Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
org Geology
ABSTRACT
The Permian sedimentary succession exposed in Sirinia Basin (South Carpathians,
Romania) provides a record of mixed siliciclastic-volcanic rocks. The siliciclastic rocks
are represented by conglomerate, sandstone and claystone, which are grouped into nine
lithofacies (Gmm/mg, St, Sh, Sm, Sr, Fl, Fr, P) occur in a predictable order as repeated
fining-upward cycles. Groups of associated facies are arranged into five distinct
architectural elements (gravel channels, ribbon-channel, sandy channels, laminated sand
sheets and overbank deposits), which is consistent with a fluvial origin of the
succession. The types of architectural elements present and their relationship to each
other demonstrate that Permian succession from Sirinia Basin preserves a record of a
meandering or a braided river. The entire Permian sedimentary succession from Sirinia
Basin has developed into an extensional tectonic realm, where the sedimentation was
controlled by two major factors: (i) a tectonically active source area, which provided
Precambrian metamorphic rocks and Upper Carboniferous siliciclastic rocks, and (ii) an
active volcanic source, which supplied a large amount of rhyolitic rock-fragments to the
coarse-grained sediments. The petrographic diversity of coarse-grained sediments
implies that sedimentary sequences were accumulated simultaneously with the
development of Sirinia basin.
Keywords: fluvial, meandering river, Sirinia Basin, South Carpathians
INTRODUCTION
Sirinia Basin represents an intra-continental extensional basin ([1] and [2]), which was
shaped as a result of the Alpine tectonic evolution and deformation. During the
Permian, periods of intense volcanism occurred simultaneous with siliciclastic
sedimentation in continental environments.
Sirinia basin made the subject of several previous studies, many of them focusing on
geotectonics ([3], [4], [5], [6]), volcanism ([2], [7], [8]) and paleontological issues ([1],
[9], [10]).
However, there are no detailed studies on the evolution of the Permian facies
association within the siliciclastic sequences of Sirinia basin. The aim of the present
study is to try to fill this gap, by presenting a detailed sedimentological analysis of the
Permian outcrops exposed along Danube River and its tributaries.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
Sirinia Basin is located in the southwestern part of the South Carpathians (Fig. 1). A
result of the extensional tectonics, Sirinia Basin represents a Variscan molasse-type
cover [4], which overlies Danubian metamorphic units [11]. The stratigraphic
17th International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference SGEM 2017
Fig. 1 Geological map of the southern part of Sirinia basin and legend (modified after
[2]): 1. Mesozoic undifferentiated deposits; Permian - 2. Massive rhyolitic rocks (domes
and lava flows) a. subaqueous, b. subaerial; 3. Rhyolitic volcaniclastic rocks: a.
Hyaloclastic breccias and associated deposits, b. Subaerial and Surtseyan pyroclastic
deposits and associated rocks; 4. Lacustrine limestone; 5a. Terrigenous fluvial-
lacustrine deposits, b. Intra-volcanic fluvial deposits; Carboniferous - 6. Trachytes; 7.
Siliciclastic deposits with coal; Paleozoic - 8. Mafic and ultramafic rocks; Upper
Precambrian - 9. Poly-metamorphic rocks (Danubian domain). The red frames shows
the location of the studied areas.
The Upper Carboniferous deposits consist of grey-blackish siliciclastic rocks with coal
layers [8], occasionally associated with basaltic rocks recently identified as having
trachytic composition [2] and rarely carbonate rocks [1].
Unconformably following onto the Carboniferous rocks, the Lower Permian deposits
consist of an initial siliciclastic sequence, followed by an association of rhyolitic
volcanic and volcanoclastic deposits (e.g. [2]).
The Lower Jurassic to Upper Cretaceous marine deposits are discordantly covering both
the post-Variscan sequences and the metamorphic basement complexes [3, 12].
METHOD
In order to describe and analyze the sedimentary evolution of the Permian siliciclastic
rocks, the technique of facies analysis was applied to the outcrops along the Povalina
(Fig. 2A), Starite (Fig. 2B) and Ielieva (Fig. 2C) valleys. These techniques considered
the textural parameters of the litons (granulometry and morphometry of clasts), the
thickness of beds and, finally, the sedimentary structures and sedimentary cycles. The
division of facies has been made according to the [13] and [14] nomenclature and has
taken into consideration the grain size combined with sedimentary structures.
