Chapter 1: Introduction to Academic Writing

- writing without composing

- little to no planning
- reads as if someone recorded their speech in written form
- e.g. shopping lists, blog comments, brief notes
- writing through composing
- requires the careful use of various writing subskillls
- takes planning and time
- e.g. official letters, essays, theses

- writer-responsible writing:
- information-effective, logical
- the writer has to show the relationship between the ideas in their writing
- reader-responsible writing:
- reader has task to work out what the message of the text is
- e.g. literary works
- referential writing:
- focuses on the presentation of factual information, independently from the writer
and reader
- purpose: to inform, by means of a thesis statement that summarizes the main idea of
the text
- e.g. essay, report, research article
- expressive writing:
- personal feelings and experiences of the writer
- e.g. diary
- academic writing is often argumentative: its goal is to convince the reader
- transactional writing:
- focuses on the message and is used to express information in order to achieve
something
- e.g. letter of complaint
- conventionalized: following conventions of the academic community
- written academic genres:
- produced by scholars
- have well-defined purpose, audience, content and structure

- rhetorical structure: the way ideas are developed and follow one another in a text
- thought patterns in paragraph development (Kaplan, 1966):

- expository writing:
- goal: to explain
 - characterized by a linear development of ideas and freedom from digression

- components of a writing situation: writer, reader, purpose, topic

- academic texts are formal in style
 Formal Academic Style Informal Style
- distance between writer and audience - proximity between writer and audience
- objective tone - subjective tone
Aims
- emphasis on message - emphasis on writer and reader
- clear and precise communication
- neutral/formal alternative of lexical items - colloquial vocabulary and expressions
- precision is key in selecting lexical items (no - brevity (shortness, precision) is not a requirement
approximations, e.g. quite a large part) - preference of phrasal or prepositional verbs (e.g.
- efficient use of words carry out instead of conduct)
Vocabulary - preference of single verbs (e.g. reach instead of - general, everyday vocabulary
run up to) - shortened forms, slang or hesitation fillers allowed
- technical terms
- no run-on expressions (e.g. and so on)
- no shortened forms, slang or hesitation fillers
- objective, impersonal tone - subjective, personal tone
- passive structures when the agent is unknown or - active structures
unimportant, or the focus is on the object - involvement or direct references to the reader (e.g.
- It sentences (e.g. It is often argues, (...)) Can you believe(...)
- use of last names - use of first names
Tone - impersonal pronouns and phrases (e.g. it is - attitude words (e.g. anyway, luckily, lets)
hoped, it has been found)
- avoidance of an unclear editorial we
- formal linking words and phrases (e.g. moreover,
evertheless, in addition to)
- cautious language (e.g. appears to, could, likely to)
- prepositions and relative pronouns used together - separated prepositions and relative pronouns (e.g. I
(e.g. (...), for which I applied) didnt get the job which I applied for.)
- relative pronouns included (e.g. The woman - relative pronouns left out (e.g. The woman he
whom he admired(...)) admired(...))
- coordinating linking words (e.g. and, or, but) used - coordinating linking words (e.g. and, or, but) used
between clauses in a sentence at the beginning of sentences
- imperative structures avoided (e.g. consider the - little variety in punctuation options
Grammar
case of (...))
- use of formal negative forms (e.g. not any -> no,
not much -> little, not many -> few)
- even use of punctuation options to support
meaning (e.g. colon, semicolon)
- variety of sentence structure and length

- style awareness
- register awareness
- evolution: style conventions change
- the style of an academic text must be consistent

- conversational maxims
- maxim of quantity: the writer presents as much information as needed
- maxim of quality: no false or unsupported things are presented
- maxim of relevance: only things relevant to the topic are presented
- maxim of manner: brief text, well-organised, free of ambiguity

- writing process: all the stages of writing from idea generation to the submission of a written
assignment
- recursive process: number of stages in writing that follow a linear manner
 - good writers complete the process in cycles by frequently revisiting earlier steps
- multiple draft composing: objective evaluation + feedback

