The Details of Electric Radio Controlled Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach

Staples (1/86)

The Details of Electric Radio Controlled Aircraft

a Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
Intended For Both Beginners and Experts

by Gabriel Staples

B.S. Aeronautical Engineering, U.S. Air Force Academy, M.S., Mechanical Engineering,
University of Colorado at Colorado Springs, and First and Foremost: RC Enthusiast.

Written: 24 Dec. 2011 XX XXX. 2012

Document Version #: X.0.0.0
Last Revised: 26 July 2012

Copyright by Gabriel Staples, 2011

No information in this document, nor any portion of this document, may be changed or modified.
If any portion of this document, or content from this document, is photocopied, distributed,
referenced, or in any way used or distributed, it must properly be properly referenced, giving due
credit to this work and author. This document may be freely distributed for personal or RC club
use for no monetary gain.

https://sites.google.com/site/electricrcaircraftguru/
 The Details of Electric Radio Controlled Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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Introduction:
This document is not intended to describe the basic physics or aerodynamics of flight, nor is it
intended to describe stick controls, flight techniques, orientation, or other similar aspects of RC
control. For that information, please research and find sources elsewhere. Rather, the intent of
this document is threefold, first: to provide a beginner RC pilot with the basic information (and
much advanced knowledge as well) required to understand and successfully choose the
components required for electric flight, second: to help many of you thousands of experienced
RC old-timer pilots discover the new technology, thrill, and convenience of brushless
outrunner, spread-spectrum, lithium-polymer electric flight, and realize the potential electrics
contain rather than sticking to what you already know due to fear to step outside your comfort
zone, and third: to provide an advanced user (or a very curious beginner) some of the details,
knowledge, and means to perform some of their own crude backyard flight testing without
having to purchase or use expensive laboratory equipment and wind tunnels. For those of you in
the first and second categories: Do NOT be alarmed by the length of this document, as nearly
of this document applies to the third category of people only! Feel free to skip the advanced
sections.

In order to write and compile this document, I have done several hundred hours (estimated 350
hrs+) of online research in the past 1.5 years or so (in addition to my years of personal hands-on
experience and talking to other RC enthusiasts on and off the flying field), so please, take the
time to read this and learn and love electric flight. It has many benefits over glow/gas flight and,
with the right online websites, enables a novice RC pilot to get into this thrilling and educative
hobby for as little as $250 today with everything they need to fly, including a good 50W
balancing charger capable of charging/discharging (cycling) all battery chemistries, a basic radio
and transmitter, a 4-channel fully flight-ready aircraft with motor, servos, etc. and all electrical
components, spare batteries, and a basic build/repair kit. This price cant be beat, and with the
convenience and compactness of electric flight, the plane can be in the air at a local park within a
few minutes of arriving at the field, and can be back in the car headed home just seconds after
landing! No more necessary cleaning the aircraft with Windex after flight, tuning the motor
prior to flight, lugging a 20 lb field box around, having to fly at a distant club-chartered field
(though I always recommend joining a club nonetheless at
least for starting out and having good camaraderie), and no
more telling an 8-18 year old (or older or younger) that
he/she needs to spend $500+ for his/her first aircraft!

What I have contained in this document can help bring this

hobby closer than ever before to within any kids reach, and
makes the hobby more fun and practical. For all you glow/gas
enthusiasts out there, I would never recommend getting rid of
those planes or changing your equipment completely, but
rather, adding a few electric planes or helis to your arsenal,
and learning about their inner workings, only benefits this
hobby and those around us who need this valuable
information and your expertise, enthusiasm, and experience.
Thanks for reading and for all you do, and enjoy!
Pictured Above: The author, circa 1996 (~11 yrs. old), showing off my first RC aircraft ever, a Tower Trainer 40 with
O.S. 46 FX glow engine and 6 Ch., 72 MHz Airtronics non-computerized Tx/Rx system. I purchased this aircraft and
all equipment for ~$550 with money my Dad helped me earn by raising and selling cows. I still fly this aircraft on
occasion today, and it has been fully repaired each time after several serious crashes, and is currently flight-ready.
 The Details of Electric Radio Controlled Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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Note: if any of the links in this document are no longer valid, or if any information becomes
completely outdated as further technological advancements are made, please notify me by
my email address listed at the end of this document, as I expect most of the aircraft,
electronics, and hardware referenced or linked in this document to become incrementally
obsolete or technologically behind over the next 1-5+ years.

Table of Contents
The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircraft ................................................................................ 1
Introduction: ................................................................................................................................ 2
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................ 3
Key Equations ............................................................................................................................. 4
List of Useful Tables, Charts, & Figures .................................................................................... 4
A Brief History of Model Aviation, From One Perspective ....................................................... 5
One Perspective On The Present and Future of Electric RC ...................................................... 7
Electric versus Glow/Gas:......................................................................................................... 10
A Brief Explanation of Electricity: ........................................................................................... 11
Two Basic Electrical Equations To Know: ........................................................................... 11
Basic Electric Aircraft Setup .................................................................................................... 12
Unit Conversion Calculators: ................................................................................................ 12
A few notes about aircraft and airframe acronyms you may run into when shopping: ........ 12
1) Airframe...................................................................................................................... 14
2) Motor .......................................................................................................................... 17
3) Battery ........................................................................................................................ 22
4) ESC and BEC ............................................................................................................. 35
5) Propeller or EDF Unit................................................................................................. 41
6) Radio and Receiver ..................................................................................................... 48
7) Servos ......................................................................................................................... 50
8) LiPo/NiCad/NiMH Battery Charger Capable of Balancing LiPos ........................... 53
9) Basic Tools and Field Repair Kit ............................................................................... 55
Optional/Advanced Equipment & Info. .................................................................................... 57
10) Gyros .......................................................................................................................... 57
11) KF Airfoils .................................................................................................................. 58
12) Some Advanced Calculations and Flight Testing....................................................... 59
13) How to Measure Your Aircrafts Speed (for FREEno Radar Speed Gun
Required!!!) Using the Doppler Effect ................................................................................. 65
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Specific Setups and Additional Info. ........................................................................................ 79

1) Good Beginner Airplane Options to get your personal RC experience started ....... 79
2) Multicopter ................................................................................................................. 79
3) Good Beginner Helicopter Options to get into RC helicopters without breaking the
bank or going too advanced too quickly ............................................................................... 79
4) FPV (First Person View) ............................................................................................ 81
Links & Additional Information: .............................................................................................. 83
Authors Contact Info: .............................................................................................................. 86
Authors Disclaimer: ................................................................................................................ 86

Key Equations
Eqn. 1. Voltage: ........................................................................................................................... 11
Eqn. 2. Power: .............................................................................................................................. 11
Eqn. 3. Flight Time/Battery Run-Time Calculation: ................................................................... 24
Eqn. 4. Propeller Pitch Speed: ..................................................................................................... 45
Eqn. 5. Propeller Tip Speed: ........................................................................................................ 46
Eqn. 6. Aircraft Top Speed Estimation: ....................................................................................... 46
Eqn. 7. Propeller Thrust Calculation: .......................................................................................... 61
Eqn. 8. Ideal Gas Law Equation: ................................................................................................. 61
Eqn. 9. Converting The Local Weather Station Pressure to The Actual Static Pressure at That
Weather Stations Altitude:........................................................................................................... 62
Eqn. 10. Thrust Power: ................................................................................................................ 63
Eqn. 11. Aircraft Glide Ratio, or Lift to Drag (L/D) Ratio:......................................................... 63
Eqn. 12. Determining A Vehicles Velocity Using the Doppler Effect: ..................................... 66

List of Useful Figures & Tables

Figures:
Figure 1. Schematic of 3S LiPo Battery Pack (3 LiPo Cells in Series) ....................................... 26
Figure 2. Effects on Cycle Life at Elevated Full Charge Voltages (above 4.20 V/cell). ............. 28
Figure 3. Plots of Battery Resting Voltage (V/Cell) versus State of Charge (% Battery Capacity
Remaining) .................................................................................................................................... 30

Tables:
Table 1. Resting Battery Individual Cell Voltage versus State of Charge (% Battery Capacity
Remaining) .................................................................................................................................... 29
Table 2. Permanent Capacity Loss of LithiumIon-Based Battery Chemistries As a Function of
Temperature and Charge Level. .................................................................................................... 31
Table 3. Depth of Discharge, DoD (Capacity [mAh] of Battery Used/Total Battery Capacity
[mAh]) versus Battery Life (Discharge Cycles) ........................................................................... 32
Table 4. Temperature versus Speed of Sound ............................................................................. 66
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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A Brief History of Model Aviation, From One Perspective

RC airplanes have been around since the 1940s to 1950s, though electric designs were not
always possible. When I was a young kid learning to fly in 1996, the local RC club I flew at had
only glow or gas airplanes built painstakingly out of balsa kits made up of hundreds of pieces of
balsa sticks sheeting, and covered in iron-on heat shrink Monokote-type wrap. The ARFs
(Almost Ready to Fly) aircraft of the day required at least 10 hours to assemble, and for $100-
$150 came with the airframe onlyno motor, electronics, radio, receiver, or battery, but just the
bare-bones supplies to get the main structure of the plane built. The overall cost of getting
started was approximately $550 then, which equates to about $890 in 2012 dollars (assuming 3%
average annual inflation). During my time in that club, I saw only one electric-powered aircraft.
This plane was flown by a meticulous modeler who went through a slow building process to
minimize weight of a balsa aircraft. He installed a brushed inrunner motor with a gearbox,
powered by a home-built battery pack made of rechargeable NiMH AA batteries. This plane had
very little power and could perform only limited aerobatics, and yet I estimate that he spent far
more on that electric aircraft at that time than he could have spent on an equivalent glow-fuel
system. Needless to say, early electric systems were not the way to go. They were oftentimes
underpowered and overweight, poor aerobatic performers, very limited in flight time, and more
expensive than their glow fuel counterparts.

With the advent of lithium-ion polymer (LiPo) battery technology, brushless motors, and durable
EPP and EPO foam, however, all that has changed! Additionally, new spread spectrum 2.4 GHz
radios make RC safer and more convenient than ever before! Sometime around the year 2000,
people began to use LiPo batteries in RC applications. These batteries have the advantage of a
much higher energy density than other battery chemistries, such as NiCad and NiMH, and they
are lighter than traditional Lithium-Ion batteries due to their light, soft external pouches rather
than hard cases, and the new polymer from which they are made. However, in the early years of
LiPo use in RC applications (approximately from the years 2000 to 2006), LiPo batteries were
poorly understood and considered unpredictable and dangerous. They were likely to explode or
catch fire due to poor understanding of their traits, and inadequate chargers and charging
systems. Finally, in just the last 5-6 years or so (since ~2006), LiPo safety has been developed,
individual cell balancing is now understood and considered indispensable, charge and discharge
rates (C ratings) are understood, standardized, and vastly improved from early LiPo technology,
proper voltage cutoffs are known and used, and proper charging equipment and procedures,
including balancing chargers, have become the new industry standard. Today, LiPo batteries
have taken their rightful place as the best, most powerful, and lightest RC aircraft battery ever
developed to date!

Since approximately 2001, tear-resistant, crash-resistant EPP (Expanded Polypropylene) foam

has become widespread in the radio control aircraft industry
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypropylene). This foam is nearly indestructible, being
extremely tear resistant and resilient to impact, yet also having the undesirable trait, where
rigidity is needed, of being extremely flexible. In approximately 2007, the Multiplex company
(www.multiplexusa.com) came out with a new kind of foam in their hugely successful 100 mph+
FunJet. They called this new, extremely durable, tear resistant, impact resistant, and easily
factory-moldable foam Elapor. As a matter of fact, they still call it Elapor. However, other
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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manufacturers today making foam aircraft with the same characteristics as Elapor call this foam
EPO, (Expanded Polyolefin
[http://www.eflightwiki.com/eflightwiki/index.php?title=Polyolefin]). As of approximately
2009-2010, this foam began flooding the RC marketplace, and is readily available from nearly
every RC retailer today. EPO foam is hugely successful, and has become the new industry
standard for electric RC aircraft, replacing the now practically-obsolete EPS (Expanded
Polystyrene, or Styrofoam). It has very similar traits to EPP, except that it is denser than EPP
and hence stiffer and stronger, although also heavier. Both EPP and EPO make excellent
building materials for electric aircraft.

Also since ~2006 or earlier (though I am unsure on this date), brushless motors began to
infiltrate the RC market. They are powerful and efficient, and due to their high torque, these new
outrunner brushless motors require no gear box, but rather can be directly attached to a propeller.
As of ~2010, brushless motors have nearly completely wiped out brushed motors in the RC
market, with the high-torque outrunners being the most common. Brushed motors are practically
obsolete, with only a few RC companies today even selling them, and a very limited market
(mostly in the ultra micro airplane range, or micro helicopter range) still existing for them.

In conjunction with LiPo batteries and powerful brushless outrunner motors, 2004 brought the
addition of 2.4 GHz spread spectrum transmitter technology to the RC market, with the
development of the Spektrum brand transmitter modules (http://www.spektrumrc.com/About/).
This spread spectrum technology allows nearly interference-free flying, by causing transmitters
and receivers to hop from one frequency to another hundreds of times per second, in a pseudo-
random sequence known only by one transmitter and one receiver which have been bound
together as a unique operating system on that single pseudo-random sequence
(http://www.futaba-rc.com/technology/fasst.html). This creates transmitters which allow little to
no chance of your aircraft being shot down by interference from your buddys transmitter
using the same channel, as the older 72 MHz transmitters allow. In 2005, the JR transmitter
company teamed with Spektrum to release the first ever stand-alone spread spectrum 2.4 GHz
Spektrum brand transmitter. Since then, other transmitter companies, including Futaba, Hitec,
Airtronics, and others have all come aboard, creating their own systems to implement 2.4 GHz
spread spectrum technology into their radios.

The last great feat necessary was industry competition. RC aircraft have been dominated up until
now by a few brands, systems, airplanes, engines, items, etc..but todayNO MORE!!! An
explosion of technology, new RC pilots, RC aircraft enthusiasm, and international competition
has driven cost down, quality up, and availability through the roof! Chinese and other
international competitors have taken a keen interest in the markets need for cheaper, yet reliable
RC equipment, and such companies have made such large improvements in their quality control
and ability to produce reliable, affordable, technologically sound and cutting-edge products, that
RC is less expensive and more exciting today than ever before!

For more information see: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio-controlled_aircraft,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium-ion_polymer_battery,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brushless_DC_electric_motor, and
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypropylene#EPP_Model_Aircraft.
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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One Perspective on The Present and Future of Electric RC

Although I started out in RC for the equivalent of $890, today I wouldn't even consider having a
beginner spend $550 or more without getting a fully souped-up ultra high quality, complete
electric system--or 2-3 complete basic systems for that matter. The international competitors just
make RC too inexpensive, yet reliable and high-quality, to spend that kind of money on an
aircraft setup without getting all the bells and whistles. Also, I wouldnt recommend to a
beginner to start out on a glow plane anymore either. Electric is just too inexpensive, practical,
and yet powerful to pass up. It is also capable of providing long flight times todayeven better
than glow fuel flight times in many cases, as some electric gliders are capable of powered flight
greater than 1 hour!!! (Note: this is flying without catching thermals or doing slope soaringbut
rather flying conventionally under power the whole time).

As an indicator of where electric RC is going, here is one example: I talked to an expert

competition RC helicopter pilot just a couple weeks ago (~Feb 2012), and he told me that
recently he *upgraded*, let me repeat, UPGRADED his 0.90 sized (10-12 lb) glow fuel 3D
helicopter to an ELECTRIC system, making it stand in the 700-sized (61.5 in., or ~5 ft. rotor
diameter) electric class. He stated that this new 0.90-sized equivalent electric system in this
helicopter provides an *additional* 1 hp of power *beyond* what the glow fuel engine provided
before. The electric system provides approximately 44.4V while running on inexpensive
Turnigy batteries from www.hobbyking.com. I would guess he is pulling somewhere around
2500+W (>3.35 hp) of power. Granted, I estimate he spent more to make his system electric
than glow. However, electric components are continually becoming cheaper and more available,
while their quality is getting better every year. This particular pilot also says that with this new
electric system, he has *more* torque and power for extreme 3D aerobatics than he previously
had, and his helicopter can perform *better* than before. This is besides the fact that electric
power is cleaner and more convenient, as I watched him set his heli up and fly briefly and he was
in the air after only about 5 minutes of setup time, and had his equipment back in the car ready to
go home about 3 minutes after landing!!!

I have seen electric aircraft that weigh up to 10-15 lbs, or as small as a few grams. For $100, a
complete plane, electronics and power system and all, can be purchased for a nice 3D electric
setup which can hover at 1/2 throttle. Virtually *any* balsa plane these days can also be made
electric, and still perform just as well in most cases as the glow or gas versions. By carefully
researching the websites I recommend at the end of this document, and that I reference
throughout this document, at this time (in the year 2012), it can be more (or just as)
economical to make virtually any balsa glow powered plane up to about a 0.60 size or so
electric rather than glow. Larger or heavier aircraft than approximately 7 lbs., however, will
require such large batteries, motors, and speed controllers that as of today glow fuel power
systems are more economical. In other words, electric setups will be cheaper up to a medium-
sized (up to ~4-7 lbs) plane or helicopter, so long as you do your research and use economical
systems. Batteries are often times the largest cost of an electric system, and inexpensive yet
good quality batteries may be easily obtained from overseas competitors, such as the Turnigy
brand batteries coming from the Hong Kong-based supplier, www.HobbyKing.com, or the
California-based retailer of overseas-manufactured products, www.nitroplanes.com,
www.xheli.com, www.nitrorcx.com, and www.hobbypartz.com (these last four sites are all the
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same company). Again though, do your research and read reviews to ensure quality, and when
the price seems just too good to be true, buy it anyway and then write a review for others to read
you will be surprised just how good the majority of the products really are.

Electric planes can also have incredible duration. I have watched an FPV (First person view)
video of a 3 or 4 lb electric plane (flying wing) fly for ***50*** miles straight-line away from
the pilot and still have power to fly another 5 miles or so, but land due to Tx (Transmitter) and
video signal range limitations. The *electric* plane was ~$500 total and the video and high-
range Tx equipment ~$4000. I could build the same plane (low range, and not FPV), with the
same 50 mph range (plane only, no radio) and duration, with Chinese parts for ~$250 or less.

Here are some other impressive capabilities of electric RC aircraft. The Multiplex FunJet or
FunJet Ultra, with a $100 electronics, motor, and battery setup from www.HobbyKing.com, can
push past 140 mph, all while using an electric motor and pusher-prop! (For setup see here:
http://rcfoamfighters.com/blog/?cat=9, and for flight video see here:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E81Oz20u4RY).

