Concrete Solutions Grantham et al.

(Eds)
2014 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02708-4

Evaluation and repair of fire damage to the concrete structures

of a high-rise building

Chuanming Zhai
C+E Center for Engineering Research Test and Appraisal, Beijing, China

Yu Lou
China Electronics Engineering Design Institute, Beijing, China

Yufei Guo
C+E Center for Engineering Research Test and Appraisal, Beijing, China

Yan Lu
School of Civil Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China

ABSTRACT: Structural fire design and fire prevention management face new challenges as more high-rise
buildings are constructed. The evaluation of fire damage to such structures can help formulate efficient structural
fire design and fire prevention management. The procedure for evaluating fire damage to concrete structures was
discussed using a burnt high-rise building as an example. Such procedures included an emergency investigation
of the fire site, an estimation of fire temperature, the initial division of floors and areas based on the visual damage
they showed and the inspection of burnt structural members. The concrete structures were evaluated according
to the degree of fire damage they received as well as their characteristics. Lastly, rehabilitation. measures for the
concrete structures were proposed based on fire damage grades.

1 INTRODUCTION 29-05:2007; EN 1992-1-2:2004). Several Chinese

Numerous high-rise buildings were constructed in
China during the past decade as a result of the rapid
development of the economy of the country. A number
of these structures even became landmarks in several
large and medium-sized cities. These buildings devel-
oped higher chances of catching fire because of their
complex structural designs and large space utiliza-
tion. Moreover, the scale, damage, and economic loss
caused by fires in high-rise buildings are more serious
than those observed in ordinary buildings. For exam-
ple, the 9/11 attacks on the North and South Towers
of the World Trade Center in the United States (which
both had more than 100 floors) caused huge explosions
and fires which led to the meltdown and collapse of
the two buildings. This event resulted in a significant
number of casualties, tremendous property losses, and
adverse social impact.
Several research institutions abroad have studied
fire resistance of building structures over the past
years. These studies mainly focused on the devel-
opment process of fires in buildings, the structural
behavior of elements in fires, structural fire design
methods, and evaluating fire damage to structures
(Fan & Lv 1999; Li G. et al. 2008). A number of
corresponding standards and codes were published
along with these studies (GB 50016:2012; ASCE
researchers also made remarkable achievements in
designing fire-resistant structures. Among them are
Li (Li G. et al. 2006), who summarized the calculation
methods for fire-resistant designs of steel and steel
concrete composite structures; and Han (Han et al.
2012), who systematically introduced the principles
for fire-resistant designs of steelconcrete compos-
ite structures in terms of fire-resistant performance,
design methods, and protection measures. The level of
structural fire protection has significantly improved
in recent years because of the rapid development
of computer simulation technologies and the gradual
advancement of structural fire design methods.
However, the current theoretical system for inspect-
ing and evaluating fire damage in building structures
remains imperfect. An explicit standard for selecting
an evaluation index and for developing an evalua-
tion system for structural damage caused by fires is
still not available despite the recent advancements in
fire damage inspection techniques and methods. Most
existing evaluation methods are qualitative instead
of quantitative (Li M., 2005). A number of newly
developed mathematical models have been recently
adopted to establish an evaluation system for fire dam-
age to concrete structures. Li (Li M. et al. 2008)
proposed a comprehensive evaluation model for fire
damage to high-concrete structures based on fuzzy

485
 mathematics, which considered strength loss, durabil-
ity damage, spalling degree, and crack width as evalu-
ation indicators. Fang (Fang et al. 2010) established
a fire damage evaluation model for concrete struc-
tures using the projection pursuit evaluation method
and a genetic algorithm, with evaluation indicators
based on the model proposed by Li (Li M. et al. 2008).
Wang (Wang et al. 2008) considered strength loss, anti-
permeability loss, spalling degree, and crack width as
evaluation indicators; in addition, Wang established
the matter element evaluation model for burnt con-
crete structures. Although the aforementioned studies
contribute to the development of an evaluation theory
for burnt concrete structures, such quantitative meth-
ods exhibit several disadvantages, which are described Figure 1. The south side of the high-rise building.
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as follows. First, the fixed values of the evaluation

