Fluid milk shelf life from hours to months

Petr Dejmek

Dept of Food Technology, Engineering and Nutrition, Lund University,

Box 124, S-221 00, Lund, Sweden

Tel +46 46 2229810, fax +46 46 2224622, mail Petr.Dejmek@food.lth.se

Abstract

The development of shelf life of liquid milk and the scientific background of the problem and

the technical solutions utilized are followed in a historical perspective. It is concluded that the

general increase in affluence of the society and the general improvement of the engineering

competence contributed most to the observed increase of fluid milk shelf life.

At a first glance, one can be overwhelmed by the spectacular increase of the shelf life of fluid

milk. Sixty years ago, a substantial part of fluid milk was distributed, even in the developed

countries, in bulk to retailers and sold over the counter. Such milk had a shelf life of hours and

would be boiled in the household to keep until the evening, or overnight. Currently shelf life

is counted in weeks and months, Fig 1. The problems caused by short shelf life are since long

forgotten by the consumers , and freshness rather than functionality seems to be gaining

prominence, so that the average shelf life on the market might be decreasing again.

Milk at ambient temperatures is a selective substrate for lactic acid bacteria and these are

always present in the environment. Thus milk sours spontaneously and the presence of

lactic acid effectively limits the growth of other organisms, apart from some yeasts. No
common seriously pathogenic organisms thrive in sour milk. In the Nordic countries, skim

milk would be collected throughout the summer season in a large vessel and kept for use over

winter - the Icelandic skyr is a vestige of this traditional milk storage system. While the

nutritional value of milk was kept intact, the taste was not to everybodys liking. This is

graphically depicted in an Icelandic tale from the Middle Ages, Egil Skallagrimsons saga.

Egil, a famous Icelandic poet and warrior, came uninvited to a Swedish farm, and was treated

with milk. Hungry, he gorged himself, but when he later found out that there was meat to be

had, he nearly killed the unfortunate farmer

Today fermented milks are considered a product completely separate from liquid milk, and

from consumer perspective, detectable taste or structure changes to milk limit its shelf life.

These are most often caused by the metabolites of growing microorganisms. Nonbacterial

changes in the chemistry of milk are mostly caused by oxidation or indigenous enzymes of

milk. Physical instability presents an interesting development. As long as milk fat was a most

cherished milk component, creaming was not a limitation to shelf life. It was actively

promoted, and a large body of research was generated in the search of a thick and distinct

creamline. Nowadays, creaming is barely tolerated. Sediment, on the other hand has always

been a shelf life limiting product fault.

Apart from the changes observable by the consumer, shelf life may be limited by legislation.

Many countries impose, in addition to health related criteria, arbitrary limits on some aspect

of milk microflora, typically a maximum CFU count using some officially promulgated

procedure.
The current view of milk shelf life can be summarized as follows (Walstra, Wouters and

Geurts, 2006):

Pasteurized milk can be spoiled by psychrotrophic recontamination, or if that is largely

avoided, by pasteurization surviving spores. Its maximum shelf life will depend on the

temperature in the storage chain, from a few days where storage temperatures of 12C are

legal, to beyond three and up to six weeks at temperatures close to milk freezing point. The

shelf life of sterilized milk is less clearly defined, as no easily detectable bacterial growth

occurs. Taste deterioration is governed again by storage temperature, being 3 to 6 months in

ambient temperature in moderate climates, and by the presence of heat treatment surviving

lytic bacterial enzymes. After monthlong storage at moderate temperatures UHT milk may gel

as a late effect of proteolytic activity Some formation of a bottom sediment occurs. Oxidation

is usually avoided, but Maillard reactions may become prominent at tropical storage

temperatures.

The early scientific understanding of milk shelf life

As so often in food science, practical solutions are often found to problems for which causes

are not understood. Famously, canning, invented by Nicholas Appert in 1804, produced long

life food, even if Appert the whole of his life firmly believed that it was the exclusion of air

that caused the success of his method. Similarly in milk. It was found that evaporation

concentrated canned milk will keep well. Gail Borden, with only one year of formal

schooling, experimented with ways to concentrate and can milk, obtained US patent for his

vacuum evaporation of milk in 1856 (Borden 1856), and went on to become a household

name. In his patent application , Borden mentions that scalding milk to improve its

preservative qualities has long been known. The Swiss pediatrician Henri Nestle
independently experimented with ways of providing safe food for infants, and his factory for

condensed milk in Cham started in 1866.