The entire cost of this particular plane, with

everything needed to fly except a transmitter, is about
$200. Using a much larger electric motor setup still,
people have achieved speeds on the Multiplex Funjet
Ultra of up to 184 mph!!! (see
http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detail
page&v=26B39689ct8). This speed will be proven in
this document using the Doppler Effect in Section 13.

Another recent demonstration of electric RC power

occurred on October 21, 2011 in Germany when Thomas Senkel of the company e-volo made the
first manned flight with an electric
multicopter! (see:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature
=player_embedded&v=L75ESD9PBOw
and www.e-volo.com).

Electric radio control has truly come a

long wayseven in just the last ten
years! And electric aircraft are not just
being Note that he is flying himself by holding onto a
used standard RC radio transmitter!!!
in the
RC world, but they are being used by some of the most
brilliant minds of today to create some of the most incredible
tools of tomorrow. To prove this, here is a video of Vijay
Kumar of the University of Pennsylvania doing a presentation
on micro air vehiclesnamely micro quad-rotors, or multi-
copters with four propellers, which are capable of

Pictured above-left is a micro quad-rotor autonomously performing a hard 90 bank to the left in order to fly
through this narrow space simulating a small window (see time 07:32 in the video listed below for this snapshot).
[Mellinger, Michael and Kumar, 2012]
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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autonomous control, highly agile and technical maneuvers, and have the potential to sense each
other, autonomously swarm in teams and be used for construction, surveying disasters and far
more (http://www.ted.com/talks/vijay_kumar_robots_that_fly_and_cooperate.html).

My point is that electric systems are quite incredible, and are beginning to dominate the RC
world. Despite their increasing quality, decreasing price, and vast technological improvements,
however, I feel older pilots are still very hesitant to make any transition to them, especially when
the prices literally sound too good to be true. I would say that in regards to electric planes
compared to glow planes, the power in electric is similar, or sometimes better, the speed is
similar or better, the duration is similar or better, the convenience is sooooo much better (no
messy clean-up, starting and tuning, and able to fly out your front yard on smaller planes, fewer
things to carry, no starter or fuel pump, much smaller field box, fewer required tools to take to
the field, etc), and so long as you read the reviews to avoid the bad items (and as long as we are
talking about small or medium-sized electric aircraft, not large or giant scale), the price literally
*can* be 1/4 to 1/2 as much as I spent to get started in RC, while still getting high quality items!

My projection for the future of RC is this: electric RC is sure to be a key player in the
future of all RC and aviation applications from this day forwards, and will continue to get
more powerful, more reliable, and less expensive with time. I believe some electric RC
aircraft will even migrate into personal manned aircraft and be used for personal
transportation and recreation. Smaller versions I propose will be made to autonomously
navigate and ferry small cargo, mail, or supplies for business or commercial use. And
again, in regards to price for an RC electric aircraft, today (the year 2012), expect to spend
around $250+ for a good, beginner setup with everything you need, including tools, building
and repair supplies, and charging gear. No longer does a beginner need to fork out $550-
$890 on his or her first plane! So, go ahead: do your research, see whats been done
inexpensively by others before you, use their ideas to have fun and do it again, and when
you feel comfortable with your skills and abilities, dont be afraid to try something new and
expand your RC knowledge and abilities!

Now read on if youre interested

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Electric versus Glow/Gas:

The topics discussed within this document are contained within the grayish shaded region
below. The glow/gas portion is listed to demonstrate what is needed to fly a glow or gas
aircraft in comparison to an electric aircraft system.

Basic Electric Aircraft Setup Vs. Basic Glow/Gas Engine Aircraft

Setup
1) Airframe 1) Airframe
2) Motor 2) Glow Fuel or Gasoline Engine
3) LiPo Battery 3) Fuel Tank
4) ESC (Electronic Speed Controller) & 4) Throttle servo, carburetor, and
BEC (Battery Eliminator Circuit) receiver (Rx) battery pack
5) Prop or EDF (Electric Ducted Fan) 5) Prop or EDF (Electric Ducted Fan)
Unit Unit
6) Radio (AKA: Tx, or Transmitter) 6) Radio (Tx) and Receiver (Rx)
and Receiver (AKA: Rx)
7) Servos 7) Servos
8) LiPo/NiCad/NiMH Battery Charger 8) NiCad/NiMH/Pb Battery Charger
Capable of Balancing LiPos Capable of Cycling
(charging/discharging) NiCad and
NiMH batteries.
9) Basic Tools and <5 lb. Field Repair 9) 10-20+ lb. Field Box with 12V
Kit. battery, engine starter, glow plug
igniter, fuel pump, fuel, glass cleaner
(to clean oil off of aircraft after flight
if using glow fuel engine) and basic
tools and field-repair items.
Optional/Advanced Equipment & Info.
10) Gyros
11) KF Airfoils
12) Some Advanced Calculations and Flight Testing
13) How to Measure Your Aircrafts Speed Using the Doppler Effect

Specific Setups and Additional Info.

1) Good Electric Beginner Airplane Options
2) Multicopter
3) Good Beginner Helicopter Options
4) FPV (First Person View)
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A Brief Explanation of Electricity:

Electric RC requires a good understanding of various aspects of electricity, including voltage
potential (Volts, V), current (Amps, A), power (Watts, W), and capacity (Amp-hours, Ah, or
milliamp-hours, mAh). To help the beginner understand these concepts, here is a visually-
descriptive explanation of them, equating the flow of electricity to the flow of water.
-Imagine a large reservoir of water feeding a small canal.
-The size of the canal (height x width) = the current flow (A). Assuming constant velocity, a
large canal is a high current flow (perhaps 100A), and a small stream is a low current flow
(perhaps only 2A).
-The speed of the water determines the Pressure of the water on an object in the flow. Pressure =
the voltage potential (V). A high-velocity stream would be a high voltage source with a small
current flow; a high-velocity canal would be a high voltage source with a large current flow.
-Power is the multiplication of current and voltage. The equation of power is P = IV, where P =
Power (W), I = current (A), and V = voltage (V). In the case of the water flow, a high power
would equate to a large canal (high current) moving at a high velocity (high velocity high
pressure, which equates to high voltage). If either the current or voltage is low, the power is
reduced since Power = Voltage x Current.

Now, imagine throwing a car into a fast-moving, small stream (this would be a high voltage, low
current electricity flow). The car will not move. Now throw the car into a very slow-moving,
large canal (low voltage, high current electricity flow). The car still will not budge, since the
power of the electricity flow is low. Now throw the car into a fast-moving, large canal (high
voltage, high current electricity flow). The car will move swiftly with the current. The car in
this analogy may be an electric motor. The motor requires a certain Voltage Potential (V), as
well as a certain Current (I) to get it moving. In other words, voltage and current are very much
intertwined, and remember, P = IV.

-Capacity = how large the reservoir of water is which feeds the canal. If the reservoir is small,
water will only flow through the canal for a short period of time. If the reservoir is large, it can
feed the canal for a long time. Capacity is directly proportional to the aircrafts run-time. By
definition, a battery capacity equal to 1 Ah means that if you draw a current of 1A (or 1000
mAh), the battery will last exactly 1 hr. A discharge (or charge) rate equal to the battery
capacity, is known as a 1 C discharge (or charge). Here is one example: if you draw a current
of 2A from a 1000 mAh (1Ah) battery, then the battery will last only 30 minutes, or half an hour.
If you draw a current of 0.5A from the same battery, it will last 2 hours. Drawing a current of
4A will last 15 minutes, or of an hour.

Two Basic Electrical Equations To Know:

Description of variables: Equations:

V = Voltage (in units of Volts, or V)
I = Current (in units of Amps, or A) Eqn. 1. Voltage:
R = Resistance (in units of Ohms, or )
P = Power (in units of Watts, or W) Eqn. 2. Power:
Note: W = J/s = N*m/s = kg*m2/s3
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Basic Electric Aircraft Setup

An electric radio controlled aircraft requires the following parts, as mentioned above, and which
will be discussed individually in the sections to come. The parts include: Airframe, Electric
Motor, LiPO Battery, ESC with BEC (or additional receiver battery), propeller or EDF unit,
Radio and Receiver, and Servos. You will also need a digital battery charger, basic glues and
building supplies, and a field repair kit.

Unit Conversion Calculators:

Due to the technical nature of this document, and in order to use many of the equations in this
document, converting from one set of units to another may be required. To convert weight,
temperature, area, distance, torque, etc., between different units, you may use this conversion
calculator here: http://towerhobbies.com/help/convcalcs.html.

Additionally, Google provides an extremely useful calculator and unit convert built right
into their search engine! For example, go to www.google.com, and enter the words 1 hp to
W (note: Googles unit converter is case sensitive) and press Enter. It will return the answer, 1
hp = 745.699872 watts, indicating that ~745.7 Watts is equal to 1 horsepower. You may also
type out the full words, 1 horsepower to Watts and it will return the same result. Try it out
with other conversions yourself, such as torque conversions from metric to English (by typing
3.2 kg cm to oz in) or speed conversions from meters per second to miles per hour (by typing
25 m/s to mph). Google also contains a full database of constants. For example, try typing in
speed of sound at sea level and it will return the answer, speed of sound at sea level = 340.29
m / s. Another very useful feature is that Google can be used as a calculator! For example,
type in sqrt(1.4*287.04*288.15)/2 and Google will return the value 170.14318. Lastly, you
can use units in your calculations! For example, add mph and km/hr by typing in, 10 mph +
25 km/hr. Google returns the answer as 11.4148444 m / s. But what if you want the answer
in mph? Well, type in 10 mph + 25 km/hr in mph and Google returns the answer as being
25.5342798 mph. Check this answer by typing 11.4148444 m/s to mph and YES, you get
the same answer! Google is an extremely useful tool and I use it often!

Now lets begin

First, a few notes about aircraft and airframe acronyms you may run into when shopping:
Common Acronyms:
RTF = Ready To Fly. This means it has all the parts in one box that you need to assemble
and fly it. Many RTFs even include a cheap charger! (Though Id recommend
upgrading it as soon as possible, as using it will decrease the life of your batteries.)
Although it implies it literally is Ready to Fly, for most aircraft, expect 30 minutes to
3 hours build and preparation time to actually get it ready to fly. Very few aircraft
(with micro helicopters being the primary exception) actually arrive 100% complete
and simply waiting on you to charge the battery in order to fly them. Most RTFs
require some sort of minimal assembly, and as it is with any electric aircraft, expect to
have to solder a bit if you ever want to purchase additional batteries, as you will need to
fit them with the right connectors for your plane.
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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PNF = Plug N Fly (or Plug And Fly). For some manufacturers, this is exactly equal to RTF.
For other manufacturers, PNF = RxR, which is described below. Note that for both
PNF and RxR, a LiPo battery may or may not be included with the airplane. Read the
manufacturers description carefully for exact details.
RxR = Receiver Ready. (Note that Rx alone is short for Receiver.). An RxR aircraft
has everything you need to fly except the radio and receiver! That means it comes with
the airframe, servos, motor, ESC with BEC, propeller, and sometimes even LiPo battery
(though not always). Read the manufacturers description carefully for exact details.
BNF= Bind N Fly (Bind And Fly). This is a step-up from RxR, in that a receiver is NOT
required to be purchased separately, but a radio is! However, if you already have the
proper radio, then all you have to do is electronically (at the push of a few buttons)
bind your current Spektrum-brand radio to the receiver already installed in this
aircraft and you are ready to fly! The problem is that BNF is brand-specific to Horizon
Hobby brand aircraft and Spektrum brand radios/transmitters. If you ever see an
aircraft description that says a DSM2 or DSMX compatible Transmitter is required,
then this means you must have a Spektrum brand 2.4 GHz radio.
ARF = Almost Ready to Fly.
Balsa ARF: Some very reputable companies, such as Tower Hobbies, consider ARFs
to be aircraft assemblies which are 90% prebuilt, and include all necessary and
specialized hardware, such as control rods, clevises, control surface hinges, landing
gear, etc., necessary to get the plane flight-ready. However, these ARF kits do NOT
have ANY of the other necessary electronics to complete them. This means that you
will have to purchase separately the motor, battery, ESC with BEC, propeller, radio and
receiver, and servos. If you buy one of these ARFs, expect to multiply the ARF price by
3 or 4 times its original cost in order to get the final price of all the items together
which are necessary to fly the plane. And you will most likely need an experienced
pilot to help you choose the additional equipment. One very popular Tower Hobbies
ARF is here: http://www3.towerhobbies.com/cgi-bin/wti0001p?&I=LXCAS2&P=ML.
Though a balsa ARF is in fact 90% prebuilt from the factory, expect a beginner to take
a minimum of 5 hours, and perhaps up to 15+ hours build and preparation time to get it
flight ready.
Foam ARF: Other ARFs, such as this HobbyKing Bixler
(http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/__16544__Hobbyking_Bixler_EPO_140
0mm_ARF_.html) are 90% prebuilt foam aircraft, and may even include additional
items such as the motor and servos. The Bixler just mentioned requires that you only
purchase the following additional items: ESC with BEC, radio and receiver, and battery
and charger. For foam ARFs, expect to spend only about 1-3+ hours to put them
together and get them ready to fly! Some soldering skills may also be required for the
ESC connectors to the motor.
Kit = the bare-bones basics.
Balsa Kit: for a balsa aircraft, a kit includes only the balsa sticks, twigs , and
sheets, with some additional hardware, necessary to build the aircraft. Building a balsa
kit can be an EXTREMELY intimidating, time-intensive, labor-intensive, technical
process that requires upwards of 24-60+ hours (or even hundreds of hours) in build and
assembly time. For some RC enthusiasts, this is what they live for! For others,
however (like me), this is what nearly kept me from even attempting the hobby.
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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Luckily, the balsa ARF was around when I was a kid to help me get in the door of
RC. Today, RTFs make life super simple for a kid wanting to begin this hobby!
Foam Kit: for foam aircraft, however, a kit is simple and quick to construct and
differs from its foam RTF or ARF counterpart only in that none of the required
electronics are included with the kit version. Again, take the HobbyKing Bixler, for the
kit version (here:
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/uh_viewItem.asp?idProduct=19988), the
same, easy to build aircraft arrives, yet it requires that you purchase separately the
motor, ESC with BEC, servos, radio and receiver, battery, and charger. Building a
foam kit, again, is a relatively straight-forward process, which usually requires about 2-
3+ hours to put together and get ready to fly! Just like with the foam ARF, some
soldering skills may also be required for the ESC connectors to the motor.

1) Airframe

-Common options for an RC aircraft

are to build the airframe from scratch,
buy and assemble it, or buy it pre-
assembled.
-Here is a list and description of
some common build materials that
relate to an aircrafts airframe:
The Tower Hobbies Tower
Common Build Materials: Trainer 40 balsa ARF airframe, 90% pre-built:
http://www.towerhobbies.com/products/towa1110.html#

Balsa wood: strong and light, but

brittle. Cover with iron-on heat shrink plastic film (ex: Top Flite MonoKote). Glue: use CA
(Cyanoacrylate, AKA: Super Glue) or epoxy. Standard wood glue may be used too but it is
more difficult to work with due to its long drying time.

Plywood: very strong and durable, but heavy. Used mostly for engine mounts and wing spars.
Use epoxy.

Foam: there are many types, including the following:

EPS = expanded polystyrene, or Styrofoam. If you're looking for durability, this is
generally not the foam to get, though it is otherwise light and impact-resistant.
Compared to modern foams these days, however, EPS is weak, crumbly, and NOT tear
resistant, but it is very light. EPS is basically obsolete these days since many other far-
better foams are available. Use low-temp hot glue, white glue, or epoxy for building.
CA (super glue) will melt it unless it is foam-safe. Also, if crushed or dented, EPS
foam may be re-expanded by briefly immersing the crushed section in very hot or
boiling water. Experiment at your own risk, and do NOT immerse any electronics.
EPO = expanded polyolefin (other names for proprietary versions of EPO include Elapor
and AeroCell). This is my #1 recommended foam for most planes! It is very durable
(similar to EPP in durability), but heavier and more rigid. Smash, crumble, and tear-
resistant. Use low-temp hot glue or standard (non-foam-safe) CA and activator. The
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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CA activator is a must when using CA on any foam or other low-moisture surface, or

the CA may never cure (ie: dry), especially in very dry environments (< ~20%
relative humidity at room temperature). I prefer the hot glue since it is extremely fast,
easy, convenient, and flexible. The glue bends naturally with the foam and does not
crack and break off. Shoe Goo is also said to work very well on EPO, and is even more
flexible and crack-resistant than hot glue, as well as *far stronger* and *far more
durable* in both cold and hot temperatures than hot glue (hot glue is brittle in cold
temperatures and has a lower bonding strength in hot temperatures). Goop and E-6000
can also be used in place of Shoe Goo (see here for more info on these three adhesives:
http://eclecticproducts.com/retail_products.htm)
EPP = expanded polypropylene. VERY durable, but also very flimsy. If thin, requires
several carbon fiber support rods and/or fiberglass-stranded strapping tape for
rigidity. Crumble-proof, and smash and tear resistant. Virtually indestructible. Hot
glue works well. Shoe Goo is said to work very well and has the very desirable quality
of flexing with the foam rather than breaking. Epoxy and standard CA (+ accelerator)
work on EPP but are brittle and will break when the foam tries to flex. Test other glues
as you see fit. For more info see here:
www.eflightwiki.com/eflightwiki/index.php?title=Foam.
Depron. Very rigid when compared to other foams (such as EPO and EPP) but also brittle.
Has nice, clean breaks for easy repairs. Low-temp hot glue works best. Epoxy may
also be used. This is the most common material used for scratch-built foamies
(home-made foam planes), including many 3D planes (planes that are very acrobatic
and can hover). Many profile planes (planes which are made of flat fuselage and
wing surfaces, rather than 3-dimensional fuselages and cambered or airfoiled wings)
are also built from Depron.
http://www.rcgroups.com/forums/showthread.php?t=1472402

http://www.electrifly.com/parkflyers/gpma1128.html
--please note in my document that Depron is "Extruded Polystyrene!!! foam" (so, this
means that polystyrene is not TOTALLY obsolete! :))

Carbon Fiber: use carbon fiber support rods for wing spars and areas where rigidity is needed.
WARNING: DO NOT LET ANY RADIO ANTENNA TOUCH A CARBON FIBER
SURFACE. It will cause a great deal of interference, and DRAMATICALLY reduce radio
range. Carbon fiber needs to be used sparingly, due to radio interference problems, and
insulated from radio equipment. It acts like metal in that it blocks radio waves. However,
some pilots report that using carbon fiber aircraft is feasible, but range testing must be
conducted prior to flight to ensure range is not negatively affected by the carbon fiber. Such
builders/pilots indicate that the carbon fiber size, weave, orientation, thickness, etc., as well as
the radio receiver location, are all factors which affect radio interference patterns through the
airframe, and that some configurations incorporating a lot of carbon fiber do allow radio waves
to pass through, and hence are acceptable. My feeling on the matter is that one would be very
wise to conduct a lot of additional research on the use of carbon fiber and experiment
extensively to find out what configurations, build patterns, receiver locations, etc., work best
with their equipment and minimize radio interference.
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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Fiberglass: Fiberglass cloth and resin may be used as a covering/stiffener over aircraft parts, or
fiberglass rods may also be used like carbon rods for support.