Chapter 2: Idea generation techniques and outlining

- writing topic and related concepts

- open writing task
- broad topic->students have to narrow
- closed writing task
- specifies the topic more precisely
- subtopics: divisions within a topic
- topic shift: writers change the focus of discussion and move on to address another aspect
- topic continuity: further development of the same subtopic
- topic digression: a new topic is introduced while the old one hasn't yet been closed
- should be avoided
- topic resumption: topic is resumed

IDEA GENERATION TECHNIQUES

- focused freewriting
- topic at the top of the page
- write whatever comes to mind about the topic in a pre-set amount of time
- don't evaluate the ideas
- re-read and mark the ideas you want to use
- looping
- focused free-writing activity
- pick an idea or summarize the essence in a sentence
- use this sentence as the topic of another free-writing session
- repeat until you find gold (good for subtopics)
- listing
- freewriting, but with words and phrases instead of ideas and concepts
- WH-questions
- freewriting, but answer Who? What? When? Where? Why? How?
- classic rhetorical
- topic at the top of the page
- answer:
- What is it?
- What is it like/unlike?
- Is it good or bad (or some other adjective)?
- What caused/causes/will cause it?
- What should (not) be done about it?
- reread and mark ideas, generate argument
- clusters of branches
- write a word related to the topic in the middle of the page and circle it
- connect words that come to your mind to the middle one
- check the grouping
- cubing
- topic at the top of the page
- consider it from these points of view:
- describe it
 - compare it
- analyse it
- associate it
- apply it
- argue for/against it
- reread and mark
- good for when the writer has a lot of freedom
- brainstorming
- freewriting but you can stop and connect/combine/refine the ideas
- can be done in a group setting

OUTLINING
- used by writers to shape the material
- used in this order to maximalise
- types:
- scratch outline
- shows what ideas belong together and their logical relationship
- ideas -> groups -> patterns -> first draft
- descriptive outline
- functions:
- does the writer have enough content?
- does the thesis statement fit the content?
- is the TS restricted, united and precise?
- helps the communicative purpose of the text
- subject matter
- what is each paragraph about?
- formal outline
- shows what is going to be discussed, in what detail and order

Chapter 3: The paragraph

- a group of sentences that develop one topic

- general characteristic features:
- length:
- on average: 7 sentences of 24 words, 162 words total
- determined during writing by the ideas, target reader, function, etc.
- format:
- block:
- all lines are flush with the left margin
- separated by an empty line
- used in the business domain
- indented:
- first line of each paragraph is spaced from the margin
- rest of the lines are flush to the left margin
- used in academic assignments
- types:
- by content:
- physical:
- graphically marked as a block or indented paragraph
 - conceptual paragraph:
- larger unit of text
- not graphically marked, as it can consist of several physical
paragraphs that develop various aspects of a subtopic
- by function:
- special purpose:
- in addition to expressing content that contributes to a line of
reasoning
- introductory, transitional and concluding paragraphs
- developmental paragraph:
- presents the ideas that combine into the message the writer wants to
express
- in argumentative essays, these present teh support for the main claim
- paragraph structure:
- deductive structure: topic sentence, support, concluding sentence
- topic sentence:
- the topic and controlling idea
- presented at the beginning of a body paragraph (but can be elsewhere too)
- support
- compulsory element
- explains and develops the topic sentence
- e.g. specific details, examples, expert opinions
- for effectiveness, it must be: sufficient, accurate, relevant, typical and
documented
- summary or concluding sentence
- at the end of long paragraphs
- provides closure and completeness
- restates or summarises the main idea in a new way, gives conclusion, offers
solution or advice
- cannot be a question, must not state a new idea
- the essential qualities of a good paragraph
- unity: the paragraph only discusses one topic
- coherence:
- ideas are arranged logically
- one idea leads smoothly into another
- the paragraph forms a clearly constructed logical whole
- logical sequence of ideas, transitional words and phrases (e.g.
therefore, however, as a consequence)
- organisation/order: how easily a reader can process the text
- completeness:
- well-developed paragraph
- clarity of main idea
- contains all of the required information
- fulfills the purpose of writing
- the one paragraph essay:
- can stand alone
- deductive structure
- attention-grabbing sentence
- should meet all essential qualities
- e.g. research article abstract, which summarises the content of a research paper
 Chapter 4: Coherence and cohesion

