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Article
Novel Auto-Reclosing Blocking Method for
Combined Overhead-Cable Lines in Power Networks
Ricardo Granizo Arrab 1, *, Carlos Antonio Platero Gaona 1 , Fernando lvarez Gmez 2
and Emilio Rebollo Lpez 1
1 Department of Electrical Engineering, ETS Ingenieros Industriales, Technical University of Madrid,
C/Jos Gutierrez Abascal, 2, 28006 Madrid, Spain; carlosantonio.platero@upm.es (C.A.P.G.);
emilio.rebollo.lopez@gmail.com (E.R.L.)
2 Department of Electrical Engineering, ETS Ingeniera y Diseo Industrial, Technical University of Madrid,
C/Ronda de Valencia, 3, 28012 Madrid, Spain; fernando.alvarez@upm.es
* Correspondence: ricardo.granizo@upm.es; Tel.: +34-91-336-6842
Abstract: This paper presents a novel auto-reclosing blocking method for combined overhead-cable
lines in power distribution networks that are solidly or impedance grounded, with distribution
transformers in a delta connection in their high-voltage sides. The main contribution of this new
technique is that it can detect whether a ground fault has been produced at the overhead line
side or at the cable line side, thus improving the performance of the auto-reclosing functionality.
This localization technique is based on the measurements and analysis of the argument differences
between the load currents in the active conductors of the cable and the currents in the shields at
the cable end where the transformers in delta connection are installed, including a wavelet analysis.
This technique has been verified through computer simulations and experimental laboratory tests.
1. Introduction
Power systems use protection devices to detect and clear different types of short circuits, overloads
and, in general, abnormal working conditions or fault situations that might be dangerous to the facilities
and the stability of the electrical power system. Most faults in power distribution networks are located
in the lines those that take place in the machinery, switchgear and measurement devices installed at the
main substations. Some distribution lines have two different parts: the cable line side and the overhead
line side [1]. Protection relays have the responsibility to clear faults that happen in their protection
zones and for that purpose, a close and quite approximate location of the ground fault in electrical
power systems is required for protection systems [2]. Overhead protection systems have different
working principles to cable protection systems [3]. At any distribution line, the protection system must
guarantee the power supply in the most reliable way. For that purpose, there are many protection
functions implemented to clear up all types of possible faults and keep the grid as stable as possible.
Power distribution networks normally have voltage levels up to 45 kV although in some countries in
Europe their voltage levels can reach up to 150 kV [4]. If there is a ground fault, a three-phase tripping
order will be given to clear it, and a loss of power demand results [5]. It is extremely important to know
the maximum reclosing time [6,7] to recover power supply and keep the system as stable as possible.
When a distribution line is formed by cable and overhead sections (Figure 1), faults in the cable
line side cause irreparable damage because the insulation of the cable has been partially or totally
deteriorated: this is the reason why reclosing attempts are not allowed. Faults at the overhead line
side are normally produced by lightning strikes [8]. On the other hand, faults in the overhead line side
side are normally produced by lightning strikes [8]. On the other hand, faults in the overhead line
permit reclosing
side permit withoutwithout
reclosing risk, because the air insulation
risk, because is normallyisrecovered
the air insulation normallyinrecovered
a few milliseconds
in a few
and almost one second if there is mutual capacitive coupling to other lines.
milliseconds and almost one second if there is mutual capacitive coupling to other lines.
Overhead
Line - 1
(Rt)
Overhead
Distribution
Line - 2
Substation - A
(Rt)
Transition
(Zta) Station End
Substation - B
Overhead
Line - n (1)
(Rsa)
(Rt) (Rt) (2)
(2) (Rsb)
In Figure
In Figure 1, 1, the
the earthing
earthing of of thethe cable
cable shields
shields at at the
the transition
transition station
station is is connected
connected to to of
of the
the
corresponding tower,
corresponding tower,whose
whoseearthing
earthingresistance
resistancevalue
valueisisrepresented
representedas asRRt .t. Substations
Substations A A and
and BB have
have
their respective
their respective grounding
grounding resistances
resistances RRsasa andand RRsb sb. The earthing resistances Rtt at every every tower
tower have
have
normally slightly
normally slightly different
differentvalues.
values.
If aafault
If faultoccurs
occurs at the
at the cable
cable line line side isand
side and is cleared
cleared up, a post-reclosing
up, a post-reclosing order on order oncondition
the fault the fault
condition
will will be an unsuccessful
be an unsuccessful reclosingAlso,
reclosing maneuver. maneuver.
the gridAlso, the grid
will have will havea to
to withstand new withstand a new
fault condition
faultbecondition
and able to clearanditbe upable
again.to Beside
clear ittheseup again. Beside theseoftwo
two disadvantages disadvantages
unsuccessful of unsuccessful
reclosing maneuvers,
reclosingis maneuvers,
another anothersignificant
the fact of creating is the factand of creating
extensivesignificant
damage inand the extensive
cable, being damage
the mostin the cable,
probable
being the most
consequence to probable consequence
have to replace to have
it entirely. This tocircumstance
replace it entirely. This the
will keep circumstance
distribution will keep
line outtheof
distribution line out of order for a long time while the cable
order for a long time while the cable is replaced. Therefore, the discrimination of the fault in the is replaced. Therefore, the
discrimination
overhead side or of in
thethe
fault
lineinside
the is overhead
essentialside or in the
to allow line side isand
to protection essential to allow
the control to protection
system to send
aand the control
reclosing ordersystem to send athere
[9]. Currently, reclosing order [9].protection
are different Currently,criteria
there are differentfrom
to remove protection
servicecriteria
a line
to remove
with a ground from service a line with a ground fault.
fault.
This presents aa technique
This technique that that determines
determineswhere wherethe theground
groundfault faulthashastaken
takenplace in an
place in
overhead-cable line considering a grounding method
an overhead-cable line considering a grounding method mostly used in power mostly used in power distribution networks
networks
with the
with the overhead
overhead side side substations
substations solidly
solidly grounded,
grounded, or or through
through grounding
grounding impedance
impedance with with low
low
ohmic value.
ohmic value. At the cable end side, the the system
system is is ungrounded
ungrounded with with power
power transformers
transformers in in aa delta
delta
connection in
connection in their
their primary
primary side.
side. TheThe models
models usedused follow
follow the
the impedance
impedance calculation
calculation described
described in in the
the
standard EN60909-3
standard EN60909-3 [10]. [10].
Wefirst
We firstpresent
present a brief
a brief overview
overview of lineof line protection
protection techniques. techniques. Section 2the
Section 2 describes describes
formulation the
formulation
used for modelingused for themodeling the cables.
cables. Section Section
3 includes the3impedances
includes theofimpedances of cablesequations
cables and general and general for
equations
shield for shield
connections. Then, connections.
Section 4 detailsThen, the Section 4 details
principles the principles
of the proposed of the proposed
auto-reclosing blocking
auto-reclosing
method technique. blocking
Section method
5 analyzestechnique. Section simulations
the software 5 analyzes of thethesoftware
operation simulations of the
of the proposed
operationand
method, of Section
the proposed method,
6 presents and Section
the results 6 presentsfault
of experimental the results of experimental
tests carried fault tests
out in the laboratory.
carried Section
Finally, out in 7the laboratory.
concludes with Finally,
the mainSection 7 concludes
contributions with the technique.
of the proposed main contributions of the
proposed technique.
Energies 2016, 9, 964 3 of 21
20
2. State-of-the-Art
2. State-of-the-Art
There are two main protection relays that incorporate the auto-reclosing facility in power
There are
distribution two main
networks: protection
distance relays that
and ground fault incorporate the auto-reclosing
directional overcurrent facility
protection in In
relays. power
this
distribution networks: distance
section, both techniques are presented. and ground fault directional overcurrent protection relays. In this
section, both techniques are presented.
