The American Gear Manufacturers Association
(AGMA) defines standard gear design and manufacture. They define a spectrum of
quality numbers and tolerances ranging from the lowest to the highest precision [2].

The face and the flank portion of the tooth surface are divided by the pitch cylinder.
The circular pitch ( ) is the distance, on the pitch circle, from a point on one tooth to a
corresponding point on the next. By definition,

. (1)
=

The ratio of the number of teeth and the pitch diameter is defined as, diametral pitch ( ).
Therefore,

= . (2)

Under U.S. specification of gears, the units of are teeth/in. or in.-1. As defined in . (2),
the equation can be simplified. Thus,
 . (3)
=

In SI units, Teeth size is specified by module or denoted as which is measured in

millimeters. We have,

= . (4)

where pitch diameter is measured in millimeters and is the number of teeth. Using
. (1), the expression could be reduced as,
=
. (5)

Basically module is inversely proportional to the diametral pitch. Thus,

1 . (6)
=

Some equations are shown in Table 1 with different geometric elements to be determined
for creating and designing a standard spur gear.

Table 1: Formulas for Dimensions of Standard Spur Gear

1.3 Basic Law of Gearing

Theoretically the main requirement of gear-tooth geometry is the provision that

angular ratios are exactly constant. Assuming that the teeth are perfectly formed, very
smooth and able to withstand stresses (rigid). According to the basic law of gearing states
that as the gears rotate, the common normal at the point of contact between the teeth
must always pass through a fixed point on the line of centers [4]. This point is reffered as
the pitch point () as seen in Figure 2. Thus, when two gears are in mesh, their pitch
circles roll on one another without slipping. Pitch line velocity can be determined by,

= 1 1 = 2 2 . (7)

where represents the pitch radii of either meshing gears and for the angular velocity
og gear. This relation can be also extended with related ratios which in general is defined
as the speed ratio. Thus,

Figure 2: Involute Gear Teeth Contact form and Pressure angle

 2 2 1 1
= = = = . (8)
1 1 2 2

where is the speed in rpm, for the number of teeth and for the pitch circle diameter.
The subscripts are referred for the meshing gears: 1 for driver and 2 for driven. Another
relation defining the center distance of the meshing gears can be geometrically equated
as,
1 + 2
=
2 . (9)

Using eq. 8 and eq. 9, the center distance of the meshing gear can be equated as,
(1 + 2 )
= . (10)
2

Also from eq. 6, eq. 10 can be simplified using the diametral pitch and module relation
as,
1 + 2
= . (11)
2

1.4 The Involute Tooth Form

According to Norton, the involute is a curve that can be generated by unwrapping

a taut string from a cylinder (called evolute) as shown in Figure 3. Stated that the strings
is always tangent to the cylinder where basically the gear tooth profile is generated. Also
the center of curvature of the involute is always at the point of tangency of the string with
the cylinder. A tangent to the involute is then always normal to the string, the length of
which is the instantaneous radius of curvature of the involute curve [2].
 Figure 3: Development of the Involute Curve

1.5 Spur Gear Design and Selection

In designing a spur gear, different approach and analysis must be considered in

order to have an optimal design with proper selection in accordance to the standards. The
application of gears as stated in the previous topics is used to transmit force to create
work as well as power. The analysis also includes the allowable load on the spur gear
system, the load on the teeth, and how to factor in the impact and fatigue effects on the
gears [6].

