Major Crops - Prelims - 16-07-12 - Single Column

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This notes on Indian Agriculture Major Crops is only for Prelims (Compiled from Prelims
point of view. This notes should be sufficient for Prelims).
This notes doesnt include any maps.
Complete Notes on Indian Agriculture [GS 1 Geography (Factors determining the location of
primary, secondary and tertiary industries related to agriculture) + GS 3 (Major Crops till Page
Land Reforms)] with maps will be given soon after the prelims 2016 (Notes making is in
|1
progress).
Indian Agriculture Major Crops will be a cake walk if you have understood
Climatology, Climatic Regions and Indian Climatology well. (All included in my Geography
Notes. You can get them here:
http://imojo.in/7yhtnv or
http://imojo.in/9yjgmx or
http://www.pmfias.com/product/geography-notes-pdf-upsc-ias/ - includes both PDF and

MS Word)
It can still be managed without the knowledge of Indian Climatology. But it will take a bit
longer to understand.
Green revolution, Bringing Green Revolution in Eastern India (BGREI), Sustainable

Agriculture, Organic Farming and Biofertilizers are already included in my Environment
Notes. You can get them here:
http://imojo.in/2vppbb or
http://imojo.in/2vppbb or
http://www.pmfias.com/product/environment-notes-pdf-upsc-ias/ includes both PDF and

MS Word)
How to approach this notes
All points important for prelims are Bolded (Highlighted).

Read only the lines containing Bolded (Highlighted) phrases or words.
If you are unable to grasp only by reading lines containing Bolded (Highlighted)
phrases or words, then read the whole text.
Dont try to by heart or remember, try to understand the concept, it will stick in your
mind for long for sure.
Dont rush, because half knowledge is more dangerous than no knowledge,
especially in prelims where there is negative marking.
Read 1 hour a day for 4-5 days. 5 hours + 1 hour revision should do the job.
Answer previous prelims questions + practice questions from this section after
revision.
This part is a low-cost High-Benefit section for prelims. So dont ignore.
Notes: https://www.instamojo.com/poormansfriend/
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Cropping Pattern
Different crops grown in an area at a particular point of time is called cropping
pattern.
Cropping pattern depends on climate (temperature, rainfall, wind etc.), soil, support Page
price, value, demand - market, labor availability, historical setting, etc. |2
Climate: Rice is cultivated extensively when the monsoons are good. But when
monsoons are weak, millets are grown instead of rice.
Cotton in Maharashtra, tea in Assam and jute in West Bengal remain the dominant
crops due to highly favorable conditions for cultivation.
Soil: Regur soils are ideal for cotton cultivation. Cotton is the obvious choice in such
soils when the climate is favorable.
Minimum Support Price (MSP): Rice and wheat which are offered MSP are preferred by
farmers.
Value: Millets in the hilly areas of HP and Uttarakhand are replaced by high value
horticulture crops like apple.
Demand: Rice is the preferred crop in the densely populated regions as there is a ready
market.
Historical setting: Sugarcane is grown more extensively in North India even though
the conditions are most favorable in South India.
This is because the sugarcane cultivation was encouraged by British as an alternative
to indigo which lost its significance and market in states like Uttar Pradesh due to
introduction of artificial dyes.
Diversification of crops due to surplus food grain production post Green Revolution
has led to significant changes in cropping pattern.
Other than rice and wheat, oilseeds and pulses also became more prominent.
Crop diversification in certain regions has been negligible. E.g.
1. Rice dominates in well irrigated parts of south India.
2. Wheat dominates north-western part of the country.
Coarse grains like jowar, bajra, maize, barley, ragi etc. are given comparatively less
importance in these regions.
Factors affecting cropping pattern

Geographical Factors: relief, soil, temperature and rainfall.
Economic Factors: Irrigation, power, size of land holdings, sale price of crops, income
of farmers, insurance and investment etc.
Political Factors/Government Policies: Government can encourage or discourage
certain crops due to various reasons like drought, flood, inflation etc.
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Relief |3
Rice is the main crop on the irrigated hill terraces (terraced cultivation).
Crops like tea and coffee can be grown only on well drained slopes that receive good
amount of rainfall.
Rice (tropical crop) and sugarcane dominates well irrigated regions with fairly warm
climate.
Wheat (temperate crop) grows well in plain regions with moderate temperature and
rainfall.
Temperature
Most crops require lower temperature at the time of sowing and higher temperature at
the time of ripening.
Some crops require higher temperature and are sown in the summer season. Most
of the growth period falls under the rainy season. These are known as kharif crops
(rice, cotton, etc.). [They are sown just before the burst of south-west monsoons]
There are other crops which require lower temperature and moisture and are sown
in the winter season (wheat). These are known as rabi crops.
Sugarcane gives good yield in south India than in northern plains. They need warm
climates.
Rainfall
Areas of Heavy Rainfall
More than 150 cm of annual rainfall.

East India and the west coastal plains.
Animal population is fairly high due to availability of fodder and grazing area.
Rice, tea, coffee, sugarcane, jute etc.
Areas of Medium Rainfall
75 to 150 cm.
150 cm annual rainfall isohyets are suitable for the cultivation of rice.
75 cm annual rainfall isohyets are suitable for maize, cotton and soyabean.
These areas are rich in natural resources. E.g. Eastern part of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Odisha, eastern parts of Madhya Pradesh and Vidarbha region of Maharashtra.
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Wheat is the principal rabi crop.
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Millets are the natural priority.
Wheat, maize, cotton, soyabean, millets, etc.
Areas of Low Rainfall
25 to 75 cm (Semi-arid stretches of India).

Major crops in this belt are
1. millets, jowar, and bajra in the northern,
2. jowar in central and
3. ragi in the southern part.
Wheat is the main rabi crop which is grown in irrigated areas.
Mixed cropping is very common in which pulses are mixed with cereals.
Cropping has been developed in such a way that no one crop dominates.
Millets, oilseeds (Groundnut, sunflower, rapeseed and mustard etc.), pulses etc.
Soil
Rice is mainly grown in clayey soils while loamy soils are best for wheat.
The regur soil of the Deccan Plateau is ideal for cultivation of cotton.
Coarse grains such as jowar, bajra, maize, ragi, barley etc. are grown in inferior soils
(light sandy soils, light black soils, red and laterite soils etc.)
Delta soils of West Bengal are renewed by floods every year and are very fertile. They
are ideal for jute cultivation. The farmers grow 2-3 crops in a year.
Soils of the Darjeeling hills contain sufficient quantities of humus, iron, potash and
phosphorus which are necessary for tea bush to grow.
Irrigation
Rice is a dominant crop in regions with reliable irrigation and warm climate (coastal
plains and irrigated belts of south India).
North Indian plain regions are well irrigated and support 2-3 crops of rice a year.
Size of Land Holdings
In case of small holdings, the priority of the farmers would be to grow food grains for
his family members (subsistence farming).
Farmers with large holdings can opt for cash crops and help in crop diversification,
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leading to changes in the cropping pattern (commercial farming).
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But in spite of crop diversification potential, large holdings are used mostly for
monoculture of rice, wheat etc.
Major Crops of India

Cropping patterns can be better understood by studying about major crops of India.
Indian Geography, types of soils in India and Indian climatology forms the foundation
for understanding cropping pattern and major crops of India.
Crop Classification
Crop Classification based on the type of produce
Food Crops Rice, wheat, maize, millets jowar, bajra, ragi; pulses gram, tur (arhar) etc.
(cereals grass like plants with starchy edible seeds having high nutritional
value)
Cash Crops Cotton, jute, sugarcane, tobacco, oilseeds, groundnut, linseed, sesamum, castor seed,
rapeseed, mustard, etc.
Plantation Crops Tea, coffee, coconut, arecanut, rubber and spices cardamom, chillies, ginger,
turmeric etc.
Horticulture Vegetables Onion, tomato, etc; and fruits Apple, Orange, Mango, banana, citrus
fruits, etc..
Crop Classification based on climate
Tropical Temperate
Crops grow well in warm & hot climate Crops grow well in cool climate
E.g. Rice, sugarcane, Jowar etc. E.g. Wheat, Oats, Gram, Potato, apple etc.
Classification Based on growing season
Kharif/Rainy/Monsoon crops Rabi/winter/cold seasons crops Summer/Zaid crops

The crops grown in monsoon months The crops grown in winter season Crops grown in summer
Sown before monsoon and harvested Sown before retreating monsoon and Sown and harvested in
at the end of the monsoon harvested before summer. summer
June to Oct-Nov Oct to March March to June
Require warm, wet weather at major Crops grow well in cold and dry Require warm dry weather for
period of crop growth weather major growth period

E.g. Cotton, Rice, Jowar, Bajara E.g. Wheat, gram, sunflower etc. E.g. Groundnuts,
etc. Watermelon, Pumpkins,
Gourds etc.
The kharif crops include rice, maize, sorghum, pearl millet/bajra, finger millet/ragi Page
(cereals), arhar (pulses), soyabean, groundnut (oilseeds), cotton etc. |6
The rabi crops include wheat, barley, oats (cereals), chickpea/gram (pulses), linseed,
mustard (oilseeds) etc.
Source: http://goo.gl/dmLRUz
Cereals
Rice, wheat, maize, barley, rye and oats.
Millets
These are staple food of poor people.
Major millets
Sorghum or Jowar, Pearl Millet or Bajra and Finger millet or ragi
Minor millets
Fox tail millet, Little millet, Common millet, Barnyard millet etc.
Pulses or Legumes
Pulses are major source of protein.