Glue:
There are 4 main types you will want to buy, but what you use generally comes down to you
and your personal preference, as many other options also exist.
-4 main types I use for building: hot glue, Shoe Goo/Goop/E-6000, 2-part 5 or 6 minute
Epoxy (ex: http://www3.towerhobbies.com/cgi-bin/wti0001p?&I=LXPT44&P=ML), and
CA (Super Glue).
Hot Glue
Shoe Goo/Goop/E-6000 http://eclecticproducts.com/retail_products.htm
5 or 6 minute Epoxy
CA (Cyanoacrylate/Super Glue)
-Other types of glues I occasionally use include E-6000 (for securing gyro boards within
their case in order to reduce gyro vibration and increase gyro effectiveness), shoe goo
(for waterproofing components), gorilla glue, and wood glue.

Some notes about CA:

-CA = cyanoacrylate = Super Glue
-CA cures from moisture in the air. In dry climates, such as Colorado, Idaho,
Arizona, etc., and especially in the winter, CA may take up to 10x longer than normal
to cure. On non-porous, dry surfaces which cannot trap moisture, such as between
two pieces of EPO foam, CA may virtually never cure. In both cases just mentioned,
an activator (AKA: CA accelerator) is required to help the CA cure.
-In order of effectiveness (least effective to most effective), an
activator/accelerator may be comprised of plain tap water, alcohol, heptane, or
acetone. Therefore, CA, when gently sprayed with plain tap water, will require the
most time to cure, whereas acetone will cure CA almost instantly. If too much of the
more effective activators are used, such as heptane or acetone, the CA may bloom
or foam/bubble into a hard, brittle substance. This is from curing too quickly, and
decreases the strength of the bond by making the CA extra brittle.
-To create your own spray activator, you may take a standard spray bottle and put tap
water or rubbing alcohol in it, for instance, though these will be slower-acting than a
purchased activator/accelerator, which are usually comprised of heptane or acetone.
-in normal climates, thin CA works very well on wood since it wicks right into the
material and wood is capable of holding moisture to help the CA cure.
-since CA needs moisture to cure, sometimes it helps to spray a light mist of water or
rubbing alcohol onto a surface prior to applying CA. For greater/faster effect, a
purchased CA accelerator may be used. Again, activator is required for EPO foam,
and for this foam, foam-safe CA and activator are *not* required. For EPS
(Styrofoam), however, foam-safe CA and activator *are* required.
-You may purchase a commercially available CA Activator such as this one:
http://www3.towerhobbies.com/cgi-bin/wti0001p?&I=LXK297&P=ML.
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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-A de-bonder, such as this one, can help you remove CA from your fingers, table,
tools, etc: http://www3.towerhobbies.com/cgi-bin/wti0001p?&I=LXK299&P=7.
-for more valuable technical information on CA glues, read from the experts here:
http://www.mercuryadhesives.com/MercuryFAQ.htm

Tape: a must-have for quick repairs on foam aircraft, as well as to quickly field-repair the heat-
shrink covering film on balsa aircraft. Two types I primarily use are 1) standard clear
packing tape, and 2) strapping tape, which is basically packing tape
with fiberglass strands running down it (see here for instance:
http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B001NBR7BU/ref=oh_o01_s00_i0
0_details?tag=5336432818-20). For foam aircraft, or other light
aircraft, either clear packing tape or strapping tape make excellent
control surface hinges. When using strapping tape, I prefer to run the
fiberglass strands parallel to the hinge-line, or in other words, along the direction of the bend-
line, in order to allow the hinge to move more freely. Also keep in mind that strapping tape is
not only stronger than the packing tape, but also stickier. Its downside is that it is heavier.

Double-sided adhesive foam tape: very useful for mounting ESCs or other components, and
especially necessary to mount vibration-sensitive gyros, which need a vibration dampener yet
should be securely fastened. I highly recommend Scotch indoor/outdoor mounting tape,
such as this found here: http://www.homedepot.com/h_d1/N-5yc1v/R-
100153200/h_d2/ProductDisplay?langId=-1&storeId=10051&catalogId=10053.

Adhesive Velcro (hook and loop) tape: a must-have for mounting batteries, receivers, etc,
which need to be placed and removed often. On small foam aircraft, a good piece of Velcro
tape, with the stiff hook side attached to the outside of the aircraft and the fuzzy loop side
attached to the battery is all that holds the battery to the aircraft while flying! For large
batteries mounted externally, a Velcro strap or rubber band should be used in addition to the
adhesive Velcro tape.

2) Motor

The motor needs to be sized properly to the size and

weight of the plane, with the propeller properly
sized to the motor, and the ESC properly sized to
the propeller and motor combination. For more on
this process of sizing a motor, continue reading
below. Also, see the link at end of this document,
from stevensaero.com, and from MyCoolRC.com,
on selecting a power system. The NTM Prop Drive Series 35-36A
I THINK IVE CHOSEN THE ***WRONG*** 1800Kv / 875w brushless Outrunner
motor, an *excellent* choice to make the
MOTOR HERE!!!!THIS IS A SPEED Tower Trainer 40 electric!
MOTOR!!! (NOT A GOOD TRAINER MOTOR) http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/st
Maybe better? ore/__15169__NTM_Prop_Drive_Series_
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/__19831_ 35_36A_1800Kv_875w.html
_NTM_Prop_Drive_Series_42_38_750kv_785w.html
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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requires BIG prop though.

A bit too much here too???
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/uh_viewItem.asp?idProduct=16231
I think THIS is the motor!!!
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/__8488__Turnigy_4240_Brushless_Motor_13
00kv.html*************** YES I THINK THIS IS THE MOTOR TO BUY!!!
Before we talk about sizing a motor, lets first understand the specifications of a motor by
looking at the type of the motor, and the numbers associated with it.

Here is an example of a motor: Turnigy D2826-6 2200kv Brushless Outrunner Motor.

(This is a very popular motor recommended by RCPowers for his Parkjet line of pdf RC aircraft [Main
website: www.rcpowers.com, Master Parts List:
http://www.rcpowers.com/forum/showthread.php?8300-RCPowers-Master-Parts-List].
Direct motor Link:
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/uh_viewItem.asp?idProduct=12919&aff=46898).

Explanation of motor type (namely, the Brushless Outrunner part of the name):

Brushless motors are newer and more efficient than brushed motors. Instead of using
metal brushes to transfer electricity between the center of the motor and the outer shell of
the motor (the can), permanent magnets are used in the can and the brushes are removed.
Always choose brushless over brushed if given the choice, as they are much more
efficient and more powerful.
Outrunner motors are newer in the RC field than inrunner motors, and are also always
preferred when possible. With inrunner motors, the core spins and the outside (can) is
stationary. With outrunner motors, the core is stationary and the can spins. Since the can
has more mass (and inertia) than the core, and is farther from the axis of rotation,
outrunner motors hence have *lower* RPMs (Rotations Per Minute) and *higher*
torque than inrunner motors, which, for turning propellers, is desirable. Inrunner motors
have higher RPMs and lower torque, and therefore often require a gearbox to reduce the
RPMs of the motor and increase the torque to the prop. This makes them less efficient
due to friction in the gearbox, and adds extra weight to the plane, both of which are
undesirable. Therefore, outrunner motors are generally better for propellers than inrunner
motors.

Explanation of the numbers in the motor naming convention (namely, the 2826-6 2200kv
part of the name):

Although the naming convention of brushless motors from different manufacturers can be very
similar, motor naming is not perfectly standardized in the industry. Therefore, do not be
surprised if the following rules I teach you do not always apply, or if the order or format of the
numerical values is different. However, for the most part, motor manufacturers will use this
naming convention or something similar to it. The naming convention is basically as follows:

The 2826-6 portion of the name is in the form XXYY-Z. Some motor manufacturers may list
these numbers in the form XXYY/Z instead, or they may not list the Z value at all. For the
above naming convention,
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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XX is the diameter of the stator (the stator is the stationary part of the motor, or in the
case of an outrunner motor, this is the inside of the motor where the windings are). This
motor has a stator diameter of 28 mm. Note: some manufacturers consider the XX to be
the diameter of the can (or barrel) rather than the stator (the can is the rotating outside
portion of an outrunner motor).
YY is the length of the stator. This motor has a stator length of 26 mm. Note: again,
some manufacturers consider the YY to be the length of the can rather than the stator.
Z is the number of windings, or turns of wire. Sometimes this number is not listed, and
only the motors Kv rating (explained next) is listed instead. The lower the number of
turns, the higher the Kv rating of the motor. In other words, Lower Turns = Higher Kv
= Higher RPM. Higher Turns = Lower Kv = Lower RPM. This motor has 6 turns, or
windings of wire.

This motor is listed as 2200kv.

kv = Revolutions Per Minute per Volt applied. This is for a motor with *no* load
applied, or in other words, no propeller or gears installed. For this motor then, with a
battery having 11.1 V, for example, the motor would spin at 2200 kv x 11.1 V = 24,420
RPM when no propeller is installed. 2200 kv is approximately an average kv rating for a
motor intended to run on a 3-cell (11.1V) LiPo battery. A low kv rating for a 3S (3 cells
in series) LiPo would be 800-1300 kv. Motors around 1000 kv are designed to have high
thrust and low speed, and are used for 3D planes, or planes that can hover, but dont fly
fast. High kv-rating motors are used for EDFs (Electric Ducted Fan jets) and high-speed
planes. A higher kv motor, such as a 3200 kv motor, for instance, with a 3S LiPo (to
be explained) and 4.75 x 4.75 prop (to be explained) might get a small plane to fly as
fast as 120+ mph using a propeller, whereas the same plane with the same battery
and the same size motor, but with a 1000 kv motor instead and a 10 x 4 prop, might
only get this plane to fly 45 mph at full throttle. Note that higher kv motors must use
*smaller* diameter props or they will draw too much power and burn up. Also, if you
upgrade to a higher voltage battery (which has the same effect as getting a higher kv
motor) you will need to use a smaller diameter prop or you risk burning up the motor.
Motor RPMs.(discuss low RPMs and whether or not 1000kv is actually low!) (ex:
due to varying voltages, the unloaded RPMs is what really matters, NOT the kv!!!!!)

How does the motor Size (stator diameter and length) affect the motor?
-The larger the diameter and length of the stator (or can, depending on how the
manufacturer lists their motors), the more power (Watts) the motor will produce, but also
the more the motor will weigh. Additional statistics for any given motor should be listed by the
manufacturer, including maximum power it can safely draw (Watts), maximum current it
can safely draw (Amps), voltage range it can handle, and sometimes even recommended
propeller size.

For additional reading and sources on the above topics, see the following links:
http://www.rcecho.com/AXI-Gold-Line-2212-20-EVP-Outrunner-Brushless-Motor.html
http://www.rcgroups.com/forums/showthread.php?t=319860
http://aeroquad.com/showwiki.php?title=Motors+and+Propellers+FAQ
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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Choosing/Sizing a Brushless Motor

Choosing the right size brushless motor is all about Watts/lb. Find a motor that delivers the right
amount of power based on the values in the table below, and the right kv based on the type of
flying you want to do and the type of aircraft you have (high kv low static thrust, but fast
flying, and low kv high static thrust [ex: for a plane capable of hovering] and slow
flying).

Remember, this Watts/lb scale is based on the power going into the motor, so the power (Watts)
is calculated simply by the formula P = IV (Watts = Current x Voltage). Also, remember that if
you want a motor with more power, in order to increase your Watts/lb, you will need to find a
larger motor either in diameter or length (refer to the XXYY numbers in the convention
explained above). The table below describes the performance you can expect based on the
power loading (Watts/lb) that your aircraft has.

Table of Performance versus Power Loading (W/lb) for Aircraft with Brushless Motors
(For Less Efficient Brushed Motors Id Recommend Exceeding the Below Recommended
Values [W/lb] By ~10~20%)
Note: For conversion, purposes 1 lb = 453.59 grams
(Table from http://www.stevensaero.com/Selecting-an-Electric-Powersystem-R1.0-nid-5.html)

add info (line to table) about EDF W/lb needing to be this 150~200 W/lb (since they have crappy
efficiency)!!!!
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/ebasic.asp
-Also mention that speed planes, such as the HobbyKing T-28 FunFighter or RareBear, must
pull upwards of 450~500+ W/lb!!! (in order to go >100 mph in many cases)also specify the
W/lb power loading of the FunJet Ultra that goes ~184 mph.

Examples of choosing the right size motor:

1. You want to check your power loading. Your airplane, ready to fly, with motor and
battery and all, weighs 2 lb. The motor draws 27 Amps while running on a Lithium-
Polymer battery with a nominal voltage (listed on the outside of the battery pack) of 11.1
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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V. The Watts/lb therefore is (27A x 11.1V)/2 lb = 149.85 W/lb. This is good, and based
on the chart below, the aircraft should have the power required to both hover and
accelerate vertically.
2. You have an airframe only--that weighs 1000g without the motor, battery, and ESC
(Electronic Speed Controller). You want this plane to be a gentle trainer, but you also
want it to have a lot of power so that it can be aerobatic as well. In order to accomplish
this, you decide you want a power loading of 110 W/lb, and you will just fly at a lower
throttle setting when you are doing gentle flying. In order to shoot for 110 W/lb with the
battery, ESC, and motor, you guestimate that the flying weight of the aircraft will be
about 1500g (or 3.307 lb), so in order to meet the 110 W/lb goal you will need a motor
which has a power draw of 110 W/lb x 3.307 lb = 363.77 W. On an 11.1V battery, this
equates to a current draw of 363.77W/11.1V = 32.8A. After doing some research, you
find a motor that can pull up to 30A on an 11.1V battery. Once you find this motor, you
find a compatible ESC and battery, and calculate that the total flying weight of the
aircraft will be 1567g (or 3.455 lb). Since the motor pulls 30A, or 30A x 11.1V = 333W,
the power loading will be 333W/3.455lb = 96.4 W/lb. This is lower than your desired
110 W/lb, so either you can change one of your components and attempt this process
again, or you can accept the lower power loading of 96.4 W/lb.

Notice that the above process can be very iterative. Since the motor, battery, and speed
controller (ESC) are all very closely linked, changing one of those components can change them
all. It may take several research iterations before you come up with the right power loading that
you desire. In Example 2 above, perhaps the power loading could be increased by simply using
a smaller battery, which would reduce the overall weight. But then will you have enough flight
time? Flight time can also be calculated if you have a good estimate for current draw at an
average flying throttle setting. The formula for flight time is found in the next section, titled
Battery. Rather than reducing the size of the battery, however, a slightly larger motor could be
chosen. A larger motor will produce more power, but it will also increase weight, and may
require a larger ESC and/or battery, which could also increase weight. Again, several iterations
could be required before the perfect combination of motor, battery, and ESC is found.

Summary and Motor Conclusions

To reiterate, motor, ESC, battery, and prop are all closely related, so you will need to learn more
information about each one of those topics not yet covered in order to be able to effectively
choose the right power system. As a rule of thumb: choose the right kv and prop for your
application. A motor with a low kv rating, and a large-diameter, low-pitch prop will have
very high static thrust, but low top speed. A motor with a high kv rating, and a small
diameter, high pitch prop will have lower static thrust, but high top speed.

Once you know the voltage you plan on using with a motor you choose, you may be required to
solder and create your own motor extensions or battery adapters. If you want to know what
size wires you will need to handle the given currents and voltages, use the following cable
sizing tool for DC power: http://www.solar-wind.co.uk/cable-sizing-DC-cables.html. For the
acceptable loss value, any of the options available in the dropdown menu (ranging from 1% to
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
Staples (22/86)

5%) is acceptable for RC applications, but you should be aware that the higher percentage loss
values imply that more heat will be generated in the wires during those operating conditions.

Additional Brushless Motor Information (copied from www.rctoys.com):

Full link: http://www.rctoys.com/pr/2009/05/25/all-about-brushless-motors-what-you-need-to-
know/

Brushless Motor Benefits:

More Efficient Brushless motors are much more efficient than conventional brushed
motors. This efficiency has been measured to be between 85% to 95% better than
brushed motors.
Less electrical energy is wasted as heat,and more is used to do useful work.
Reduced Noise Brushless motors have fewer mechanical parts than brushed motors, so
they emit less sound.
Longer Lifetime Fewer moving parts are in mechanical contact than in brushed motors,
reducing wear.
Reduced EM Interference Brushless motors emit less energy as electromagnetic (EM)
waves than brushed motors do. This contributes to their efficiency, and helps reduce
radio interference.
Torque, Voltage, And RPM Linearly Related This means that the amount of torque or
RPM produced by the motor divided by the voltage put in is a constant [hence the kv
rating system], making it easy to predict how much power youre going to get.
For info on How Brushless Motors Work, and the purpose of an ESC (Electronic Speed
Controller), click the full link above.

3) LiPo Battery

(also see link at end of document, from rcdiscuss.com,

for additional info on batteries, ESCs, and props)

As the motor sizing examples in the previous section

demonstrated, choosing the right size LiPo battery for
your application is a very important step in the process of
sizing a power system for an airplane. All that you need
to know about batteries for this process will be explained The Turnigy 2200mAh 3S 25C Lipo
in this section, but here is the primary take-away that you Pack a good size for many park-
flyers!
should learn and remember from this section of the http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyki
document: Always ensure the battery is capable of ng/store/__8934__Turnigy_2200mA
providing the maximum current draw (based on the h_3S_25C_Lipo_Pack.html
batterys C-rating [see below for info.]) that the
motor/propeller combination will require.