- coherence: the connections that readers perceive in a text

- features of coherence:
- continuity: the parts of the text belong together and form a whole
- overarching theme/topic: the whole text relates (in/directly) to one central topic
- logical relationships between text parts:
- subordination: e.g. cause->effect
- coordination: e.g. restatement
- superordination: e.g. introductory paragraph
- information structure
- cohesion: connection between elements of the text
- types of cohesion:
- reference: readers refer to a text element to make sense of another
- e.g. I drink coffee because it keeps me awake. (it refers back to coffee)
- endophoric and exophoric references (this book only deals with endo. refs.)
- endophoric reference: the two text elements are both present in the
text
- anaphoric (information [coffee] first) and cataphoric (reference [it]
first)
- substitution: instead of repeating a word, it is replaced by a substitute
- nominal (one/ones, same): I like the blue car better than the red one.
- verbal (do): I dont speak French, but she does.
- clausal (so, not): Do you think this exam will be hard? If so, why? If not,
good luck!
- ellipsis: substitution with nothing
- types: nominal, verbal, clausal
- e.g. We ordered two pizzas and both (pizzas) were delicious.
- e.g. Who ordered the pizzas? (Did) John (order the pizzas)?
- conjunction: connecting two parts of the text with a word or a phrase
- coordinating conjunctions (e.g. or, but, and, so)
- subordinating conjunctions (e.g. because, though)
- compound adverbs (e.g. therefore, besides)
- prepositional phrases (e.g. as a result, in addition)
- prepositional expressions (e.g. in spite of that)
- lexical cohesion: nouns related in meaning, situated in adjacent text segments
- same common referent (e.g. red, crimson, scarlet refer to the same colour)
- repetition
- synonyms/near synonyms
- superordinate (hypernym -> hyponym, e.g. animal -> horse)
- general word
- antonym (opposite of synonym)
- meronym (X is a part of Y, e.g. wheel -> car)
- opposites
- words in ordered (e.g. days of the week) or unordered (e.g. body parts) sets
- collocates (words that tend to occur together, e.g. bee -> honey)

Chapter 5: Genre and text type

GENRE:
- a class of conventionalised texts that have similar communicative purposes, stucture,
content, style and intended audience
- complex genre: unites different genres in a comprehensive whole (e.g. church
service = prayers + sermon + hymns)
- part-genre: section of a genre that may stand alone or is described separately from
the genre to which they belong
- sub-genre: smaller genres belonging to a bigger genre
- e.g. letter (genre) -> letters of application, complaint or request
- several common features, but also some different ones too

- text type: a class of text with similar internal linguistic features, rhetorical structure and
purpose
- narrative, descriptive, expository/explanatory, argumentative, instructive
- subcategories of expository: process description, definition, exemplification,
comparison and contrast, cause-effect

- one genre usually contains several text types (e.g. novel: narration, description, etc.)
- text types can be found in several genres (e.g. description: novel, research article, essay,
etc.)
- dominant text types sometimes becomes the name for the genre (e.g. descriptive essay)
- organisation of content into different rhetorical patterns
- text types
- tied-constituent patterns
- information type based organisation patterns