2.1. Distance Protection (ANSI 21)
2.1. Distance Protection (ANSI 21)
This protection responds to the impedance value measured between the relay and the fault
This[1113].
location protection
As theresponds
impedance to the impedance
of any value
line is fairly measured
constant, suchbetween
protectiontherelays
relay work
and thewithfault
the
location [1113]. As the impedance of any line is fairly constant, such protection relays
impedance value of the line. Its application requires consideration of several very important factors: work with the
impedance value of the line. Its application requires consideration of several very important factors:
The resistance of the arc [14].
The resistance of the arc [14].
The different contributions to the short circuit current from the ends of the line.
The
The different contributions to the
effect of non-transposition of short circuit current from the ends of the line.
the conductors.
The
The effect
effect of
of non-transposition
zero sequence mutual of the conductors.
impedance in parallel lines.
The effect of zero sequence mutual impedance in parallel lines.
Among the most interesting features from the point of view of their application are:
Among the most interesting features from the point of view of their application are:
The reduction of the clearing times of faults.
The reduction
An easier of the clearing
coordination timesprotections.
with other of faults.
An easier coordination with other protections.
The lack of sensitivity to power swings or pendulums in the network.
The lack of sensitivity to power swings or pendulums in the network.
The locus of the action limit of the protection is the impedance seen by it. As this impedance is a
complexThe number
locus of the
withaction
a reallimit
partof the protection
(resistance) and isanthe impedance
imaginary partseen by it. Asitthis
(reactance), canimpedance
be perfectly is
a complex number with a real part (resistance) and an imaginary part (reactance),
represented in R-X diagrams. Therefore, the tripping characteristic of the distance relay can be it can be perfectly
represented in on
superimposed R-Xandiagrams.
R-X diagram Therefore, the trippingseen
to the impedance characteristic
by the same of the distance
at fault relay can
condition, powerbe
superimposed
swings or heavy an R-X
onloads, diagram
and thus betoable
the impedance
to verify theseen by the same
performance at fault
of the condition,
protection. power
Figure swings
2 shows a
typical setting of distance protection in a distribution line with line impedance ZL withtypical
or heavy loads, and thus be able to verify the performance of the protection. Figure 2 shows a three
setting of distance
impedance steps: Zprotection in a distribution line with line impedance ZL, with
A, ZB and ZC. The tripping times for such zones are tA tB, tC three
with timpedance
A < tB < tC.
steps:
ZA , ZB and ZC . The tripping times for such zones are tA , tB , tC with tA < tB < tC .
(a) (b)
ZL X ZL
X
Zone C
Zone A R Zone B
Zone B Zone A
Zone C R
(c)
X ZL
(d)
Zone C X ZL
Zone B Zone C
Zone B
Zone
Zone A
A Zone A
R
R
Figure 2.
Figure Types of
2. Types of impedance relay characteristics
impedance relay with three
characteristics with three zone
zone settings: (a) Impedance
settings: (a) Impedance relay;
relay;
(b) Mho relay; (c) Reactance relay; (d) Quadrilateral relay.
(b) Mho relay; (c) Reactance relay; (d) Quadrilateral relay.
Energies
Energies 2016,
2016, 9,9,964
964 4 of 2120
4 of
Energies 2016, 9, 964 4 of 21
Any small current or voltage transformer error could represent an important increase or
Any small current or voltage transformer error could represent an important increase or
Any small
decrease in the current
measured or voltage transformer
impedance. error could
Consequently, represent
if the fault wasan important
producedincrease
very close or decrease
to the
decrease in the measured impedance. Consequently, if the fault was produced very close to the
intransition
the measured impedance. Consequently, if the fault was produced
overhead-cable line, it is not known in which side it has happened. Therefore, impedance very close to the transition
transition overhead-cable line, it is not known in which side it has happened. Therefore, impedance
overhead-cable
protection is not line, it isselective
fully not known in which side
to discriminate it has happened.
whether the ground Therefore, impedance
fault has happened in protection
the cable
protection is not fully selective to discriminate whether the ground fault has happened in the cable
isor
notin the
fully overhead
selective side.
to In power
discriminate distribution
whether the networks
ground rated
fault 45
has
or in the overhead side. In power distribution networks rated 45 or 66 kV, distance protection or 66 kV,
happened distance
in the protection
cable is
or in the
is
mainly
overhead used
side. when
In the
power system is solidly
distribution
mainly used when the system is solidly grounded. grounded.
networks rated 45 or 66 kV, distance protection is mainly used
when the system is solidly grounded.
2.2.
2.2.Directional
DirectionalGround
GroundFault FaultProtection
Protection(ANSI
(ANSI67N)67N)
2.2. Directional Ground Fault Protection (ANSI 67N)
This
This protection measures the magnitudesof
protection measures the magnitudes ofthe
the ground
ground fault
fault current,
current, the
the residual
residual voltage
voltage andand
the angular
This difference
protection between
measures the them. If
magnitudes the ground
of the fault
ground current
fault
the angular difference between them. If the ground fault current and the residual voltage have and
current,thetheresidual
residual voltage
voltage haveand
values
the angularover the
difference setting values
between previously
them. If the set
groundin the
faultprotection
current relay,
and
values over the setting values previously set in the protection relay, and the angular difference the and the
residual angular
voltage difference
have values
between
overbetween them
the setting isis inside
themvalues the
the directional
previously
inside set in thetripping
directional protection
tripping zone defined,
relay,
zone and the
defined, the protection
angular
the relay
difference
protection will
will send
relay between sendthemaa
tripping
is inside
tripping order
theorder to
directionalthe circuit breaker
tripping
to the circuit once
zone defined,
breaker the
once the the tripping time
protection
tripping set
time set has
relay expired.
haswill Most
send Most
expired. ground
a tripping
ground faults
order in
to in
faults the
solidly
circuit
solidly grounded
breaker once the
grounded power
power distribution
tripping time set has
distribution networks
expired.have
networks Most an
have inductive
ground
an faults in
inductive character; therefore,
solidly grounded
character; therefore,power the
the
characteristic
distribution
characteristic angle
anglebetween
networks have anthe
between ground
inductive
the fault
fault current
groundcharacter; and
and residual
therefore,
current voltage,
voltage, at
the characteristic
residual at which
angle the
which greatest
between
the greatestthe
sensitivity
ground
sensitivity is
fault is achieved,
current
achieved, is normally
andisresidual
normally 110
voltage, with
110 with the
at which ground fault
the greatest
the ground current leading
sensitivity
fault current leading the residual
is achieved,
the residual voltage.
is normally
voltage.
Figure
110 with
Figure 33shows
the
shows the
ground thecharacteristic
fault current
characteristic tripping
leading
tripping zone
thefor
zone solidly
residual
for grounded
solidlyvoltage.
grounded distribution
Figure 3 shows
distribution power systems.
the characteristic
power systems.
tripping zone for solidly grounded distribution power systems.
IoIo
110
110
Trip-Zone Trip-Zone
Trip-Zone
Trip-Zone
No-Trip-Zone No-Trip-Zone
No-Trip-Zone
No-Trip-Zone
Uo
Uo
Figure 3. Tripping zone for solidly grounded power distribution networks. (Uo) Residual voltage;
Figure
Figure3.3.Tripping
Trippingzone
zonefor
forsolidly
solidlygrounded
grounded power
power distribution
distribution networks.
networks. (Uo)
(Uo) Residual
Residual voltage;
(Io) Residual current; (110 ) Characteristic tripping angle.
(Io)
(Io)Residual
Residualcurrent;
current;(110)
(110)Characteristic
Characteristictripping
trippingangle.
angle.
3.3.3.
Impedances
Impedancesof
Impedances ofCables
of Cablesand
Cables and General
andGeneral Equations
GeneralEquations forShield
Equationsfor
for ShieldConnections
Shield Connections
Connections
The
The
Theproposed
proposed
proposedmethod
methodapplies
method appliesto
applies todistribution
to distributionlines
distribution lines with
lineswith overhead
with overhead
overhead and andcable
and cablesections,
cable sections,where
sections, wherethe
the
shields
shields of the
shieldsofofthecables
thecables are
cablesare connected
areconnected to
connectedto earth
toearth at
earthat both
atboth ends
bothends of
ends of the
of the cable,
the cable, known
cable, known
known as as Single
as Single Bonding (SB).