2
www.sgem.org Geology
In studied outcrops, the facies variation could be followed, on both vertical and
horizontal (Starite sequence).
Lithofacies associations
The nine sedimentary lithofacies recognized in Permian succession of Sirinia basin are
interpreted in terms of the model of alluvial processes (in channel and floodplain
17th International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference SGEM 2017
settings) proposed by [14]. They were grouped in two facies associations corresponding
to channelized and non-channelized alluvial deposits [15]. Within these two facies
associations, five architectural elements are recognized with the aid of textures,
sedimentary structures, geometry and vertical arrangements (Fig. 2 and Table 1).
A C
4
www.sgem.org Geology
Fig. 2 Detailed sedimentary logs showing the main lithologies, facies and facies
associations encountered in Povalina (A), Starite (B) and Ielieva (C) locations. The
extensional normal faults system that crosses the 300 m long outcrop from Starite (B
bottom) has imposed logs for each segment, since no correlation was visible. The red
lines represent extensional normal faults and yellow lines symbolize lithological
column. The grey arrow represents the general trend of the lithofacies associations. In
circle is given detailed facies photo.
17th International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference SGEM 2017
Table 1. Summary of sedimentary facies. Facies may occur only once, or be repeated
several times along the vertical succession.
Interpretation
Lithofacies Description
(after [14, 16])
Fine to Massive and inverse to normal Deposition from
coarse graded beds, matrix-supported debris flow with
Conglomerate
sand setting or
unconfined
sheetflood.
Tabular bodies with no internal Deposits of
structure. Beds up to 1.5 m thick, sediment gravity
Medium to
rarely bioturbated. Carbonate flow or rapid
Sm coarse
nodules can be present forming deposition from
sand
poorly defined horizons. Sharp suspensions during
undulating boundaries floods.
Sr Fine to Very thin tabular bodies, with Bedload from
coarse solitary ripple cross-lamination confined low
sand and diffuse boundaries. regime flows.
Up to 1.2 m of interbedded
red/grey mudstone, sandstones
Mud fine and lower amounts of siltstones.
Fl
sand, silt They display fine laminations or
Deposition from
Mudstone
fining-upward trend, are composed of thick massive sandstones (Sm), which are
overlain by fine-grained floodplain sediments (Fl and Fr). Towards the terminal part of
the sequence, thin levels of massive conglomerates (Gmm) are included. Also, small
stacked sets up to 0.7 m thick arranged into coarsening-upward packages, can be
observed (Fig. 2B). These sets are characterized by fine-grained floodplain sediments
(Fl and Fr), followed by massive conglomerates (Gmm), or massive sandstones (Sm)
which pass into through cross-bedded (St) sandstones or inverse graded conglomerates
(Gmg). Carbonate nodules within massive sandstone or mudstone beds may be
observed.
Sandy channel-fill deposits originated in an active channel that traversed the distal
alluvial plain. The tabular geometries and overall massive nature of the sandstone
bodies suggests that deposition was rapid, either from sediment gravity flows, or from
suspension during waning flows [16]. The abundant sharp upper bounding surfaces
indicate that the flow waned quickly [21].
mudstone beds. Rarely, bioturbations have been found along the upper boundaries of the
massive sandstones beds. Fining or coarsening-upward trends are locally present in the
interbedded sandstone and mudstone associations (Fig. 2).
Laminated sand sheets were ascribed to the diffuse flow of unchannellized floodwaters
across the alluvial floodplain [22]. The dominance of massive structure in suggest a
rapid deposition from suspension during floods [14]. The deposition of coarse-
sediments took place under upper-flow regime, while the fine-sediments characterize
the lower-flow regime.