indexes for the entire structure are difficult to deter-
mine. Second, the weight of the evaluation indexes and
the classification criteria for structural damage grades
are influenced by human factors. Therefore, qualita-
tive and empirical methods are primarily used in the
actual evaluation of structural damage, and quantita-
tive calculation methods serve as supplements. The
evaluation of fire damage to concrete structures of a
high-rise building presented in this paper can serve as
a guide in inspecting burnt concrete structures.
2 OVERVIEW OF THE HIGH-RISE BUILDING
AND THE FIRE INCIDENT
A high-rise building, constructed in 2004, is located
in the Beijing central business district. The building is
159.68 m high, and its architectural area is 103,648 m2 .
It has 30 floors and 2 additional underground floors.
The building (Figure 1) consists of a main building and
a skirt building. The main building uses a frame shear
wall system composed of a huge steel-support cross-
hybrid structure which is divided into the north and
south wings. Both wings are connected by a cylindri-
cal shear wall to the east side, thus forming an atrium.
The huge steel-support cross-hybrid structure is placed
at the west side. The skirt building has reinforced
concrete structures. The entire roofs of the main and
skirt buildings are covered with large-span steel struc-
tures, and thus, the space underneath them becomes
the indoor environment. The outer decoration of the
curtain wall of the building comprises titanium zinc
plates, glass, and composite aluminum plates.
In February 2009, the building caught fire after
its main structure was completed. The fire spread
to 21,333 m2 of the building, and the total burned
area was 8,490 m2 . The fire lasted for approximately
six hours. It was caused by high-temperature fire-
work sparks which ignited the combustible materials
on the roof of the main building. The fire rapidly
spread to the outer wall decoration and to the lower
floors. This particular fire incident demonstrated sev-
eral characteristics. First, the high-rise building had
special structures, such as its large scale, complex lay-
out, and multiple tortuous internal channels. Second,
the curtain wall of the building was decorated with
special materials, such as the glass curtain walls in
the north and south, and the titanium zinc plates in
the east and west. The melting point of titanium zinc
plates is 418 C. Moreover, the inner parts of the plates
were made of extruded sheets and ethylene propylene
diene monomer rubber, which are flammable, ther-
mally insulated, and waterproof materials. The fire
melted the titanium zinc plates and ignited the mate-
rials beneath them, which produced huge amounts of
toxic fumes. Third, the fire spread in an unusual direc-
tion. The fire was ignited at the top-middle part of
the main building near the west. The combustion of
the burning materials of the curtain wall decoration
spread the fire in a vertical direction, thus causing it
to spread rapidly and in a reverse manner (from top to
bottom and from outside to inside). Given these char-
acteristics, this fire incident was classified as rare in
the history of the nation.
3 PROCEDURE FOR INSPECTION AND
EVALUATION OF FIRE DAMAGE TO
CONCRETE STRUCTURES
The flowchart of the inspection and evaluation proce-
dure for the burnt concrete structures of the aforeme-
tioned high-rise building is shown in Figure 2.
Several professionals conducted an emergency
investigation and damaged zone division of the high-
rise building after the fire incident. Their main objec-
tives were as follows.
(1) Investigating the site. Each floor and room in the
building was investigated, and all zones were doc-
umented through photographs and videos. Fire
damage to the structures and decorations of the
building were observed. The burned range, burned
area, fire extinguishing materials, fuel types, and
their placements were ascertained. The danger
zones with falling debris were marked. The burned
local zone of the building is shown in Figure 3.
(2) Determining the temperature of the fire. The
duration of the fire was different in each floor,
room, and structural component of the high-rise
building. Therefore, the possible maximum tem-
perature and the duration of the fire could be

486
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Figure 3. The damaged structures inside the building after

the fire incident. a. The steel bars of the concrete roof slab
were exposed. b. Cracks and map cracks were formed on the
surface of the column. c. The concrete walls were spalled. d.
The elevator doors were severely deformed.

Table 1. The characteristics of each zone based on the

degree of damage.
Figure 2. The inspection and evaluation procedure for the Zone Zone characteristics
fire damage to the concrete structural components. division