Battery Chemistry Types include: NiCad/NiCd (Nickel-Cadmium), NiMH (Nickel-metal-

hydride), Pb (Lead-Acid), LiPo (Lithium-Ion-Polymer, or Lithium-Polymer)/LiFE (Lithium-
Iron)/Li-Ion (Lithium-Ion).
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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-They all work differently, and have different characteristics and charging techniques, as well
as different voltage ranges per cell. Some require full discharge, some will be ruined by full
discharge.
-To help you understand the charging techniques, traits, and limitations of the various
chemistry types, Id recommend thoroughly reading this Triton 2 eq charger manual, including
all of the fine print in the boxes throughout the manual:
http://manuals.hobbico.com/gpm/gpmm3156-manual.pdf. Also, check out
www.BatteryUniversity.com for a great deal of invaluable information. Click on Learn About
Batteries at the top of their web page for links to many of their articles. Also, see the Battery
Care table on pg. 54 in this document by clicking here.
Side Note on Chargers and Manuals: I have thoroughly read many charger manuals of
many different brands (including some manuals from the well-known brands Hyperion,
Thunder Power, and Orbit [for the Orbit Microlader charger]), and this one is, in my
opinion, the most thorough manual of them all, and will give you a good understanding
of the various chemistry types and how they work. Though I would not necessarily
recommend this charger, due to its high cost, occasional software bugs, and limited
features (ex: no storage mode function for LiPo batteries, and very limited LiPo
charging options), I do nevertheless own this charger and highly recommend its manual
as one of the most informative of them all in regards to the various battery chemistries. I
would say that the Hyperion manuals come in second place in regards to valuable
information, and Hyperion certainly does have much more up-to-date information
regarding LiPo charging than the Triton manual will describe. Basically all chargers will
work in a somewhat similar fashion, except for having perhaps different menus and more
functions than the Triton, and you can buy a great Chinese charger that should work
about as well and will be far more economical, costing to as much!

-As for batteries, you want something light and with a high charge density: LiPo is the way to
go for RC aircraft! LiPo batteries have two plugs on them. One is the main
charge/discharge plug, and one is the balance plug. Most chargers require that both plugs
be plugged in simultaneously to charge, though some of the very cheap chargers charge only
through the balance plugs. Since LiPo batteries are very sensitive to voltage, all cells in a LiPo
battery pack must have approximately the same voltage upon recharging, and the balance plugs
allow a charger to individually monitor the voltage of each cell and ensure that they all have
the same voltage when charging is complete.

Explanation of numbers on a LiPo battery: (1) (2) (3)

Example of a LiPo Battery Pack: Turnigy 2200 mAh 3S1P 20C Lipo Pack

Capacity, Maximum Continuous

2200 mAh Discharge Rate of this battery:
(2.2Ah) 20C x 2.2Ah = 44A

Pack Cell Structure

(3S 3 cells in Series, [and 1P only 1 of
those 3S sets in Parallel] 11.1V nominal,
9.0V fully discharged, 12.6V fully charged)
Turnigy = brand.
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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Other than the brand, and the fact that the battery is a LiPo chemistry type, the battery
really has three specifications you must understand:

1) Battery Capacity:
2200 mAh = capacity in milliamp-hours (2200 mAh = 2.2 Ah). This determines how
long the battery can deliver power. 2.2 Ah = this battery can deliver a current of 2.2 A
for 1 hr. If you know the current your plane draws, then use this simple equation to
determine how long you can fly:

Eqn. 3. Flight Time/Battery Run-Time Calculation:

Note that capacity in Ah = mAh/1000.

In order to have sufficient energy to land, however, and to prolong the lifespan of the
battery by reducing stress applied to it, you may multiply the above equation by 0.8
and prepare to land when around 80% of the batterys capacity has been used. To
determine the current (A) the plane draws, you
may use a power meter such as the Watt's Up
Power meter, sold here:
http://www3.towerhobbies.com/cgi-
bin/wti0001p?&I=LXLMV0&P=ML.

Put the power meter in-line between the battery and the ESC and run the plane at full-
throttle until the current stabilizes. That is the max constant current pull of your
power system. You may also fly the plane and remember the in-flight throttle setting
(cruise throttle setting) you prefer for most flying, then bench-test the aircraft at that
throttle setting with the power meter, and use the current read at that throttle setting in
the above equation. Using the full-throttle current will give you the minimum
flight time you can expect, and using the cruise throttle setting will give you a
more realistic flight time you can expect for normal flying. Caution: it is *not*
recommended to run the plane indoors at full throttle for more than ~30-60 seconds or
you may overheat the motor, ESC, or battery since proper cooling is not available
with the plane not in flight.

2) Number of Battery Cells in Series and Parallel:

3S1P = 3 cells in Series, 1 in Parallel. A LiPo cell is 3.7 V nominally (nominally

means the named value, which happens to be an approximate average voltage value
from empty to full), so this battery has a nominal voltage of 3.7 x 3 cells in series = 11.1
V. See the figure below for the wiring diagram of a 3S battery pack. A fully discharged
LiPo battery is 3.00 V/cell in series, or 9 V for this battery. A fully charged LiPo is
4.20 V/cell in series, or 3 cells x 4.20V/cell = 12.60 V for this battery. Batteries
The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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generally range from 1-6S, but may be as high as 12S or more, and really have no upper
limit since individual packs can be wired in series to create an equivalent pack with as
many cells in series as you could ever desire.
The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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Series versus Parallel:

Individual cells, and even entire battery packs, may be wired in two configurations:
series, and parallel. They are explained a bit more below.
Series:
Figure 1 below shows a diagram of a 3-cell battery pack wired in series. Therefore, it
is a 3S LiPo battery pack. Building a wiring harness to place two packs in series
(connecting + terminals to terminals and to +) can be accomplished in order to
increase voltage, but the capacities of the batteries should be the same. Ex: one 2S
5000 mAh LiPo + one 4S 5000 mAh LiPo in series = the equivalent of one 6S 5000
mAh LiPo (batteries in series add the voltages).
Parallel: Building wiring harnesses to place two packs in parallel (connecting +
terminals to + terminals and to ) can also be accomplished to increase capacity, but
the nominal voltages (or cells in series) of the batteries ABSOLUTELY MUST be
the same. Ex: one 4S 5000 mAh LiPo + one 4S 5000 mAh LiPo in parallel = the
equivalent of one 4S 10,000 mAh LiPo (batteries in parallel add the capacities).
Or one 3S 1000 mAh LiPo + one 3S 3000 mAh LiPo = one 3S 4000 mAh LiPo.
WARNING: Placing battery packs of varying voltages (cell counts in series) in
parallel will cause the higher voltage battery to surge a high current into the lower
voltage battery, thereby severely overloading and overcharging the lower voltage
cells. This WILL cause them to burst and catch fire!!!
Therefore, one 2S 5000 mAh LiPo + one 3S 5000 mAh LiPo in parallel = one intense
ball of explosive fire and burning hydrogen gas.

Figure 1. Schematic of 3S LiPo Battery Pack (3 LiPo Cells in Series)

 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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3) The Charge and Discharge C-ratings:

C = capacity multiplier for maximum discharge rate (1C = 2200 mAh or 2.2 Ah for this
particular battery, so 20C means this battery can discharge at a maximum rate of 2.2A x
20 = 44 A. LiPos also have a C rating for a maximum charge rate. Get in the habit of
charging all LiPos at a 1 C rate. However, if you need to charge very quickly, some
LiPos, such as Hyperions G3 line (http://www.hyperion-
world.com/products/type/19), or HobbyKings Turnigy nano-tech LiPos
(http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/__378__85__LiPo_LiFe_NiMH_Battery-
Turnigy_nano_tech.html), can take charge rates as high as 2C to 8C+. This equates to
charge times as little as 8-15 minutes!!! Before charging at a rate higher than 1C,
however, look for the charge and discharge C ratings on the battery pack itself and
ENSURE IT IS CAPABLE OF BEING CHARGED AT A RATE HIGHER THAN 1C.
Keep in mind, however, that charging at a rate higher than 1C, even if the battery is rated
for it, is hard on the battery and will reduce its overall life (# of total cycles
[charges/discharges] you can get out of it) accordingly. If a specific charge C rate is not
specified, then the pack is by default only capable of a maximum charge rate of 1C.

Battery-Specific Power System Sizing:

The discharge C-rating is very important in sizing a battery to ensure it can deliver
the current demanded by the motor you will be powering with a given battery. Try
to size a battery so that it has well over the max discharge rate of what you will ever
use. For larger planes, where this may be more difficult to do due to the extremely
high peak current pulled by the power system, try to have a battery capable of a
discharge rate 10-20% higher than your peak current rate. Exceed this where
possible. For example, if it is possible, try to have a battery with a high enough discharge
C-rating that it can deliver 2x the power draw of the motor. The higher the C-rating, the
better!
Note: having a higher C-rating will NOT increase the run-time of your battery, rather, it
will decrease the run-time of your battery since the battery will have less internal
resistance and provide more current and power. Providing more power means the battery
with the higher C-rating runs out faster, assuming both batteries compared have the same
capacity in mAh.

More About Cell Count and Corresponding Total Battery Pack Voltage
(applies to LiPo batteries only):
-Again, the nominal voltage (ie: the named or specified voltage on the outside of the battery,
and approximately the average voltage) of a LiPo battery is 3.7 V/cell.
-A discharged cell is 3.0 V. Do NOT discharge below 3.0 V/cell, or internal resistance
dramatically increases and the battery cell may explode/catch fire upon recharging. Also, the
LiPo battery will suffer permanent capacity loss (see Battery Use and Care section below for
a table showing Depth of Discharge versus battery life (Discharge Cycles)).
-If a cell is accidentally discharged to 2.5 3.0 V/cell, perform a trickle charge (~ 1/20 to 1/10
of the Capacity (C) rating until above 3.0 V/cell, then charge as normal).
-A full cell is 4.20 V/cell. Do NOT charge above this level or cell will be damaged and life
reduced, and safety is compromised (battery may catch fire). See Figure 2 below for the
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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effects on cycle life of elevating the full charge voltage above 4.20 V/cell. As the plot shows,
4.20 V/cell shows a very shallow decline in battery capacity over time, whereas a full charge
voltage of 4.25 V/cell decreases the capacity dramatically, and higher voltages even more so.

Figure 2. Effects on Cycle Life at Elevated Full Charge Voltages (above 4.20 V/cell).
(http://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/how_to_prolong_lithium_based_batteries)
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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Battery State of Charge (SoC) Estimates

(plots below are for LiPo Batteries Only):

You can determine your LiPo batterys charge level using the
table and plots below showing the batterys resting voltage per
cell versus State of Charge. State of Charge is the percentage
of battery capacity, in mAh, remaining. For example, a resting
voltage of 4.00 V/cell corresponds to a SoC of about 84%.
4.20 V/cell is 100%, and 3.00 V/cell is 0%. Use any standard multimeter to check the batterys
total voltage, and divide that value by the number of cells to get the Volts/cell, or use an RC-
grade LiPo cell voltage checker such as the Cell-Log Cell Voltage Monitor (sold here:
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/uh_viewItem.asp?idProduct=10952 or here:
Table 1. Resting http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/uh_viewItem.asp?idProduct
Battery =9282) to see your batterys individual cell voltages.
Individual Cell
Voltage versus The following table and plots were created from data posted by
State of Charge www.rcgroups.com member Hoppy here:
(% Battery http://www.rcgroups.com/forums/showpost.php?p=6660057&postcount=
Capacity 7. He is a reputable user with more than 16,715 posts, and he collected
Remaining) this data from over a hundred measurements with different size, brand,
(yellow cells are and condition LiPo packs. He states that the SoC estimates will vary ~
extrapolated data) +/- 5% depending on the age and brand of the [LiPo] pack. For
segments above and below his given range of 3.67 4.00 V/cell, I have
extrapolated the data to resemble normal LiPo discharge curves.
State of
Resting Charge
Battery (SoC)
V/Cell Estimate
4.20 100%
4.14 98%
4.10 95%
4.05 90%
4.00 84%
3.96 77%
3.93 70%
3.90 63%
3.86 56%
3.83 48%
3.80 43%
3.76 35%
3.73 27%
3.70 21%
3.67 14%
3.62 10%
3.55 7%
3.35 3%
3.00 0%
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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Figure 3. Plots of Battery Resting Voltage (V/Cell) versus State of Charge (% Battery
Capacity Remaining)

Battery Use and Care (LiPo chemistry only):

-I recommend following the 4 tips below to get the most performance out of your LiPos and
prolong their life:

(1) Store LiPos at approximately 40 ~ 60% State of Charge (Soc) (or around 3.75 ~ 3.90
V/cell) to prolong life, and/or in the refrigerator. As Table 2 below shows, storing them
in a plastic bag (to keep out moisture) in the refrigerator (but *not* freezer) definitively
increases their life. Note that most refrigerators range from ~ 37F to 41F, or about 2.8C
to 5C. (Freezers are too cold, as they range from about -5F to +10F, or about -20.6C to
-12.2C). Many people, such as myself, however, find that storing LiPos at 40-60%
SoC can be a big inconvenience, so rather than ensuring they are at the proper
storage voltage, I usually prefer to keep my LiPos fully charged, but in the fridge.
Looking at the data in Table 2 below, a battery stored at room temperature (~20C), and
fully charged, will suffer approximately a 20% permanent loss in usable capacity (mAh) in
just one year of storage. I find this totally unacceptable. Storing the same battery at the
same temperature, but at a a storage voltage of 40% SoC, will dramatically improve this
to being only a 4% loss in one year, which is excellent, but inconvenient. Storing the same
battery, at the 40% SoC level, and in the fridge (near 0C) will decrease this to only 2%
loss in one year, which I consider to be a negligible improvement of 2%. However,
storing the same battery at a 100% State of Charge level (ie: fully charged), and in the
fridge, causes it to suffer only a 6% capacity loss in 1 year. I find this amount of loss to
be acceptable, and it is a substantial improvement of 14% better than the 20% loss for this
battery at this charge level at room temperature, and only a 2% capacity loss difference
from the 4% loss of the same battery at room temperature and the proper SoC storage level.
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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Table 2. Permanent Capacity Loss of LithiumIon-Based Battery Chemistries As a

Function of Temperature and Charge Level.
(http://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/how_to_prolong_lithium_based_batteries)

ADD FORMATTED PLOT HERE (WITH NEW TABLE TOO) OF ABOVE DATA
FROM TABLE

The reason that either refrigerating LiPo batteries or storing them at 40%~60% SoC,
or both, is best is because leaving them at full charge is high-stress on them and wears
them out much more quickly since chemical reactions occur at a maximum rate at full
charge and high temperatures. Refrigerating them decreases chemical reaction rates and
lowers internal stress. Charging a LiPo to full charge just before storing it would be
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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like stretching out a rubber band to its maximum ability, and using a mechanism to
hold it there, just before storing it. Its just hard on the batteries and lowers their life.
Hyperion, arguably one of the highest-quality and most knowledgeable charger
manufactures out there, validates the above data by saying that, It is especially harmful to
store lithium packs fully charged, and should be avoided for more than a few days at most
(source: http://media.hyperion.hk/dn/eos/EOS0720NET-MAN-EN12.pdf, pg. 5).

Note: the tables just above and below are from Battery University, which is a very
reputable and experienced source with more than 30 years experience in battery charging
and analysis.

(2) -Next Tip: Do NOT discharge LiPos to lower than 3.0 V/cell, and discharge them less
than 100% (ie: leave them at a higher resting voltage than 3.0 V/cell) if possible. A
good idea is to shoot for an 80% Depth of Discharge (or approximately 3.695 V/cell
resting voltage). Table 3 below is also from BatteryUniversity.com (like the table above),
Table 3. Depth of Discharge, DoD (Capacity and shows how the Depth of Discharge
[mAh] of Battery Used/Total Battery Capacity affects a batterys life span. Depth of
[mAh]) versus Battery Life (Discharge Cycles) Discharge (DoD) is a percentage value
http://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/how_to_prolong_lit of the batterys total capacity used, in
hium_based_batteries mAh, out of its total capacity
available, in mAh. A Depth of
Discharge of 100% means that 100%
of the batterys capacity has been
used, and hence it has been discharged
down to 3.0 V/cell. A battery still at
4.2 V/cell is full, and therefore is at a
depth of discharge of 0%. A DoD of
80% means that 80% of the batterys capacity has been used, and 20% still remains.
According to the plot in Figure 3 above, an 80% DoD, or 20% State of Charge, corresponds
to a resting voltage of approximately 3.695 V/cell, which is a good resting voltage at which
to stop flying. Notice that based on the experimental results in the table, discharging a
battery only 50% versus 100% allows it to have a 3 x the number of discharge cycles
before it is no longer useable! Battery University says that for lithium-based
rechargeable batteries, a partial discharge reduces stress and prolongs battery life.
Elevated temperature and high currents also affect cycle life. Therefore, a 100%
DoD is perfectly acceptable, but realize that if you land just a little early (maybe 30
seconds to a minute early), you may be at only an 80% DoD upon landing, rather than
a 100% DoD, and your batteries will have a much longer lifeperhaps even 2 times
as long!

(3) -Charge LiPos at room temperature, and avoid charging outside in the winter in freezing
temperatures, as again, the decreased chemical reaction rates at low temperatures prevent
the battery from charging properly, and according to some sources, charging (or even
storing) at very low temperatures (well below freezing) may even damage the battery. It is
also recommended to keep LiPos cool (below 100F) during charging (see Triton 2 EQ
charger manual, pg. 15: http://manuals.hobbico.com/gpm/gpmm3156-manual.pdf). For
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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more information on charging LiPos, see section within this document titled,
LiPo/NiCad/NiMH Battery Charger Capable of Balancing LiPos.

(4) -If flying in very cold or below-freezing conditions, keep LiPos warm in pocket just
before flying. This helps them have good chemical reaction rates for flying and they will
have more power. The colder the battery, the less run-time and power you will get out of
it. Using LiPos with higher C ratings will help the batteries deliver their full capacity and
have higher power even in cold conditions since higher-C-rated batteries have a lower
internal resistance to the flow of electricity.

Battery Run-Time Sizing/Sizing a LiPo Battery Correctly For Your Aircraft:

-Below are some examples of basic calculations you can perform to help you choose the right
battery for your plane. It will help you answer questions such as, What Battery should I choose
if I want my plane to run on full throttle for X number of minutes?

Ex #1:
Given: My motor is rated at 200W max power, and requires a 3-cell LiPo, and I want it to
run for 8 minutes on full throttle.

1) What is the max current of the motor? 3-cell lipo = 3.7 x 3 = 11.1V. 200W/11.1V =
18A max current.
2) Run-time calculation: Battery_Capacity_needed/18A x 60 min/hr = 8 min. -->
Battery_Capacity_needed = 8min/60 x 18A = 2.4 Ah = 2400 mAh. So a minimum
capacity of 2400 mAh is required to run the motor for 8 min. on full throttle.
3) Calculate minimum "C" rating required: Battery Current Rating must be > 18A (the
motor requirement). However, add a couple Amps for safety and to account for the servos
and speed controller: --> 18A + 2A = 20A max current requirement.
Battery_Current_Rating = C_rating x Capacity --> C_rating =
Battery_Current_Rating/Capacity = 20A/2.4Ah = 8.33 minimum "C" rating required to
not overheat or damage the battery. For rounding sake, lets use a minimum C-rating of
10.

Therefore, any 3S (3-cell) (11.1V) LiPo Battery with a capacity of at least 2400 mAh and
a C-rating of at least 10 will work with this setup, providing you with 8 min of run-time
on full throttle. *For safety, however, use your "Watt's Up" power meter to ensure that
the motor and ESC setup does not pull more than 20A (or the max rating of your ESC) on
full throttle.*

Ex #2:
Given: My motor is rated at 8A of max current, and requires a 2-cell LiPo, and I want it
to run for 12 minutes on full throttle.