Single Bonding (SB).
NoNotransposition
No transposition
transpositionofofthe
ofthe cable
the shields
cable
cableshieldshas
shields been
has
has implemented
been
been implemented
implemented [15]. ForFor
[15].
[15]. example,
For thethe
example,
example, composition
the compositionof any
of
standard
any cable
standard for medium-voltage
cable for applications
medium-voltage and a
applicationsflat disposal
and a of
flat
any standard cable for medium-voltage applications and a flat disposal of three three cables
disposal of are represented
three cables arein
Figure 4.
represented
representedininFigure
Figure4.4.
ricric
rocroc
risris SSCSCS SSCSCS
rosros
tpstps
rSrS
Conductor
Conductor
Isolation
Isolation
Shield
Shield
External
External cover
cover (b)
(b)
(a)
(a)
Figure
Figure
Figure 4.4.4. (a)
(a)
(a) Cable
Cable
Cable compositionand
composition
composition and(b)
and (b)flat
(b) flatdisposal.
flat disposal.(r
disposal. (r(ricicic))) Internal
Internal conductor
Internal conductor radius;
conductor radius;
radius; (r (r
(rocococ) )External
External
conductor
conductor
conductor radius;
radius;
radius; (ris(r)(risInternal
) ) Internal
is Internal conductor
conductor
conductor shield;
(ros )(r(r
shield;
shield; os)) External
External
os External shield shield
shield radius;
radius;
radius; (rss)) Average
(r
(rs ) Average Average
shieldshield radius;
radius;
radius; (S
(S )
CS ) Distance
Distance between
between axes
axes of
of the
the conductor
conductor and
and shield;
shield;
(SCS ) Distance between axes of the conductor and shield; (tps ) External cover thickness.
CS (t
(t ps)) External
ps External cover
cover thickness.
thickness.
Energies 2016, 9, 964 5 of 20
ZS = R
The mutual impedance between S(ca) + 2107f + j4107ln(De/rs)
conductor i and shield j can be written as: (3)
The mutual impedance between conductor i and shield j can be written as:
ZCS = 2 107 f + j4107 ln(De /SCS ) (4)
ZCS = 2107f + j4107ln(De/SCS) (4)
The mutual impedance between any conductor and its shield can be written as:
The mutual impedance between any conductor and its shield can be written as:
ZCS
ZCS = 210
2=10 7 7
1077ln(D
f +f j+4j410 ln(Dee/r
/rss)) (5)(5)
The mutual impedance between shields is given by:
The mutual impedance between shields is given by:
ZSS = 2107f + j4107ln(De/SSS) (6)
ZSS = 2 107 f + j4107 ln(De /SSS ) (6)
3.2. Balanced
3.2. Balanced System:
System: General
General Equations
Equations for
for Single
Single Bonding
Bonding (SB)
(SB) Shield
Shield Connections
Connections
The circuit
The circuit used
usedin
inthis
thisstudy
studyisisshown
shownin
inFigure
Figure55and
andcorresponds
correspondsto
toan
anSB
SBconnection.
connection.
Isa
Ia
Isb
Ib
Isc
Ic
U
R1 R2
Figure5.5.Standard
Figure Standard shields
shields connection
connection for SBfor SB applications.
applications. (Ia , Ib , Ic (I a, Ib, Ic) in
) Currents Currents in conductors;
conductors; (Isa , Isb , Isc )
(I , I , I ) Currents in shields; (R , R ) Ground resistances at both ends of
Currents in shields; (R1 , R2 ) Ground resistances at both ends of shields; (U) Potential difference
sa sb sc 1 2 shields; (U) Potential
between
difference
shield between shield terminals.
terminals.
When the load currents form a three-phase balanced system and only a positive sequence
component exists, the vector sum of the line currents flowing in the conductors is zero. The voltages
induced in the shields have a component due to the flow of current through conductor, and another
due to the currents circulating in the shields. As shown in Figure 5, the shields are grounded at both
ends and the voltages between the two grounding connections are equal to the three shields as:
Energies 2016, 9, 964 6 of 20
When the load currents form a three-phase balanced system and only a positive sequence
component exists, the vector sum of the line currents flowing in the conductors is zero. The voltages
induced in the shields have a component due to the flow of current through conductor, and another
due to the currents circulating in the shields. As shown in Figure 5, the shields are grounded at both
ends and the voltages between the two grounding connections are equal to the three shields as:
The mathematical models for such induced voltages are listed below:
where:
U1 ZC1S1 ZC2S1 ZC3S1 I1 ZS1S1 ZS2S1 ZS3S1 IS1
U2 = L ZC1S2 ZC2S2 ZC3S2 I2 + L ZS1S2 ZS2S2 ZS3S2 IS2 (15)
U3 ZC1S3 ZC2S3 ZC3S3 I3 ZS1S3 ZS2S3 ZS3S3 IS3
L3S3 for the respective phases and corresponding shields. A second evaluation is developed for the
second decision criteria and to make sure that the right maneuver will be taken up. This second
evaluation is a wavelet analysis of those angular differences. The wavelet analysis uses the discrete
wavelet
Energies 2016, 9, transform
964 (DWT) and only evaluates the high-frequency elements [1618]. These two7 of 20
analyses are now described.
Active
conductors
CT
CT New Auto-Reclosing
Blocking Unit
CT
CT
CT
CT
Cable
Shields
Power
cables
Figure
Figure 6. Currents
6. Currents ofof thecables
the cablesmeasured
measured in
inthe
theactive
activeconductors andand
conductors their shields.
their shields.
4.1. Analysis of Angular Difference Between the Conductor Currents and Respective Shields
Once this trigger signal has been acknowledged, the new method initiates the procedure to classify
This analysis evaluates the angular differences L1S1, L2S2 and L3S3. In normal operation
where the ground fault has happened, and takes the decision of whether or not to block the reclosing
without ground faults, the currents circulating in staggered cables in the three shields form a
maneuver. With the shields connected in SB disposal, the new method first evaluates the angular
balanced system, and the angular differences between active currents and shield currents have
difference
similarbetween the currents
values. Cables in flatindisposal
the active
havepart of the cables
unbalanced and their
currents in thecorresponding
shields, as the shields during
distances
a time of 40 ms
between previous
them to the acknowledgement
are not exactly of theintrigger,
the same; whereas cables and another
delta disposal normally40 have
ms after
very such trigger
similar
has been acknowledged,
currents. As a function so theground
of the total evaluation time
fault position, theisphase-shield
80 ms. A full period
current Fourier
angular transformation
differences are
over increased,
a runningdecreased
windoworofstay twothecycles of Their
same. the fundamental
behavior allows, frequency
in most to calculate
cases, the phase
the location of theof the
groundcurrent.
respective fault to be determined.
This Typical overhead
angular difference lines up
is hereafter to 30 km
denoted L1S1,
asand cableL2S2
lengthsand
up toL3S3
1200 mfor the
have been
respective evaluated
phases as a case study.
and corresponding However,
shields. this method
A second could is
evaluation bedeveloped
used in similar configurations
for the second decision
with
criteria larger
and distances.
to make sure that the right maneuver will be taken up. This second evaluation is a wavelet
When the ground fault occurs in the overhead line side, the currents in the shields are due to the
analysis of those angular differences. The wavelet analysis uses the discrete wavelet transform (DWT)
mutual coupling between all conductors and shields. In such ground fault conditions, the angular
and only evaluates the high-frequency elements [1618]. These two analyses are now described.
difference between them is in the range from 10 to 50. Practically all ground fault current circulates
from the fault point to the grounding system in the main distribution substation to which the power
4.1. Analysis of Angular Difference Between the Conductor Currents and Respective Shields
transformer is grounded.