Overbank deposits (FA5) include massive and laminated mudstone/siltstone/fine
sandstone (facies Fl), massive red mudstones, within which carbonate nodules (facies
Fr), and red limestone (P) may be embedded. The proportion of each facies varies
throughout the Permian sedimentary succession. On Povalina sequence, there are
encountered red limestone and massive red mudstones with carbonate nodules. On
Starite sequence, there can be observed only 0.5 m of massive sandstones, siltstone and
mudstone belonging to the Fl facies, while on Ielieva sequence there also occur
alternations of varying proportion of red mudstones (Fr). These deposits commonly
exhibit a tabular geometry, ranging from 1.0 to 4.3 m in thickness.
Overbank deposits resulted from unchannellized flow when discharge exceeded the
bank-full capacity of the channel network ([15] and [20]). During such events, rapid
flow expansion and subsequent energy loss resulted in widespread deposition on the
alluvial floodplain [20]. The development of carbonate nodules of early diagenetic
origin within these sediments indicate extensive periods of non-deposition.
DISCUSSION
The general appearance of the sedimentary successions combined with the lithological
features lead us to the conclusion that the depositional environment was a braided
(Povalina and Ielieva sequences) or meandering (Starite sequence) river [14], from
which there have resulted the alluvial gravel or/and sandy channels and alluvial
floodplain bodies. The Povalina sequence exhibits a coarsening-upward tendency
towards the terminal part, which indicates a progradation from fine-grained floodplain
deposits to coarse-grained channel deposits, indicative of successive flows arriving on a
low-energy floodplain [23]. The flat bedded gravels formed by vertical accretion
suggest deposition at high water stages (e.g. [24]). The limestone records may represent
precipitation from ephemeral lakes occurring at the distal fringes of sheetflood alluvial
units (e.g. [14]). The Starite sequence is dominated by fining-upward gravel or sandy
channel deposits, in which the Gm and Sm facies is usually associated with Fr facies.
All these suggest a gravel-sand meandering river [25]. Towards the top of the
sedimentary sequence, there is an coarsening-upward tendency reflected in the
migration from channel deposits to laminated sand sheets, results of the multiple flood
event on the alluvial plain. The "regressive" trend (passing from fine-grained floodplain
to coarse-grained channel-fill deposits) displayed by Povalina and Starite sequences
(Section VI) may suggest a period of slow tectonic movement of Sirinia basin during an
incipient phase of development, or a relaxation and adjustment following rapid tectonic
uplift of the source area [16]. The 35 m thick Ielieva displays a fining-upward general
trend. The flat bedded gravel dominance reflects the deposition from a braided river
with low sinuosity and high energy currents [24]. The coarse-grained channel fill, in
which Gmm and Gmg facies are associated with Sm, St or Fr facies, suggests gradual
17th International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference SGEM 2017
diminishing of flow regimes and it may also reflect a systematic migration of the
channels [16]. Towards the top of each sequence the flow regime changes to a fine-
grained meandering river [14] in which alluvial plain deposits were accumulated.
The petrographic diversity of clasts from coarse-grained clastic sediments suggests that
the Permian alluvial deposits were set up at different times during the evolution of
Sirinia intra-continental basin. In the southernmost and lowermost part of the basin
(Povalina sequence), the absence of the volcanic rock fragments implies that the
sedimentation started at the beginning of the Sirinia basin development, before the onset
of the volcanic activity. The source of the detrital clasts was represented by Precambrian
metamorphic rocks of the crystalline basement, while the sedimentary fraction may
have possibly originated in the Upper Carboniferous siliciclastic rocks. In the southern
part of the basin (Starite sequence), the presence of both metamorphic and volcanic
rock fragments indicate that sediments accumulation took place simultaneously with the
Sirinia basin development and ongoing volcanic activity. According to [2], the presence
of the extensional faults system (Fig. 2B bottom) imply that extensional tectonic activity
and successive subsidence of the basin was also subsequent to initial sedimentary
deposition and most probably was related to the onset of volcanism. In the northwestern
part of the basin (Ielieva sequence), the dominant rhyolitic components of the detrital
clasts (>90 %) indicate that the volcanic activity had ceased and the resulted clastic
sediments could illustrate, according to [2], the erosional stage undergone by an already
emerged part of the volcanic areas. The high degree of clasts rolling reflected in the
rounded forms indicate that the source areas were located at some distance from the
sedimentation place. In the case of Starite sequence were recognized two volcanic
source areas: a proximal one which supplied with sediments the first five sections, and a
distal one which fed the last section.