1) The max current of the motor is 8A

2) Run-time calculation: Battery_Capacity_needed/8A x 60 min/hr = 12 min. -->
Battery_Capacity_needed = 12min/60 x 8A = 1.6 Ah = 1600 mAh. So a minimum
capacity of 1600 mAh is required to run the motor for 8 min. on full throttle.
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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3) Calculate minimum "C" rating required: Battery Current Rating must be > 8A (the
motor requirement). However, add an Amp or two for safety and to account for the
servos and speed controller: --> 8A + 1A = 9A max current requirement.
Battery_Current_Rating = C_rating x Capacity --> C_rating =
Battery_Current_Rating/Capacity = 9A/1.6Ah = 5.625 minimum "C" rating required to
not overheat or damage the battery. For rounding sake, lets use a minimum C-rating of
10.

Therefore, any 2S (2-cell) (7.4V) LiPo Battery with a capacity of at least 1600 mAh and a
C-rating of at least 10 will work with this setup, providing you with 12 min of run-time
on full throttle. *For safety, however, use your "Watt's Up" power meter to ensure that
the motor and ESC setup does not pull more than 9A (or the Max rating of your ESC) on
full throttle.*

(Examples above copied directly from my thread here:

http://www.rcdiscuss.com/showthread.php?26461-LiPo-Batteries-Selection-Run-time-
ESC%92s-and-Prop-Selection-Extensive-Article&p=199278&viewfull=1#post199278).
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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4) ESC and BEC

(Electronic Speed
Controller and
Battery Eliminator
Circuit,
respectively)

In this section, first I will

discuss ESCs in Part A,
then BECs in Part B,
then Plugging in an
The Turnigy Plush 30amp The HobbyKing Micro UBEC 3A / 5v
ESC in Part C, and Electronic Speed Controller with stand-alone Battery Eliminator Circuit
lastly, I will provide built-in 5V/2A Battery Eliminator a great BEC for use in aircraft using 2-
additional information on Circuit a very popular and reliable 5S LiPos, and for applications which
a combination of ESCs ESC, with basic programming require a bit more current draw than the
and BECs, including functions, for a variety of park ESC with built-in BEC can handle, or
flyer aircraft! where the ESC does not have a built-in
definitions of additional http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyk BEC!
related terms, in Part ing/store/__2164__TURNIGY_Plus http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/s
D. h_30amp_Speed_Controller.html tore/__15212__HobbyKing_Micro_UB
EC_3A_5v.html
A) ESC = Electronic
Speed Controller. For electric aircraft, this takes the place of the throttle servo and
carburetor in a glow or gas engine. It is the throttle of an electric motor, and adjusts the
motors RPMs (Rotations per Minute) by controlling current flow to the motor. To choose
the right ESC: Always make the ESC has a current (Amperage) rating *higher* than or
equal to the maximum current your motor and propeller combination will ever pull.
Also make sure it can handle the voltage (or battery cell count in series) you plan to
plug into it. Ex: a 2-3S 30A Electronic Speed Controller is capable of having up to 30A
continuously pass through it, and can take the voltage provided by either a 2S or 3S LiPo
battery (ie: a voltage range of approximately 6.0~12.6 V). Again, the electronic speed
controller regulates current flow to the motor according to your throttle setting on the radio.
It also controls various settings that relate to the motor, such as timing, braking, and battery
to motor voltage cutoff.

ESCs are programmable using either a standard Tx, or a programming board. Timing may
be soft or hard. Soft timing usually uses less power, and is more efficient. Hard timing
provides a bit of additional power to the motor, but uses more power and is less efficient.
Braking is either on or off. On means that when you go to zero throttle, the motor will use
battery power to cause the motor to brake and stop almost instantly. This is beneficial for
gliders with folding props in order to allow the props to fold back against the fuselage and
reduce drag while gliding. Off means the motor will not brake, but rather will continue to
windmill when the throttle is off. In order to prevent LiPos from being over-discharged,
ESCs also have a voltage detection circuit which measures the total voltage of a battery
pack. Voltage cutoff can be programmed in some ESCs, and may, as one example, be set to
3.2 V/cell, 3.0 V/cell, 2.7 V/cell, or off. The higher the voltage cutoff you choose, the
longer the lifespan of the battery pack will be, but the less run-time you will get. Anything
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less than 3.0 V/cell is not recommended, but will increase run-time in critical applications.
In the above example, the 3.2 V/cell setting is recommended. When the voltage cutoff is
reached, the ESC will automatically reduce power to the main motor to ~50% of full power.
Land immediately. If the next lowest voltage cutoff is reached, the ESC will cut ALL power
to the main motor in order to leave enough power to still power the Rx and control surfaces.
Simply glide the aircraft in and land. A voltage cutoff setting of Off may be desirable
when you are flying a multicopter (a helicopter using 3 or more aircraft motors and
propellers, rather than a helicopter rotor). If a voltage cutoff other than off is used, and the
battery reaches the low-voltage cutoff setting, the multicopter will crash since each motor
requires a separate ESC and they will not cut power to their respective motors
simultaneously. Turning off the voltage cutoff on all ESCs on a multicopter allows the
multicopter to safely land. In this case, it is better to risk over-dishcarging a battery pack
rather than risk crashing the entire aircraft due to an ESC cutting power to a motor (Source:
David from www.rcexplorer.se).

Multicopter and helicopter pilots especially must carefully time their flights to land when
their batteries are low, or they may use a low voltage buzzer alarm to tell them when to land,
such as the one shown below.

Low Voltage Buzzer

Find examples of these here:
http://www.ebay.com/itm/300442394846?ssPageName=STRK:MEWNX:IT&_trksid=p3984.
m1497.l2648#ht_3536wt_952 or
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/uh_viewItem.asp?idProduct=18588 or
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/uh_viewItem.asp?idProduct=18987 or
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/uh_viewItem.asp?idProduct=22749

-For basic information on programming an ESC, read here, under section (2) ESCs:
http://www.rcdiscuss.com/showthread.php?26461-LiPo-Batteries-Selection-Run-time-
ESC%92s-and-Prop-Selection-Extensive-Article.
-For any other questions you may have about ESCs, do a Google search for ESC, or search
for answers and ask your own questions under RC forums such as www.rcgroups.com. To
ask questions on a forum you will need to create a username and password, but I highly
recommend doing so and asking questions at rcgroups. Thousands of experienced RC pilots
are anxious to help you out!

B) BEC = Battery Eliminator Circuit. The BEC is a voltage regulator circuit which receives
power from the main motor battery and outputs power to the receiver and servos at their
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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necessary lower voltage (usually 5~6V). The BEC is usually built in to an ESC, and the ESC
and BEC are therefore usually a single unit, and referred to collectively as the aircrafts
ESC, though in fact an ESC does not have to have a built-in BEC. The BEC is necessary
because although the main motor of an aircraft operates on one voltage, the receiver (Rx)
usually operates at a much lower voltage (usually ~5V). Even glow fuel and gasoline
engines require a battery pack to operate their receiver and servos. Traditionally, glow fuel
aircraft have used 4 or 5 cell NiCad or NiMH battery packs which nominally deliver 4.8 V
and 6.0 V, respectively. Therefore, todays receivers and servos require a similar voltage (~5
V), while the main motor usually requires a higher 7.4 ~ 11.1 V or more. Therefore, the
Battery Eliminator Circuit gets its name because it eliminates the need for a second battery
(of ~5V) dedicated to just providing power to the receiver and servos. Instead, an electric
aircraft with a BEC can use a single LiPo battery to provide power to both the motor and the
Rx and servos.

-In most electric aircraft, the BEC is built in to the ESC, but in some aircraft a stand-alone
BEC is desired to reduce or eliminate radio interference which would otherwise be
transferred from the ESC to the receiver (in the case of a combined ESC & BEC), or to
provide additional power required through the receiver when powering more than 3-4 micro
servos.

-BECs may be linear or switching. Switching BECs are better, produce less heat, and
can deliver a higher current to the Rx and servos. Linear BECs are simpler and cheaper.

-Comparison of a switching versus linear BECs: This stand-alone switching BEC can deliver
5A constant current at 5V or 6V (user-selectable):
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/__10313__Turnigy_5A_8_40v_SBEC_for_Lip
o_.html. However, this 30A ESC has a built-in linear BEC which can deliver only 2A at 5V:
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/__2164__TURNIGY_Plush_30amp_Speed_Co
ntroller.html. This switching BEC can deliver more than twice the current, and it will do so
more reliably and efficiently. Additionally, the ESC-with-built-in-BEC combination will
almost always have lower current capabilities since the ESC has to dissipate heat not only
produced from itself, but also from the built-in BEC.

BEC Sizing Takeaway: Always ensure that the BEC (either built-in with the ESC, or
stand-alone) provides enough current to power all of your servos, plus the receiver.
Test this on the ground prior to flying. If you are using more than 4 servos, or the
servos are high-torque or large, plan on using a stand-alone switching BEC instead of a
BEC built-in to the ESC. If you use a stand-alone BEC, disconnect the red wire
running from the ESC (with built-in BEC) to the receiver. This will prevent the built-in
BEC in the ESC, and the stand-alone BEC, from fighting and damaging each other
due to slightly differing output voltages.

C) Plugging in an ESC:
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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Here is a picture of an ESC with a built-in BEC. This is

the TURNIGY Plush 30amp Speed Controller, found
here:
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/uh_viewItem
.asp?idProduct=2164.
The top three wires (all red in this case) go to the motor.
Solder the bullet connectors (usually 3.5 mm) onto these
three wires, and plug them in to the three wires of the
motor. It doesnt matter how you plug them in. They are
all the same color because any of the three wires on the
ESC can go to any of the three wires on the motor. If the
motor runs backwards, just unplug and switch any two of
these three wires.

The plug with the small red, white, and black wires goes
to the receiver (Rx). Plug it into the throttle port of the
Rx. This ESC has a built-in BEC, so this plug provides
power to the Rx, as well as to all of the servos, and also
receives the throttle signal from the receiver to know how
much power to deliver to the motor based on your throttle stick position. Note: the receiver
will most likely also have a plug designated for the battery. When using an ESC with a
built-in BEC, this plug in the receiver will remain empty, as the receiver is capable of
receiving power through any of its ports, and in this case, it is receiving power through the
throttle port, directly from the BEC built-in to the ESC.

The bottom two wires (red and black) go to the LiPo battery. Solder on whatever battery
connector you need to these wires, and this will plug into the LiPo battery pack.

D) Some Definitions Of and Information On ESCs, BESCs, BECs, UBECs, SBECs, &
Optos

-these are just some personal definitions and explanations I have put together for my own
personal understanding when I am shopping for items, so if my explanations are not perfect,
please bear with me. You may find them useful none-the-less.

Definition of Terms:

ESC = Electronic Speed Controller

BESC = Electronic Speed Controller with Built-in BEC. BEC + ESC = BESC. However,
some manufacturers may also intend the B to stand for Brushless. In this case, BESC
may mean Brushless Electronic Speed ControllerIm not 100% sure on this last one.
BEC = Battery Eliminator Circuit (allows you to power a receiver using the same, single
motor battery, by attenuating the voltage as necessary to get it down to 4.8-6V, which is what
the receiver and servos require.)
Linear BEC = A standard BEC. Uses resistors in series with heat sinks, to attenuate the
voltage. Not very efficient. Generates a lot of heat, and does not allow a very high or
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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consistent current draw due to the fact that increasing current faces increasing resistance, and
it all must flow through the resistors in series (ie: linearly placed, in line). A Switching
BEC is better.
UBEC = Ultimate (switching) BEC. Becoming standardized as a Universal BEC I think,
and is usually a switching BEC I believe. Instead of just using resistors in series with heat
sinks, it uses a switching power supply method, which attenuates the voltage by only
allowing through certain rapid pulses in such a way that it gets the desired output voltage for
the receiver and servos. Switching BECs are more efficient, produce less heat, provide a
more steady voltage output, and can usually support higher currents too.
SBEC = Switching BEC. (Basically the same as most UBECs, so long as the UBEC is
switching, which most are. See above description.)
Opto, or Opto ESC = an ESC which has no built-in BEC. Basically, the power to the motor
is thus optically/electronically separated from the power to the receiver, eliminating receiver
noise and interference. Primarily a concern with larger motors and very high currents I think
(80A+ per se). If you use an Opto ESC, you must also use a UBEC or SBEC wired to the
motor battery as well in order to power the receiver and servos, or you must use a separate
receiver battery. (ex: 4 or 5 NiMh batteries in series, for a 4.8 or 6V, respectively, battery
pack).
Importance of the middle (red) wire in the BESC:
The middle (red, or +) wire in the plug of an ESC with a Battery Eliminator Circuit, which
goes to the Rx, must be clipped, or pulled out and taped back (better method, so it can be
undone), in certain instances as follows:
1) If you are running 2+ motors on a single plane, then each motor needs its own ESC, and you
can build a parallel harness for all ESCs to the receiver. You should also build a parallel
harness for all batteries to all ESCs, so that the batteries drain the same, and maintain the
same voltages. However, if the ESCs have built-in BECs (ie: they are actually BESCs), then
you must *clip* or remove and tape back the red (middle) wires of all BESCs *except for
one* of them. This will prevent the BECs from fighting each other with slightly varying
voltages, and burning them up. With this setup, only 1 of the BESCs will be providing power
to the receiver, and the others will be just acting as ESCs.
2) If you are running a BESC (ESC with BEC) *and* a separate BEC (any type, such as UBEC
or SBEC, etc.), then you must cut or hold back the red (middle) wire of the BESC plug going
to the receiver, so that again, as stated above, the Rx receives power from only one source
in this case, the separate BEC.
3) If you choose to use a separate receiver battery *and* a BESC (ESC with BEC), you must
also cut or remove and tape back the red (middle) wire of the BESC plug going to the
receiver. Again, as stated above, the Rx should be powered from only one source.

***Important note: if you are running an Opto ESC, you must NOT clip or remove the red
wire, as it is receiving power *from* the Rx, and sending it *to* the controller in the ESC,
NOT the other way around as would normally occur in a BESC type ESC.

Sources from the Above (Part D) Information:

ESC, BEC, SBEC, UBEC, Opto info

http://www.rcgroups.com/forums/showthread.php?t=832091
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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Twin Motor Hawk Sky, w-Motor Wiring Information!!! (notice that one of the BESC red
wires must be removed to prevent dual BEC interference)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JStfKGoAlXs 2 microjet V3 motors on it

When using BESC and UBEC together, clip red wire on ESC (see Discussion tab,
''clipping the middle'')
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/__16663__HobbyKing_HKU5_5V%2F5A_UB
EC.html
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5) Propeller or EDF (Electric Ducted Fan) Unit

-For electric-powered flight, either propellers or Electric Ducted Fan (EDF) units may be hooked
up to a motor to provide thrust.

This section contains the following

Discussions:
Which is better, EDF or
Propeller?
Choosing a Propeller
(above-left): Tower Pro Slow Fly propeller 9x4.7 great for low-
Sizing a propeller to your Kv electric motors and 3D planes! Produces high static thrust.
motor http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/__6227__TP_Slow_F
Balancing a propeller ly_propeller_9x4_7.html.
Pitch Speed
(above-right): Alloy DPS Series 72mm EDF unit with 2550kv
Tip Speed Motor - 1200watt. A very powerful EDF, but like all EDFs has
Building a Fast Plane relatively low static thrust, high power draw, and low overall
A Few More-Advanced power and blade efficiency when compared to a similar-power
Equations That Relate to the propeller and motor combination.
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/__17221__Alloy_DP
Prop: S_Series_72mm_EDF_unit_with_2550kv_Motor_1200watt.html

Which is better, EDF or

Propeller?
Here are a few considerations to help you answer that question for yourself:

propellers provide more thrust and are *much* more efficient, though scale jets are often-times
demanded by consumers to be equipped with EDF units, which are *extremely inefficient*. (is
this NOT true????? Note: EDFs eliminate induced drag due to wing-tip vortices, by having the
tube around the blades, whereas propellers have a significant decrease in lift due to wingtip
vortices!!!) [well, I KNOW EDFs require more power---say, 200W/lb to be good, so.there
must be a washout despite this fact.] write more on this.
Consumers oftentimes think that EDFs are faster than prop-driven aircraft, though this is not
necessarily true. EDFs may oftentimes be capable of speeds greater than 100 mph, but the
prop-driven FunJet Ultra has reached speeds of 180 mph (see here for high-speed propeller-
driven power systems: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=26B39689ct8 and
http://rcfoamfighters.com/blog/?cat=9)
For certain applications where consumers think an EDF is necessary, it usually is not. A
propeller can easily be mounted mid-fuselage using a slit in the aircraft, and again, this will
virtually always be more efficient, less cost, more thrust, greater top speed, and lighter than
using an EDF. An intake can be used for the prop if so desired, but due to the large diameter of
the prop, a slit through the fuselage will most likely still be required. Here are a couple examples
of using a prop where one might think an EDF is necessary:
http://www.rcpowers.com/v2/f117/01.jpg (http://www.rcpowers.com/forum/showthread.php?6008),
http://www.rcpowers.com/v2/euro/06.jpg (http://www.rcpowers.com/forum/showthread.php?8782)
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propellers will ALWAYS be capable of producing more static thrust than an EDF unit for any
given power input (Watts) and will ALWAYS be more efficient in moving the air.
Props have a larger diameter, which is advantageous for more thrust due to a higher mass flow
rate.
The reason that turbojets (or the so-called EDF turbojet equivalents[which is false by the
way to think of an EDF as being like a turbojet]) are used on full-scale fighter aircraft, such as
the F-16, F-22, F-14, etc., is because
A) these planes go well over Mach 1, and hence require lower-diameter blades to prevent the tip
speed from exceeding Mach 1, and
B) they work *completely* different, and have multiple compression stages, a combustion stage,
and an expansion stage which all aid to increase exit velocity from the nozzle and increase thrust.
-Due to the lack of fiery explosions within an EDF, and the sub-mach speeds of RC aircraft,
EDFs have virtually no advantages in RC aircraft over a propeller-driven system, other
than being more scale in some cases, fitting better in the aircraft in some cases, and
having a higher cool factor. Again, EDF thrust is lower, efficiency is lower, weight is
higher, pitch speed (and hence air exit velocity) is NOT necessarily higher, etc., than a
propeller system. RC-sized turbojets, however, are a different story altogether (but then again
those dont qualify as Electric RC flight anymore do they)
You think a 90mm EDF is a large, powerful fan unit? Well..it is, but a 28mm motor with a
high kv rating, swinging a 5x5 propeller is..guess how big????well, 5 inches in diameter is
127mmor in other words, a high-kv-rated electric motor swinging a 5x5 inch propeller is more
like the equivalent in power of a 127mm EDF, and is more efficient than the EDF too!
Important Note: If you do decide to use an EDF instead of a prop, for whatever reason, if
the plane has even a medium to high wing loading (weight/wing area) for an RC aircraft,
do NOT attempt to hand-launch the plane. The static thrust will be too low for proper take-
off. Rather, either landing gear and a runway takeoff, or a powerful bungee launch (such as
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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those used for large sail-planes) will be required instead. Attempting to hand launch such an
aircraft equipped with an EDF is likely to cause the aircraft to stall and fall to the ground, most
likely breaking.
for props and EDFs, the fewer the blades, the higher the efficiency (though not necessarily the
thrust). When balanced properly, even one-bladed propellers are more efficient than two-bladed
propellers, due to decreased turbulence and interference by the preceding blade. Dave Herbert
(YouTube screen name NightFlyyer), a 30+ year RC enthusiast, leading RC pioneer, and
former U.S. Marine Corps helicopter mechanic, has repeatedly proven the one-bladed concept
again and again on both airplanes and helicopters: (for just one example, see his video here:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=buMlFzMhcKc&featur
e=relmfu)
Propellers with more than two blades are desired (other
than for scale reasons) only when a certain amount of
thrust is required, though ground
clearance is not possible with a
2-bladed prop. A 3-bladed prop,
for instance, has a lower diameter
than an equivalent-thrust 2-bladed prop, but also has a lower efficiency.
(Right picture: old war-birds required 3-bladed props in order to get the
thrust required while still having adequate propeller ground clearance;
source of picture: http://www.nitroplanes.com/93a40-green-rtf-24g-eretract.html)