ThisHowever, if the ground
analysis evaluates thefault occurs
angular in the line L1S1,
differences L2S2
side, ground fault L3S3.
andcurrent circulates from
In normal the
operation
faultground
without point to both the
faults, endscurrents
of the shield of the in
circulating phase with acables
staggered fault. The shield
in the threeofshields
the cable with
form the
a balanced
ground
system, and fault acts as adifferences
the angular ground faultbetween
current divider. At the earthing
active currents of such
and shield a shield
currents at both
have cable
similar values.
ends, both fault currents return to the main substation; whereas the currents circulating in the
Cables in flat disposal have unbalanced currents in the shields, as the distances between them are not
shields of the phases without any fault keep circulating from one end to the other of the cable. This
exactly the same; whereas cables in delta disposal normally have very similar currents. As a function
circulation process makes L1S1, L2S2 and L3S3 greatly increase and have values well above 50
of theThe
ground fault position, the phase-shield current angular differences are increased, decreased or
threshold to decide whether the auto-reclosing maneuver is blocked has been selected as 50,
stay the same.
which appearsTheir
in behavior allows,
the algorithm in most
developed forcases, the application.
this new location of the ground fault to be determined.
Typical overhead lines up to 30 km and cable lengths up to 1200 m have been evaluated as a case study.
However, this method could be used in similar configurations with larger distances.
When the ground fault occurs in the overhead line side, the currents in the shields are due to the
mutual coupling between all conductors and shields. In such ground fault conditions, the angular
difference between them is in the range from 10 to 50 . Practically all ground fault current circulates
from the fault point to the grounding system in the main distribution substation to which the power
transformer is grounded.
However, if the ground fault occurs in the line side, ground fault current circulates from the fault
point to both ends of the shield of the phase with a fault. The shield of the cable with the ground fault
acts as a ground fault current divider. At the earthing of such a shield at both cable ends, both fault
currents return to the main substation; whereas the currents circulating in the shields of the phases
Energies 2016, 9, 964 8 of 20
without any fault keep circulating from one end to the other of the cable. This circulation process
makes L1S1, L2S2 and L3S3 greatly increase and have values well above 50 The threshold to
decide whether the auto-reclosing maneuver is blocked has been selected as 50 , which appears in the
algorithm developed for this new application.
Energies 2016, 9, 964 8 of 21
4.2. Wavelet Analysis of the Angular Difference Between the Conductor Currents and Respective Shields
4.2. Wavelet
The Analysis ofanalysis
use of wavelet the Angular Difference
allows Between the
information Conductor
in the Currents and
time domain. TheRespective
signal toShields
be studied is
decomposed Theinto different
use of waveletshort scales
analysis of windows
allows forin
information the
thehigher frequencies,
time domain. and long
The signal to bewindow
studied isscales
decomposed
for the into different
low frequencies. shortsignals
Electrical scales such
of windows for the
as currents andhigher frequencies,
voltages are notand
freelong
fromwindow
harmonics;
scales for the low frequencies. Electrical signals such as currents and voltages
the Discrete Wavelet Transform is very effective. Its formulation can be written as follows: are not free from
harmonics; the Discrete Wavelet Transform is very effective. Its formulation can be written
as follows: S, (t) = S1/2 (t /S); S > 0; S R (16)
S,(t) = S1/2(t /S); S > 0; S R (16)
where the mother wavelet is expanded or contracted by the scale factor S (S1/2 (t/S)).
where the mother wavelet is expanded or contracted by the scale factor S (S1/2(t/S). Such a
Such a mother wavelet is inversely proportional to the frequency and is shifted by the shift factor
mother wavelet is inversely proportional to the frequency and is shifted by the shift factor
((t )) [19]. The mother wavelet chosen to develop the DWT analysis must have good features
((t ) [19]. The mother wavelet chosen to develop the DWT analysis must have good features to
to remove harmonics as well as high performance when extracting the main characteristics of the
remove harmonics as well as high performance when extracting the main characteristics of the
studied signal.
studied There
signal. are several
There mother
are several wavelets
mother wavelets such asasHarr,
such Harr,Daubechies,
Daubechies, Biorthogonal, Coiflets, etc.
Biorthogonal, Coiflets,
The number of decomposition steps is chosen function of the sampling frequency
etc. The number of decomposition steps is chosen function of the sampling frequency of the original of the original signal.
The first decomposition
signal. has two elements:
The first decomposition a high-frequency
has two elements: element
a high-frequency D1 andD1aand
element low-frequency
a low-frequencyelement
A1 . As a function
element A1. Asofathe sampling
function of the samplingfsfrequency
frequency , the frequency
fs, the band of Dband
frequency 1 element fs /2fs /4
of D1iselement is Hz,
whereas
fs/2fthe frequency
s/4 Hz, whereasband of A1 element
the frequency band ofisAfs1/40 Hz.isInfs/40
element the second
Hz. In thedecomposition, the A1 element
second decomposition, the
is decomposed
A1 element is into D2 element
decomposed intoforD2 the high-frequency
element band (fs /4f
for the high-frequency bands /8
(fs/4f Hz) A
Hz)s/8and 2 element
and A2 elementfor the
for the low-frequency
low-frequency band (fs /80 band
Hz).(fs/80
ThisHz). This process
process is repeated
is repeated until
until the the desired
desired frequency
frequency bandbandreached
allowsreached
the rightallows the right of
information information of thesignal
the evaluated evaluated
to be signal to beInextracted.
extracted. Figure 7,IntheFigure 7, the
decomposition
decomposition developed by the
developed by the wavelet transform can be seen.wavelet transform can be seen.
A i s i 1 Hz
LF
f
2
A2
LF
A1
D i Hz
fs
LF HF
2i
D 2 s 2 Hz
y(x) HF f
2
D 1 s 1 Hz
HF f
2
Figure 7. Wavelet
Figure transform.
7. Wavelet transform.Frequency
Frequency bands relatedtotodecomposition
bands related decomposition steps.
steps.
The Daubechies
The Daubechies 2 mother
2 mother wavelet,
wavelet, dB2,dB2, has been
has been selected,
selected, as itashas
it good
has good characteristics
characteristics to
to classify
classify the magnitude of the D1 component [20] when the ground fault is located at the overhead or
the magnitude of the D1 component [20] when the ground fault is located at the overhead or cable side
cable side of the line. The threshold for D1 value components has been selected to 50 to block the
of the line. The threshold for D1 value components has been selected to 50 to block the auto-reclosing
auto-reclosing order when its value is higher. The variable W represents its value in the algorithm
order(Figure
when its8). value is higher. The variable W represents its value in the algorithm (Figure 8).
Analysis
Analysis
+/-40 ms
+/-40 ms
from the
from the
trigger input
trigger input
>50
>50
<60
<60 Reclosing
Reclosing
Angle Blocked.
Blocked.
Angle
Differences
Differences AND
AND Fault
Phase/Shield
Phase/Shield Wavelet Fault at at
Wavelet Cable
analysis. W W Cable
analysis.
Coefficients W>50
W>50 SideSide
Coefficients <60
<60
dB2-cD1
dB2-cD1
evaluation
evaluation
Figure
Figure
Figure 8.8.8. Algorithm
Algorithm
Algorithm of
ofof
thethe
the new
new
new auto-reclosing
auto-reclosing
auto-reclosing blocking
blocking
blocking method.
method.
method.