The siliciclastic sequences often display a red color (especially on Ielieva and Povalina
valleys) which suggests deposition of sediments in an arid climate. The 13C and 18O
values measured on carbonate nodules from red mudstones (facies Fr) and respectively
limestone (facies P) suggests that the precipitation of calcite occurred in an arid climate
characterized by average temperatures of 30C, high rates of evaporation and rainfall
with isotopic signatures similar to the ones currently found at low latitudes (between 0
and 30 N/S) [26]. According to [27] the arid regime was induced by the uplift of the
equatorial highlands Variscan fold belt, which acted as a precipitation barrier. This
uplift was a consequence of the convergence between the Laurasia and Gondwana
plates during the Upper Carboniferous and Lower Permian (e.g. [28]).
CONCLUSION
The sedimentological interpretation of the sedimentary facies leads us to the conclusion
that during the Permian time, the siliciclastic rocks of Sirinia basin were accumulated in
alluvial conglomeratic or sandy channels to alluvial floodplain settings, belonging to a
braided (Povalina and Ielieva sequences) and meandering (Starite sequence) river
system.
The sedimentation during Permian times was controlled by two major factors: (i) a
tectonically active source area, which provided Precambrian metamorphic rocks and
Upper Carboniferous siliciclastic rocks (Povalina and Starite sequences), and (ii) an
active volcanic source, which supplied a large amount of rhyolitic rock-fragments to the
coarse-grained sediments (Starite and Ielieva sequences). The petrographic diversity
10
www.sgem.org Geology
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author acknowledges the PALEOCLIM project (grant ANCS-PN2, 31-063/2007)
during which this study has started, and the Institute of Geodynamics of the Romanian
Academy. Many thanks to Dr. Ioan Seghedi and Dr. Silviu Rdan for their advices, to
Dr. Delia Papp for discussion, and to Dr. Horia Mitrofan for the English review.
REFERENCES
[1] Rileanu G., Recherches gologiques dans la rgion de Svinia-Faa Mare. An. Com.
Geol., vol. 26-28, pp 347-383, 1960.
[2] Seghedi I., Permian rhyolitic volcanism, changing from subaqueous to subaerial in
post-Variscan intra-continental Sirinia Basin (SE Romania-Eastern Europe). J.
Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. Chemical Geology, vol. 201, pp 312-324, 2010.
[3] Nstseanu S., Stnoiu I., Bioianu C., Correlation of Hercynic molasses formations
(Westphalia-Permian) from the western part of South Carpathians. An. Inst. Geol., vol.
XL, pp 71-109, 1973.
[4] Nstseanu S., Upper-Paleozoic molasse deposits in the Romanian South
Carpathians. Pre-Variscan and Variscan events in the Alpine-Mediteranean mountain
belts. Mineralia Slovaka-Monography, Bratislava, 371-378, 1987.
[5] Seghedi A., Popa M., Oaie G., Nicolae I., The Permian system in Romania. Natura
Bresciana, Ann. Mus. Civ. Nat., Brescia: Monografia, vol. 25, pp 281-293, 2001.
[6] Iancu V., Berza T., Seghedi A., Gheuca I., Hann H.P., Alpine polyphase tectono-
metamorphic evolution of the South Carpathians: a new overview. Tectonophysics, vol.
410, pp 337-365, 2005.
[7] Stan N., Colios E., Bratosin I., Permian ignimbritic rocks of the South Banat
(Svinia-Baia Nou-Tlva Frasinului). D. S. Inst. Geol. Geofiz., vol. 70-71, pp 203-216,
1986.
[8] Stnoiu I., Stan N., Lithostratigraphy of permo-carboniferous molasses of
Munteana-Svinia-Tlva Frasinului region (Banat). D. S. Inst. Geol. Geofiz., vol. 70-71,
pp 39-50, 1986.