TEXT TYPES:
- narrative: giving an account of events
- used in e.g. narrative essays, reports, research papers
- presents a sequence of events in strict chronological order
- uses adverbs of time (e.g. first, last, soon), adverbial phrases (e.g. at the same
time) and adverbial clauses of time (e.g. before the questionnaire was handed out), and many
verbs in different tense forms
- questions: What, Who, Where, When, How did sg. happen?
- descriptive: to capture in writing the characteristics of sg. with the help of the five senses
- organising the description:
- spatial order (e.g. left->right, top->bottom)
- non-spatial order (e.g. starting with outside characteristics and following
with inside characteristic features)
- characterised by many nouns, adverbs of place (e.g. above, beyond, within), passive
voice
- questions: What does it look/feel/etc. like? What are its characteristics?
- subjective description: the writers own response to the object of the desc.
- objective desc.: factual desc., this is the one mainly used in academic writing
- expository: revelation or explanation based on sub-patterns
- process description: description of a process :D
- strict chronological order
- e.g. how a data collection tool was designed
- characteristics: past/present simple tense, passive voice
- use of enumerative conjucts (e.g. firstly, secondly, then, finally)
 - cause and effect: analysis of why something happened or will happen
- types: cause-to-effect and effect-to-cause
- characteristics: past/present simple tense, passive voice
- use of: e.g. for this reason, hence, because
- questions: What is the cause/effect? How does the cause lead to the effect?
- exemplification: explanation through illustrating a concept or phenomenon
- e.g. quotes from a literary work, summaries of research data
- general-specific development: a general statement is presented, and
then illustrated and supported by examples
- to be effective, the general statement must be followed by enough
good examples
- characteristic phrases: e.g. for example, for instance
- questions: What typical examples/cases illustrate the
concept/phenomenon?
- classification and division:
- classification: creating categories based on individual items
- organisation: a specific principle for each classification process
(example on p.56)
- division: to break up one unit and divide it into parts
- organisation: division of the whole into meaningful parts by a logical
restructuring rule (example on p.56)
- questions: What are its types? How can the parts be grouped? By what
feature can the items be categorised?
- comparison and contrast: shows the similarity or difference between two things
- types: block-by-block (clustered) method, point-by-point (alternating)
method (illustration on p.58)
- questions: How are the two similar/different?
- definition: explanation of the meaning of a term/idea
- length can vary from just one word to a whole essay
- extended definition: paragraph- or essay-length definition
- organisation can vary:
- synonyms/antonyms
- illustration through examples ->exemplification
- any text types or their combinations can be used as a definition
strategy
- isolated definition: occurs in one particular part of the text
- explains one term or concept that the writer will use from that point
- dispersed definition: consists of several parts throughout the text
- a type of extended definition
- simple formal definition:
- 3 parts: term, category, features (example on p.60)

- questions: What is it? In what ways is it similar/different from other items of

its category?
- argumentative: asserts a position, belief or conclusion
- used by writers to convince their readers about their claim/position
- usually the dominant text type in academic texts
- argumentative essay: claim in introduction, supporting evidence in the body of the
text
- organisation depends on the claim or the support coming first
 - support: general fact (All human beings are mortal) + specific information
introduced by the writer (Socrates is a human being) -> conclusion: Socrates is mortal
- characteristic words and phrases:
- qualifiers (e.g. definitely, most probably): indicates the strength of the claim
- premise indicators (e.g. for, since, because): introduces evidence
- conclusion indicators (e.g. therefore): informs the reader about the upcoming
conclusion
- questions: What is the claim? What evidence is presented in support? Is there
enough and relevant evidence?