1.5.1 Forces on Spur Gear Teeth

As discussed earlier, power is transmitted through mating gears with equal and
opposite forces occurring. However in actual position, these forces are not in tangent with
the intersection point of a meshing gears due to its involute shape. This involute shape of
the teeth force resulted to be normal to the involute angle of the point of contact (refer to
Figure 4). The angle of this point of contact is the angle of involute from the tangent to
the pitch circle at the mating point of the gear mating surfaces [6].

j
j

Figure 4: Forces acting on a Gear Tooth

Figure 4 shows the forces occurring on the teeth. The resultant force ( ) occurs between
the mating gears at the involute angle from the tangent to the pitch circle at the mating
point. Transmitted force ( ) is the force tangent to the pitch circle and normal force ( )
is the separating force. These forces now considered to be the important values which
will then predict the stresses during operation. With the given relations, mathematically
these forces can be equated. From Figure 4 Thus,

= . (12)

where the relation it is simply equated using the pythagorean theorem. Another relation
can also be equated using the same theory. Then this equation can be derived as,

= . (13)

From physics, power can be determined given the force acting on the machine element
rotating with amount of speed. Thus this relation is said to be equated as,

(14)
.
=
63,000
where the unit of power () is in horse power () and the torque () is in lb-in with the
rotational speed () in rpm. Since the tangential force acting on the gear gives enough
force to rotate the other gear. Thus tangential force can be equated as,
2
= . (15)

is the pitch diameter where the tangent force effectively creates a moment motion
perpendicular to the vertical line from the center point of the gear. The line collinear to the
resultant force straight forward to the contact where pressure angle is located, referred in
physics as the line of action.

1.5.2 AGMA Standards for Spur Gears

1.5.2.1 Coarse Pitch

The American Gear Manufacturers Association have done several publishes of

standards on choosing the right design in every application of the gear. The association
itself remarkably have done calculations for the geometric selection for the gear
nomenclature, stress and strenght analysis, life cycle of the gear and etc. Now our study
will have to refer all the data and information in accordance with the standard to create a
gear using our machine as the main topic for this study.Table 1 shows the AGMA
formulas for calculating spur gear geometry with 20 and 25 degree involute full depth
teeth using coarse pitch [7].

Table 4 and 5 shows the calculated standard data for addendum, dedendum,
circular pitch and etc. Basically these values were calculated on the basis of the formulas
that is shown on Table 2 and 3 for 20 and 25 degrees pressure angle for coarse pitch.
Standard diametral pitch was already been chosen by AGMA for standard geometry sizes
used for desired applications. When using equal addendums on pinion and gear the
minimum number of teeth on the pinion is 18 and the minimum total number of teeth in
the pair is 36 for 20-degree full depth involute tooth form and 12 and 24, respectively, for
25-degree full depth tooth form. The dedendum in this column is used when the gear
tooth is shaved. It allows for the higher fillet cut by a protuberance hob [7].
Table 2. Formulas for Tooth Parts, 20-and 25-degree Involute Full-depth Teeth ANSI
Coarse Pitch Spur Gear Tooth Forms ANSI B6.1-1968 (R1974)

Table 3. Gear Tooth Parts for American National Standard Coarse Pitch 20- and 25-Degree
Pressure Angle Gears
 Table 4. Continuation of Gear Tooth Parts for American National Standard Coarse Pitch
20- and 25-Degree Pressure Angle Gears

1.5.2.2 Fine Pitch

According to the AGMA standards, the main differences of fine and coarse pitch is
the greater clearance specified for fine pitch. The increase in clearance provides for any
foreign material that may tend to accumulate at the bottoms of the teeth and also the
relatively larger fillet radius resulting from proportionately greater wear on the tips of fine-
pitch cutting tools. Fine pitch are manufactured with a standard pressure angle of 20
degrees which is recommended for most applications. Also the preferred diametral
pitches for fine pitch are: 20, 24, 40, 48, 64, 72, 80, 96, and 120 in English system. From
1
table 5, standard formulas is used for fine pitch specification with 14 2, 20 and 25 degrees

pressure angle. Also Table 6 shows the calculated values for addendum, dedendum,
circular pitch, circular thickness and etc. For the working depth, it is simply equal to twice
the addendum as generally used in the standards.
Table 5. Tooth Proportions for Fine-Pitch Involute Spur Gear of 1412-, 20-, and 25-
Degree Pressure Angle ANSI B6.7-1977

Table 6. American National Standard Fine Pitch Standard Gear Tooth Parts
1412-, 20-, and 25-Degree Pressure Angles
1.6 Stresses in Spur Gears
Design of gear stress requires a complete analysis to determine how strong the
gear against any load at any applications in different varieties. Some analysis requires
software tools to elaborate every single effects with different parameters to be identified
during meshing of gears. This study will discuss few important parameters in stresses of
gears just to show the importance of the goal and the studies behind any design and
fabrication of the spur gears.