[9] Antonescu E., Nstseanu S., Contribution palinologiques la connaissance du
Permien du Banat. D. S. Inst. Geol. Geofiz., vol. 58, pp 73-114., 1976.
[10] Antonescu E., Nouvelles donnes palynologiques concernant le Stephanien et
l`Autunien du Banat. D. S. Inst. Geol. Geofiz., vol. 64, pp 59-75, 1980.
[11] Sndulescu M., Geological structure of Romania. Rom. Jour. of Earth Science, vol.
87, pp 51-70, 2013.
[12] Rileanu G., Geological researches in Svinia-Faa Mare region. Bull. St. Acad.
R.P.R., vol. V/II, pp 307-405, 1953.
17th International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference SGEM 2017
[13] Miall A.D., Fluvial sedimentology: an historical review. In: Miall A.D. (ed) Fluvial
sedimentology. Can. Soc. Petrol Geol. Memoir, vol. 5, pp 1-47, 1978.
[14] Miall A.D., The geology of fluvial deposits: sedimentary facies, basin analysis and
petroleum geology. Springer-Verlag Inc., Berlin, pp 580, 1996.
[15] Cain S.A., Mountney N.P., Spatial and temporal evolution of a terminal fluvial fan
system: the Permian organ Rock Formation, South-east Utah, USA. Sedimentology, vol.
56, pp 1774-1800, 2009.
[16] Collinson J.D., Alluvial sediments. In: Reading H.G. (Ed) - Sedimentary
environments: processes, facies and stratigraphy (3rd Ed), Blackwell Publ., Oxford, UK,
pp. 37-82, 1996.
[17] Bridge J.S., Jaln G.A., Georgieff S.M., Geometry, lithofacies and spatial
distribution of Cretaceous uvial sandstone bodies, San Jorge Basin, Argentina:
Outcrop analog for the hydrocarbon bearing Chubut Group. J. Sediment. Res., vol. 70,
pp 341359, 2000.
[18] Leeder M.R., Fluviatile fining-upward cycles and themagnitude of palaeo-
channels. Geol. Mag., vol. 110, pp 265276, 1973.
[19] Gibling M.R., Width and thickness of fluvial channel bodies and valley fills in the
geological record: a literature compilation and classification. J. Sediment. Res., vol. 76,
pp 731-770, 2006.
[20] Bridge J.S., Rivers and Floodplains: forms, processes and sedimentary records.
Blackwell Publ., Oxford, UK, pp 504, 2003.
[21] Picard M.D., High L.R.Jr., Sedimentary structures of ephemeral streams. Develop.
In Sedimentology, Elsevier, vol. 17, 1973.
[22] Tooth S., Splay formation along the lower reaches of ephemeral rivers on the
Northern Plains of central Australia. J. Sed. Res., vol. 75, pp 636649, 2005.
[23] Smith N.D., Cross T.A., Dufficy J.P., Clough S.R., Anatomy of an avulsion.
Sedimentology, vol. 36, pp 1-23, 1989.
[24] Rust B.R., Proximal braidplain deposits in the Middle Devonian Malbaie
Formation of Eastern Gasp, Quebec, Canada. Sedimentology, vol. 31, pp 675-695,
1984.
[25] Allen J.R.L., Studies in fluviatile sedimentation: bars, bar complexes and sandstone
sheets (low-sinuosity braided streams) in the Brownstones (L. Devonian), Welsh
Borders. Sediment. Geol., vol. 33, pp 237-293, 1983.
[26] Gat J.R., Gonfiantini R., Stable isotope hydrology: Deuterium and Oxygen-18 in
water Cycle. Technical Report Series No. 210, IAEA, Vienna, 1981.
[27] Tatu M., Seghedi I., Nuu M.L., Nicolae I., Contrasting Permo-Carboniferous
evolution of Reia and Sirinia-Presacina Basins (South Carpathians, Romania): an
overview. EGU General Assembly, Vienna. Geophysical Research Abstracts, vol. 11,
2009.
[28] Zigler P.A., Geological Atlas of Western and Central Europe (2 ed.). Shell Int.
Petrol. Mij. Dist. Geol. Soc. Publ. House, Bath, pp 1-239, 1990.
12