Red gram, Black gram, Green gram, Cowpea, Bengalgram, Horsegram, Dewgram,
Soyabean, Peas or gardenpea, Garden bean etc.
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Oil Seed Crops
Groundnut or peanut, sesamum, sunflower, castor, linseed, rapeseed & mustard etc.
Sugar Crops
Sugarcane and sugar beet.
Sugarcane
Byproducts of Sugar Industry
Molasses, bagasse and pressmud.

Molasses used for alcohol and yeast formation.
Bagasse for paper making and fuel.
Pressmud used as soil amendment.
Trash (green leaf + dry foliage) the waste is used for cattle feed.
Sugar beet
Sugar beet is grown in temperate region.
It is a tuber crop (Tubers are enlarged structures in some plant species used as storage
organs for nutrients - carrot, radish, potato are tuber crops). Sugar is extracted from
the tuber juice.
Sugar content in sugar beet is quite low compared to that in sugarcane.
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It is grown in temperate region where it can be economical compared to sugar imports.
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With reference to the usefulness of the by-products of sugar industry, which of the
following statements is/are correct?
1. Bagasse can be used as biomass fuel for the generation of energy.

2. Molasses can be used as one of the feedstocks for the production of synthetic
chemical fertilizers.
3. Molasses can be used for the production of ethanol.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Ethanol is alcohol.
Answer: c) 1 and 3 only
Starch Crops or Tuber Crops
Potato, cassava, sweet potato, raddish etc.
Fiber crops
Cotton; Stem fiber: Jute, mesta, sun hemp, sisal hemp etc.
Narcotics - Stimulates Nervous System
Tobacco, opium, betelvine and arecanut.
Plantation Crops
Tea leaf, Coffee seed, rubber (Ficus elastica) latex, cocoa seed, palm oil,
sugarcane, coconut etc.
Spices
Ginger, garlic, chili, cumin onion, coriander, cardamom, pepper, turmeric etc.
Classification based on life of crops/duration of crops

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Seasonal crops: A crop completes its life cycle in one season (3-4 months). E.g. rice, | 9
Jowar, wheat etc.
Two seasonal crops: Crops complete its life cycle in two seasons (6-8 months). E.g.
Cotton, turmeric, ginger.
Annual crops: Crops require one full year to complete its life cycle. E.g. sugarcane.
Biennial crops: Crops requires two year to complete its life cycle E.g. Banana, Papaya.
Perennial crops: crops live for several years. E.g. Fruit crops, mango, guava etc.
Classification based on water availability
Rain fed: Cultivation of crop mainly based on the availability of rain water. E.g. Jowar,
Bajara, Mung etc.
Irrigated crops: Crops cultivated with the help of irrigation water. E.g. Chili, sugarcane,
Banana, papaya etc.
Classification based on length of photoperiod required for floral initiation
Photoperiodism: Most plants are influenced by relative length of the day & night,
especially for floral initiation.
Short-day plants: Flower initiation takes place when days are short less than ten hours.
E.g. rice, Jowar, green gram, black gram etc.
Long day's plants: require long days are more than ten hours for floral initiation. E.g.
Wheat, Barley, etc.
Day neutral plants: Photoperiod does not have much influence for phase change for
these plants. E.g. Cotton, sunflower, etc.
Major Food Crops of India

Rice
Preferred staple food in Southern and North-Eastern India.
Making quick inroads into North-Western Plain.
Rice growing areas are well suited for Mixed farming (Crops + Livestock).
(Dont get confused between mixed farming and mixed cropping).
Unpolished rice has high nutritional value. It is rich in Vitamin A, B and calcium.
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Polished rice lacks these vitamins.
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Crop Season
Rice is a kharif crop (wet and warm climate is ideal for rice cultivation).
It is grown only in well irrigated areas in rabi season.
Most of the rice growing regions lie barren during summer (April-May).
It can be grown as summer crop in deltaic regions where water and irrigation is available
through the year. E.g. Deltaic regions of West Bengal, Krishna-Godavari delta etc.
3 crop seasons rice is grown as kharif, rabi and summer crop. E.g. Deltaic
regions of West Bengal, Krishna-Godavari delta etc.
Three crop seasons (year round irrigation)

E.g. Deltaic regions of West Bengal, Krishna-Godavari delta, parts of UP, Bihar etc.
Crop season Sowing Harvesting
Kharif crop (Rainy season) May-June Aug-Sep
Rabi crop (Winter dry season) Sep-Oct Feb-Mar
Summer dry Mar-Apr Jun-Jul
Two crop seasons (irrigation not available in summer)
South India, Coastal plains, Assam plains, etc.
Kharif crop (Rainy season) July-Aug Oct-Nov
Rabi crop (Winter dry season) Dec-Jan Mar-Apr
Single crop season (rice not grown in dry summers and cold winters)
E.g. North Western states
Kharif crop July-Sep Nov
Rabi season is dominated by wheat.
Climatic Conditions for Growth
Rice crop needs plenty of heat, rain and labor.

It can be grown between 0 to 2,500 meters above sea level.
Rice cannot tolerate the cold climate that exists above 2,500 meters.
Tropical and kharif crop:
1. requires warm climate

Rice is grown almost throughout the year (2-3 crops) in hot and humid regions of
eastern and southern parts of India.
In the northern and hilly parts of the country, the winters are too cold for rice
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cultivation and only one crop is grown (in summer) in those areas.
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2. requires semi-aquatic conditions (rainfall or irrigation throughout the season; the
soil should never be dry during the growing season).
The fields must be flooded under 10-12 cm deep water at the time of sowing. This
requirement of rice makes it primarily a crop of plain areas.
Rice grown in well watered lowland plain areas is called wet or lowland rice.
Rice can be grown in areas just below sea level like in Kuttanad region of Kerala.
Terraced cultivation of rice in followed in sloped regions. E.g. Hills of NE states
(shifting cultivation or jhumming).
The supply of water to the hill terraces is low and the rice grown in hilly areas is
called dry or upland rice.
Average annual rainfall above 150 cm is good for the crop.
The 100 cm isohyet (imaginary line joining the points of equal rainfall) forms the limit
of rice in rainfed areas.
Rice is grown in Punjab, Haryana and western U.P (rainfall less than 100 cm) with the
help of intensive irrigation.
Soil condition for growth
Rice is a dominant crop of river valleys, flood plains, deltas and coastal plains (plains
can be easily flooded with the help of irrigation).
Loamy soils require frequent irrigation and more water as the water holding capacity is
low. E.g. Delta regions, Punjab, Haryana and North Indian plains.
Clayey soils on the other hand have good water holding capacity. E.g. Coastal plains
of south India, irrigated regions of Karnataka, Telangana etc.
Rice can tolerate acidic as well as alkaline soils.
Labor requirement
Rice cultivation is traditionally labor intensive.

Rice is primarily grown in areas of high population density (labor and ready market).
In Punjab and Haryana, rice cultivation mainly depends upon the migrant laborers
from Bihar and eastern U.P.
Methods of Rice Cultivation
Broadcasting method Page

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Seeds are sown (broadcast) by hand.
Practiced in
1. dry and/or less fertile soils, and
2. areas with labor shortages.
Easiest method requiring minimum input.
Yields are minimum.
Drilling method
One person ploughs the land and the other person sows the seeds.
Confined to dry regions of peninsular India.
Yields are low.
Transplantation method
Advanced method of rice cultivation in India.

Less scope for mechanization and is labor intensive.
Practiced in areas of fertile soil with abundant rainfall or irrigation.
Seeds are sown in nursery and seedlings are prepared.
After a month the seedlings are uprooted and transplanted to a different field.
This is a difficult method that requires heavy inputs.
But, it gives some of the highest yields.
Japanese method
Highly mechanized and most advanced rice cultivation.