TIED-CONSTITUENT PATTERNS:
- culturally popular patterns of text organisation (Hoey, 2001)
- two compulsory main parts (different in all), fixed sequence, functional relation
- types: problem -> solution, goal -> achievement, gap in knowledge -> filling, question ->
answer, (opportunity -> taking, desire arousal -> fulfillment)
- problem-solution pattern:
- situation, problem, solution, evaluation (compulsory elements in bold)
- characteristic phrases:
- problem, solution
- negative terms (e.g. unfortunately, lack of..., incomplete, famine, disease)
- indicate the presence of a problem
- questions: What is the situation/problem/solution? Did the solution solve the
problem?
- goal-achievement pattern:
- situation, goal, method of achievement, evaluation/result
- goal to achieve + the way it can be done
- characteristic phrases:
- goal: want/would like to..., aim, objective
- method of achievement: way, means, strategy
- questions: What is the situation? What goal is set to be achieved? In what way is the
goal to be achieved? Is the goal achieved successfully?
- gap in knowledge-filling pattern:
- situation, gap in knowledge, filling the gap, evaluation
- writers emphasise the gap in the situation (something unclear, uncertain or
undecided)
- then they fill the gap (e.g. by presenting research results)
- questions: What is the situation? Is there a gap? What can fill it? Is it filled?
- question-answer pattern:
- situation, question (direct or indirect), answer, evaluation
- active reading: readers ask questions as they read the book, and the writer answers
them in the text
- questions: What is the situation? Is there a question related to the situation that needs
to be answered? What is the answer? Is it satisfactory?

INFORMATION TYPE BASED ORGANISATION PATTERNS

- other organisational principles, based on the kind of information presented in them
- level of specificity, enumeration, order of frequency, order of importance, (level of
familiarity/complexity)
- level of specificity
- organisation of ideas based on how specific they are
 - general statement -> particular details, or in reverse order
- deductive pattern: top-down method
- paragraph: topic sentence -> supporting details
- essay: thesis statement -> supporting details
- research paper: theory -> hypotheses -> testing
- inductive pattern: bottom-up method
- details -> generalisation
- exploratory research: research question -> collection of specific data ->
generalisation
- enumeration
- transformation of a list into continuous text
- items of the list + connectors (e.g. first, second, in addition, finally)
- order of frequency
- organisation of the content from most to least frequent, or in reverse order
- depends on the content or the rhetorical effect
- least to most: e.g. (content) Internet usage rates, (rhetorical) crime rates in a
city
- most to least: e.g. (content) fax machines per household, (rhetorical) Brexit
support
- order of importance
- organisation of the content from most to least important, or in reverse order
- importance defined by the writer
- characteristic phrases: e.g. more important, most difficult, even more

Chapter 6: Argumentation

- argumentation: the cognitive process of problem solving that derives from assumed
disagreement between two or more parties
- adversarial argumentation: the speaker assumes that the audience has an undesirable
initial position and wants to change that
- co-operative argumentation: the speaker recognises the different position, looks for
agreement
- contexts for arguments:
- personal:
- internal, part of the everyday decision-making process
- interpersonal:
- external, involves at least two people
- usually in oral form
- topic can vary greatly
- professional:
- external, involves at least two people
- oral or written form
- used by experts to generate and express expert knowledge
- public:
- external, involves a speaker and an audience
- in person or through various media (e.g. written form, TV, internet, public
speech)
- purpose: to shape the world view of the audience
- sources of appeal:
- logos: appeal to reason
 - argument-based
- claims and support, and their connection
- ethos: appeal to the audiences perception of the speaker
- arguer-based
- credibility, reputation, expertise, good character
- pathos: appeal to the identity, self-interest and emotions of the audience
- audience-based
- argumentation vs. persuasion:
- persuasion: the goal is to make sy. do sg.
- argumentation: the goal is to prove the validity of ones claim

- argument types:
- one-part: claim
- two-part: claim + supporting constituent
- three-part: claim + both types of supporting constituents

- structure of Toulmins (1958) model of argument

- claim: a statement being argued, that you are asking your audience to accept as true
- grounds: (a.k.a. fact, evidence, data) the facts or evidence used to prove your argument
(what do you base your claim on?)
- warrant: logical statement that links data, facts and other grounds to the claim, legitimising
it (how do the facts relate to the claim?)
- backing: backs the warrant up, if it is challenged (proof that the warrant itself is true;
doesnt necessarily prove the claim)
- (modal) qualifiers: indicates the strength or weakness of an claim with a qualifier (e.g.
probably, usually, most of the time, definitely)
- or proposes
- reservation: a variant of the qualifier which may give the possibility of it being
incorrect
- e.g. Unless theres evidence for the contrary, (...)
- rebuttal: counter-arguments or statements indicating circumstances when the claim is not
true
- or restrictions on the truth of the claim
- rebuttals can also have rebuttals, that weaken the counter-argument and strengthen
the initial claim
- claim, grounds and warrant are modified by rebuttal, backing, modal qualifier