1.6.1 Bending Stress of Spur Gears

In gear teeth, there are two factors that affect the gear teeth: fatigue fracture due
to bending stresses and the surface fatigue. Primarily, these two failures must be checked
in designing gears. Since most heavily gears are made of ferrous materials that do have
bending endurance limit, infinite life can be obtained for the bending loads. However
materials do not exhibit an endurance limit for repeated surface-contact stresses.
Therefore it is not possible to design gears with infinite life against surface failure.

1.6.1.1 The Lewis Equation

The first equation used for the bending stress was the Lewis equation way back in
1892. This is derived by treating the tooth as simple cantilever and with tooth contact
occurring at the tip. With forces occurring on the tip, only tangential force is considered.
It is also assumed that only pair of teeth in contact. Stress concentrations at the tooth root
filter is ignored. Since the bending stress formula of a cantilever is,

6
=
2 . 16
where M is the moment. Referring to Figure 5, the equation can then be expanded as,
6
=
2
where bw is the width of the tooth in the axial direction, and l and h are the height and
thickness.
 Figure 5: Beam Strength of Gear Teeth

2
Since is purely a geometric property of the shape and size of the tooth. Therefore this
6
factor can be a function of the circular pitch. Thus,

2
=
6
where is the pure number called the Lewis factor which depends upon the number of
teeth of gear and the system of gearing. Substituting Eq. (18) to Eq. (17), the relation can
be written as,
=

Lewis factor is used with different number of teeth as shown in Table 7. The factor is
sometimes expressed as which includes the factor of . Therefore,

This equation can then be related to the diametral pitch of the gear by using Eq. (3) to
Eq. (20) then substitute to Eq. (19). Then,

=

where is the diametral pitch of the gear. Eq. (16) gives merely the capacity of the tooth
to resist a bending load and makes no reference to the actual load of the teeth may be
carrying.

Table 7. Form or Lewis Factor for Spur Gears with Load at Tip of Tooth

2. Single Point Tools

Single point tools are tools having one cutting part (chip producing element) and
one shank. They are commonly used in lathes, shapers, boring mills, and similar machine
tools. Figure shows parts of the tool. The most important features are the cutting edge
and adjacent surfaces (9).
(1) Radzevich, Stephen P. (2012), Dudleys Handbook of Practical
Gear Design and Manufacture Taylor and Francis Group, New
York. pp 41
(2) Norton, Robert L. (1999), Design of Machinery: An Introduction to
the Synthesis and Analysis of Mechanism and Machines Worcester
Polytechnic Institute, Massachusetts. pp 440
(3) Shigley, Joseph E. (1996), Standard Handbook of Machine Design
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., Michigan. Chapter 33.1
(4) Ugural, Ansel C. (2004), Mechanical Design: An Integrated
Approach New Jersey Institute of Technology: pp. 428-429
(5) Norton, Robert L. (1999), Design of Machinery: An Introduction to
the Synthesis and Analysis of Mechanism and Machines Worcester
Polytechnic Institute, Massachusetts: pp 465-466
(6) Wentzell, Timothy H. (2004). Machine Design Delmar Learning.
Clifton Park, New York, pp. 252-273.
(7) Oberg, Erik; Jones, Franklin D.; Horton, Holbrook L.; Ryffel, Henry
H. (2012) Machinery's Handbook & Guide to Machinery's
Handbook. Industrial Press, New York, pp 2125-2135.
(8) Spotts, M.F. (2004) Design of Machine Elements: Third Edition
Prentice-Hall, New Jersey