comprehensively analyzed and determined based
on apparent damage (surface color, cracking
and spalling), field-combustible residues, and the
standard temperaturetime curve set by the Inter-
national Standardization Organization (ISO). The
ISO 834 curve (ISO 843:2002), which is used
frequently in China, is represented as follows:
where T ( C) is the average furnace air temperature
at t minutes after the fire, and T0 ( C) is the initial
temperature in the testing furnace.
3.1 Fire site emergency investigation and damaged
zone division
The maximum temperature of the fire was at approxi-
mately 1200 C, which was calculated based on Eq. (1).
(3) Dividing the building zones according to the
degree of damage. The zones of each floor in
the building were divided into three levels, which
were preliminarily based on the results of the
emergency investigation, the fire damage to the
inner structures, and the maximum temperature of
the fire. The primary characteristics of each level
Undamaged The concrete structures were not damaged by
zone the fire, and only the exterior of local walls
(Zone A) fell off. The surface of the structural
components was blackened or had no
obvious indicator of burns. The maximum
temperature reached less than 300 C.
Slightly The structures around the elevator were not
damaged damaged by the fire. Spalled concrete covers
zone were only observed on local walls. The steel
(Zone B) bars were slightly exposed. The concrete had
a pink color, and the maximum temperature
ranged from 300 C to 600 C.
Seriously Fire damage near the elevator was serious,
damaged and the elevator doors were severely deformed
zone (Fig. 3.d). Cracks were observed on the slab
(Zone C) bottom and beam surface, and the steel bars
in a large area of the concrete roof slab were
exposed. The concrete cover of wall spalled,
and the masonry burned down. The color of
the concrete ranged from whitish gray to light
yellow. The maximum temperature reached
more than 600 C.
are shown in Table 1. The division according to the
degree of damage is shown in Figure 4, with the
10th floor (where the cylindrical shear wall was
located) as the main zone.

487

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Figure 4. The main zone division of the 10th floor according
to the degree of damage.
The preliminary division of the damaged areas was
finished after the emergency investigation. The seri-
ously damaged zones were found to be the floors above
the 9th floor because the water cannons could only
reach a height of approximately 55 m, which was
located near the 9th floor of the building. This situ-
ation caused the fire to spread to the substructures of
the building. Based on the results of the fire site emer-
gency investigation and the preliminary fire damage
evaluation, a conclusion was made that the main struc-
tures of the building were lightly damaged by the fire,
but some of its local structures were seriously dam-
aged. The state of the building after the fire posed no
danger of overall collapse, but risks of falling objects
were present in several local areas. Therefore, relevant
precautions were recommended.
3.2 Inspection of structural components
The inspection plan was developed based on the dam-
age assessment for each floor. The plan could be
roughly divided into two parts: (1) the inspection
of concrete strength and damage depth, and (2) the
inspection of steel bars and the calculation of struc-
tural components. The lightly damaged zone (zone B)
and the seriously damaged zone (zone C) were the
main focus of the inspection.
3.2.1 Inspection of concrete strength and damage
depth
Concrete structure appearance, concrete strength, and
damage depth were inspected using the aforemen-
tioned plan.The loss of concrete strength was primarily
influenced by factors such as temperature during
heating, method of cooling, and duration of stor-
age after the fire. Water cooling may further reduce
the compressive strength of the concrete by 30% to
35% (Annerel & Taerwe 2012). The loss of concrete
strength can be measured according to the maxi-
mum temperature reached by its surface. However,
loss of concrete strength is extremely difficult to
488
determine accurately by merely observing change in
color because the interior and exterior of the con-
crete can reach different maximum temperature levels.
Therefore, the use of devices and tests to measure con-
crete strength, rather than a simple observation of its
appearance, is necessary. The rebound method and the
drilling core sampling method were used in this study
to determine concrete residual strength.
The inspection results show that the main struc-
tural components (beams, plates, columns, and walls)
exhibited discoloration, crazing, cracking, and hollow-
ing in different degrees; moreover, a few of these com-
ponents demonstrated concrete spalling and reinforce-
ment damage (Fig. 3.a). The strength of all undamaged
concrete structural components satisfied the original
design requirements, and the surface strength of the
damaged structures was reduced to different degrees.
The strength loss ratio of the seriously damaged struc-
tural components was between 13.8% and 31.1%. The
damage depth of all burnt concrete structural compo-
nents was between 5 mm and 100 mm, although in a
few of them, damage was beyond the thickness of their
protective cover.
The rebound hammer test combined with core sam-
pling test were used to test the concrete strength for
most burnt structural members of the building. And
the test results for the components of the 10th floor
show in Table 2 and Table 3. For this building, the con-
crete type of shear wall and column were C60 while
the one of floor slab was C40 (according to Chinese
code GB 50010:2010). The rebound hammer test was
refer to Chinese code JGJ/T 23:2011, which provides
the empirical value of concrete strength obtained from
rebound hammer test.
3.2.2 Inspection of steel bars and calculation of
structural components
The reinforcement of the structural components, the
mechanical properties of the steel bars, the size of
each section, and the deformation of the structures
were inspected using the aforementioned plan. The
strength of the steel bars was reduced after the concrete
structures were exposed to the fire. The bond strength
between concrete and steel also declined because of
the differences in their expansion coefficients, which
resulted in poor performance of the overall structure.
Several inspection methods were adopted to determine
the strength loss of the steel bars and the changes
in bond strength and section size after the fire. A
magnetic induction device was used to examine the
structural reinforcement. The steel bars were sampled
in the spalled and exposed zones, and a mechanical test
was performed on the samples. The effect of the fire
on the mechanical properties of the steel bars was also
analyzed. A measuring tape was used to determine the
dimension errors of the section size.
The results of the inspection showed that the num-
ber of beams, plates, columns, and walls in the main
building satisfied the original design requirements.
Moreover, the mechanical properties of the steel bars
in the burnt zone satisfied the corresponding national
 Table 2. The rebound hammer test result of concrete struc- Table 3. The core sampling test result of concrete structural
tural components in the 10th floor. components in the 10th floor.