Bacteria as a cause of milk souring was proposed as early as 1844. Nevertheless, in the early

days of scientific inquiry into milk, the attribution of milk souring to microorganisms was for

a long time in doubt. Due to the almost unavoidable contamination of milk with lactic

bacteria, it was believed that souring of milk is a milk inherent reaction, similar to fruit

ripening, in Bordens words milk is a living fluid, and as soon as drawn from the cow begins

to die, change and decompose. It was only when Joseph Lister about 1874 succeeded in

drawing sterile milk from the udder and isolated Bacterium Lactis (Lactococcus lactis subsp

lactis)1 that the argument was finally settled (Ford, 1928).

Louis Pasteur is usually credited for the general idea of microorganisms as the cause of

spoilage, and the use of moderately high temperatures for the inactivation of microorganisms,

based on his research on spoilage of wine around 1860-1865 (P.F.F,.1898). There is no known

evidence that Pasteur applied his method to milk The use of Pasteurs name could have

originated as a marketing gimmick to capitalize on Pasteurs fame. The first mention of

pasteurization in English is rather late, 1886, in The Times.

In the later part of the nineteenth century tremendous progress was achieved in general,

medical and even dairy bacteriology. The basic science based strategies to increase milk shelf

life to avoid contamination, to inactivate, to keep temperatures low - were well established

long before the turn of the 20th century. The existence of spores was also known by then, and

it was well known that temperatures above atmospheric boiling point of water are needed to

inactivate them, as seen in a few sentences from a lecture reported in Science 1890, Fig 2.
Even the the basic chemistry of non-bacterial milk deterioration had proceeded fairly far by

then. In 1897 Russel and Babcock (of Babcock test fame) found that noncontaminated milk

contains an enzyme which degrades caseins, this proteolytic milk indigenous enzyme was

named galactase. Encyclopedia Britannica 1911. Similarly an indigenous lipase was

demonstrated by Moro in 1902. Even oxidation was studied, and the effect of light as a

prooxidant was shown by Hanu in 1899. Further development occurred in the thirties. Heat

stability of milk lipase was studied by Nair, 1930. The effect of milk fat globule membrane

damage on lipolysis was determined by Dorner and Widmer in 1931, the effect of copper and

iron on autoxidation by Guthrie et al in 1931, and the effect of deareation by Dahle and

Palmer in 1937. The basic mechanism of the chain reaction in autooxidation was explained in

1943 by Farmer and Sutton, and the prooxidant role of riboflavin by Patton and Josephson in

1953. (Josephson 1954)

History of milk heat treatment

Heat treatment is the basis, or an important part, of all current shelf life improving methods.

Commercial heat treatment of liquid milk is well over 100 years old. In Paris, heat treated

milk was apparently sold in 1875 (Jensen, 1950).

Before the advent of refrigeration and mechanized transport, the market for liquid milk was

limited to farms in the immediate neighborhood of cities. Milk was used primarily for butter

production, and skim milk returned to farms as feed. It was the shelf life improvement of this

milk by heating (from 12 to 36h at room temperature, according to a Danish experimental

dairy report from 1883) that gave impetus to the fast spread of pasteurization in Europe. Only
later the health implications (for the health of the cow herd, not the consumer!) were

understood.

Some European countries legislated obligatory heat treatment of milk used for calf feeding,

to contain bovine tuberculosis (Germany 1894, Denmark 1898). The commercial advantage of

increased shelf life at a small increase of handling costs then led to a rapid introduction of

milk heat treatment in the cities of Europe. In Sweden 60% of dairies delivered pasteurized

milk in 1896. The adoption of heat treatment in USA was much slower, and highly

controversial, with only 25% of dairies pasteurizing in 1905. There was a widely held belief

that treating milk was unnatural and destroyed some of its essential goodness and unheated

certified milk produced under official supervision and inspection a better alternative.

Sterilized milk was produced commercially in the Netherlands already in 1889, and in

Germany and Britain in 1894 and was popular with the customers despite its significantly

different appearance and taste (Davies, 1950).