Choosing a Propeller:
-Props have diameter and pitch. The first number in a prop (for example, an 8 x 5, or 8050,
prop) is the diameter in inches. This would be 8 in. in this case. The second number is the
pitch, in inches forward/revolution. In other words, for an 8 x 5 (or 8050) propeller, looking
at the propeller as a perfect corkscrew, the pitch is such that the propeller would move forwards
5 inches for every complete revolution (360). Remember, selecting a motor and propeller goes
hand-in-hand. Low kv ratings ( ~1500 kv with a 3S LiPo, and ~2250 kv with a 2S LiPo) are
good for 3D aircraft (aircraft which can hover) because low kv motors have more torque. A 3D
aircraft should fly slow, but have tons of thrust/pulling power so that it can hover, so a *large
diameter*, *low pitch* prop is recommended, along with a *low kv rated motor*. The low pitch
also reduces torque-induced rolling of the aircraft in a hover. If you want a faster flying model,
you want a smaller diameter and higher pitch to pull the model through the air faster. The
tradeoff is that a lower diameter, high pitch prop will have less thrust than a larger diameter, low
pitch prop, but it will make the plane fly faster due to its higher pitch speed, Vpitch (see below).

Sizing a propeller to your motor:

-to ensure you dont over-prop your motor, or choose a propeller too large, you should also
size the prop to your motor using the Watts Up power meter, in order to make sure you do not
burn up a motor. So, for instance, if the motor says it has a current rating of 20 A, then you
should run the motor up and ensure it stays below 20A. If it gets to 24 A, for instance, decrease
the size of the prop (in pitch *or* diameter, depending on whether you want to maintain more
thrust or more speed, respectively) until the current draw no longer exceeds the current rating of
the motor. Sizing the propeller is a critical step that many RC modelers may overlook altogether.
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Balancing a propeller:
-it is important to have a properly balanced propeller. An imbalanced propeller means that one
blade is heavier than the other. Due to the imbalance, the propeller will vibrate, sometimes
vigorously, thereby causing additional wear and tear on your aircraft, and if severe, even reduced
motor RPMs and thrust. A simple and cheap method is to balance the
propeller on a nail, loosely running a nail through its mounting hole. If the
propeller is properly balanced, the blades should be able to rest in *any*
position (not just horizontal to the groundwhich is a popular
misconception). If imbalanced, the heavy blade will move towards the
ground. In the case of an imbalanced propeller, the heavy blade may be
gently sanded on the flatter back side to remove weight. A quicker,
sometimes more effective method is to add weight to the light blade using electrical tape, or
better yet, medium CA glue and activator. I use primarily the CA glue and activator method due
to ease of use, effectiveness, and simplicity. Using the CA activator/accelerator allows the
propeller to be used almost immediately after balancing. For extremely precise balancing, I
*highly* recommend the magnetic Top Flite Power Point Propeller Balancer, sold here for
example: http://www3.towerhobbies.com/cgi-bin/wti0001p?&I=LXHY61&P=ML. It works
extremely well and is priced right.

Pitch Speed:
Pitch Speed, Vpitch, is the speed that the propeller would move forward assuming it had a perfect
grip on the air, and perfect efficiency. Imagine a propeller suspended in Jell-O. Now slowly
turn the propeller in the Jell-O and watch it move forward. It moves forwards due to its pitch as
it rotates. The pitch speed is also the maximum speed at which the air will ever be blown by
the propeller. Therefore, it is also the maximum speed that the aircraft could ever attain in
level flight, assuming no aircraft drag. The formula is:

Eqn. 4. Propeller Pitch Speed:

-The RPM of the propeller can easily be obtained using a hand-held tachometer such as this one:
http://www3.towerhobbies.com/cgi-bin/wti0001p?&I=LXPT31&P=ML.

Note: this tachometer uses a photoresistor (light detector) to count the

revolutions of the propeller by detecting when the propeller blades block
light from behind them. Therefore, the propeller blades should be
*between the light source and the tachometer,* and the backlight should
be either daylight or an incandescent light source. Fluorescent lights
produce inaccurate propeller/EDF RPM readings since they pulse. In the
U.S. they pulse at 60 Hz, or 60 pulses/second. Therefore, in the U.S., a properly calibrated
tachometer, with nothing between it and the light, should read 3600 rpm under fluorescent light
when on the 2-bladed setting, and 2400 rpm under fluorescent light when on the 3-bladed setting.
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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Example of pitch speed calculation: a 6 x 4 prop (so the pitch is 4 inches/revolution), spins at
20,910 rpm. What is the pitch speed? Vpitch = 20910 rpm x 4 in x 1/12 x 1/5280 x 60 = 79.20
mph. This means that the wind leaving this propeller, with the aircraft stationary, will be no
more than 79.2 mph, and that an aircraft with this power system, in level flight, will never exceed
79.2 mph no matter how little the drag on the aircraft. (For data from this example, see here:
http://www.graysonhobby.com/catalog/ghsupermegajetv2brushlessoutrunnermotor-p-585.html).

Tip Speed, Vtip:

-If you are trying to reach exceedingly high speeds, you may need to do a propeller/EDF tip
speed calculation to ensure that the tip of the propeller or ducted fan blades never exceeds the
speed of sound, or Mach 1. At sea level, Mach 1 is about 760 mph. At 10,000 ft above sea level,
Mach 1 is about 735 mph.
-Exceeding the speed of sound destroys the efficiency of a propeller or EDF blade.
-The tip speed formula is:

Eqn. 5. Propeller Tip Speed:

Where d is the diameter of the propeller, in inches, Vaircraft is the aircraft maximum speed in mph,
and again, the RPM is measured using a tachometer at full-throttle.

If the aircraft is not moving, then Vaircraft is 0 mph in the above formula. However, since it is
necessary to take into account the aircraft velocity to ensure the tip speed is always less than
Mach 1, the aircraft top speed should be used as the value for Vaircraft. If the top speed is
unknown, it may be roughly estimated by:

Eqn. 6. Aircraft Top Speed Estimation:

For aircraft with higher drag, the actual coefficient will be lower than 0.80. For aircraft with
lower drag, the actual coefficient will be higher than 0.80.

Building a Fast Plane:

-Lets run through the above calculations for a real aircraft to get a feel of what is required to
make a plane go fast.
-Aircraft: Funjet Ultra (made of EPO foam), 31 wingspan:
http://www3.towerhobbies.com/cgi-
bin/wti0001p?&I=LXZWK8&P=ML.
-Setup and video (see end of video for specs):
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=26B39689ct8
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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-Motor: ARC 3655-1.5 (based on its numbers it should be ~36 mm diameter can, and ~55 mm
length can. This is a very large motor). In this setup, it is pulling up to 3010 W, and 154.9 peak
Amps at full throttle.
-Battery: 6S1P Lipo (6 cells in Series, 1 in Parallel, so it is 6 x 3.7 = 22.2 V nominal, or 6 x 3 =
18.0 V discharged, and 6 x 4.2 = 25.2 V fully charged).
-ESC: 100 A.
-Prop: 7 x 9
-Max RPM: 26,460 rpm
-Max Speed: ~180 mph.
-Power Loading: ~1000 W/lb (rough estimate)
Vpitch = 26460 rpm x 9 in x 1/12 x 1/5280 x 60 = 225.5 mph! Since the max speed is 180 mph,
then the ratio of pitch speed to max speed = 225.5/180 = 1.253. Since the pitch speed is 25.3%
higher than the max speed, a good rule of thumb if you are trying to get an aircraft to go a
certain speed is to shoot for a pitch speed ~30% higher than your desired max speed.
Now calculate the tip speed, Vtip. The diameter, d, of the prop is 7 inches, so
. This is well less than Mach 1, so the setup is not risking
having a tip speed too high.

Note: at such speeds on this aircraft, due to the short wings of the plane, and the extremely high
torque of the obscenely-powerful motor, torque roll is a crash-danger and it is recommended to
put a gyro on each elevon for roll stability. Also, high-torque, or larger servos must be used due
to the high forces on the control surfaces at these speeds. Lastly, in the above setup, the ESC is
being over-amped (the setup pulls up to 154.9 A on a 100A ESC). Though the ESC may have a
high burst current capability, perhaps around 125-130A, over-amping the ESC is likely to
eventually burn-up the ESC. However, knowing that it can be done for a while, the operator has
chosen to use an ESC smaller than the max current pull in order to save weight (and cost), and
maximize aircraft speed.

A Few More-Advanced Equations That Relate to the Prop:

-To learn more about some advanced equations related to the prop, including Thrust and Power,
as well as to see one method that some flight testing could be done to determine Lift, Drag, and
best Glide Ratio, please refer to the subsection titled, Some Advanced Calculations and Flight
Testing, under the Optional/Advanced Equipment & Info. section of this document.
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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6) Radio (Tx) and Receiver (Rx)

This section is arranged as follows:

Introduction
Computerized versus Non-Computerized
Mode I versus Mode II
Frequencies
Interference (including Cone of Silence)
My Personal Purchase Recommendations
Buddy Box (Trainer System)
Verifying That Your Rx is Getting Enough Power

Introduction:
Tx = Transmitter = Radio
Rx = Receiver

The radio transmitter (abbreviated Tx) and the receiver (abbreviated Rx) allow you to
remotely control an RC aircraft. The Tx is held in your hand and has a left and right stick for
control. The Rx is inside the aircraft and receives your commands from the transmitter, then
sends them to the control surfaces via small motors called servos. Believe it or not, today, a
reliable radio and receiver combination can be as little as $25-$55 with shipping, or as much
as $3000+!!! I would say that a transmitter and receiver combination today varies in price more
than any other component required to fly an RC aircraft! For an entry-level beginner, you may
use the basic set that comes with your RTF airplane, or I would recommend any number of cheap
entry-level transmitters such as the one below. If you decide you love the hobby, and/or once
you decide you want to stick with flying RC planes, I would definitely recommend upgrading to
a good 6-8 channel transmitter for $200-$450.

Computerized versus Non-Computerized:

Show TX that is computerized but only by PC!! (HK version AND nitroplanes version)

Add mixer info.

Put Futaba 8 Channel Tx picture and Orange FASST Rx picture here. Also show Spektrum-
Compatible Orange Rx and discuss prices.
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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Mode I versus Mode II:

Dddd

Frequencies:
-for RC aircraft, Txs come on a variety of frequencies, including 72 MHz, 2.4 GHz, and 433
MHz.
Brief Overview:
-72 MHz is the old system, must be flown on specific, narrow channels within the 72 MHz
bandwidth, and is highly susceptible to interference. A maximum of only 50 aircraft (on
channels 11-60) at any given time can be flown at once, assuming all aircraft are on a different
channel, within a radius of ~3 miles. If you are on flying on channel 49, for instance, and
another pilot turns on his radio which is also on channel 49, interference will occur and your
plane will crash. This is referred to as being shot down.
-2.4 GHz is the new system, as of 2004, and this frequency was pioneered into the RC industry
by newly-introduced Tx company, Spektrum. The 2.4 GHz frequency has become todays RC
industry standard, and Tx systems on this frequency use a special pseudo-random frequency
hopping sequence which becomes chosen and shared by a set Tx and Rx of an individual brand
upon binding the two together electronically. This pseudo-random frequency hopping
sequence shared by a single Tx and Rx allows virtually interference-free flying no matter how
many aircraft are being flown at a time.

72 MHz:
The old aircraft standard frequency was 72 MHz, which worked by transmitting on a set
channel, or sub-frequency within the 72 MHz band.
http://www.futaba-rc.com/faq/frequency.html
-Crystals: (dont change the Tx crystal at all, or re-tuning will need to be accomplished, and only
change the Rx crystal within its tuning limit (upper channels or lower channels???)
2.4 GHz:
-The two most popular and widely-used brands are arguably Spektrum (www.) and Futaba
(www.), though many expert pilots also use JR/Hi-Tec. Airtronics (Sanwa) is also a good brand.
433 MHz:
-radios are not made with this frequency built-in, but rather you will have to modify your
existing 72 MHz or 2.4 GHz radio with a 433 MHz module, such as the DragonLink
(http://www.dragonlabs.net/dragonlink) or EZUHF
(http://readymaderc.com/store/index.php?main_page=product_info&cPath=40&products_id=17
9 or http://www.immersionrc.com/products.htm)
UHF
-may require a HAM radio license?????

Interference (including Cone of Silence):

For the most part, lower frequencies are better able to penetrate substances of high density and/or
high water concentration. Higher frequencies are more attenuated (reduced in power) by dense
or moist objects. (source???)
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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A Note of Caution About Carbon Fiber:

Carbon fiber acts like a conductive metal (and carbon fiber conducts electricity, though not
nearly as well as metal) and will block and interfere with radio signal transmission and reception.
Do not allow a radio antenna to directly touch a carbon fiber surface, and do not encase an
antenna within a carbon fiber compartment. If a carbon fiber aircraft is strongly desired,
however, antenna placement and carbon weave/spacing will need to be tweaked until suitable
radio signal range results are achieved. For one example of a forum debate/discussion on which
objects seem to block radio interference more, see here:
http://www.rcgroups.com/forums/showthread.php?t=1432035&page=3.

My Personal Purchase Recommendations:

Discuss brands (Spektrum, Futaba, JR, Airtronics, etc.) and the Horizon Hobby BNF systems for
Spektrum radios.

Rx info:
-72 MHz Rxs used to be large and bulky (~xxx g). Today, people often-times used the same 2.4
GHz receiver on their
-Orange Rx: Have a Spektrum radio? Heres a cheaper alternative to a good Spektrum-
compatible receiver: . Pay $XX instead of $XX! Have a Futaba radio?
6) get your Futaba-equivalent Rxs here for less:
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/__17206__OrangeRx_Futaba_FASST_Compatible
_8Ch_2_4Ghz_Receiver_S_Spec.html, or a whole list here:
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/uh_listCategoriesAndProducts.asp?idCategory=331

Buddy Box (Trainer System)

Verifying That Your Rx is Getting Enough Power:

7) Servos

(insert picture of the HXT900s here):

Servos are small motors which act as control surface actuators on an RC aircraft. An aircraft
control surface, such as the elevator, rudder, ailerons, and steerable nose wheel, is connected to a
small arm on a servo by means of a control rod or cables. When the servo moves the control
arm, the aircrafts control surface moves as well, thereby stearing the aircraft.

This section briefly discusses the following aspects of servos:

Weight
Torque
Speed
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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Digital vs. Analog

Specifications of a Few Common Servos
Verifying That Your Servos Are Getting Enough Power From the Receiver (Rx)

Weight:
Servos come in a variety of weights and sizes. Since weight is an important factor in aircraft,
you generally want to choose the lightest servos possible that still have the necessary torque to
move the control surfaces adequately. Generally, the heavier the servo, the more torque and
power it has. For any given aircraft, however, the manufacturer will generally list what size
servo they recommend to use.

For most foam electric aircraft, 9g micro servos are the most common. The HXT900 is one of
the most reliable, economical 9g servos that money can buy, and I highly recommend them!
(insert picture and link). For smaller outdoor foam aircraft, or large indoor models, you might
try the smaller 5g HXT500s. For many other indoor foam models, you may need 1.7 to 2g
servos, such as these ( ). For larger outdoor foam aircraft, try 12g servos such as these (929 MG
or 939 MG). The MG means metal gears. Servos with metal gears will be much less likely
to break during hard crashes, and can withstand higher forces! Larger balsa aircraft, such as the
Tower Trainer 40, use large standard-sized servos such as these (Futaba ones here) or these
(HK ones here).

Torque:
Torque is a measurement of the force that rotating devices can apply at a given distance from the
axis of rotation. It is literally the multiplication of force and distance. For servos, it is usually
reported in the metric system as kg-cm (kg x cm) or in the English system as oz-in (oz x in).
(Side note: although weight [kg or oz] is not a true measurement of force, it is used here in place
of units of force, such as Newtons, N, since weight is a more tangible unit for most people and
can be easily converted to units of force if necessary by multiplying by the gravity constant.) To
help you understand, a torque of 1 kg-cm (or 1 kg x 1 cm) means that at a distance of 1 cm from
the axis of rotation, the rotating object (a servo arm for instance) is capable of applying a force
of 1 kg. This 1 kg-cm torque also means that at a distance of 0.5 cm from the axis of rotation, a
force of 2 kg can be applied by the servo, or at a distance of 2 cm from the axis, a force of 0.5 kg
can be applied, etc.

In regards to radio controlled aircraft, the larger the control surface that the servo needs to
move, and the faster the aircraft flies, the more torque the servo will need to move the
control surface. If you see a servo struggling to move the control surface, or if a servo breaks or
stops working from normal use (which will usually occur midair and result in a crash ), you
may need to upgrade to a larger servo with more torque. Table 4 below shows various
specifications of a few common servos, including their specified torques.

Speed
Servo speed is measured in seconds per 60 degrees. In other words, a servo with a speed of
0.10 sec/60 requires 0.10 seconds to rotate 60 degrees. This is fast. Anything lower is
extremely fast. A servo with a speed of 0.22 sec/60 is generally considered slow. Although
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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you may need larger servos for extra torque, keep in mind that larger servos are usually also
slower.