Calculated Structural Strength

strength (MPa)
Empirical NO. type Condition (MPa)
Structural value
NO. type AVE STDEV Min (MPa) 16-17-4/G2-5/G2 floor slab burnt 57.1
1/14-1/15-5/G2-2/H2 floor slab burnt 48.2
12-13/E2-2.1/E2 floor slab 47.5 0.47 46.9 46.7 1/15-1/G2-4/G2 shear wall burnt 57
15-16/E2-3.2/E2 floor slab 48 0.92 46.2 46.5 (outward)
11-12-1/D2-1.6/D2 floor slab 47.2 0.87 45.4 45.8 1/15-3/F2-0/G2 shear wall burnt 64.6
1/15-16-0/G2-1/G2 floor slab 48.9 0.92 48.1 47.4
(outward)
1/15-16-4/G2-5/G2 floor slab 49.4 0.91 48 47.9
17-18-3/F2 shear wall burnt 57.5
1/16-17-4/G2-5/G2 floor slab 42.9 1.09 40.1 41.1
17-18-2/H2 shear wall 65.5 0.65 64.8 64.4 (outward)
1/14-2/H2-5/G2 wall 65.1 1 63.3 63.5 1/15-1/G2-4/G2 shear wall unburnt 61.1
1/15-3/G2-4/G2 wall 66.4 0.52 65.6 65.5 (inner)
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16-1/16-3/F2 wall 65.3 0.51 64.6 64.5 1/15-3/F2-0/G2 shear wall unburnt 72.4
3/F2-0/G2-1/15 wall 66.7 0.44 65.4 66 (inner)
15-3/H2 column 66 1.69 63.6 63.2 17-18-3/F3 shear wall unburnt 58.2
13-3/H2 column 66 2.26 62.5 62.3 (inner)
11-3/H2 column 67.9 2.2 65.2 64.3 17-18-3/H2 shear wall burnt 68
15-3/E2 column 64.9 1.62 62.5 62.2 17-18-3/H2 shear wall unburnt 82
12-3/H2 column 64 1.42 62 61.7 16-3/H2 column burnt 71.8
12-13-2.1/E2 beam 46.6 1.16 44.1 44.7 13-3/H2 column burnt 65.3
16-1.3/E2-3/F2 beam 46.5 0.7 44.8 45.3 16-3/H2 column unburnt 82.2
11-1/D2-1.6/D2 beam 52.3 2.56 48.7 48.1
12-1.1/E2-2.1/E2 beam 45.9 3.12 42.9 40.8
17-3.2/E2-2/F2 beam 47.6 1.03 46 45.9
16-17-2/F2 beam 47.3 1.4 44.5 45
experiences, and project-specific conditions should be
combined to evaluate damage in burnt buildings. Four
fire damage grades are determined to evaluate dam-
standard in China (GB 50010:2010). The fire had no age on concrete structural components. The evaluation
significant effect on the mechanical properties of the criteria for each damage grade are described in Table 4.
steel bars in the concrete structures and its effect on The concrete structural components in the burnt
the mechanical properties of the steel bars in other high-rise building were evaluated and graded based
structural components was not serious. The section on the criteria described in Table 4. Based on the eval-
size of the inspected structural components satisfied uation results, no grade IV damage on the concrete
design requirements; however, the deflections of sev- structural components in all floors of the building
eral structural components exceeded the maximum was observed. The 1st, 3rd, 4th, 6th, 26Eth, and 28th
allowable value in the Chinese national standard (GB floors both suffered slight fire damage, and the high-
50010:2010). est grade of fire damage to their structural components
was grade I. The 19th, 20nd, 24th, and 26Ath floors
both suffered medium fire damage, the highest grade
3.2.3 Evaluation of fire damage to structural of their structural components was II. The 2nd, 5th,
components 7th to 13th, 15th, 17th, 26Dth, and 27th floors both
The Shanghai City standard DBJ 08-291 (DBJ 08- suffered more serious fire damage, and the damage
291:1996) and the national technology standard CECS grades of structural components reached III.
252 (CECS 252:2009) are used in China for evalu-
ating fire damage to concrete structures. The former
classifies fire damage to concrete structural compo-
4 SUGGESTIONS FOR REPAIRING AND
nents into four grades primarily based on three aspects,
REINFORCING DAMAGED CONCRETE
namely, structural bearing capacity, cracks, and defor-
STRUCTURES
mation. The latter provides a more comprehensive
evaluation criteria based on concrete appearance,
The following measures are recommended for repair-
strength loss, cracks, bond strength between the con-
ing and reinforcing damaged structures:
crete and the steel bars, deformation, and other factors.
Both standards are divided into four grades. Several (1) For slightly damaged structural components
Chinese researchers also proposed their own evalu- (grade I), the dirt on the surface and the burnt paint
ation criteria for assessing fire damage to concrete layers should be cleaned first before the structures
structures based on different projects and experiences could be redecorated and repainted.
(Yuan 1997; Min 2000; Zhai et al. 2009; Guo & (2) For structural components with medium damage
Shi 2011). However, current evaluation criteria are (grade II), the depths of damage and spalling are
mostly qualitative, and usually serve as guides in prac- less than the thickness of the protective layer of the
tical applications. Therefore, current standards, expert concrete, and no steel bar is exposed. Therefore,