Examples:
Claim: Cars that are over 20 The government should I need to study more for
years old should not be ban animal research. this class in order to get an
allowed on the road. A.
Grounds/facts/evidence: Older cars are less safe Every year, one million I currently have a weak B
 and pollute more than animals are killed in the grade.
newer cars. USA in cosmetic research.
Warrant: Removing older cars The lives and well-being Studying helps improve my
from the traffic would of animals is more grades.
result in a clearer important than profits.
environment and fewer
accidents.
Backing: Exhaust gases are a Cosmetic companies use When I study, I get more
major cause of climate animal testing to save and practice solving the
changes and modern make money. problems and get more
safety standards comfortable with them.
(airbags, ABS) greatly
improve the safeness of
the car.
Qualifiers: Most cars should not be (...), unless it is a life- I probably need to study
allowed full access to saving medical research. at least an hour per day
the road. three times a week this
semester.
Rebuttal: Many older cars could A law to ban all animal I heard of this guy who
be updated to newer research would go too far. studied all year long and
standards, and some still failed the finals.
"classic" models are
well-kept and only
driven occasionally.

ARGUMENT STRATEGIES
- argument for generalization: all research studies that work with a sample of a population
- warrant: whatever is true of this sample is true of a larger group
- data: the sample has trait X
- claim: the larger group also has trait X
- argument from analogy: to construct hypotheses based on analogies that can be tested
- warrant: two situations are alike
- data: observed similarities
- claim: they are probably alike in more features
- argument from sign (growling is the sign of the dogs fury, so if he does it hell attack)
- warrant: X can be the sign of the case Y
- data: X is the case
- claim: therefore, Y is probably true
- casual argument: research, cause-effect
- warrant: if condition X and Y appear together, they are causally related
- data: X and Y appear together and X comes first
- claim: X causes Y, unless (rebuttal) theres a third common factor
- argument from authority:
- warrant: whatever the expert says is probably true
- data: expert says Y is the case
- claim: therefore, Y is true

TAXONOMY OF CLAIMS
- claims constitute the central element of arguments
- two types: non-relational and relational
- non-relational theses:
- simple evaluation:X is/is not Y (e.g. Garbage can be useful)
- Y is an adjective expressing a value judgement
 - simple policy: X should/should not be done about Y.(e.g. Oral exams
should be banned)
- relational theses:
- categorical: X is/is not/is partly Y
- something can be placed in or excluded from a category
- e.g. Cats are mammals
- similarity: X is like/not like Y
- similarity or difference between two things
- e.g. Cats are different from dogs
- complex evaluation: X is more/less Z than Y, X is as Z as Y, X is the
most Y
- two or more elements can be evaluated on the basis of a common
quality
- e.g. Cats are less noisy than dogs, Dogs are the most loyal pets
- sign: X can be taken as a sign that Y is the case
- the presence of sg. indicates the presence of sg. else
- e.g. A student who passes Prof. L.s exam on the first try must have
studied a lot.
- causal: X causes Y or Y is the effect of X
- cause-effect relationship
- e.g. Stressing over the exams can result in insomnia
- complex policy: X should be done rather thanY
- instead of one course of action, another should be taken
- e.g. Students who worry about this exam should lighten up! :)

- refutation: shows that the opponent is wrong or his argument is weaker.