Process and equipment for milk treatment

A profusion of heat treatment equipment was developed and used, a plethora of heating times

and temperature combinations existed. Continuous heaters appeared as early as 1882, in

connection with continuous centrifugation, but the distribution of residence times was poorly

understood and controlled. Gradually, in the early twentieth century, continuous systems lost

favor and batchwise heating and heating of retail containers became the rule, as a

consequence of public health concerns about the reliability of the operation of continuous
systems. Public authorities intervened to impose obligatory rules for times, temperatures and

processing conditions. Later, the pendulum swung, first towards a semi-continuous, so called

holder pasteurization. In true batch pasteurizer, the milk was heated and cooled in a vat. In

holder pasteurizer, milk was continuously heated and pumped to a vat, and after specified

holding time, typically 30 minutes, pumped out and cooled. The acceptance of true

continuous pasteurization, High Temperature Short Time, HTST despite its much lower

costs varied between countries, in Great Britain continuous pasteurization remained illegal

until 1941 (Davies, 1950).

In most countries, multiple pasteurization of milk for public consumption is not allowed. A

subpasteurization treatment, thermizaton at 65C for 20s ahead of the final thermal treatment

had been introduced by Stadhouders in 1962 and caused an average shelf life increase of a

few days . In 1970 Martin and Blackwood found that thermization led to partial spore

germination (Blackwood and Martin 1972).

Already the very early milk treatment equipment could be surprisingly modern. So in 1912

Tdts Momentanerhitzer, Fig 3, which let milk under pressure pass a narrow channel, heated

from both sides with steam, could achieve 130-140C with a residence time of 5-30 sec. In the

same year, Lobecks Biorizer, Fig 4, sprayed milk into a steam filled chamber. Several designs

of double tube heat exchangers for milk, Fig 5, were developed in the early 20th century

(Stassano, Montana, Nielsen) and heat regeneration was widely used in them, in particular as

the energy costs increased during the first world war (Weigmann, 1932). In 1923 Seligmans

APV, Aluminium Plant and Vessel Company introduced the plate heat exchanger but seemed

to meet skepsis from health authorities - in Denmark, while in common use for other duties in

dairies, plate heat exchangers were permitted for consumer milk pasteurization first in 1939
(Jensen, 1950). The basic design of Gaulins high pressure homogenizer of 1904 survived

with small changes until today. Its adoption to treat milk before in bottle sterilization was

described (Davies, 1950) as a heaven-sent improvement which eliminated the objectionable

glue-like gelatinous mass of butterfat on the neck of the bottle. The patent application for

injection heating followed by flash cooling was filed in 1924 (Grinrod 1929). Wonderful

Heath Robinson machines for automatic temperature control (boiling alcohol displacing

mercury and the weight of mercury switching a valve) were invented at the turn of the

century, however, automatic temperature control began to be generally used in the early 30ies.

Stainless steel was introduced in plate heat exchangers just before the second world war, and

the material began to be widely used in dairies first after the war, in neutral Sweden with its

own steel industry somewhat earlier.

Apart from the classical heating methods, ohmic heating achieved limited success in some

markets, and ohmic milk heaters are still being produced. The argument for ohmic heaters is

based on the fact that there need not be any surface hotter than the nominal heating

temperature.

Microwave heating was attempted in an ingenious concept by a Swedish startup company,

AlfaStar (1986-1996). It tried to use microwave heating of filled and sealed milk packages,

and to compensate for the poor penetration depth of microwaves, the packages were flattened

for the treatment and later folded back to rectangular shape. However, the attempt failed, it is

unclear whether for technical or commercial reasons.

UHT
While milk pasteurization and its equipment have not seen a major change during the last fifty

years, there has been a significant development in the production of sterile milk. It was for a

long time fairly obvious that inactivation of spores has a steeper dependence on temperature

than the taste affecting chemical reactions in milk, and thus that a high temperature, short time

treatment would be beneficial. The technical difficulty of reliably achieving a defined

residence time shorter than a few second led to an optimal temperature range around 140C.

This approach received the name Ultra High Temperature treatment, UHT, in an analogy to

the HTST flow pasteurization. The problem of UHT was that with hot filling, the packages

could not be cooled fast enough, and with cold filling, the sterility could not be guaranteed.

In the current perspective, UHT milk is the obvious flag-bearer of the long shelf life milk

concept. A kind of UHT product existed since at least 1951, when preheated milk was filled in

cans and sterilized by the Dole process at 220C for 45s , but the origins of UHT are

traditionally connected with the Uperization process developed by Sulzer Brothers and Alpura

( later taken over by APV) and the TetraPak sterile carton filler which went commercial at

Verbandsmolkerei in Bern, Switzerland in 1961 (Burton H 1967a, b).