5.5.Analysis
5. AnalysisofofSimulation
SimulationResults
Results
Theproposed
The
The proposedauto
proposed autoreclosing
auto reclosingblocking
reclosing blockingmethod
blocking method
method waswas
was simulated
simulated
simulated using
using
using Simulink
Simulink
Simulink in in
in aa typical
typical
a typical
powerdistribution
power
power distributionnetwork network
network presented
presented
presented asas a case
a as
case study.
a study.
case AnAn
study. equivalent
equivalent pi
An equivalentpi model
model forfor
pi lines
modellines was
wasforused used
lines
asaswell
was well asaspower
used power
as welltransformers
as power rated
transformers rated 66/20
transformers 66/20 kV,kV,2020
rated MVA
MVA
66/20 with
with
kV,Dyn1
Dyn1 connection
20 MVA with group
connection Dyn1group and anddistribution
connection distribution
group
transformers
transformers
and distribution rated
rated 20/0.4
20/0.4kV,
transformers kV,630 630 kVA
rated kVA andand
20/0.4 connection
connection
kV, 630 kVA group
group
andDyn11.
Dyn11. Loads
connection Loads in these
in
group these distribution
Dyn11. distribution
Loads
transformers
transformers
in were
these distributionwereconsidered
considered
transformers upup toto600600
were kVAkVA with
with
considered standardup topower
standard power
600 factors
kVA factors
with fromfrom 0.85
standard inductive
0.85 inductive
power to 1.to 1.
factors
The
Thegrid
from 0.85scheme
grid scheme
inductive used
usedtohas hasone
1. Theoneoverhead
overhead
grid scheme distribution
used hasline
distribution with
line
one witha total
overhead a total length
length
distribution of of
24linekm.km.
24 TheThe
with api pi
total
parameters
parameters
length of
of 24ofkm. the overhead
the overhead
The pilineline without ground
without ground
parameters wire
of the wire have
overhead the
have the following
linefollowing values:
without values: R
groundRwire
0 = 0.831
0 = 0.831 /km,
have /km,
the
Rfollowing
1 1 = = 0.687
R 0.687 /km,
values: /km, R0L=0L0.831 /km,H/km,
0= =0.00486
0.00486 RH/km,
1 = L
0.6871L1=/km,
=L 2 L=2 L0.001383
= 0 0.001383
= 0.00486 H/km,
H/km,
H/km, C C
0L
1
=0 = 4.24
=L2 4.24
= 10
0.0013839 F/km,
10 9 F/km,
H/km,
CCC1 1= CC
2 2=
0 ==4.24 =8.89
10 9 F/km,
8.89 1010 9 9F/km. The conductor
CF/km.
1 = C2 = The 109 F/km.
8.89conductor type
typeis TheisLA-56
LA-56 with
conductorwith diameter
diameter
type LA56
is LA-56 LA56 =with
9.45
= 9.45 mm, mm,
diameter
RRLA56
LA56 = 0.616
LA56 ==0.616
9.45 mm, /km,
/km, I
RLA56 = 199.35
Imax == 0.616
max A
199.35/km, and geometric
A andImax geometric mean
= 199.35 mean distance
A and distance GMD
geometricGMD =
mean2.53
= 2.53m. The
m. The
distance underground
GMD underground
= 2.53 m.
cable
cable
The used
usedisisRHZ1
underground RHZ1 2OL
cable 2OL 12/20
used 12/20 kVkVwhose
is RHZ1 2OL main
whose main
12/20 features
kVfeatures
whose are: Cable-core
are:
main features= 13.82
Cable-core =are:
13.82mm, mm, Sc =Sc150
= = mmmm
150
13.82
2, 2
mm, ,
Cable-core
SSS
s= 16 mm 2 , 2R = 0.188 /km, = 34.4 mm. A cable length from 6001200 m was chosen. The shields
c = 150 mm , Ss = 16 mm , R = 0.188 /km, ext = 34.4 mm. A cable length from 6001200 m was
s = 16 mm ,2R = 0.188 /km, 2
ext ext = 34.4 mm. A cable length from 6001200 m was chosen. The shields
ofofthese
thesecables
chosen. cables
The areareconnected
shields of theseincables
connected inSB, SB,whereas
whereas
are thethe
connected overhead
in SB, line
overhead considers
line
whereas considers span
the overheadspanlengthslineof
lengths 100 m. m.
of 100
considers The
spanThe
ground resistance
groundofresistance
lengths 100 m. The at the
at the transition
transition
ground takes
resistance a typical
takesata the
typical value of
value takes
transition 12
of 12 and at the
and at the
a typical cable
value cableend
of 12 substation
end substation 0.5
and at the cable . .
0.5
The
Themodel
end modelused
substation used isisshown
0.5 .
shownTheinmodel
Figure
in Figure 9. 9. is shown in Figure 9.
used
Newauto-reclosing
Figure9.9.New
Figure auto-reclosingblocking
blocking method:
method: model
model implemented.
implemented.
Figure 9. New auto-reclosing blocking method: model implemented.
Energies 2016, 9, 964 10 of 20
Energies 2016, 9, 964 10 of 21
Energies 2016, 9, 964 10 of 21
5.1.
5.1. Angular
5.1.Angular Difference
AngularDifference Analysis
DifferenceAnalysis
Analysis in in Power Distribution
in Power Distribution Networks
Networks Solidly
Networks SolidlyGrounded
Solidly Groundedat
Grounded atthe
at theOverhead
the OverheadSide
Overhead Sideand
Side and
and
Isolated
Isolated atat the
the Cable
Cable End
End
Isolated at the Cable End Side Side
Side
The
The angular
Theangular differences L1S1,
differences
angular differences L1S1, L2S2
L1S1, L2S2
L2S2 andand L3S3 between
and L3S3
L3S3 between currents
between currentsin
currents inthe
in theshields
the shieldsand
shields andin
and ininthe
the
the
active
active part of the cables in a system ungrounded at the cable side (typical power
active part of the cables in a system ungrounded at the cable side (typical power transformer in deltain
part of the cables in a system ungrounded at the cable side (typical transformer
power in
transformer delta
connection)
delta connection)
connection) and
and andsolidly
solidly grounded
solidly grounded
grounded at
at the overhead
at the
the overhead
overhead side have
side
side been
have
have beenbeenall
allallsimulated
simulatedduring
simulated duringnormal
during normal
normal
operation
operation of
operationofofthe the
the power
power
power distribution
distribution
distribution network
network without
without
network ground
without ground fault
fault fault
ground and
and with with
and itwith it along
alongit different different
position
along different
atposition
the at
overheadthe overhead
side and side
at and
the at
cablethe cable
side. side.
Multiple Multiple simulations
simulations show show
that the
position at the overhead side and at the cable side. Multiple simulations show that the classification that the classification
classification of the
of the
ground ground faults
faults turns
of the ground turns
faultsout out
to be:
turns to be:
out to be:
Ground
Ground fault
Groundfault in
fault in the
in the overhead
the overhead side:
overhead side:
side: if if L1S1,
L1S1,
L1S1, L2S2
L2S2 and
L2S2 and L3S3
and L3S3 are
L3S3 are less
are less than
less than 50,
than 50 ,normally
50, normallyin
normally inin
all
all phases.
allphases.
phases.
Ground fault in the cable line side: if at least one of L1S1, L2S2 or L3S3 is clearly over 50.
Ground
Groundfault
faultin
inthe
thecable
cableline
lineside:
side: if if at
at least L1S1, L2S2
one of L1S1, L2S2 or L3S3 isis clearly
or L3S3 clearlyover
over50.
50 .
Figures 10 and 11 show how the variations
variations of of L1S1, L2S2 and L3S3 are when the power
Figures10
Figures 10 and
and 11
11 show
show howhow the
the variations L1S1, L2S2
L1S1, L2S2 and L3S3 are
and L3S3 are when
whenthe thepower
power
distribution
distribution network
network suffers
suffers a
a ground
ground fault
fault in
in phase
phase L1 at the overhead line side 12 km from the
distribution network suffers ground phase L1 at the overhead line side 12 km fromthe
L1 at the overhead line side 12 km from the
transition, and
transition,and
andatat the
atthe cable
thecable line
cableline side
line side in
side in its
in its central
its central position in t = 200
central position in t == 200 ms. The overhead line has a total
transition, 200 ms.
ms. The
Theoverhead
overheadlinelinehas
hasaatotal
total
length
lengthofof 24
of24 km
24km
kmandand the
andthe cable
thecable 600
cable 600 m.