- can be direct (shows that the claim is not true) or indirect (shows that the claim
cannot be true).
- concession: the writer acknowledges the validity of a claim advanced by the opponent

Chapter 7: The academic essay

- essay structure: title topic sentence support concluding sentence

- one-paragraph essay: title + attention grabbing sentence + topic sentence
- multi-paragraph essay:
- introduction: title + topic sentence / thesis statement
- body paragraphs:
- topic sentence + support (+ concluding sentence)
- transitional paragraphs
- conclusion: xxx
- paragraphs:
- special: introductory, transitional, concluding paragraphs
- developmental and body paragraphs present the ideas in support of the thesis
statement
- introduction:
- one paragraph if the essay is short
- split up otherwise
- engages interest, introduces topic, provides background information, reveals
the rationale (link between the background and the main idea of the essay), and introduces the
thesis statement - thesis statement: short, clear, simple, states the specific
topic and main idea of the essay
- backbone of the essay: holds the text together thematically and
structurally
- topic statement + controlling idea
- TS defines what the essay is about and CI expresses the
writers opinion
- at the end of the introductory paragraph
- can be descriptive, argumentative, comparison-contrast, etc.
- the thesis can be faulty:
- too vague (unclear)
- too long and verbose
- bifurcated (combination of two thesis statements)
- descriptive (not stating the authors position)
- transitional:
- in long texts
- signals a change in the content
- they summarise what was discussed and introduce what comes next
- conclusion:
- rounds up the discussion, creates a sense of completeness
- starts with a conclusion indicator (e.g. to summarise, therefore, in
conclusion, thus)
- can restate or evaluate the essays main points, recommend a course of
action, or discuss wider implications of the thesis statement
- timeline of writing an essay:
- collection of ideas
- thesis statement
- writing the body
- finishing the first draft by writing an introduction and conclusion

Chapter 8: The structure of written academic research genres

Theoretical research paper Empirical research paper

Abstract Abstract
Introduction Introduction
Review of the literature Review of the literature
Research design and method
Analysis Results and discussion
Conclusion Conclusion
References References
Appendices

- abstract: short summary of the research paper positioned after the title and before the
introduction
- functions: places the topic into context, defines how the research adds to previous
findings, what issues remained unresolved, introduces the main features of the research,
describes methodology, presents a summary of results, and discusses findings
- structure: situates research -> presents it -> describes methods(->summarises results
-> discussion)
- introduction:
 - functions: introduces the topic, explains why the issue explored is interesting, states
problem, expresses authors position, presents a summary of results, describes the papers
structure
- Why is the topic interesting? What is already known about it? What have others said
about it?
- structure: establishes territory, establishes niche, occupies niche/presents the work
- review of the literature:
- can be separate
- situates the writers research in the field of studies through critical analysis
- establishes a bridge between the past results and own research
- types:
- narrative: summarize all aspects of previous researches in an evaluative
overview
- systematic: in health sciences; previous work selected according to pre-
defined criteria
- focused: collection of one specific kind of information from the existing
researches
- must present information that is relevant to the topic and focus of the paper
- techniques:
- matrix technique: information is put into a table (author, date, country,
findings, method)
- mapping: spider diagram; more in Chapter 2 (Clusters and Branches)
- research design and method:
- typically in empirical research papers
- documents the technical aspects of the study in enough detail so it could be
replicated
- description of participants, instruments, procedures
- writers must include samples of data and data collection tools (e.g. questionnaires)
in the appendix
- analysis and the results and discussion section:
- analysis: in theoretical papers; the writer presents the application of the theoretical
framework
- results and discussion: in empirical papers: the writer presents and discusses the
research results
- conclusion:
- in theoretical papers: writers can restate the problem, summarise the solution,
discuss connections
- in empirical papers: writers explain the main findings and evaluate the results
- references:
- section is named differently depending on the documentation system:
- APA: references
- MLA: works cited
- CMS: bibliography
- includes sources, listed in alphabetical order, following the spcifications of the
system
- appendices:
- contains technical aspects of the research study that can provide more information
about it
- this includes: scales, tests, questionnaires, less important tables, excerpts from
interviews, samples of raw data, etc.
 Chapter 9: Using sources in academic writing