Digital vs. Analog

Older servos (prior to ~1999) were all analog. When compared to digital servos, analog servos
are less expensive, but also have less holding power (ability to maintain a fixed position when
under a load) and analog servos are both less accurate (they may fluctuate +/- a few degrees each
time you make the same stick command) and less precise (they have a lower resolution,
meaning that they cannot move
in degree increments as small as
digital servos). Analog servos
are, however, perfectly
acceptable to use and many
modelers, including myself, still
fly with them often. Digital
servos, which entered the RC
market by approximately the
year 2000, are generally more
expensive, have more holding
power, and are both more
accurate and more precise. They
are also usually faster than
analog servos. However, they
do use more power than analog
servos. The increased precision,
accuracy, and speed of digital
servos allow a pilot to have
more control over his or her
aircraft. According to Futaba in
Figure 4. Comparison Between Two Futaba Servos (One their article on Digital FET
Digital and One Analog) With the Same Specifications Servos, they quote one high-
speed (200 mph+) RC turbine pilot, Steve Elias, as having said that Digital servo response and
precision is like flying on rails. After flying digital servos, analogue versions are like controlling
custard (pdf source here, and link figure below to source too). Error! Reference source not
ound., from the same Futaba document just referenced, shows how digital servos are able to
respond and apply torque much more quickly, resulting in a faster, more precise and accurate
response. Read the inset in the figure for further information. For beginners, however, analog
servos work just fine since most beginners will not have the piloting skills or wherewithal to
notice a difference with digital servos anyway. This also applies to slower models in general
since precision and accuracy are not quite as important when flying slowlydue to the fact that
control surfaces have greatly reduced control authority at slow speeds. For high-speed
applications, however, or applications where gyros are used to control the servo, such as on
a helicopter tail with a variable pitch tail rotor, digital servos are definitely the preferred
choice.
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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Some gyros, radios, and receivers have an analog servo mode and a digital servo mode. You
must program your device to the right setting for the servos you are using. See your particular
owners manual for directions on choosing these settings, if they are available. These special
settings allow the gyro, radio, or receiver to take advantage of the digital servos faster response
and higher accuracy by modifying the signal sent to the servo in order to maximize its response.
HOWEVER, BEWARE THAT USING THE DIGITAL SERVO SETTING WHEN USING
ANALOG SERVOS MAY BURN UP THE ANALOG SERVOS. Using the analog setting
when using digital servos, however, will not damage your equipment, but will not utilize the
benefits of the digital servo either. (source)

Specifications of a Few Common Servos

Now that you know a little bit about servos, you may refer to Table 4 below to compare the
weight, torque, and speed for a few different analog and digital servos.

FYI: If you ever need new servos for your RC planes, here are my top several economical
choices, of varying torques according to your need: (note: the list is not ordered any particular
way, as my most-used servo is personally the HXT900).
1) HXT500 (5g analog servo, plastic gears) -
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/uh_viewItem.asp?idProduct=663
2) HXT900 (9g analog servo, plastic gears) -
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/uh_viewItem.asp?idProduct=662
3) Corona 929 MG (12.5g analog servo, metal gears) -
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/uh_viewItem.asp?idProduct=10345
4) Corona Digital 929 MG (12.5 g digital servo, metal gears) -
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/uh_viewItem.asp?idProduct=16342
5) Corona 939 MG (12.5g analog servo, metal gears) -
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/uh_viewItem.asp?idProduct=14459
6) Corona Digital 939 MG (12.5g digital servo, metal gears) -
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/uh_viewItem.asp?idProduct=10346

Table 4. Specifications of a Few Common Servos

(insert table from excel spreadsheet)

Popular types: HXT500, HXT900, 929MG, 939MG

Verifying That Your Servos Are Getting Enough Power From the Receiver (Rx)
(see Spektrum manual pg 11) (1.1 V/cell during use, but 1.2 V/cell minimum voltage during
ground use, moving servos, on a full 4 or 5-cell packper Spektrum manual [which states 4.8V
during ground testing in order to account for discharge, additional flight loads, etc.])

8) LiPo/NiCad/NiMH Battery Charger Capable of Balancing LiPos

Insert Battery Voltage Table Here:

-there are 2 plugs on a battery: the main plug and the balance plug.
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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P = IV
-parallel charging (Note: batteries being charged in parallel can have about a 25%~30% max
SoC difference between the highest SoC and lowest SoC battery being charged together
otherwise the 1C charge rating will be exceeded on the battery with the lower SoC, by receiving
current from the batteries with the higher States of Charge). You may monitor the surge current
using a Power Meter (such as the Watts Up Power Meter previously mentioned) plugged in
between the battery with the lowest voltage, and the parallel charge board.

-mention bringing back to life an over-discharged LiPo.

Adapter/balance cables: FW: THP (ThunderPower) to EFL (E-flite/JST-XH)\

Main Balance lead types:
JST-XH (also known as EFL) E-Flite
Polyquest Hyperion
TP ThunderPower

Insert charge time equation here (generically, + specific for NiCad/NiMH and LiPO batts)

Table 5. Battery Care Information (Summary of Dos and Donts) for Lead Acid (Pb),
Nickel-based (NiCad/NiMH), and Lithium-based Batteries
(http://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/do_and_dont_battery_table)
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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9) Basic Tools and Field Repair Kit

A basic field repair kit and toolbag can be indispensable when flying. It can oftentimes mean the
difference between flying or not, and if a small (or even large) mishap or crash occurs, can
oftentimes get you back in the air flying again without having to go home and wait for another
day. When the flying field is far away from home, and/or you have set aside a specific time to
fly, this is important. No one likes to arrive at the field only to find that that one tiny little
Phillips screwdriver you left at home is the critical piece you need to attach you wing struts or
tighten down the servos you just discovered are loose. Additionally, having some CA and
accelerator, clear packing tape, strapping tape, and a hot glue gun, are oftentimes just the repair
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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items you need to put a damaged aircraft back together and keep flying several more hours rather
than packing up and driving home for the day!

Your tool kit and field repair kit needs to be carefully put together by yourself to fit your needs.
It can vary from one pilot to another just as much as personality can vary from one person to
another, and you should talk to other pilots to see what they carry, and add things to your own
list that you like from theirs! Despite how much field repair kits may vary, I recommend that
you get yourself at least the following items, as I personally find them indispensable:

1. A soft tool bag, such as this one from Home Depot, or this one from Harbor Freight Tools
2. An assorted screw driver set, including small Phillips head bits, flat-head bits, and hex
wrench bits.
3. Needlenose pliers
4. Clear packing tape
5. Strapping tape
6. Scissors
7. CA and accelerator
8. Hot glue gun and a power inverter for your car
9. Extra propellers and propeller adapters (including prop savers and extra O-rings, if
applicable)
10. Extra aircraft LiPo Batteries
11. One extra transmitter battery pack, or extra AA batteries for your transmitter
12. Sunglasses VERY important!
13. Popsicle sticks (for repairs)
14. A battery voltage checker, such as this one:
15. An extra servo or two
16. Your battery charger---if you will be gone for a very long time, and feel so inclined.

AT THIS POINT, IF YOU ARE READY TO FLY, SKIP TO THE

SPECIFIC SETUPS AND ADDITIONAL INFO SECTION
NEAR THE END OF THIS DOCUMENT AND BEGIN LOOKING
FOR AN AIRCRAFT YOUD LIKE TO OWN!!! No need to read the
Optional/Advanced Equipment & Info. section unless you are really into this, or you
already have an airplane and want to learn even more!
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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Optional/Advanced Equipment & Info.

10) Gyros
Gyros (short for gyroscopes) are sensors which detect the rate of rotation (in deg/sec for
instance) of an aircraft along a designated axis (for example, the roll, pitch, or yaw axes). Gyros
used on RC aircraft will not only detect those rates of rotation, but also automatically deflect a
control surface on the aircraft (or on a helicopter with an electric tail motor, or in the case of a
multicopter, speed up or slow down a motor) in order to counter those rates of rotation, thereby
automatically stabilizing the aircraft along that given axis. In this way, gyros are used to
automatically create additional stability on an aircraft. Take a gust of wind, for example. If an
airplane has a gyro on the roll axis, then when the gust of wind rolls the aircraft, the gyro will
detect that gust and automatically move the ailerons of the aircraft to counter the gust.

There are two types (or on higher quality gyros, settings on the gyro). They include: (1)
Heading Hold (HH) mode, and (2) Rate mode.
-Heading Hold mode on a gyro detects un-commanded degrees of change [deg] (along a
particular axis) from zero, and will maintain a control surface deflected until the aircraft
returns to zero heading. Therefore, HH mode will cause an aircraft to return to a certain
heading.
-desirable for rudder-control on a tail-dragger aircraft during take-off and landing
-Also may be used on a 3D (stunt) aircraft to hold the aircraft automatically aimed straight
up, maintained in a hover. For this maneuver, 3 gyros would be required (one for each axis):
one for roll, one for yaw, and one for pitch.
-commonly used on the tail rotor of helicopters to help the helicopter maintain a fixed
heading.
-Rate mode detects an un-commanded rate of rotation [deg/sec] and will deflect a control
surface to counter the rotation according to the speed of the rotation, for as long as the un-
commanded rate of rotation exists. This is usually just a moment in time. The original heading
may or may not be reached.
-useful for roll (aileron) control on an aircraft in high winds, to automatically counter wind
gusts.
-Also may be used to counter severe torque roll due to an aircraft having an extremely
powerful motor and short wings.
-may also be used on the tail rotor of helicopters.
-One rcgroups user, named Melnic, is a gyro expert. He has over 7,740 posts on
rcgroups.com, with a great deal of those being on a thread he started on gyros. This thread is
now over 136 pages long. For a host of invaluable information, see his website here:
http://www.mycoolrc.com/, then click on How to use a Gyro to stabilize a control surface on an
airplane.
-You may also search Melnics gyro thread for answers, or ask questions of your own, on
RCGroups here: http://www.rcgroups.com/forums/showthread.php?t=1035605. Feel free to ask
him questions. He personally, or others, will answer.
-For a list of good gyros to choose from see here:
http://www.mycoolrc.com/gyro/gyroLINKS.html
-Melnics #1 recommended, inexpensive gyro is the Detrum GY48V:
http://www.xheli.com/60p-dy-1017.html (insert photo here)
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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-Do not be pushed away by its extremely low price-tag. This gyro has very high reviews and
is said to perform as well as or even better than its $100 Futaba counterparts. Many other
Chinese gyros, with only slight modification (by applying either E6000 Glue or Goop to
hold down the corners of the board inside its case), are also said to perform just as well as the
Futaba gyros.
-As many gyros do, this gyro also has a gain wire which allows you to adjust its
sensitivity in-flight using end-point adjustments controlled by a switch or dial on your
transmitter.
-This gain wire adjustment also allows you to change this gyro between Rate and HH
modes while in-flight.
-Lastly, this gyro supports both analog and digital servos!

When to Use a Gyro?

Aircraft the most widespread use on aircraft is on the ailerons. Gyros are used by many pilots
in rate mode on the ailerons to increase roll stability of the aircraft in high winds, helping to
automatically maintain level flight despite wind gusts. The second most common use on aircraft
is in heading hold (HH) mode on the rudder. As mentioned above, this is useful for tail-draggers
during takeoff in order to maintain a perfectly straight line. Very important is to remember NOT
to touch the rudder stick at all during takeoff when using a gyro for this purpose, or you will alter
the heading and be unable to properly correct without either disabling the gyro by using a switch
on the transmitter (assuming the gyro has a gain adjustment wire) or stopping the aircraft and
starting over.
Multicopter gyros are mandatory in all three axes (or individually for each motor, plus an
additional gyro for the yaw servo) in order to correct for pitch and roll problems which would
otherwise be present due to slight power differences of each motor when applying throttle.
Helicopter practically mandatory on the tail rotor for yaw control. Virtually 100% of
helicopters today (even the tiny $20-$40 ones) have a tail rotor gyro, though older helicopters got
by without them by using special transmitter throttle-to-tail computerized mixes. Today, the low
price of gyros makes them indispensable for helicopter tail rotors to control the yaw axis. Most
pilots fly in HH mode, but 6-channel helis are adjustable in-flight between rate and HH modes.

11) KF Airfoils

KF (Kline Fogleman) Airfoils:

-KF airfoils replace flat-plate airfoils by creating a simple, stepped surface which helps to
create a low-pressure, turbulent area (in the shape of a vortex) above the aircraft wing to energize
the airflow and help increase lift while delaying stall until higher angles of attack.
-This airfoil is NOT as efficient as a standard airfoil (ie: KF airfoils have lower Lift/Drag (L/D)
ratios than standard airfoils), though in some cases they purportedly may create better total lift
and flying characteristics than a standard airfoil. Additionally, KF airfoils are *nearly always*
better than a flat plate airfoil in regards to lift and stall characteristics, and they are very easy to
make and add to a scratch-built aircraft.
-this is an airfoil used for easy, quick, scratch-built aircraft which would otherwise use a flat-
plate airfoil, such as this RCPowers scratch-built Extra 300 made of Depron foam, as seen
below. (for FREE PDF plans to this plane, go here:
http://www.rcpowers.com/forum/showthread.php?625-EX-300-(FREE!))
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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-For more info. on the KF airfoil, read here:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kline_Fogleman_airfoil

-the KFm2 (above left) and KFm4 (above right)

airfoils are the most recommended, with the KFm2
recommended by flyers such as RCPowers for
virtually all flat-plate foamies which dont use the
KFm4 airfoil (insert video source on this airfoil), and
the KFm4 airfoil is recommended for 3D or aerobatic flat-plate foamies, or planes or
parkjets which are desired to go fast.

-Takeaway: KF airfoils are ultimately much better than flat plate airfoils, but have a lower L/D
ratio than standard, smooth airfoils, and hence are worse than a standard airfoil. Therefore, for
extremely high-speed (full-sized) aircraft, or aircraft which require high L/D ratios and good
efficiency, KF airfoils are not desirable. They are, however, excellent for scratch-built flat-wing
foamies which require simplicity and ease-of-building.

12) Some Advanced Calculations and Flight Testing

-This section will contain more advanced calculations which I will not go into thorough detail to
explain. Someone with basic aeronautical engineering knowledge should be able to use the
standard atmospheric tables as necessary, make proper assumptions, and have a basic
understanding of these equations in order to use and apply them without having a detailed
explanation of them. My intent is for everyone to use these equations, but again, I do not wish to
take the time and space necessary to explain them in the great detail required for a beginner to
begin using them immediately.

Recommended Reading to better understand aeronautical engineering, aircraft, and flight:

Brandt, Steven A. Introduction to Aeronautics: A Design Perspective, Second Edition. AIAA
2004. ISBN-10: 1563477017. ISBN-13: 978-1563477010.

Note about my proposed flight testing technique in this section: I have not had the chance to do
the proposed flight testing myself, nor to compare the thrust calculations to thrust-stand tests, so
I cannot tell you exactly how accurate nor effective this flight testing method is, but I propose
that using this method and the equations presented, you should be able to get *at least* good
ball-park estimates.

Nomenclature for this section:

F = thrust (N)
= mass flow rate (kg/s)
Ve = exit velocity of the airflow through the propeller (sometimes called the induced velocity, or
velocity induced by the propeller) (m/s)
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
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V0 = aircraft airspeed/velocity (not ground speed) (m/s)

Vpitch = pitch speed (m/s)
= air density (Pa, N/m2, or kg/(m*s2))
A = area through propeller, normal to airflow (ie: area that the propeller sweeps) (m2)
prop = propeller efficiency (-)
motor&prop = power system efficiency (of the motor, propeller, ESC, and wiring combined) (-)
P = power (W, Nm/s, or J/s) or pressure (Pa, N/m2, or kg/(m*s2))
-Note: P is used for both Power and Pressure in the equations below, and will be specified in
words when used in order to prevent confusion.
L = lift (N)
D = drag (N)
W = weight (kg)
CL = lift coefficient (-)
CD = drag coefficient (-)
q = dynamic pressure (Pa, N/m2, or kg/(m*s2))
S = aircraft planform area (m2)
SLUF = Steady, Level, Unaccelerated Flight

Thrust:
-Note that in this section, P refers to Pressure (which has units of Pa), not Power (which has
units of W).

A) Static thrust could be measured (rather than calculated) by using a thrust stand. Even a crude
thrust stand could be constructed by attaching a fish scale to a post and then placing the aircraft,
with landing gear, on a smooth surface. Tie the tail of the plane to the fish scale hook, place the
aircraft on a smooth surface, and apply throttle. Read the thrust off of the fish scale.
Note: it is recommended to attach the fish scale to a pole in an open area, and not to a wall. This
is because if the propeller-wash strikes the wall then you will get a thrust reading slightly higher
than what would be achieved in-flight due to a type of ground effect created where the air
molecules push off of a cushion of air against the stationary wall rather than pushing off of other
air molecules as in open air. Hence, more accurate thrust readings will be achieved where the
propeller-wash blows back into open air, and does not strike a wall.

B) To calculate propeller thrust, for either a stationary (static) or moving aircraft, first you must
know that thrust, F, is:

Note that based on this equation, as the aircraft velocity, V0, increases, thrust decreases. This is
due to the fact that the propeller exit velocity (or induced velocity) is approximately constant,
and therefore the result of Ve V0 moves towards zero as the aircraft top speed is reached.

Since = AVe, then:

where
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and d is the diameter of the propeller, converted from inches to meters.

So now the thrust is:

or

Eqn. 7. Propeller Thrust Calculation:

You can estimate that the airflow leaving the propeller, Ve = Vpitch (for Vpitch see equation
previously presented under the Propeller or EDF Unit section, and convert to m/s). For better
accuracy, if you know the efficiency of the propeller, prop, you may use that efficiency as a
coefficient in front of the pitch speed and say that the pitch speed, . For the
above equation, if the aircraft is stationary, then V0 = 0 m/s. If the aircraft is moving, then you
can measure V0 using either a radar speed gun, a GPS on the aircraft (this can be done using an
FPV OSD [see FPV subsection in this document]), or you can measure the aircraft speed,
V0, using free software which analyzes the Doppler Effect of the sound of the motor to
determine the aircrafts ground speed (see section in this document titled Measuring
Speed Using the Doppler Effect for information on how to do this). Since all three methods
just mentioned will provide the aircrafts ground speed, not airspeed, you must factor out the
effects of wind. To factor out wind, make sure to measure V0 in two opposing directions
and then take the average of those two ground speed readings. The average you obtain is
V0, or the aircrafts airspeed.

The final value necessary in Eqn. 7 is the density of the air that the propeller is pushing. The air
density value, , used in Eqn. 7 can be calculated from the ideal gas law equation:

Eqn. 8. Ideal Gas Law Equation:

P = RT

where Pressure, P is either measured or taken from the Standard Atmosphere Tables according to
the aircrafts altitude. If calculated from the ideal gas law equation, note that the variable P in
this case is atmospheric Pressure not Power (and is in units of Pa), R is the specific gas constant
of air, or 287 J/(kg*K), and T is the air temperature in units of Kelvin.