Mostly followed in developed countries like Japan, South Korea etc.
Seedlings are transplanted in rows with the help of machines.
Weeding and fertilizing are fully mechanized.
Heavy dose of fertilizers are required.
Very high yields are obtained.
Production and productivity
India (18%) is the 2nd largest producer and consumer of rice in the world after China.
Low productivity: The average yield of rice in India is 2.3 tonne/ha as against the global
average of 4.374 tonne/ha. China (6.5), Australia (10), US (7.5) lead in productivity.
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Distribution | 13
Position +ve factors -ve factors
West Bengal 1st Large scale alluvial deposits Floods

Good water resources Yield is low
Abundant labor force
3 crops can be grown a year
Uttar Pradesh 2nd Same as above Same as above
Punjab 3rd full use of Green Revolution Land degradation
[traditionally wheat growing perennial irrigation water by salinity, alkalinity &
region.][Cropping pattern has canals and tube wells desertification
undergone an unprecedented HYV seeds and fertilizers Ground water depletion
change due to irrigation] Highest yield (3,989 Wheat dominates
kg/hectare)
Andhra Pradesh 4th Godavari-Krishna Delta and Cyclone prone area.
the adjoining coastal plains. Floods in delta regions
Full use of Green Revolution.
High yield (3,126 kg/hectare)

[Punjab (3,989 kg/ha) and
Haryana (3,262 kg/ha)].
The other major producers are Odisha, Bihar (2,258 kg/hectare), Chhattisgarh (low yield
- 1,749 kg/hectare), Assam (Brahmaputra valley), Tamil Nadu (Cauvery delta)(2,785
kg/hectare), Telangana, Haryana, Karnataka, Jharkhand, etc.
Trade
Domestic rice production meets the domestic demand. There is very little surplus for
external trade.
India now occupies second position in rice exports, next only to Thailand.
India is the biggest exporter of basmati rice.
Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh produce best qualities of Basmati rice.
Punjab, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh are surplus states.
They supply to deficit states West Bengal, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Kerala and Delhi.
Wheat
Second most important staple food for Indian population.
It is a rich source of calcium, thiamine, riboflavin and iron.
Preferred staple food in northern and north-western parts of the country. Page
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Climatic conditions for wheat
Wheat is a temperate crop which requires a cool climate with moderate rainfall.
It shows great adaptability & can be grown in tropics as well (yields are low in tropics).
It is a rabi crop (winter crop requires cool and less moist climate).
Regions Sowing months Harvesting months

1. Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and September-October January-February
West Bengal [central and southern (peninsular) agro climatic
regions]
2. Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan [North- October-November February-March
eastern plain and North-western plain agro climatic regions]
3. Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir November-December April-May
75 cm of temporally (time) well distributed rainfall is ideal.

100 cm is the highest limit.
The isohyet of 100 cm separates wheat growing areas from rice growing areas.
In the kharif season, rice replaces wheat in the winter wheat belt region Punjab,
Haryana etc..
Light drizzles and cloudiness (E.g. Weather brought by Western Disturbances) at the
time of ripening help in increasing the yield.
Frost at flowering time can cause heavy damage.
Soil requirement
Well drained fertile, friable barns (mostly alluvial) and clay loams (good proportion of
sand) are the best for wheat cultivation.
It also grows well in the black soil of the Deccan plateau.
So, wheat cultivation is more flexible than rice cultivation as the limiting factors are
low.
Production
India is the second largest producer of wheat in the world next only to China.
Wheat is grown on 13 per cent of the cropped area of India.
India has done better in wheat by achieving an yield closer to the global average. It
has recorded an average yield of 2.9 tonne per hectare as against the global benchmark
of 3.0 tonne/ha.
However, it's still far from countries like France (7.0 tonne), US (3.11 tonne) and China
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(4.8 tonne).
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Distribution
Wheat production is mainly confined to North-Western parts of the country.

Punjab, Haryana and the western parts of U.P. have earned the distinction of being
called the Granary of India.
State +ve factors -ve factors

Uttar Pradesh 1st Fine alluvial soil deposited by the Wheat production to the east of
[one-third of area and mighty Ganga and its tributaries Varanasi declines due to high
production of wheat of close network of canals, rainfall
the country] supplemented by large number of [Questions in Mains are asked
tube wells based on this kind of logic]
the doabs are the best wheat
producing areas. E.g. Ganga-Ghagra
doab and Ganga-Yamuna doab.
Punjab 2nd Green Revolution was utilized to the Land degradation
[17.42 per cent of the fullest. Ground water depletion
wheat production and Excellent irrigation system provided
11.88 per cent of wheat by a close network of canals and the
area of India] tube wells.
Light rainfall associated with the
western disturbances in winter.
Fertile alluvial soil brought by the
rivers.
Punjab farmers are progressive and
willing to adopt the new farm
technologies.
Highest yield of 4577 kg/ha in India.
Madhya Pradesh 3rd Climate well suited for wheat Less fertile soils
cultivation in winter. Less developed irrigational
facilities
Low yield 2477 kg/hectare.
Haryana 4th Same as in Punjab Same as in Punjab
Highest yield of 4448 kg/hectare.

Rajasthan Indira Gandhi Canal has made Vast stretches of sandy
wheat cultivation possible in many desert
parts of Rajasthan. scarcity of rainfall
paucity of irrigation facilities
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land degradation
| 16
Other important wheat producing states are Bihar (2423 kg/hectare), Gujarat, West
Bengal, Maharashtra, Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh.
Maize
Maize is often known as Indian corn.
It is used as both food and fodder.
[USA produces maize mainly to beef up the cattle. Very little is used as food (Climatic
regions: Gulf type)]
Maize can be grown under varied climatic and soil conditions.
Conditions for Growth
Maize is a rainfed kharif crop.

Mostly grown in regions with semi-arid conditions (25 75 cm) where rice and wheat
production is not possible.
It cannot be grown in areas of more than 100 cm rainfall.
In Tamil Nadu it is a rabi crop and is sown a few weeks before the onset of winter rainy
season in Sept. and Oct [because the rains occur mostly in November and December in
eastern TN][Prelims point].
Well-drained and fertile loams free from coarse materials and rich in nitrogen are ideal.
The cultivation of maize in India is characterized by inter-culture i.e. along with pulses,
vegetables and oil seeds.
Distribution
Two-third of the maize is produced in states of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana,

Karnataka, Bihar, Maharashtra and Rajasthan.
Karnataka is the second largest producer. This is followed by Maharashtra.
Millets
Millets are short duration (3-4 months;) warm weather grasses.
They are grown in less fertile areas.

They provide food for the poor people.
Jowar, bajra, ragi, etc.
Jowar (Sorghum) Page
Jowar has a high nutritional value. | 17
Jowar is a rainfed crop of dry farming areas.

Jowar is grown both as kharif as well as a rabi crop.
It does not grow where the rainfall exceeds 100 cm.
Clayey deep regur and alluvium are the best suited soils for jowar.
It can also be raised on gentle slopes upto 1,200 meters height.
Production and Distribution
Maharashtra (37%) and Karnataka (26%) are largest producers.

MP, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Rajasthan, are other important producers.
Bajra (bull rush millet)
Bajra is the second most important millet.

Just like jowar, it is also used as food and fodder in drier parts of the country.
Bajra is a rainfed kharif crop of dry and warm climate.

It is grown in areas of 40-50 cm of annual rainfall. Upper limit is 100 cm.
Bajra can be grown on poor light sandy soils, black and red soils.
It is sown either as a pure or mixed crop with cotton, jowar and ragi.
Rajasthan (1st), Uttar Pradesh (2nd), Gujarat and Haryana are the important producers.
Rajasthan accounts for 44.39 per cent of the total production.
Ragi
Ragi is mainly grown in drier parts of south India (Mostly drier parts of Karnataka).
It requires warm climate and 50-100 cm rainfall.

It is raised on a variety of soils. [Red, light black, sandy, well drained alluvial loams].
It is a rainfed kharif crop which is sown between May and August and harvested
between September and January.
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Karnataka is the largest producer (73.23 per cent).
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Uttarakhand is the second largest producer (tricky point for prelims).
Tamil Nadu is the third largest producer.
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh are some other important producers.
Barley
Besides food, it is used for manufacturing beer and whisky.
It does not tolerate high heat and high humidity.

Grows in areas with rainfall range of 75 cm to 100 cm.
It is grown as a rabi crop in the Great Plains and valleys of the western Himalayas.
It can be grown up to an altitude of 1,300 meters as in Uttarakhand.
Production has declined over time (just like most of the millets).
Rajasthan is the largest producer (40 per cent). Uttar Pradesh is the second largest.
Pulses
Pulses include a number of crops which are mostly leguminous.
Pulses have the capacity to fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil.
Gram
Gram is the most important of all the pulses.

It prefers mild cool (20-25C) and comparatively dry climate (40-50 cm).
It is a rabi crop.
It grows well on loamy soils.
It is cultivated as pure or mixed with wheat, barley, linseed or mustard.
Mixed cropping helps to check the gram blight to some extent.
Production and distribution

Gram like millets has suffered a lot at the hands of wheat.