600 m.
m.
length
Ground fault in t=200 ms at the overhead side in phase L1
-60 Ground fault in t=200 ms at the overhead side in phase L1
-60
-65 Angle difference L1-S1
-65 Angle Difference
Angle difference L1-S1
L2-S2
(degrees)
Angle Difference
Difference S3-L3
L2-S2
Conductor-Shield(degrees)
-75
-75
Conductor-Shield
-80
-80
12,20 15,44
Angle
Figure 10. Angular differences with ground fault at the overhead side in phase L1.
Figure10.
Figure 10. Angular
Angular differences with ground fault at the
the overhead
overhead side
sidein
inphase
phaseL1.
L1.
23,15
AngleDifference
-200
Angle
-200
-300
-300
-400
0.15
-400 0.2 0.25 0.3
0.15 0.2 Time (s) 0.25 0.3
Time (s)
Figure 11. Angular differences with ground fault at the cable line side in phase L1.
Figure 11. Angular differences with ground fault at the cable line side in phase L1.
Figure 11. Angular differences with ground fault at the cable line side in phase L1.
Considering
Considering distances from the transition,
transition, Table 11 shows
shows theresults
results ofthe L1S1,
the variationininL1S1,
Considering distances
distances fromfrom the
the transition, Table
Table 1 shows thethe results ofof the variation
variation in L1S1,
L2S2
L2S2 and L3S3 from only 1 m to more than 10 km
km in the
the overhead line
line side,and
and from11toto599
599 minin
L2S2 and
and L3S3
L3S3 from
from only
only 11 mm to
to more
more than
than 10
10 km in
in the overhead
overhead line side,
side, and from
from 1 to 599 m
m in
the
thecable line side. It can be seen how the variations of L1S1, L2S2 and L3S3 are reduced when the
the cable
cable line
line side.
side. It
It can
can be
be seen
seen how
how thethe variations
variations of
of L1S1,
L1S1, L2S2
L2S2 andand L3S3
L3S3 are
are reduced
reduced when
when
ground
the fault occurs at the overhead line side and are very high when the ground fault happens t the
the ground
ground fault
fault occurs
occurs at at the
the overhead
overhead line
line side
side and
and are
are very
very high
high when
when the the ground
ground fault
fault happens
happens tt
cable
the line side.
cable line side.
the cable line side.
Energies 2016, 9, 964 11 of 20
5.2.5.2.
Wavelet
WaveletAnalysis
Analysisinina aPower
PowerDistribution
Distribution Network Solidly Grounded
Network Solidly Groundedatatthe
theOverhead
OverheadLine
Line Side
Side and
and
Isolated at at
Isolated thethe
Cable
CableEnd
EndSideSide
TheThesimulation
simulationresults
resultsofofthis
thisconfiguration includedin
configuration included inTable
Table22show
showthat
thatthe
the angular
angular difference
difference
when
when thethe
ground
groundfault
faulthas
hashappened
happened in in the
the overhead sidehas
overhead side hasdB2-cD1
dB2-cD1coefficients
coefficients lower
lower than
than 0.1,0.1,
and over
and 100100
over when
when thethe
fault is inisthe
fault e line
in the side.side.
e line Figures 12 and
Figures 12 13
andshow the results
13 show obtained
the results for ground
obtained for
faults in phase
ground faultsL1
in at the overhead
phase line sideline
L1 at the overhead andside
cable lines
and side
cable respectively.
lines side respectively.
0.05
-0.05
-0.1
-0.15
-0.2
0.1995 0.2 0.2005 0.201 0.2015
Time (s)
Figure
Figure 12.12. Wavelet
Wavelet dB2-1-cD1
dB2-1-cD1 coefficients
coefficients of the
of the angular
angular difference
difference signals
signals with
with ground
ground faultfault in
in phase
L1phase
at theL1 at the overhead
overhead sidefrom
side 12 km 12 km from
the the transition.
transition.
Energies 2016, 9, 964 12 of 20
Energies 2016, 9, 964 12 of 21
db2-cD1 Coefficients for ground fault in the the cable side in t=0.2 s in phase L1
150
dB2-cD1 Coefficients
100 dB2-cD1-Angle Difference Conductor L1/Shield S1
dB2-cD1-Angle Difference Conductor L3/Shield S3
127.3
50
0
0.18 0.185 0.19 0.195 0.2 0.205
Time (s)
Figure
Figure Wavelet
13.13. WaveletdB2-1-cD1
dB2-1-cD1coefficients of the
coefficients angular
of the difference
angular signals
difference with
signals ground
with faultfault
ground in phase
in
L1phase
at theL1
cable line side 300 m from the transition.
at the cable line side 300 m from the transition.
Table Wavelet
2. 2.
Table Waveletanalysis:
analysis:simulation
simulation results. Groundfaults
results. Ground faultsatatthe
theoverhead
overhead and
and cable
cable line
line sides.
sides.
Overhead
Overhead line
lineside
sidesolidly
solidlygrounded
grounded andand cable
cable line
line side isolated.
isolated. Phase
Phasecurrents
currentsmeasured
measured in in
thethe
conductors
conductors (L1,
(L1,L2,
L2,L3)
L3)and
andinintheir
theirshields
shields (S1,
(S1, S2, S3).
Figure 14.
Figure 14. Experimental
Experimental setup.
setup. 1:1:Protection
Protectionrelays;
relays;2:2:Auxiliary
Auxiliary power
powersupply; 3: 3:
supply; Power supply;
Power 4:
supply;
Loads; 5: Ground fault switch; 6: Transformer; 7: PC; 8: Cables; 9: Line modules; 10: RLC parameters
4: Loads; 5: Ground fault switch; 6: Transformer; 7: PC; 8: Cables; 9: Line modules; 10: RLC parameters
of the
of the line
line modules
modules (9)
(9) used.
used.
Several single ground faults at all phases in lines and cables were carried out in the network
Several single ground faults at all phases in lines and cables were carried out in the network
erected in the laboratory. Tests were developed at 100 V phase-to-phase voltage and load currents of
erected in the laboratory. Tests were developed at 100 V phase-to-phase voltage and load currents
less than 1 A with different cos values. The positions where the ground faults were developed
of less than 1 A with different cos values. The positions where the ground faults were developed
(indicated in Figure 15) are represented schematically in Figure 16.
(indicated in Figure 15) are represented schematically in Figure 16.
Energies 2016, 9, 964 14 of 20
Energies 2016, 9, 964 14 of 21
Energies 2016, 9, 964 14 of 21
Figure 15. Ground fault positions. A: At the end of the cable; B: Between the first and second sections
Figure
Figure Ground
15.15. Groundfault
faultpositions.
positions.A:
A:At
At the
the end of the
end of the cable;
cable;B:B:Between
Betweenthe thefirst
firstand
and second
second sections
sections
of the cables; C: Between the second and third sections of the cables; D: In the transition at the end of
of of
thethe
cables;
cables;C:C:Between
Betweenthethesecond
secondand
and third
third sections
sections ofof the
thecables;
cables;D:
D:InInthe
thetransition
transitionat at
thethe
endend
of of
the cables; E: Between the first and second trams of the line modules; F: Behind the two line modules.
thethe
cables; E: Between the first and second trams
cables; E: Between the first and second trams of the line modules; F: Behind the two line
line modules; F: Behind the two line modules. modules.
-80
Degrees
-100
-100
-120 Angle difference Conductor L1/Shield S1
-120 L1/Shield S3
Angle difference Conductor L3/Shield S1
-140 Angle difference Conductor L2/Shield
L3/Shield S2
S3
-140 Angle difference Conductor L2/Shield S2
-160
0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
-160 Time
0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35(s) 0.4 0.45 0.5
Time (s)
Figure
Figure 17.