From what has been shown earlier it should be clear that the high temperature heating

process and the equipment to perform it was just another step in the evolution of more

sophisticated and better controlled heat processing lines. Such lines had been commonly used

to pretreat milk destined for in bottle or in can sterilization, in fact the Bern plant was

originally built with a can filler and a Dole can sterilizing process. All other major equipment

manufacturers developed their own variants of the UHT processing line within a few years,

either of the same direct steam injection type (Cherry Burrell, Alfa Laval), of steam infusion

type, akin to the above mentioned Biorizer (Laguillharre, Breil&Martel, Paasch&Silkeborg,

DASI), or with indirect heating (Alfa Laval, APV, Cherry-Burrell, Ahlborn, Sordi, Storck ),

Anonymous 1967, Burton 1967c,d,e,f,g, Krebs 1975 .

In the same way, filler designs had gradually evolved towards more reliable hygienic

standards by painstaking focus on detail, be it foaming in the filler, cleanability of the

enclosure, overpressure, cleaning procedures and so on. If a single breakthrough should be

singled out in UHT milk development, it would probably be the use of hydrogen peroxide to

achieve a reliable sterility of the packaging material in the TetraPak aseptic filler which

remained the dominant aseptic filler for a long time. The basic concept of wetting the

packaging material with a hydrogen peroxide solution and drying it off again remains the

dominant sterilization technique for packages which are not sterile produced onsite.

Plastic based sterile packaging appeared first with Prepacks plastic pouch in 1964 and some

ten years later with Formseals deep drawn cup and Remys blow moulded bottle. The light

and oxygen barrier properties of the plastic packages have only slowly improved to match the

five-ply sterile carton which, in contrast to the carton used for pasteurized milk, from the

very beginning included the impermeable aluminium layer.

The need for longer shelf life of milk was not acutely felt in the US, with its much better

developed refrigeration system and common 3 week shelf life of pasteurized milk,. It took

twenty years before the first commercial UHT plant appeared. There is a surprising analogy

with the slow acceptance of pasteurization.

With the microbial growth eliminated, there was a renewed surge of interest in the reasons

why UHT milk would not keep indefinitely. Heat stable bacterial proteases were identified by

Mayerhofer, Marshall, White, & Lu, (1973) and heat stable lipases by Driessen &
Stadhouders,1974. A new indigenous proteolytic enzyme,Cathepsin D, was identified by

Kaminogawa&Yamauchi 1972 and the role of plasmin, plasminogen, and their

inhibitor/activator systems clarified in the early 80ies (Grufferty&Fox,1988, Kelly &

McSweeney, 2003).

The gelation of UHT mik on prolonged storage at moderate ambient temperature was ascribed

to plasmin, (De Koning, Kaper, Rollema & Driessen 1985), but the cause of the variation in

sediment formation has yet not been conclusively determined.

Further technical developments appeared in the specific configuration of the final heating

device and in the choice and detail of package and enclosure sterilizing, but these have much

less effect on shelf life than the time temperature profile chosen, and the storage

temperature .From the technical point of view, there is no principal difference between a UHT

plant and a plant designed for the production of extended shelf life milk (Rysstad & Kolstad

2006).

Nonthermal methods of bacteria inactivation

Numerous nonthermal ways of containing the microbially caused deterioration of milk have

been invented and sometimes also applied. Many chemical disinfectants were developed for

medical use in late nineteenth century, and practically all of them have also been tested in

milk

Formaldehyde was an early favourite. In USA, Britain and Germany it was sold, mixed with

sugar, as a branded milk preserving additive, freezine milk sweet and played a role of an

alternative in USA in the heated discussion on pasteurization. Hydrogen peroxide was

proposed and investigated by Schrodt 1883, and was temporarily allowed for use in dairies in

Germany during the first world war. In general, German law forbade all disinfectants in milk

as early as 1879, (Weigman 1932), but in US, hydrogen peroxide (followed by catalase

continues to be an allowed additive for cheese milk. In renewed interest for highly reactive

species, hydrogen peroxide, this time in conjunction with the lactoperoxidase thiocyanate

briefly occurred in the 1970ies, Bjrck, Rosn, Marshall & Reiter 1975. The effects of carbon

dioxide on bacteria was studied already by Pasteur, according to an extensive review of its

effects (Valley 1928), and proposals to utilize carbon dioxide, attractive not least because it is

a natural constituent of fresh milk, reappear every now and than in different guises, and

remain an active area of research, most recently as supercritical carbon dioxide, Werner and

Hotchkiss 2006.