Most of the gram comes from Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Maharashtra.
Madhya Pradesh is the largest producer (40%).
Andhra Pradesh (Rayalseema region), UP, Karnataka, are other major producers.
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Tur or arhar (pigeon pea or recri gram) | 19
Tur is the second most important pulse.

It is chiefly grown as a kharif crop.
In areas of mild winters it is grown as a rabi crop.
It is grown as a dry crop mixed with other kharif crops like jowar, bajra, ragi, maize,
cotton, groundnut, etc. and is seldom grown as a single crop.
Its conditions of growth are more or less similar to those of other pulses and millets.
Distribution
Maharashtra is the largest producer of tur in India (29%).

Madhya Pradesh is the second largest producer.
Bihar has the distinction of giving highest yield per hectare.
Major Cash Crops of India

Cash crops: crops that are grown for sale in the market. E.g. cotton, jute, sugarcane,
tobacco, oilseeds etc.
Cash crops are the major contributors to agricultural GDP of India.
They occupy only 15 per cent of the cropped area but account for over 40 per cent of the
agricultural production by value.
Cotton
Cotton is the most important fiber crop.
Its seed is used in vanaspati industry and as part of fodder for milch cattle.
Cotton is chiefly a tropical and sub-tropical crop.

Requires uniformly high temperature (21C to 30C).
It grows well within the average annual rainfall range of 50-100 cm.
Most of the irrigated area under cotton is in Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat and Rajasthan.
High amount of rainfall in beginning (helps in sprouting of seeds) and sunny and dry
weather at ripening time (moist weather during ripening leads to pest attacks) are very
useful for a good crop.
Unfavorable factors Page

| 20
The growth is retarded below 20 C.
Frost is enemy number one of the cotton plant.
It is grown in areas having at least 210 frost free days in a year.
Moist weather and heavy rainfall at the time of boll-opening and picking (rains lead to
fiber damage) are detrimental to cotton as the plant becomes vulnerable to pests and
diseases.
Almost 65 per cent of the area under cotton is rainfed with erratic and poorly distributed
rains. It is also subjected to severe attack of pests and diseases.
Crop season
Cotton is a kharif crop which requires 6 to 8 months to mature.

Its time of sowing and harvesting differs in different parts of the country.
Region Sowing time Harvesting time Note

Punjab and Haryana Apr-May Dec-Jan To prevent crop damage
due to winter frost
Peninsular region up to Oct Jan-May There is no danger of
winter frost
Tamil Nadu Before the onset of April-May Adequate amount of
[both as a kharif and retreating monsoon rainfall for sprouting of
as a rabi crop] (Oct) seeds.
Jan-Feb in the Aug-Sep TN remains dry during
regions of irrigation Aug-Sep. So the picking
period is free of rains
Most of the crop is grown mixed with other kharif crops (maize, jowar, ragi, sesamum,
castor, groundnut etc.).
Soil
Deep black soils (regur-lava soil) of the Deccan Plateau, Malwa Plateau and those of
Gujarat are best suited for cotton cultivation.
It also grows well in alluvial soils of the Sutlej-Ganga Plain and red and laterite soils of
the peninsular region.
Cotton quickly exhausts the fertility of soil.
Labor Page
Since picking of cotton is not yet mechanized, a lot of cheap and efficient labor is | 21
required.
Normally the picking season is spread over a period of about three months.
Types of Cotton
Three broad types of cotton are generally recognized on the basis of the length, strength
and structure of its fiber.
Long staple cotton
It has the longest fiber whose length varies from 24 to 27 mm.

The fiber is fine and lustrous and is used for making superior quality cloth.
It fetches the best price.
About half of the total cotton produced in India is long staple.
It is largely grown in Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh,
Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh.
Medium staple cotton
The length of its fiber is between 20 mm and 24 mm.

About 44 per cent of the total cotton production in India is of medium staple.
Rajasthan, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka and
Maharashtra are its main producers.
Short staple cotton
This is inferior cotton with fiber less than 20 mm long.

It is used for manufacturing inferior cloth and fetches less price.
About 6 per cent of the total production is of short staple cotton.
U.P, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab are its main producers.
Distribution
India has the sole distinction of growing all the three cultivated species of cotton.
In India, cotton is grown in three distinct agro-ecological zones, viz.,
1. Northern (Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan),
2. Central (Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh) and
Page
3. Southern zone (Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka).
| 22
State Position Factors
Gujarat 1st in production (25%) Regur black cotton soil
80-100 cm annual rainfall
Maharashtra 2nd in production (22%) Regur deep black cotton soil
suffers from low productivity
Andhra Pradesh 3rd in production (21%) Conditions not as favorable as in
Gujarat and Maharashtra
Haryana is the fourth largest producer of cotton in India.
India exports inferior quality cotton mainly to U.K., where it is mixed with superior
quality cotton there.
India has been a big importer of superior quality long staple cotton mainly from the
USA, Russia, Sudan and Kenya.
Production
India has the largest area under cotton cultivation in the world.
But in production it is world's third largest producer after China and the U.S.A.
Bt Cotton
Maharashtra has the largest area under Bt cotton, followed by Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat
and Madhya Pradesh.
In North, Punjab and Haryana are known for Bt cotton cultivation.
Bt stands for the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (not biotechnology).
Bacillus thuringiensis produces a toxin called bt toxin which is detrimental for certain
kind of pest (bollworms) that infects cotton crop.
This trait of Bacillus thuringiensis is induced into cotton by genetic modification.
And the genetically modified cotton that has the ability to produce bt toxin is called as bt
cotton.
The Bt cotton was first tested in U.S.A. and it to cultivation there in 1995.
China (1997) and India (2002) also followed the cultivation of Bt cotton.
The initial field trials were encouraging as the crop required less pesticides and
insecticides. The production and the area under cotton also increased considerably.
But with time yields decreased sharply due to other pest population which could not be
Page
controlled by bt cotton. [Bt toxin controls only bollworm. Cotton attracts more than 100
| 23
different species of pests].
Other concern with Bt cotton is that the bollworm may develop resistance like it
happened in China.
Jute
Jute is the second most important fiber crop of India after cotton.
It is used for manufacturing gunny bags, ropes, carpets, rugs, tarpaulins, etc.
There was great demand for jute because of its low price, softness and strength.
The introduction of synthetic alternatives has resulted in decline of demand for jute.
Jute is the crop of hot (24C to 35C) and humid climate (120 to 150 cm) with 80 to 90
per cent relative humidity during the period of its growth. [Relative humidity:
http://goo.gl/vtDK19]
Lot of water is required for growing the crop.
Sowing and raising of saplings are carried out in the pre-monsoon season with 25 cm to
55 cm of rainfall. This is done to take full advantage of the monsoon season.
Jute is generally sown in February and harvested in October (crop takes 8-10 months to
mature).
Alluvial (light sandy or clayey barns) are considered to be best suited soils for jute.
Just like cotton, jute also exhausts the fertility of soil rapidly.
It is necessary that the soil is replenished annually by the silt-laden flood water of the
rivers.
Processing of Jute
Large supply of cheap labor and lot of water are necessary for processing the jute fiber
post-harvest.
The plants bundles (Sheaf) are immersed in stagnant water for about 3 weeks for
retting (soak in water to soften it).
High temperature of water quickens the process of retting.

After retting is complete, the bark is peeled from the plant and fiber is removed.
Stripping, rinsing and cleaning of the fiber is done.
Fiber is dried in the sun and pressed into bales (a large wrapped or bound bundle).
Page
All the processes mentioned about are done by human hand. Therefore jute is cultivated
| 24
only in areas of high population density.
Production
After partition, 75 per cent of the jute producing areas went to Bangladesh.
But, most of the jute mills remained in India.
There had been rapid increase in area, production and yield between 1950 to 1980.
Negative trends were observed in area, production and yield from 1981 till present.
This is due to changes in weather conditions, increase in rice cropped area,
introduction of synthetic alternatives to jute etc.
Currently India accounts for about 56 per cent of world jute production.
Bangladesh is second with 25 per cent.
Distribution
Over 99 per cent of the total jute of India is produced in just five states of West Bengal,
Bihar, Assam, Andhra Pradesh and Odisha.
West Bengal (75% of Indias jute hot and humid climate

production) alluvial, loamy soil
Bihar (18.5 %) cheap abundant labor
Assam (Brahmaputra and Surma enough jute mills located in the Hugli
valleys) basin
Andhra Pradesh (delta area) and Odisha are other important producers.
Trade
India imports raw jute from Bangladesh as the local produce is not sufficient to feed the
jute mills. It exports jute hessian to Bangladesh.
Sugarcane
Largest value of production among all the commercial crops in India.
It is the first choice of the farmers wherever geographical conditions favor its growth.
Sugarcane is indigenous to India. It belongs to bamboo family.