17. Angular
Angular differences
differences with
with ground
ground fault
fault at
at the
the overhead side in
overhead side in phase
phase L1.
L1. Fault
Fault point E.
point E.
Figure 17. Angular differences with ground fault at the overhead side in phase L1. Fault point E.
64.89
-150
Degrees
-200
Degrees
-200
-250 Angle difference Conductor L1 / Shield S1
-250 L1 / Shield S2
Angle difference Conductor L2 S1
-300 L2 / Shield S3
Angle difference Conductor L3 S2
-300 Angle difference Conductor L3 / Shield S3
-350
-350
-400
0.12
-400 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.3
0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2Time (s)
0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.3
Time (s)
Figure 18.
Figure Angular differences
18. Angular differences with
with ground
ground fault
fault at
at the
the cable
cable line
line side
side in
in phase
phase L1. Fault point
L1. Fault point C.
C.
Figure 18. Angular differences with ground fault at the cable line side in phase L1. Fault point C.
Tables 35 show
Tables 35 showthe resultsofofL1S1,
theresults L1S1,L2S2
L2S2and L3S3
and L3S3 in in ground
ground fault
fault locations
locations A,C,
A, B, B, D
C,inDthe
in
Tables 35 show the results of L1S1, L2S2 and L3S3 in ground fault locations A, B, C, D in
the cable
cable lineline
side,side,
andand in locations
in locations E andE and
F at Fthe
at overhead
the overhead
line line
side.side.
the cable line side, and in locations E and F at the overhead line side.
Table 3.3.Ground
Table Groundfault at at
fault overhead
overheadandandcable line sides
cable in phase
line sides L1. Variation
in phase in phaseinangles
L1. Variation phasebetween
angles
Table 3.inGround
currents fault at and
the conductors overhead
theirand and cableshields.
respective line sides in phase L1. Variation in phase angles
between currents in the conductors their respective shields.
between currents in the conductors and their respective shields.
Fault
Faultat
atCable LineSide
Cable Line Side
Fault at Cable Line Side
Fault in Phase L1
Fault in
Fault in Phase
PhaseL1 L1
Place of the Fault Variation in Phase Angles
Place of
Place ofthe
theFault
Fault Variation
Variation inin Phase
PhaseAngles
Angles
L1S1 L2S2 L3S3
L1S1
L1S1 L2S2 L2S2 L3S3
L3S3
A 66.32 11.02 0.33
AAB
66.32
66.32
65.93
11.02
11.02
10.24
0.33
0.33
0.26
BB 65.93
65.93 10.24
10.24 0.26
0.26
C 64.89 9.82 0.20
CC 64.89
64.89 9.82
9.82 0.20
0.20
D D 64.25
64.25 9.31
9.31 0.18
0.18
D 64.25 9.31 0.18
Fault at Overhead Line Side
Faultat
Fault atOverhead
Overhead LineLineSide
Side
Fault in Phase L1
Fault in Phase
Fault PhaseL1 L1
Place of the Fault Variation in Phase Angles
Place ofthe
Place of theFault
Fault Variation
Variation inin Phase
PhaseAngles
Angles
L1S1 L2S2 L3S3
L1S1 L2S2
L1S1 L2S2 L3S3
L3S3
E 30.80 32.31 27.16
E
EF 30.80
30.80
29.12 32.31
32.31
31.86 27.16
27.16
26.02
FF 29.12
29.12 31.86
31.86 26.02
26.02
Energies 2016, 9, 964 16 of 20
Table 4. Ground fault at overhead and cable line sides in phase L2. Variation in phase angles between
currents in the conductors and their respective shields.
Table 5. Ground fault at overhead and cable line sides in phase L3. Variation in phase angles between
currents in the conductors and their respective shields.
Ground fault in overhead line side: if the cD1 coefficient values are lower than 50 in all phases.
Ground fault in the cable line side: if the cD1 coefficient values are much higher than 50,
i.e., 100 or more.
Figure 19 shows the dB2-cD1 coefficient values of the angular difference between phase and shield
currents when there is a ground fault in phase L1 in the overhead line side at fault point E. These values
of the dB2-cD1 coefficients are higher than the values obtained from the simulated case shown in
Figure 12. This difference is related to the physical disposal of the real cables in the laboratory which
are wound in coils instead of been laid under the ground as they were considered in the simulated
model. Figure 20 shows at the cable line side in fault point C. Table 6 shows the big differences in the
values of the dB2-cD1 coefficients from ground faults at the overhead line side to ground faults at the
cable side.
Energies 2016, 9, 964 17 of 20
Energies 2016,
Energies 2016, 9,
9, 964
964 17 of
17 of 21
21
dB2-cD1 Coefficients
dB2-cD1 Coefficients for
for ground
ground fault
fault in
in phase
phase L1
L1 at
at the
the overhead
overhead side
side in
in position
position EE
44
0.03
22
Coefficients
0.03
dB2-cD1Coefficients
0.5
0.5
00
dB2-cD1
-2
-2 4.8
4.8
-4 dB2-cD1 coefficients
dB2-cD1 coefficients Conductor
Conductor L1
L1 // Shield
Shield S1
S1
-4
dB2-cD1 coefficients
dB2-cD1 coefficients Conductor
Conductor L2
L2 // Shield
Shield S2
S2
dB2-cD1 coefficients
dB2-cD1 coefficients Conductor
Conductor L3
L3 // Shield
Shield S3
S3
-6
-6
0.08
0.08 0.085
0.085 0.09
0.09 0.095
0.095 0.1
0.1 0.105
0.105 0.11
0.11
Time (s)
Time (s)
dB2-cD1 Coefficient
dB2-cD1 Coefficient values
values for
for ground
ground fault
fault in
in phase
phase L1
L1 at
at the
the cable
cable side
side in
in location
location C
C
20
20
00
Coefficient
-20
dBb2-cD1Coefficient
-60
-60 142
dBb2-cD1
142
-80
-80
-100 dB2-cD1 Coeffientes
dB2-cD1 Coeffientes Conductor
Conductor L1
L1 // Shield
Shield S1
S1
-100
dB2-cD1 Coeffientes
dB2-cD1 Coeffientes Conductor
Conductor L2
L2 // Shield
Shield S2
S2
-120
-120 dB2-cD1 Coeffientes Conductor L3 / Shield S3
dB2-cD1 Coeffientes Conductor L3 / Shield S3
-140
-140
-160
-160 0.15
0.15 0.16
0.16 0.17
0.17 0.18
0.18 0.19
0.19 0.2
0.2 0.21
0.21 0.22
0.22
Time (s)
Time (s)
Figure
FigureFigure 20. Wavelet
20. Wavelet
20. Wavelet analysis
analysis ofangular
of the
analysis of the angular
the angular differences
differences with
with
differences aa ground
ground
a ground
with faultatat
fault
fault atthe
thecable
the cableline
cable lineside
line sidein
side inphase
in
phase
L1. Fault L1. Fault
point
phase L1. Fault point C.
C. point C.
Table 6. Ground fault at overhead and cable line sides. Wavelet analysis: experimental results.
Table Table 6. Ground
6. Ground faultfault at overheadand
at overhead andcable
cable line
line sides.
sides. Wavelet analysis:
Wavelet experimental
analysis: results.results.
experimental
Overhead line
Overhead line side
side solidly
solidly grounded
grounded and
and cable
cable line
line side
side isolated.
isolated.
Overhead line side solidly grounded and cable line side isolated.