High pressure treatment of milk, currently another popular research topic, could recently

celebrate a centenary of the original work of Hite,1899. Hite had succeded in prolonging milk

shelf life, but the technical difficulties of obtaining the necessary pressures caused that his

work was largely forgotten and only reappeared when Japanese researchers teamed up with

heavy industry who had the necessary engineering knowhow. Obviously much more is now

known about the mechanism of action of high pressure. A few selected applications of high

pressure in foods have been a commercial success, among them avocado paste and raw ham,

and some dairy applications, e.g. to eliminate yeasts in fermented products, show promise, but

in liquid milk the high resistance of spores is a problem.

Radiation of all varieties was a common research topic until later part of the twentieth

century, from the work on UV radiation by Ayers in 1910 to post-atomic bomb interest in beta

radiation, Brasch 1947. Radiation has been a favoured option for food sterilization by many
for a long time, the German Federal Research Centre for Nutrition and Food in Karlsruhe

keeps an updated bibliography of its literature with over 16000 documents at the latest count,

but few milk producers would dream of touching the subject. That apart, gamma radiation at

spore affecting intensity produces such unacceptable taste that it hardly has been considered

as an option, and even UV light is likely to suffer from the same limitation. Intense visible

light has been promoted as bactericide, but there is little evidence that it has any other effects

than its thermal energy content and its UV-light admixture.

Electric field gradients which cause a potential difference of a few volts across a cell can

permeabilize the cell membrane and cause cell death, even for potentials of short duration.

The phenomenon has been much studied since the seventies, Zimmerman, Pilwat & Riemann,

1974 and provides the basis of Dunn & Pearlmann 1897 patent. Just how the permeabilization

happens is still not properly understood, Teissie, Golzio & Rols(2005) For use in liquid milk,

the high voltage apparatus cost, and the poor effect on spores are the problem.

The removal of bacteria

In contrast to work on bacterial inactivation, surprisingly little has been done in dairy research

on bacterial separation with the goal of improving shelf life. Currently, two methods are in

commercial use,

centrifugation and microfiltration. None of them achieves the count reductions obtainable by

pasteurization. For this reason, they are combined with a pasteurization, and their shelf-life

improving effect depends on the spore count of the raw milk.

A common problem of both filtration and centrifugation based methods is that they only can

treat skim milk. For fat-containing milk the spores in the cream fraction need to be handled by
other methods. A considerable ingenuity has been shown by the companies involved in the

configuration of their systems to minimize product losses and heat induced flavors, but some

type of an UHT-like treatment is a necessity.

High speed Sharpless centrifuge has been the standard method of recovery for bacteria in

bioengineering for almost a century, but given the size considerations and the relatively high

density of casein micelles it appeared unlikely that a significant effect in milk could be

achieved. The original work was performed in the fifties (Simonart and de Beer, 1953,

Simonart 1962) with the aim of improving milk quality, but it was the specific needs of

cheesemaking which led to the eventual adoption of the centrifugation based methods for milk

shelf life improvement.

In cheesemaking, spores of Clostridium species can lead to so called late blowing , a serious

problem where cheeses during maturation become inflated. The problem was traditionally

solved by addition of nitrite to cheese milk, but when public health concerns about nitirite

conversion to nitrosamines appeared, an alternative was sought. Heat treatment sufficient to

destroy spores is not an alternative, because of the effect on rennettability and cheese quality

in general. Spores are rather dense, and therefore centrifugal separation was attempted and

proved fairly successful. It was introduced under the trade name bactofugation in the sixties.

The effect of centrifugation on the reduction of microorganisms is rather limited, a few orders

of magnitude, but the remaining bacteria can be handled by pasteurization type heat treatment.

As an application for improving liquid milk shelf life, centrifugation appeared in the late

eighties, and the shelf life increases were not dramatic.