Thickened sugarcane juice is used to make sugar, gur (jaggery) and khandsari.
Page
| 25
Two-thirds of the total sugarcane produced in India is used for making jaggery and
khandsari and the rest goes to sugar factories.
Molasses, bagasse and pressmud are the byproducts of sugar industry.
Molasses provides raw material for manufacturing alcohol (ethanol).

It is also an efficient substitute for certain petroleum products.
Bagasse (cane residue) is used for manufacturing paper and also as fuel in the mills.
Bagasse is more useful if it is used in paper manufacturing rather than as fuel. [it can
help to save trees; as fuel, it is very inefficient]
Pressmud is used as soil amendment (compost) to increase fertility of the soil.
Climate
Sugarcane is predominantly a tropical crop.

Requires hot (21-27C) and humid (75-150 cm) climate.
[Sugar beet (tuber crop) is the temperate alternative for sugarcane]
It requires 10 to 18 months to mature depending upon the geographical conditions.

Too heavy rainfall results in low sugar content & deficiency in rainfall produces fibrous
crop.
Temperature above 20C combined with open sky in the second half of the crop season
Page
helps in acquiring juice and its thickening.
| 26
Short cool dry winter season during ripening and harvesting is ideal.
Frost is detrimental to sugarcane.
It must be harvested before frost season in northern parts where frost is a common
phenomenon.
On the other hand, hot dry winds like Loo are hostile to sugarcane. (Both frost and
loo are absent in South India. So south is ideal)
Coastal plains and western side of western ghats are generally avoided as the gusty
winds (monsoon winds) damage the crop.
Soil
Sugarcane can tolerate any kind of soil that can retain moisture.
Sugarcane exhausts the fertility of the soil.
Flat plain or level plateau is an advantage for sugarcane cultivation (facilitates irrigation
and transportation of cane to the sugar mills).
Labor
Cheap abundant labor is a prerequisite for successful cultivation of sugarcane.
Production
India has the largest area under sugarcane cultivation in the world.
But in production India lags behind Brazil world's largest producer of sugarcane.
Productivity is quite low compared to Columbia, Peru, Indonesia, Egypt, etc.
Shortages of fertilizers, improper and untimely us of fertilizers, uncertain weather
conditions, inadequate irrigation, poor varieties of cane, small and fragmented holdings
and backward methods of cultivation are some of the major causes of low yields in India
(This is common for rice and sugarcane).
Sugarcane Research Institute, Coimbatore introduced the system of ratooning to
reduce the costs of sugarcane cultivation.
Ratoon crop is the second or any other successive crop obtained from the roots left
over in the field from the first crop. [Prelims point]
In this system the sugarcane is cut leaving the root intact in the soil. This is widely
practiced in different parts of the country. Page
Advantage of ratooning: Low cost of production, relatively shorter maturation period, low | 27
cost inputs and time is saved as there is no need for fresh sowing and growing of roots.
However, productivity decreases with each passing year and ratooning becomes
uncommercial after one or two years.
Distribution
Three distinct belts of sugarcane cultivation can be identified in India.

1. Sutlej-Ganga plain Low yield
from Punjab to Bihar High summer temperatures ranging from 30 to 35C leads
(51 per cent of the to low growth and fibrous crop.
total area and 60 per Loo (dry scorching wind in May and June with a desiccating
cent of the country's effect) hampers the normal growth of the cane.
total production) In winter months (December and January) the crop is likely
to be damaged by severe cold and frost.
Crushing cannot be done in winter. [only 8 month crushing
season. Factories remain idle for 4 winter months]
2. Black soil belt from High Productivity
Maharashtra to Tamil No winds like loo during the summer.
Nadu along the Reasonably high temperature during winter.
eastern slopes of the Frost free climate throughout the year.
Western Ghats (to Yearlong crushing. [factories keep running throughout the
protect from high year]
speed monsoon
winds).
3. Coastal Andhra and Maritime winds in the coastal areas moderate climate and
the Krishna Valley lead to better sugar content. + all points of (2)
South India offers more favorable climatic conditions for the growth of sugarcane,
but the most important sugarcane belt lies in north India. What is the reason for this
paradoxical situation?
Before the World War I, the northern plain area was mainly used for growing indigo.
With the introduction of cheap aniline dyes, indigo lost its market by the time of WW I.
Consequently, indigos place was taken by sugarcane cultivation in the north.
Other factors Page

| 28
Sugarcane needs good irrigational facilities throughout the year. Such facilities were
available in the north due to perennial river systems.
On the other hand, south has only non-perennial rivers. Also, irrigational facilities were
previously nonexistent in most parts of the south.
In the southern states, sugarcane had to face tough competition for land from a number
of other cash crops such as cotton, tobacco, groundnut, coconut, etc.
Do you agree that there is a growing trend of opening new sugar mills in southern
states of India? Discuss with justification (5 marks) (100 words)(2013 GS1)
More sugarcane cultivation = More sugar mills.
Most favorable weather conditions (loo and frost absent).

Development of extensive irrigational facilities in the past few decades.
Yearlong crushing season. (In north, winter = very cold = There is no Crushing period in
winter)
High maritime influence = moderate climate = doesnt reduce sugar content (very high
temperature and low rainfall leads to fibrous crop).
Uttar Pradesh 36 per cent of production Vast alluvial plains

Western part of the state Large scale use of irrigation and
[Ganga-Yamuna Doab] forms fertilizers
the core of sugarcane Suitable climate (but not as
production suitable as south Indian climate)
There is no Crushing period in
winter.
Maharashtra 24 per cent of the production Superior sugar recovery due to
year round crushing period.
Yields are high compared to that
in UP.
Karnataka 10.7 per cent of the Most of the sugarcane is grown

production and over 8 per with the help of irrigation.
cent of the area
TN 10.69 per cent of the High productivity (coastal region).
Page
production and nearly 7 per
| 29
cent of the area
Andhra Pradesh Coastal areas having fertile soil.
Bihar, Gujarat (its recovery of 10.31 per cent of sugar is one of the highest among the
major sugar cane producing states of India), Haryana, Uttarakhand (mostly hilly and
mountainous not much suitable. However, parts of Haridwar, Nainital and Dehra Dun
districts are plain areas or areas located at the foothills), Punjab (wheat took over the
sugarcane regions) are other important producers.
Tobacco
Tobacco was brought to India by the Portuguese in 1508.
Tobacco is mainly used for smoking and also for manufacturing insecticides.
Returns from this crop are high.
Climate
Tobacco is a plant of tropical and sub-tropical climates.

It can withstand a wide range of temperature varying from 16 to 35C. As a result it
can be grown in many agro climatic regions of India.
Tobacco needs fairly well distributed rainfall with an annual average of about 100 cm.
It can be grown from low lying plains up to a height of 1,800 meters.
Frost is injurious to its growth.
Bright rainless weather is helpful at the curing stage.
Soil
For tobacco, soil is the most important geographical distribution factor rather than
the climate.
Well drained friable sandy loams are ideal for cultivation.
Soils should be rich in mineral salts (facilitate full development of roots) but not in
organic matter.
Labor
Page
Cheap and abundant labor is required at all stages of its cultivation.
| 30
Types of Tobacco
Mainly two types of tobacco are grown in India.

1. Nicotiana Tobacum
2. Nicotiana Rustica
Nicotiana Tobacum Nicotiana Rustica

Tropical climate is ideal Needs relatively cool climate
Widely grown in many regions of India Mainly grown in northern and north-eastern
parts of the country
Tall and has long broad leaves Comparatively shorter and has round and
puckered (contract into wrinkles) leaves
Good quality Low quality compared to Nicotiana Tobacum
Used for cigarette, hookah etc. Used for chewing and snuff
90 per cent of the total tobacco production 10 per cent of the total production
in India
Production
India is the third largest tobacco producing country after China and Brazil.
India is followed by USA, Malawi, Indonesia and Argentina.
Distribution
Gujarat 65 per cent of the production 90 per cent of Gujarat's tobacco comes
from Kheda and Vadodara districts.
Andhra Pradesh 31 per cent of the production Yield is higher than the yield of Gujarat
and much lower than that of Uttar
Pradesh
The other tobacco producing states in India are Uttar Pradesh (15%), Karnataka (13%)
Bihar (2%), Tamil Nadu, and Maharashtra.
Uttar Pradesh gives the highest yield more than two times the national average.
Trade
India is world's fourth largest exporter of tobacco.