489
 Table 4. Fire damage grades and their evaluation criteria for
concrete structural components.
Grade Evaluation criteria
I (Slight) The structural components have no obvious
damage. The color of the concrete surface
is either unchanged or is merely blackened
by smoke. Loss of concrete strength is not
apparent. The maximum temperature
reaches less than 300 C.
II (Medium) The structural components are slightly
damaged. The color of the concrete
surface ranges from pink to rusty red.
Cracking and spalling occur on the local
surface of the structural components.
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Loss of concrete strength is slight. None of
the reinforcing bars are exposed, and the
damage depth is less than 20 mm. The bond
strength between the concrete and the steel
bars is slightly damaged. The maximum
temperature ranges from 300 C to 600 C.
III (Serious) The structural components are obviously
damaged. The color of the concrete surface
ranges from white to grey. The structural
components have numerous cracks. Loss of
concrete strength is considerable. The steel
bars are exposed in the local area, and the
damage depth is greater than 20 mm.
The bond strength between the concrete
and the steel bars is seriously damaged.
The maximum temperature ranges from
600 C to 900 C.
IV (Extreme) The structural components are seriously
damaged. The color of the concrete surface
is light yellow. The structural components
have numerous wide cracks in the vertical
and horizontal directions. Loss of concrete
strength is serious. The reinforcing bars are
exposed in most areas, and the concrete
covers have spalled off. The bond strength
between the concrete and the steel bars is
seriously damaged, and several steel bars are
burned down or distorted. The maximum
temperature reaches more than 900 C.
only the concrete cover needs to be repaired. How-
ever, loose, burnt concrete should be cleaned first
and cracks in the structural components should be
covered with better-quality concrete before repairs
begin. The reinforcing bars should be rustproofed.
(3) For seriously damaged structural components
(grade III), the increasing section method can
be used to make repairs. The damaged concrete
should be completely cleaned, and additional steel
bars should be welded and anchored into a struc-
ture. Better-quality concrete should be used to
repair the structure.
5 CONCLUSIONS
A procedure for inspecting and evaluating fire dam-
age to concrete structures is proposed based on the
case of a high-rise building in Beijing which caught
fire in 2009. The procedure can be summarized as
follows: emergency investigation of a fire site, deter-
mination of maximum temperature reached, division
of fire-damaged zones, inspection of concrete struc-
tural components, and comprehensive evaluation of
these components. A scientific and reasonable pro-
cedure for inspecting and evaluating fire damage to
structures is generally more useful than a qualitative
approach
Such a procedure enables accurate determination
of the degree of damage to structural components,
and consequently, proposes economical and reliable
repair and reinforcement measures. A scientific and
reasonable procedure also provides more efficient fire-
resistant structure designs developed based on prior
experiences with fire incidents. Given that no perfect
procedure or standard for inspecting and evaluating
fire damage to structures is yet available, existing
methods are frequently combined, whether external
or internal, qualitative or quantitative, or technology-
or experience-based. However, the results of these
methods are usually affected by subjective factors
which may vary to a certain extent. Therefore, research
on indicators and criteria for evaluating fire dam-
age should be strengthened. Moreover, the theoretical
system for inspecting and evaluating fire damage to
concrete structures should be improved further.
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