Fault at
Fault at Cable
Cable Line
Line Side
Side Fault at
Fault at Overhead
Overhead Line
Line Side
Side
Fault in
in Phase L1 Fault in
in Phase
Phase L1
L1
Fault at Cable Line Side Phase L1
Fault Fault
Fault at Overhead Line Side
Location of
Location of the
the Fault
Fault W W (dB2-cD1
(dB2-cD1 Coefficients)
Coefficients) Location of
Location of the
the Fault
Fault W W (dB2-cD1
(dB2-cD1 Coefficients)
Coefficients)
Fault
L1S1in Phase
L1S1 L2S2 L1L3S3
L2S2 L3S3 L1S1 L2S2
L1S1 Fault in
L2S2 Phase L1
L3S3
L3S3
A A
Location of the Fault 152.24
152.24 2.45
2.45 18.29
18.29 Location of the Fault4.80
W (dB2-cD1 Coefficients) EE 4.80 W (dB2-cD1
0.03
0.03 Coefficients)
0.50
0.50
BB 145.88
145.88 1.96
1.96 14.12
14.12
C C L1S1 142.01L2S2
142.01 0.80 L3S3
0.80 7.21
7.21 L1S1 L2S2 L3S3
D 136.54 0.69 4.75 FF 4.66
4.66 0.02
0.02 0.42
0.42
A D 152.24136.54 2.450.69 4.75
18.29
Fault at
Fault at Cable
Cable Line
Line Side
Side E at
Fault
Fault at Overhead 4.80
Overhead Line
Line Side
Side 0.03 0.50
B 145.88 1.96 14.12
Fault in
in Phase L2 Fault in
in Phase
Phase L2
L2
C 142.01 Fault 0.80 Phase L27.21 Fault
Location of
Location of the
the Fault
Fault W W (dB2-cD1 Coefficients)
Coefficients) Location of F Fault
of the
the Fault W 4.66Coefficients)
W (dB2-cD1
(dB2-cD1 0.02
Coefficients) 0.42
D 136.54 (dB2-cD10.69 4.75 Location
L1S1 L2S2
L1S1 L2S2 L3S3
L3S3 L1S1 L2S2
L1S1 L2S2 L3S3
L3S3
FaultAat Cable Line Side 154.31
20.04 3.01 Fault at Overhead Line Side
A 20.04 154.31 3.01
EE 0.04
0.04 4.88
4.88 0.59
0.59
BB 16.59 in Phase
16.59
Fault 148.22 L2 2.42
148.22 2.42 Fault in Phase L2
C C 9.92
9.92 143.67
143.67 0.89
0.89
Location of the Fault
D W (dB2-cD1
6.82 Coefficients)
138.08 0.82 FF of the Fault0.03
Location 0.03 W (dB2-cD1
4.72
4.72 0.48
0.48
Coefficients)
D 6.82 138.08 0.82
Fault at
Fault at Cable
L1S1
Cable Line Side
L2S2
Line Side L3S3 Fault at
Fault at Overhead
Overhead Line
Line
L1S1Side L2S2
Side L3S3
Fault in
Fault in Phase
Phase L3
L3 Fault in
Fault in Phase
Phase L3
L3
A
Location of
of the 20.04
the Fault
Fault W 154.31
W (dB2-cD1 3.01
(dB2-cD1 Coefficients)
Coefficients) Location of
of the
the Fault W (dB2-cD1 Coefficients)
Location Location E Fault W 0.04
(dB2-cD1 4.88
Coefficients) 0.59
B 16.59L1S1148.22 L2S2 2.42L3S3 L1S1 L2S2L2S2 L3S3
L3S3
L1S1 L2S2 L3S3 L1S1
C A 9.92 2.66 143.67 19.44 0.89
153.01
A 2.66 19.44 153.01 F 0.03 4.72 0.48
D 6.82 1.49 138.08 0.82 EE 0.47
0.47 0.04
0.04 4.34
4.34
BB 1.49 15.18
15.18 144.78
144.78
FaultCCat Cable Line 0.81
0.81Side 6.966.96 140.12
140.12 Fault at Overhead Line Side
D 0.52 3.97 134.96 FF 0.51 0.02
0.51 4.11 0.02 4.11
D 0.52 3.97 134.96
Fault in Phase L3 Fault in Phase L3
Location of the Fault W (dB2-cD1 Coefficients) Location of the Fault W (dB2-cD1 Coefficients)
L1S1 L2S2 L3S3 L1S1 L2S2 L3S3
A 2.66 19.44 153.01
E 0.47 0.04 4.34
B 1.49 15.18 144.78
C 0.81 6.96 140.12
F 0.51 0.02 4.11
D 0.52 3.97 134.96
Energies 2016, 9, 964 18 of 20
It discriminates whether a ground fault happens at the overhead line side or cable line side;
It does not use any voltage measurement;
It does not use any directional criterion;
It does not use the residual ground fault current to localize the ground fault;
It does not consider any distance calculation to localize the ground fault;
It does not consider any differential tripping criterion to localize the ground fault.
The aforementioned advantages of the proposed technique make it easier to determine where
the ground fault is and, consequently, to allow the protection relay to make the best possible use of
the auto-reclosing functionality. The stability of the grid is also improved because wrong reclosing
commands are not sent while ground fault conditions are active.
Acknowledgments: The authors wish to thank the reviewers for their helpful and constructive comments.
Author Contributions: Ricardo Granizo Arrab developed the study and included all the mathematical
formulations of the cables in the simulated models. Carlos Antonio Platero Gaona and Fernando lvarez
Gmez performed the laboratory tests and checked the validity of the new auto-reclosing blocking method. Emilio
Rebollo Lpez revised and improved the Matlab-Simulink model. All the authors contributed to writing this
article, including their conceptual approaches to the solution obtained.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used throughout the article:
AC Alternating Current
AND Logical Function
CT Current Transformer
cD Detail Coefficient
DWT Discrete Wavelet Transformation
Dyn1 Delta-Star with Ground Connection of Power Transformer
Dyn11 Delta-Star with Ground Connection of Distribution Transformer
dB2 Daubechies 2 Mother Wavelet
GMD Geometric Mean Distance
HF High Frequency
LF Low Frequency
SB Single Bonding
LiSj variation of the argument difference between the current in phase i and that in shield j
Energies 2016, 9, 964 19 of 20
Parameters
A, B, C, D, E, F ground fault situation in laboratory tests
Am approximation level m for wavelet analysis
C0 zero sequence capacitance value
C1 direct sequence capacitance value
C2 negative sequence capacitance value
De equivalent distance for ground return
Dm detail level m of wavelet analysis
f frequency
fs sampling frequency
I0 ground fault current
I1 current in conductor 1
I2 current in conductor 2
I3 current in conductor 3
j imaginary part of complex vector
L length of the conductor
L1 phase one
L2 phase two
L3 phase three
L0 zero sequence inductance value
L1 direct sequence inductance value
L2 negative sequence inductance value
ln logarithm
R real part or resistance of any impedance
RC(ac) resistance of the conductor in AC
R0 zero sequence resistance value
R1 direct sequence resistance value
roc outer radius of the conductor
rs average radius of the shield
RS(ac) resistance of the shield in AC
RSA ground resistance of substation A
RSB ground resistance of substation B
Rt ground resistance of any tower of distribution lines
S1 shield of conductor in phase L1
S2 shield of conductor in phase L2
S3 shield of conductor in phase L3
SCS distance between axes of conductor and shield
SSS distance between axes of shields
tA tripping time for impedance zone A
tB tripping time for impedance zone B
tC tripping time for impedance zone C
U voltage difference between shield ends
U1C induced voltage in shield 1 of conductor 1 due to circulating currents in conductors
U2C induced voltage in shield 2 of conductor 2 due to circulating currents in conductors
U3C induced voltage in shield 3 of conductor 3 due to circulating currents in conductors
U1S induced voltage in shield 1 of conductor 1 due to circulating currents in shields
U2S induced voltage in shield 2 of conductor 2 due to circulating currents in shields
U3S induced voltage in shield 3 of conductor 3 due to circulating currents in shields
U0 residual voltage
X imaginary part or reactance of any impedance
ZC self-impedance of a conductor
ZCS mutual impedance between conductor and shield
ZI impedance zone I
ZL line impedance
ZS self-impedance of a shield
ZSS mutual impedance between shields
Energies 2016, 9, 964 20 of 20
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2016 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
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(CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).