Only 20 per cent of the total production of India is traded externally.
Bulk of India's tobacco export consists of unmanufactured tobacco.
Page
Russia and U.K. purchase about two-third of our total tobacco exports. | 31
About 90 per cent of the tobacco export trade is handled by Chennai alone.
Oilseed (Cash Crop) Crops in India

Major oilseeds include groundnut, linseed, sesamum, castor seed, rapeseed, mustard,
sunflower and soyabean.
Oil extracted from oilseeds is used in diet and as raw material for manufacturing paints,
varnishes, hydrogenated oil, soaps, etc.
Oil-cake which is the residue of oilseeds forms an important cattle-feed and manure.
India has the largest area (18-20 % of the net sown area) and production of oilseeds in
the world.
There had been a gradual increase in area, production and yield of oilseeds, with the
passage of time.
The production of oilseeds has always fallen short of our demand and India has always
been a net importer of oilseeds.
There is a very little scope for bringing additional area under oilseeds. Increasing
productivity is the only way to meet the domestic demand.
Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra & Gujarat are the main producers of major
oilseeds accounting for over two-third of the area and three-fourths of the production.
Other producers include Andhra Pradesh, UP, Haryana, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu (gives
maximum yield in oil seeds) West Bengal, Odisha, Assam, etc..
Groundnut
Groundnut is the most important oilseed of India.
It accounts for nearly half of the major oilseeds produced in India.
Groundnut kernels are rich in proteins and vitamins and have high calorific value.
It contains 40-50% oil which is used as edible oil or hydrogenated vanaspati.
The oil is used for manufacturing margarine, medical emulsions, soap etc.
Its oil cake is used as an important rich cattle feed.
It is often a rotation crop because of its atmospheric nitrogen fixing abilities.
It is a tropical crop that requires 20-30C temperature and 50-75 cm rainfall.

Isohyet of 100 cm marks the upper limit for groundnut cultivation. Page
It is mainly a kharif crop but it also cultivated during rabi season. | 32
It is highly susceptible to frost, prolonged drought, continuous rain & stagnant water.
Dry winter is needed at the time of ripening.
Well drained sandy loams, red, yellow and black cotton soils are well suited.
India (17.4%) is the second largest producer of groundnut. [China 40%].

Unlike rice and wheat, there is no fixed cropping area for groundnut.
Groundnut is a rainfed crop and fluctuations in its production is usual.
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and Rajasthan are the four main producers.
These four states together account for over 70% of total production of India.
Andhra Pradesh (23%) is the largest producer of groundnut in India.
Tamil Nadu (18%) is the second largest producer.
Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka and Maharashtra are the other important producers.
Trade
India's exports have drastically fallen due increased domestic consumption.
Sesamum
Sesamum contains 45 to 50 per cent oil.

Sesamum oil is used for cooking and for manufacturing perfumery and medicines.
India accounts for one-third of the world production and is the largest producer.
Since it is a rainfed kharif crop the production fluctuates greatly with time.
Sesamum is produced in almost all parts of the country.
Page
West Bengal is the largest producing state (one-third of the total production of India). | 33
The other major producers are Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, etc.
Rapeseed and mustard
The oil content of rapeseed and mustard is 25-45%.

It is used for cooking, as preservative for pickles and lubricants.
They are mainly grown as rabi crop in pure or mixed form with wheat, gram and barley.
Like wheat and gram, they thrive only in cool climate of the Sutlej-Ganga plain.
Very small quantity is grown in the peninsular India.
Rajasthan with 46 per cent production stands first in India.
Haryana is the second largest producer. Madhya Pradesh is the third.
Linseed
Linseed has 35 to 47 per cent oil content.
Linseed oil has a unique drying property and is used for manufacturing paints,
varnishes, printing ink, oilcloth, and water-proof fabrics.
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| 34
It is a rabi crop.
This crop can be grown under varied geographical conditions.
But it prefers cool (20C) and moist climate (75 cm).
It can be cultivated up to a height of 800 meters above sea level.
Madhya Pradesh (1st - 29%), Bihar (2nd), Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra
are the main producers.
Castor seed
Castor seed contains 50 per cent oil.

The oil is used as hair oil, for lighting, manufacturing soap, leather tanning etc.
Oil-cake is used as manure and leaves of the plant are fed to silk worms.
It is a rainfed kharif crop in the north and a rabi crop in the south.
Gujarat, Rajasthan and Telangana are the main producers.
Indias edible oil industry

Indians used broadly these edible oils
1. vegetable oils obtained from crushing local oilseeds
mustard in northern and eastern India;
groundnut in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh;

sesame and groundnut in Tamil Nadu; and
coconut in Kerala
2. animal fat ghee from milk.
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3. dalda hydrogenated vegetable oil.
| 35
hydrogenation adding hydrogen to convert unsaturated liquid fats into
saturated solid fats.
hydrogenation is done to harden or raise the melting point of the oil.
Just as ghee, dalda has higher melting and smoke point (at which the
molecules start breaking down).
Advantages of dalda: Good shelf life of foods, quite cheap compared to edible
oils.
Disadvantages of dalda: saturated fats are very bad for health
(http://www.pmfias.com/fats-lipids-fatty-acids-healthy-fats-unhealthy-fats/).
Oil seeds = Yellow Revolution [National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) played an
important role].
In 1970s
groundnut accounted for almost 60 per cent of Indias edible oil consumption.
groundnut was followed by mustard, cottonseed, coconut, sesame, etc. (industry was
based totally on domestically produced oilseeds).
Present
groundnut oils share declined hardly 1 per cent

mustards share declined to 10 per cent.
Palm, soyabean and sunflower dominated (industry shifted towards imported
oilseeds and oil).
1. palm oil (45 per cent)
2. soyabean (20 per cent)
3. sunflower (rest).
Page
| 36
Imported Oil
Virtually the whole of the countrys palm oil consumption is imported.

Sunflower (92 per cent) and soyabean (71 per cent) are also imported.
Solvent extraction is replaced by refineries importing crude palm, soyabean oil etc.
Most of the refineries are located at Mundra, Kandla, Mangalore, Chennai,
Krishnapatnam, Paradip and Haldia.
All port cities. Why?
1) Easy to import oil the main reason,

2) Refining and discarding the waste reduces transportation cost
The future for indigenous production lies only in
1) mustard (because of its high oil content),
2) cotton-seed (thanks to the Bt revolution) and
3) rice bran (extensive rice cultivation).
Edible oil consumption

India is the worlds second largest consumer of edible oil next to China.
Page
| 37
Palm oil
Most of it is used predominantly by the food industry. Why? Because its cheap and
suits all types of frying.
Vanaspati manufacturing, too, is now entirely based on palm oil.
Being cheap also makes palm oil ideally suited for adulterating other oils (palm oil is a
neutral oil, with no aroma of its own and can easily mingle with other oils).
Plantation Crops in India

Plantation crops are those crops which are grown on plantations covering large estates.
They take 3-5 years to bear returns after they are sown.
They continue to bear returns for the next 35-40 years after the first harvest.
They cover small area in India but are of high economic value.
Tea, coffee (beverage crops) & rubber are the principal plantation crops.
Spices, palm plantations and coconut plantations are the other important ones.
Tea
Tea is the dried leaf of a bush. It contains theine (stimulant).
Tea bush is indigenous to China. It was introduced in India in 1840.
The first commercial tea plantations were set up in the Upper Assam (upper
Brahmaputra valley).
Lower Assam and Darjeeling were also opened up to tea plantations few years later.
Later on, tea plantations were set up in Nilgiri Hills of South India, Terai along the
foothills of the Himalayas and in some places in Himachal Pradesh.
Conditions of Growth
Tea bush is a tropical and sub-tropical plant.

Most of the tea plantations in India are found at elevations ranging from 600 to 1,800
meters above sea level.
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Climate and soil drainage are the determining factors for tea cultivation.
| 38
Climate
Yield and the quality of tea are greatly influenced by the climatic conditions.
It thrives well in hot (20-30C) and humid climate (150-300 cm).
The rainfall should be well distributed throughout the year.
High humidity, heavy dew and morning fog favor rapid development of young leaves.
Temperatures above 35C and below 10C are harmful for the bush.
Alternate waves of warm and cool winds are very helpful for tea leaves.
Tea is a shade-loving plant and develops more vigorously under shade.
Soil
Tea bush grows well in well drained, deep, friable loams.