Sterile filtration using dead.end microfilters has been a staple laboratory procedure since the

commercial production of filters by Sartorius started in 1927, The smallest bacteria are
several tenths of micrometer in diameter, and thus a nominal pore size of 0.2 micrometer is

needed to exclude bacteria completely. However, as anyone with a standard 0.2 micron

syringe filter will quickly find out, it is not possible to sterile filter any significant amount of

milk. The problem is based on the fact that at least a portion of casein micelles is fairly large,

in the same order of magnitude as the filter pore size. Even if the micelles are smaller than the

pores, they are sterically excluded from the space close to the pore wall, and milk serum can

thus pass the pores faster than the micelles. Therefore casein micelles are concentrated at the

entrance to the pore, and will eventually clog it. This is a general phenomenon, (often called

concentration polarization) and it hindered the commercial use of filtration techniques for the

separation of submicrometer particles until the advent of cross flow techniques. In cross flow

filtration, a very large circulation rate tangential to the surface of the filter sweeps away the

accumulated material from the pore entrance..

The surprising (van der Horst and Hanemaaijer 1990) findings that in cross flow filtration,

realistic separation of bacteria and spores from milk could be achieved seems to have first

been made during investigations aimed at assessing microfiltration as an alternative to

centrifugal separation of fat at Alfa Laval in the early eighties (Holm, Malmberg and

Svensson 1989). Commercialization of the finding required a considerable effort, not least

because of poor reliability and cleanability of polymeric microfiltration membranes and could

only be completed after the commercialization of ceramic microfilters, a completely

unrelated development, originally a byproduct of the French nuclear research. The first

commercial plant producing extended shelf life milk based on microfiltration, at Ault Foods,

only came onstream in 1997.

Conclusion
On the relevant, i.e. relative scale, the shelf life improvement of two orders of magnitude,

from hours to weeks, is extremely impressive. It has been achieved by milk pasteurization,

avoidance of initial contamination and recontamination and by maintenance of the cold chain

Without denigrating the excellent research in applied dairy science it appears that the general

affluence of the western societies, which allowed refrigerated distribution and home

refrigerators, the small gradual improvements of the technical implementation of milk

processing, and focus on attention to detail along the whole chain, from cleaning of the cows

teats to formal quality control procedures in dairies have contributed more than any research

result.

Similarly, the success of UHT treatment and the centrifugation and microfiltration based

extended shelf life methods seems to be more a result of improved overall engineering design

and capability than of basic new insights and flashes of genius.

Outlook

In comparison to other aspects of milk shelf life, relatively little attention seems to have been

paid to sterile extraction of milk and the maintenance of carbon dioxide/oxygen status of raw

milk.

Given the explosive growth of biological sciences, it would be surprising if a more complete

understanding of the biology of spore germination would not lead to new methods of reliably

inducing germination, and thus make sporicidal treatments superfluous.

In the very long perspective, even affinity based separations of pathogens and product

spoiling enzymes might become a technically and commercially viable alternative..

In the near perspective, a better understanding of the casein micelle might make it possible to

manipulate the micelle size on the technical scale and thereby improve the efficiency of
bacteria separating methods. Centrifugation efficiency is also likely to be improved by the

detailed CFD simulations of centrifuge flow patterns which are now feasible.

Acknowledgements

The author, not a shelf life specialist, can not claim to stand on the shoulders of giants.

Perhaps peering between the legs of a crowd is a more fitting description. Far from being a

review, this a personal view based on idiosyncratic reading of mostly secondary and tertiary

sources and informal contacts within the dairy world during thirty years. Help from Bozena

Malmgren, fellow researcher and TetraPak UHT specialist, Lars Ljung of TetraPak, with a

vivid interest in dairy history, and from professor Pieter Walstra is gratefully acknowledged.

As the Chinese saying has it, the merits, if any, of this work should be attributed to the

sources, the faults and errors are entirely mine.

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Legends to Figures

Fig 1 Liquid milk shelf life in USA and Europe

Fig 2 Fragments of text from Conn, H.W. 1890 The fermentations of milk and their

prevention. Science 17(432) 272-274

Fig 3 Tdts Momentanerhitzer, 1912, an early steam heated thin channel heater, (from

Wiegand, 1932).

Fig 4 Lobecks Biorizer, 1912, an early steam infusion heater, (from Wiegand, 1932)

Fig 5 Double tube heat exchanger, from the 1925 product catalogue of Aktiebolaget Separator

(later Alfa Laval)

Fig1
Fig 2
Fig 3
Fig 4

Fig 5
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