- functions of references:
- helps with finding the discussed material
- provides evidence for the writers claims
- draws attention to little-known works
- shows respect
- mutual grooming (collegues and friends citing the works of each other)
- forms of references: quotation, summary or paraphrasing
- plagarism:
- when it is not explicitly stated that the information does not belong to the author
- self-plagarism: referencing or reusing ones own work without proper credit
- acts of plagarism at a university:
- collusion: unauthorised collaboration between students, resulting in (nearly)
identical work
- falsification: content (e.g. statistics) is falsely presented
- replication: submission of the same or a very similar work multiple times for
academic credit
- taking unauthorized notes to an exam (isnt this just plain old cheating
though?)
- getting an unauthorised copy of an exam paper (oh boy here we go)
- communication during exam between students (includes Morse code and
sign language)
- going to an exam instead of somebody else (ah, the urban legends)
- forms of plagarism:
- outright copying: word-for-word, copy-pasting
- paraphrase plagiarism: the words are changed but the content and order stays
the same
- patchwork plagiarism: chunks of the original text are copied but linked with
own words
- stealing an apt term: a chunk from the original text is lifted and used without
quotation marks and indicating the source
- reasons for plagarism:
- course-related: desire to achieve better results, inability to finish the course,
lack of interest
- study skills: lack of skills or time
- awareness: not knowing or understanding the rules of plagarism or not
recognising it
- attitude to work: laziness
- conscious decision (paraphrasing): not rewording the original text out of
respect
- miscellaneous: thinking that the teacher does not care about plagarism
- documentation systems:
- APA, MLA, ASCE, MHRA all have different systems for referencing borrowed
information
- in-text name referencing: e.g. (Tank, 2011)
- Harvard, MLA, APA
- sources at the end of the text
- in-text numerical referencing:
 - running-notes style:
- used by e.g. MHRA
- references in footnotes (bottom of the page) or endnotes (end of text)
- numeric style
- used by e.g. Vancouver referencing system
- list of references at the end of the paper (how is this different from the
last one?)
- quotation, paraphrase, summary
- quotation:
- quotation marks if less than 40 words, block quotes otherwise (examples on
p.116)
- citing source, full reference in the reference section
- paraphrase:
- rewriting all the ideas from the original text in ones own words
- citing source, full reference in the reference section
- summary:
- restating the main ideas of the source text in ones own words
- citing source, full reference in the reference section
- note-taking and using special software can also help with avoiding plagarism

Chapter 10: Summary writing

- summary: - the extraction and restating of information

- types:
- complete source text or guided summaries
- both types are question-driven
- complete: What are the main ideas and supporting details in the text?
- guided: What are the main ideas and supp. details in the text, related to topic
X?
- writer-based summary: e.g. notes from a lecture, annotated bibliography
- reader-based summaries: e.g. summaries of research studies, papers, textbooks (lol
who does that?)
- text summarisation rules
- deletion: removalof trivial, redundant and irrelevant information
- generalisation: information in a list is collapsed into a superordinate term
- construction: several pieces of information combined into a global one
- (examples on pages 120-121)
- these must be done in this specific order: construction, generalisation, deletion
- a signal phrase must be used to introduce the summary (e.g. According to the
findings of X, (...))
- reference at the end of the summary

Chapter 11: Punctuation and sentence-level errors

- (punctuation guide on p.129-131, although this should not be an issue at this point)
- sentence-level errors:
- sentence fragments: incomplete, (e.g. missing a subject or a predicate)
- run-on sentences: several independent clauses are joined
- fused sentences: without any punctuation mark or coordinating conjunction
- comma splices: with a comma, without any coordinating conjunction
 - modifier errors
- misplaced modifier: it is in the wrong position
- dangling modifier: the phrase is not present, only the modifier
- faulty parallelism: separate parts of the sentence should be parallel (e.g. matching
nouns, verbs, phrases) but they are not
- sentence sprawl: overuse of equally weighted phrases