Virgin forest soils rich in humus and iron content are considered to be the best.
Relatively large proportion of phosphorus and potash in the soil gives special flavor to
tea as is the case in Darjeeling.
Stagnant water or waterlogging is injurious to its roots. It is, therefore, grown on hill
slopes.
However, it grows equally well in the valleys if the drainage is good.
Tea cannot be grown on plains (T/F) Answer F
Labor
Tea requires abundant supply of cheap and skilled labor at every stage.
It is one of the largest employers of women among the organized industries of India.
Pruning (trim by cutting away dead or overgrown branches or stems) of the plant is an essential part of
tea cultivation. It helps in maintaining the proper shape and height of tea bush.
The aim of pruning is to have new shoots bearing soft leaves and to facilitate the
plucking of leaves by women laborers from the ground.
Production and distribution
India (17%) is the third largest producer of tea in the world, next to China and
Turkey.
Tea cultivation in India is highly concentrated in a few selected pockets.
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1. North-East India.
| 39
2. South.
3. North-West India.
North-Eastern India
It is more or less a triangular area mainly in Assam and West Bengal.

This is the most important tea producing region of India.
About three-fourth production of Indias tea comes from here.
Tea plantations are small in number but fairly large in size.
Some tea gardens are also found in Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh and Manipur.
Assam
Assam (51%) is the largest producer of tea in India.
Brahmaputra Valley
The area provides the most ideal conditions for tea cultivation.
Favorable conditions
1. Summer temperature of 30C and winter temperature never falling below 10C.
2. Frost free weather throughout the year.
3. 300-400 cm annual rainfall extended over 9 months.
The Brahmaputra Valley extending from Sadiya to Goalpara comprises the main tea
producing belt. It accounts for 44 per cent of India's tea.
Tea estates are located on the raised grounds (upto 450 meters) so that annual
inundations and stagnant water during the rainy season do not harm the crop.
Surma Valley
Surma Valley lying in Cachar district produces about 5 per cent of country's tea.
The climates here is not as favorable as in the Brahmaputra valley.
The tea gardens are scattered over small mounds or well drained flats along the
Brahmaputra river and its tributaries.
Here the rainfall is 300-400 cm and no month is completely dry.
West Bengal Page

| 40
West Bengal (23%) is the second largest producer.
Entire tea of WB is produced in Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri and Koch Bihar.
These districts are contiguous to the main tea producing belt of Assam.
Duars in Koch Bihar and Jalpaiguri districts
16 km wide strip at the foot of the Himalayas.
Darjeeling district
Darjeeling tea is the most valued tea because of its special aroma.
Annual rainfall of 300 cm, moderate temperature, soils rich in potash and
phosphorous give a special flavor.
But the yields are quite low compared to other tea producing areas in the NE.
Tea estates are found within 900-1,800 m elevation.
The temperature beyond 1,800 m elevation is low and does not support tea cultivation.
South India
Nilgiri, Cardamom, Palani and Anaimalai hills in TN, Kerala and Karnataka extending
from 9N to 14N latitudes are the important tea producing areas.
This region accounts for 25% production and about 44% of area under tea in India.
Tea gardens are located on the hill slopes of the Western Ghats between 300 and 1,800
m altitude.
The tea estates are quite large in number but quite small in size.
The temperatures are uniformly high and the annual rainfall exceeds 400 cm.
There is no fear of frost in south India and weather conditions are quite congenial.
Therefore, the productivity is higher, although the quality of tea is inferior.
In South India, Tamil Nadu is the largest producer of tea.
Kerala is another important producer. Some tea is produced in Hassan and Chikmaglur
districts of Karnataka.
Karnataka has the distinction of giving the highest yield of over 25 quintals per hectare.
North West India
Some of tea is produced in Dehra Dun, Almora and Garhwal districts of Uttarakhand
and in Kangra Valley and Mandi district of Himachal Pradesh.
Green tea is produced in Kangra valley of Himachal Pradesh.
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Tea in small quantity is also produced in Ranchi and Hazaribagh districts of Chota
| 41
Nagpur plateau in Jharkhand.
Trade
India is also one of the leading exporters of tea in the world.

Indias exports are falling due to increasing domestic consumption and competition.
90 per cent of the tea bushes are in the age group of 40-50 years, and are not capable of
giving high yields.
India is facing tough competition from Sri Lanka, China, Kenya etc..
Russia, U.K., the USA, are major importers of Indian tea.
Tea exports to West AsiaNorth Africa region jumped mainly due to increased exports to
Iraq under the 'Oil-for-Food Programme'.
Kolkata is the chief port of tea export from India.
The other major ports through which tea is exported are Chennai, Mangalore and Kochi.
Coffee
Coffee is the next important beverage crop after tea.
It is indigenous to Abyssinia Plateau (Ethiopia).
Its seeds were brought to India by Baba Budan from Arabia in the 17th Century.
Coffee was first raised in the Baba Budan Hills of Karnataka.
British planters established large coffee estates in 1820s near Chikmagalur
(Karnataka), Waynad, Shevoroys and Nilgiris in TN.
Coffee plant requires hot (15C and 28C) and humid climate (150 to 250 cm).
It does not tolerate frost, prolonged drought, high temperature (>30C) and strong sun
shine.
Like tea, it is also generally grown under shady trees.
Stagnant water is harmful. So, this crop is grown on hill slopes at elevations from 600 to
1,600 meters above sea level.
Northern and eastern aspects of slopes are preferred as they are less exposed to
strong afternoon sun and the south-west monsoon winds.
Well drained, rich friable loams rich in humus and minerals like iron and calcium are
ideal for coffee cultivation.
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Coffee cultivation requires plenty of cheap and skilled labor.
| 42
India (3.5%) is the seventh largest producer of coffee.

Brazil (25%), Colombia (15%) and Indonesia (7%) are the important producers.
Coffee Arabica (49%) and Coffee Robusta (51%) are the two main varieties grown in
India.
Coffee plantations are confined to small area in south India comprising hill areas
around Nilgiris.
Almost the entire production is shared by three states namely Karnataka (71%), Kerala
(22%) and Tamil Nadu (6.5%).
In Karnataka, plantations are about 1,370 meters above sea level where rainfall is 125-
150 cm. Kodagu and Chikmagalur account for over 80% of the state's total output.
Most of the coffee plantations in Kerala are at an altitude of 1,200 m where annual
rainfall is over 200 cm.
About half of Tamil Nadu's coffee is produced in Nilgiri district.
Trade
India exports coffee to a large number of countries including U.K., the U.S.A., Russia,
Australia, Iraq and a large number of countries of continental Europe.
Rubber
Rubber is obtained from the latex of Hevea brasiliensis and many other tropical trees.
Hevea brasiliensis is a quick growing tall tree (20-30 meter height).
It begins to yield latex in 5-7 years after planting.
The first rubber plantations were set up in Kerala in1895.
Hevea brasiliensis requires hot (25-35C) and humid climate (200 cm).
The rainfall should be well distributed throughout the year.
Deep well drained loamy soils are best suited for rubber plantations.
Suitable soil and climatic conditions occur on the hill slopes at elevations ranging from
300 to 450 meters above sea level.
The yields decline at higher elevations due to fall in temperature and less mature
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soils.
| 43
Practically no rubber plantations are found above 700 m elevation.
India (9%) lags behind Thailand and Indonesia in natural rubber production.
Small holdings account for 88 per cent of area and production of rubber in India.
The average productivity realized by small holders is much higher than that produced by
the large estates.
Almost entire rubber is produced in Kerala (92%), Tamil Nadu (3%) and Karnataka
(2%). Tripura (2%) is the fourth largest producer. Andaman & Nicobar Islands also
produce small quantities of rubber.
Arecanut
Arecanut is used for chewing with betel leaves and in pan masala (supari). Areca stem is
used for construction purposes and leaves for thatching.
It is a tropical tree which, on maturity, attains a height of 20-25 meters.
It flourishes well in warm (15 to 35C) and humid climates (200-300 cm).
It grows on a variety of soils ranging from well-drained laterite, red loamy to alluvial
soils. Its cultivation can be done from sea level to 1,000 meters.
India is the largest producer of arecanut in the world.
Kerala (37%), Karnataka, Tripura, Assam and Meghalaya are the major producing
states.
Assam produces about one-fourth of India's arecanut.
Most of the arecanut is consumed within south Indian states and only a small quantity
is exported mainly to Nepal, UAR, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia etc.
Coconut
Coconut is a perennial crop. It has a long period of economic life span of more than 60
years. It also has a long gestation period of 5-7 years.
Coconut is predominantly a tropical crop.
It requires warm (25 to 30C) and fairly moist (125 to 130 cm) climate.
It is predominantly grown under rainfed condition in Kerala (26.6%) and parts of
coastal Tamil Nadu (20%), Karnataka (12%) and Andhra Pradesh.
Well drained rich loamy soils are best suited for its cultivation.
Page
It grows well on sandy loams along sea-coasts and in adjoining river valleys.
| 44
India is the third largest coconut producing country next to Philippines and Indonesia.
Spices
Pepper, cardamom, chillies, turmeric, ginger etc. are some of the important spices
produced in India. They are used for flavoring foodstuffs.
Well drained sandy, clayey or red loams and laterites are best suited soils for the
cultivation of most of the spices mentioned above.
These soil conditions exist predominantly in the hilly regions of Kerala, Karnataka and
Tamil Nadu.
India is a an exporter of spices. There has been a constant increase in area and
production of spices in India.
Pepper
Black pepper, the king of spices is the most important dollar earning spice.
Warm (10C-30C) and humid (200-300 cm) climate is required for its cultivation.
The plant grows as a vine and needs support of other trees for its growth.
The plant can be grown on a variety of well drained soils.
It thrives well on deep, friable, well drained loamy soils.
It can be grown from almost sea level to an altitude of 1,200 m.
India is the second largest producer of pepper in the world after Indonesia.
Its distribution is highly concentrated in Kerala (94%), Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
Cardamom
Cardamom queen of aromatic spices is mainly used for medicines.

It grows well in hot (15C-32C) and humid (150-300 cm) climates.
Well drained forest loams, red & laterite soils with plenty of humus are ideal.
Tropical rain forests at an altitude of 800-1,600 meters above sea level provide the most
congenial environment for its growth.
It is a shade loving plant and is grown under shady trees.
Production, distribution and exports Page

| 45
India produces a major part of the world's total cardamom.
The entire production comes from three states viz., Kerala (53%), Karnataka (42%) and
Tamil Nadu.
In Kerala, the crop is largely concentrated in the Cardamom hills.
India stands second after Guatemala in export of cardamom.
Chillies
Chilli requires temperatures ranging from 10 to 30C and moderate annual rainfall of
60 to 125 cm.
Too scarce or too heavy rainfall is harmful.
It can be grown on a wide variety of soils including black cotton soil, and different types
of loamy soils. It can be grown upto elevations of 1,700 metres.
Andhra Pradesh and Telangana are the largest producers of chillies.
Guntur, East Godavari and West Godavari in are the major chilli producing districts in
AP.
Ginger
It is grown in tropical and sub-tropical climates.

It requires 10 to 25C temperature and 125-250 cm rainfall.
Well drained sandy, clayey or red loams and laterites are best suited soils for its
cultivation.
It can be grown from sea level to an altitude of 1,300 m above sea level.
India (80%) is the largest producer of ginger in the world.
Meghalaya, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, etc. are the main producers.
Turmeric
Turmeric is native to tropical South-East Asia.

India is an important producer of turmeric in the world.
Andhra Pradesh (more than half) is the largest producer.
Horticulture
India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world after China.
Horticulture sector contributes about 25-30 per cent of GDP from agriculture.
India is the largest producer of bananas and mangoes. Page
| 46
Cashewnut
Cashew kernel is used as a dry fruit.
Cashew requires average temperature (16C and 25C).
It can grow in regions with a wide range of rainfall (50 to 350 cm).
It is grown widely on the poor laterite soils on the west coast and on sandy soils on
the east coast.
At present, India holds first position in the world in the production of cashew.
Coasts of Maharashtra (29.9%), Andhra Pradesh (15.7%), Odisha, Kerala, Karnataka
and Tamil Nadu are the major producers.
India is the largest exporter of cashewnut kernel in the world.
Mango
Mango is the native to the Indian monsoon lands.
More than half of the worlds mangoes are produced in India. It is also the largest
exporter.
Alfonso mango is an important export variety.
Mangoes are grown in areas with temperature from 20C-30C & rainfall 75-250 cm.
It can grow in almost all soils of India.
It is largely grown in groves near towns and villages where it has a ready market [Mango
is a highly perishable fruit].
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Odisha, are the main producers.
Apple
Apple is a temperate fruit crop.
It requires sunny climate with gentle winds. Partial sun reduces yields.
It requires average temperature (~22C) during the growing season.
In the non-growing season, apple crop can tolerate very low temperatures.
Low temperature, rain, fog and cloudy weather hampers growth at the time of maturity.
Well distributed 100-125 cm rainfall throughout the growing season is optimal.

Apple orchard regions should be free from hail storms and frost.
Well drained loamy soils rich in humus are most suitable for apple cultivation.
These soil and climatic conditions are found on hill slopes at altitudes ranging from
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1,500-2,700 m.
| 47
In most areas apple orchards have replaced millet crops which are of low value.
Kullu and Shimla districts in Himachal Pradesh, the Kashmir Valley and hilly areas of
Uttarakhand are important apple growing areas.
Banana
Banana is a tropical and sub-tropical crop.
It requires average temperature (~25C) throughout in growth period.
The rainfall should be fairly above 150 cm.
Although cultivation is spread all over India. But peninsular India provides ideal
conditions for its cultivation.
Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra account for about half of total production.
Orange
Orange is widely grown both in north and south India.
Soil is the important factor for orange than climate.
Most of orange orchards are rainfed.
They are located at heights from 600 to 1,500 m.
Well-drained sandy soils which permit root penetration up to 2-4 meters are best
suited for orange cultivation.
Although orange is grown in almost all the states, its cultivation is more prominently
concentrated in the hilly region of Uttarakhand.
Kangra valley of Himachal Pradesh, Darjeeling in W. Bengal, Khasi and Jaintia Hills in
Meghalaya, Kodagu district of Karnataka are the important orange growing regions.
Grape
Grape is a sub-tropical vine plant.
It requires long summer and short winter
Moderately fertile well drained soil is required.
Relatively low water supply during the growing period is good for the crop.
Bright sunshine during maturity is essential.

In northern India, it is grown in summer only.
In south India the plant grows throughout the year and gives two crops a year.
Grapes can be grown anywhere in India.
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Peach | 48
Peach is temperate fruit that is highly perishable (more than apple).

The main areas of peach cultivation are in Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Kashmir
Valley.
Pear
Pear is another temperate fruit, mainly grown in Kashmir, Kumaon region of
Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh in the north and the Nilgiri hills in the south.
These areas offer suitable conditions of cold winters, cool summers, moderate rainfall,
high percentage of cloudiness and mist.
Apricot
Apricot is also a temperate fruit which requires 130 to 200 cm rainfall.
It is mainly grown in Kashmir valley, Himachal Pradesh and Kumaon region of
Uttarakhand.
Strawberry
Strawberry, almond and walnut are other important temperate fruits.
The hilly areas of J & K., H.P. and Uttarakhand are the main producers.
Strawberry fields are under semi-aquatic to aquatic conditions for at least three months.
Nainital district is the largest producer of strawberry.
Vegetables
India and China are the most important vegetable producers in the world.
As most of the vegetables are perishable, they are grown around areas where there is
ready market.
Cereals are preferred over vegetables cultivation in regions with labor shortages.

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How to approach this notes

All points important for prelims are Bolded (Highlighted).

Factors affecting cropping pattern

Areas of Heavy Rainfall

More than 150 cm of annual rainfall.

Areas of Medium Rainfall

Areas of Low Rainfall

25 to 75 cm (Semi-arid stretches of India).

Size of Land Holdings

Major Crops of India

Crop Classification based on climate

Classification Based on growing season

Kharif/Rainy/Monsoon crops Rabi/winter/cold seasons crops Summer/Zaid crops

period of crop growth weather major growth period

Rice, wheat, maize, barley, rye and oats.

These are staple food of poor people.

Sorghum or Jowar, Pearl Millet or Bajra and Finger millet or ragi

Pulses are major source of protein.

Oil Seed Crops

Sugarcane and sugar beet.

Byproducts of Sugar Industry

Molasses, bagasse and pressmud.

Sugar beet is grown in temperate region.

1. Bagasse can be used as biomass fuel for the generation of energy.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

Answer: c) 1 and 3 only

Starch Crops or Tuber Crops

Potato, cassava, sweet potato, raddish etc.

Narcotics - Stimulates Nervous System

Tobacco, opium, betelvine and arecanut.

Classification based on life of crops/duration of crops

Classification based on water availability

Classification based on length of photoperiod required for floral initiation

Major Food Crops of India

(Dont get confused between mixed farming and mixed cropping).

Three crop seasons (year round irrigation)

Rice crop needs plenty of heat, rain and labor.

1. requires warm climate

Soil condition for growth

Rice cultivation is traditionally labor intensive.

Methods of Rice Cultivation

Broadcasting method Page

Advanced method of rice cultivation in India.

Highly mechanized and most advanced rice cultivation.

Production and productivity

Position +ve factors -ve factors

West Bengal 1st Large scale alluvial deposits Floods

High yield (3,126 kg/hectare)

Regions Sowing months Harvesting months

75 cm of temporally (time) well distributed rainfall is ideal.

Wheat production is mainly confined to North-Western parts of the country.

State +ve factors -ve factors

Highest yield of 4448 kg/hectare.

Conditions for Growth

Maize is a rainfed kharif crop.

Two-third of the maize is produced in states of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana,

They are grown in less fertile areas.

Jowar (Sorghum) Page