Though using the air density value, , from the Standard Atmosphere Tables is a valid solution,
calculating the air density using measured values of pressure and temperature will give you a
more accurate solution. Measuring the temperature is easy: use a standard off-the-shelf
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thermometer and convert from F or C to Kelvin. For a standard RC user, however, the pressure
is not so easy to obtain. The atmospheric pressure, P, may be measured using a small personal
weather station or read for free online from the nearest local weather station. If measured, ensure
the measurement is the value uncorrected to sea level altitude, and is the true static pressure at
your altitude. If read from the nearest local weather station (ie: if looked up using the nearest
weather station online, such as this example here:
http://www.wunderground.com/weatherstation/WXDailyHistory.asp?ID=KCOVALLE2), then
the atmospheric Pressure value read from them is automatically corrected to sea level altitude by
the weather station and that value will need to be corrected back to the weather stations
actual altitude. You can use a ratio from the standard atmosphere tables to accomplish this, and
the actual pressure at the weather stations altitude is:

Eqn. 9. Converting The Local Weather Station Pressure to The Actual Static Pressure at
That Weather Stations Altitude:

where w.s. = weather station.

For example, using the above weather station link, the atmospheric pressure at 10:00 am on 16
Jan. 2012 at the Vallecito weather station in Colorado was reported as 29.95 inHg (note: inHg =
inches of mercury). However, keep in mind that this reported pressure is corrected down to
what it would be at sea level on that day and time, in that location. Since one atmosphere, or the
standard pressure at sea level, is 29.9213 inHg, this indicates that the pressure in Vallecito is
slightly *higher* than what it would be on a standard day. Since that weather station in Vallecito
is at 7920 ft. elevation, the standard atmospheric pressure at that altitude is approximately 22.293
inHg. (This value can be obtained using Standard Atmospheric look-up tables, or the 1976
Standard Atmosphere Calculator located here: http://www.digitaldutch.com/atmoscalc/. In this
calculator, just input 7920 feet for the Altitude, and 0 for the Temperature Offset, and select
inches of mercury for the Pressure units, and you will get the value of 22.293047 inHg). Using
this information, the actual atmospheric pressure in Vallecito at 10:00 am on 16 Jan 2012 was
Pactual = 29.95 inHg x 22.293 inHg / 29.9213 inHg = 22.3144 inHg, or 75,556.6 Pa. This is
74.58% the pressure at sea level on a standard day, which makes sense because pressure is
expected to decrease as altitude is increased. The temperature reported by the weather station at
that time was 25.0F, or 269.26 K. Now, using the ideal gas law as presented above, we have
the values for P, R, and T, and the ideal gas law (Eqn. 8), may be used to calculate a very
accurate value for the air density, . For the above example, the density comes out to be
0.97773 kg/m3. Since Ve and V0 were previously determined as described above, you now
have all the values necessary to input into Eqn. 7 and calculate the aircrafts thrust, F!

Power:
-Note that in this section, P now refers to Power (which has units of W), not Pressure (which has
units of Pa).

You can determine your thrust power by:

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Eqn. 10. Thrust Power:

Now, using your Watts Up Power meter (or equivalent), what is the motor power draw at this
throttle setting? How does it compare to your calculation above?

Motor/Prop efficiency is:

Lift, Drag and Coefficients:

Using the above thrust equation, calculated from measured aircraft velocities at any set throttle
setting, you can determine the lift and drag coefficients, CL and CD, respectively, of the aircraft.
With the aircraft in SLUF (Steady, Level, Unaccelerated Flight), Lift = the Aircraft Weight
(L=W), and Thrust = Drag (F=D). Thrust is calculated above from the measured RPM of the
aircraft at a set throttle setting (to get the pitch speed), and from the measured aircraft velocity at
that set throttle setting. Therefore, use the following two equations to get the coefficient lift, CL
and the coefficient of drag, CD:

and where the dynamic pressure (additional pressure due to forward velocity) is:

Now, the glide ratio (or L/D ratio), is equal to CL/CD, which is equal to Weight/Thrust (W/F),
since the aircraft is in SLUF:

Eqn. 11. Aircraft Glide Ratio, or Lift to Drag (L/D) Ratio:

Flight Testing to find Best Glide Ratio, L/Dmax:

You now should have the tools necessary to do repeated flight testing on the RC aircraft to
determine the maximum L/D ratio, as well as the velocity at which this occurs. Keep in mind,
this is just one proposed method for flight testing, and could be done using the following sort of
procedures:
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1) Set the aircraft at full throttle on the ground. Use a tachometer to measure the RPM of
the prop. Calculate the pitch speed, Vpitch.
-Note: this method assumes that the RPM of the motor/propeller remains constant
whether static [on the ground], or in flight. Due to changing loads on the motor in
forward flight, however, an on-board tachometer may be needed in order to obtain
*recorded* flight data for RPMs rather than a one-time tachometer reading on the
ground. Using the in-flight RPM reading for the above calculations would be better since
RPM may be a function of forward velocity. See below for examples of hardware which
could record in-flight RPM data of the motor/prop.
2) Fly the aircraft at full throttle, get it to SLUF, measure the aircraft velocity, V0, using a
radar speed gun or the Doppler Effect; assume Ve = Vpitch; calculate the aircraft thrust, F,
at that speed, using Eqn. 7. (Again, it is a good idea to measure the aircraft ground speed
in two opposing directions and take the average to remove the effects of wind and find
the actual airspeed.)
3) Use Eqn. 11 to calculate the L/D ratio at that speed, based on the aircrafts weight, W,
and the aircrafts thrust, F, at that speed.
4) Repeat the above steps many times, each time lowering the throttle from full throttle by a
set number of clicks on the throttle stick (also ensure your batteries are at the same state
of charge for each iteration). Repeat this process until your throttle setting is such that
SLUF occurs just above stall speed. Plot L/D versus V0, and determine the best glide
(L/D) ratio and corresponding flight speed. You could also plot F versus V0 to get the
aircrafts flying thrust curve.

Additional Comments Regarding the Flight Testing Method Described Above:

This method of flight testing, though simple in concept, could prove very difficult to perform
without recording in-flight data, such as RPM and V0, especially during each SLUF portion of
the flight as a new throttle setting is chosen in order to vary the aircraft velocity, V0. Therefore,
it is recommended to perform the above-proposed flight testing while using a device to record in-
flight data such as RPM and V0, as well as the throttle setting and current (A) and voltage (V) to
the motor, in order to ensure consistent power input to the motor during comparisons of various
flights. The Turnigy Super Brain line of ESCs has an integrated flight data logger capable of
recording voltage, current, temperature, motor RPM, and throttle travel for the entire flight (for
example, for the 60A Super Brain see here:
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/__10942__Turnigy_Super_Brain_60A_Brushless_
ESC.html). Another option with similar data logging capability is the Hobbyking PowerLog 6S
Multifunction Monitor & datalogger, found here:
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/__15941__Hobbyking_PowerLog_6S_Multifunctio
n_Monitor_datalogger.html. Other devices may be available as well if a thorough search is
performed. To record V0 during the flight, further research could be done to devise a way to use
an existing FPV OSD GPS (which already feeds GPS-provided ground speed into an aircraft-
mounted camera video feed) or another commercial off-the-shelf GPS, in order to record in-
flight ground speed. Or, an airspeed indicator could possibly be purchased or created. Again, if
ground speed is used, try to record the data in two opposing directions to remove the effects of
wind, or fly on a calm day.
Add Spektrums built-in telemetry (remote measuring???) info.
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13) How to Measure Your Aircrafts Speed (for FREEno Radar Speed Gun Required!!!)
Using the Doppler Effect

First off, there are several methods to measure an aircrafts speed. Paul, from rcFoamFighters,
discusses three Tools To Record RC Aircraft Speed in his video titled, Measuring the Speed
of an RC Plane, located here:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K7bCuiDN5Xs&feature=related. The three techniques he
mentions are:
1. Using a radar gun, such as this one for ~$90: http://www.amazon.com/Bushnell-
Velocity-Speed-Colors-
vary/dp/B0002X7V1Q/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1332633635&sr=8-1;
2. Using an aircraft-mounted pitot-static tube (which measures airspeed using a
differential pressure transducer to determine the velocity-dependent dynamic pressure,
which is the difference between the total pressure entering the front of the pitot-static
tube, and the static pressure entering the side of the pitot-static tube). One such system is
the Eagle Tree Airspeed Module for ~$35 (see
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbycity/store/uh_viewItem.asp?idProduct=7838&Product_
Name=Airspeed_Expander_V3&aff=70668 and
http://www.eagletreesystems.com/Standalone/standalone.htm); and the last method Paul
discusses in his video is:
3. Using computer software for FREE to determine ground speed by analyzing frequency
shifts of the aircraft motor, according to the Doppler Effect. For example, use the
German-made WAVEosSCOPE program found here:
http://www.sprut.de/electronic/soft/scope.htm or directly downloaded here:
http://www.sprut.de/electronic/soft/scope.zip; or use the program called Audacity
found here: http://audacity.sourceforge.net/download/?lang=en. You may use Audacity
alone to measure speed by following the procedures shown by username francoishaha
in this YouTube how-to video, called rc plane speed mesure using doppler effect (video
here: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DZZWtT32ymY). However, I will detail the
use of both programs, used in conjunction, in a tutorial in the pages to come.

In this section, I will discuss only the third technique, which is FREE. As implied above, I prefer
to use both the WAVEosSCOPE program as well as Audacity.

The Doppler speed measuring technique can be applied to determine the speed of virtually any
motorized vehicle, flying or not, which passes over you or near you in a relatively straight line,
and at a constant or near-constant velocity. The Doppler Effect says that in regards to a
stationary object (ex: you) perceiving a sound-emitting moving object (ex: a siren, or motor) the
received frequency is higher (compared to the emitted frequency) during the approachis
identical at the instant of passing by, andis lower [as the object moves away]
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppler_effect). As the object approaches you, its forward
velocity compresses the sound waves being emitted by the object itself, causing their frequency
(or pitch) to increase, and as the object gets farther away, its velocity stretches the sound waves it
is emitting, causing their frequency (or pitch) to decrease, or become lower. Do not, however,
confuse this phenomenon with the fact that the intensity, or volume of the sound waves also
increases as the object approaches you! Frequency, or pitch, is something altogether different.
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The equation needed to determine the aircrafts speed (assuming no wind speed) is this:

Eqn. 12. Determining A Vehicles Velocity Using the Doppler Effect:

Where:
V = the aircraft velocity, in m/s.
f2 = the higher frequency (Hz), or the motor frequency while the plane is flying towards you.
f1 = the lower frequency (Hz), or the motor frequency while the plane is flying away from
you (after it has passed you).
a = the speed of sound in air (m/s).

Note that the velocity depends upon the speed of sound. The speed of sound is a function of air
temperature, due to the fact that higher temperature gas molecules have more energy (including
kinetic energy) and collide with each other more often, thereby allowing a faster propagation of
sound from one molecule to the next. A lookup table of sound versus temperature is shown
below, with the left column being Temperature in C, and the right column being the speed of
sound (shown as the letter c in this particular table) in m/s. (Table Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_of_sound).
As can be seen, for a temperature of 20C, or 68F, the speed of sound, a = 343.26 m/s.

Please also note the limitations and assumptions of the above velocity
Table 6. formula. It assumes that there is no acceleration, or in other words,
Temperature versus that velocity is constant. It assumes that the recorder is still, and only
Speed of Sound the aircraft is moving. It assumes that there is no wind. Lastly, it
assumes that there is no angle between the position vector from the
recorder to the aircraft, and the velocity vector of the aircraft. In
other words, the aircraft is assumed to be flying directly over the
sound-recording device (WARNING: for extremely high-speed or
otherwise dangerous aircraft, do NOT perform low passes over
people, including spectators or people manually recording audio or
video. Rather, set up an audio/video recorder that does not require
human manning, or fly high enough overhead to provide a reasonable
margin of safety). Also, the above formula to determine velocity is a
first order approximation, and is only accurate if the aircraft speed is
low relative to the speed of sound and if the distance between the
aircraft and the recording device is large relative to the wavelength
of the aircraft motor sound waves (see
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppler_effect). To address these two
requirements: for the second of these two final requirements: the
wavelength, , of the sound waves produced by the aircraft motor is
determined by the equation: = a/f. For a speed of sound at 20C (a = 343 m/s), sound waves
leaving a motor at a frequency of 1000 Hz will have a wavelength of = 343[m/s]/1000[Hz] =
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0.343 m. This means that the recorder must be standing much farther away than 0.343 m from
the aircraft speeding by, which is easy to do, so this assumption is not a limitation. However, for
the first of the final requirementsnamely that the aircraft speed must be low relative to the
speed of sound, if an aircraft is flying at half the speed of sound per say (~171.5 m/s, or
383.6 mph at 20C) or faster, for instance, the Doppler Effect method of estimating velocity
would be perhaps less accurate than is desirable. For speeds approaching (very near to) the
speed of sound, using the Doppler method to determine speed is not accurate.

Doppler Speed Measuring Technique Tutorial:

1. Download and install WAVEosSCOPE and Audacity, using the links above.
2. Either record or download a video or audio file you want to analyze, then import the
audio into Audacity.
a. To import audio, or to extract audio from a video file, open Audacity and click on
File Import Audio. Audacity will load the audio from the file. If it
gives you an error when trying to extract audio from a video file, follow the
instructions Audacity gives you install the required Library.
b. For the purposes of this tutorial, I will be analyzing the audio from this YouTube
video here:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=26B39689ct8.
Therefore, to download this audio, go to http://www.onlinevideoconverter.com/
and click on United States of America then click on to mp3, wav, flac.

Copy and paste the above YouTube link into the box and click on . Leave

the MP3 320K option selected, and click on again. Wait for the program
to be Downloaded by the website and Converted. This could take several
minutes. Do not click on any of the deceiving advertizing links or buttons while
this happens. When it says File Converted Successfully! Please download the

file from below... click on the button and save the MP3 file to your
hard drive.
c. Following the steps of part a. above, import this audio file into Audacity. You
will see the following screenshot:
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3. At the top of the screen, click on Tracks Stereo Track to Mono. One of the horizontal
waveforms will be deleted. Then, click on the lower black line which looks like this line
above ( ) and drag the box down to fill the screen. Finally, highlight the third peak by
clicking and holding the mouse button here ( ) and dragging to here ( ). You will now see
the following:
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4. Notice that each of the large peaks indicates a separate aircraft flyby, which could be
analyzed for speed. The peaks here indicate volume, which peaks as the aircraft flies by
the camera/recording device. In this tutorial we will analyze only the third peak, or fly-
by, circled here ( ).
a. With the third peak still highlighted, press the play button at the top of the screen
and you will hear the aircraft fly by and a voice say 1-8-4. This is the flyby
during which the radar gun read 184 mph! Thats awfully fast for a propeller-
driven electric RC aircraft, isnt it???!!! In this tutorial, we will use the Doppler
Effect to verify this speed to see if he is lying.
5. In order to zoom in on the selected section, click on View Zoom to Selection. You
will now see the following screenshot:
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6. Click on Edit Preferences. Ensure that Spectrograms is selected in the list to the left
of the window which pops up. Change Window Size to 2048, and ensure other settings
are as I have below. Note that the Window Size is the sample size which Audacity will
use to perform a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) in order to analyze the frequencies of the
audio file. If this number is too small, inadequate frequency resolution is achieved and
we cannot properly analyze the speed.

7. Click on this tiny drop-down arrow ( ) as marked in the screen above ( ), and select
Spectrogram. You will now see the following screen:
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a. The lines are now fundamental frequency lines, as produced by the motor and
recorded by the cameras microphone, and the y-axis is in Hertz (Hz), or cycles
per second. The k indicates thousands of Hz, so 4.0K is equal to 4000 Hz.
Notice that as you move from left to right (or as time progresses), the frequency
lines have a distinctive drop, or step. The higher frequencies to the left are the
motors perceived fundamental frequencies as the aircraft approaches you, and the
lower frequencies to the right, after the step, are the motors perceived
fundamental frequencies as the aircraft flies away from you. The average of the
frequencies on any given frequency line is one of the motors actual fundamental
frequencies it is emitting, whereas the higher and lower frequencies are only the
perceived frequencies due to the aircrafts velocity and the Doppler Effect.
8. Though any of the fundamental frequency lines can be analyzed and achieve the same
result, we will analyze one of the lines in the middle with a highly pronounced step.
Zoom in on one of the lines by clicking on the y-axis at 7.0k here ( ) and dragging the
mouse (while holding down the left mouse button) down to the 4.0k line here ( ). You
will now see the following screen below.
a. Note: another, less precise way to zoom in on the vertical axis (y-axis) is to left
click on the axis wherever you want to zoom in, and right click wherever you want
to zoom out.
b. To zoom all the way out on the x-axis click View Fit in Window (Do not do
this at this time, however, as it will deviate from the tutorial). And to reiterate
from above: to zoom in on the x-axis, simply highlight a portion you would like to
zoom in to and click View Zoom to Selection.
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9. You should now see the screenshot above. Notice that one of the fundamental frequency
lines has a peak here ( ) and a low point here ( ). The peak corresponds to approximately
6.72k, or 6720 Hz. This is best seen by scrolling to the right by clicking the right scroll
button ( ), until the y-axis is lined up with the peak frequency. In Eqn. 12, we now know
that f2 = 6720 Hz. The low point corresponds to approximately 4.1k, or 4100 Hz. Again,
scroll further to the right to more easily see this. That means that f1 = 4100 Hz. Now to
complete Eqn. 12 we just need the air temperature from that day in order to determine the
speed of sound. Since we dont have it (due to the fact the analyzed clip is from a
YouTube video), lets assume it was a warm day of 68F, or 20C. The result will still be
in the ball park even with an incorrect temperature and speed of sound. Looking up the
corresponding speed of sound in Table 6, we see that the speed of sound, a = 343.26 m/s.
Plugging this all in to Eqn. 12 we see that the aircraft velocity is: V = (6720
4100)/(6720 + 4100) x 343.26 m/s = 83.118 m/s. Type this in to www.google.com as
83.118 m/s to mph (or just multiply m/s by 2.2369 to convert to mph) and we get
185.93 mph! Therefore, the radar gun was accurate, and the makers of this video were
not lying when they claimed a ground speed of 184 mph!!!

10. Now lets use WAVEosSCOPE to do the speed calculation since it makes the calculation
part of this process much easier.
a. First, however, we need to export a .wav file clip from Audacity since
WAVEosSCOPE can only work with short (~10 second long) wave (.wav) files.
11. Export the above-analyzed clip from Audacity by highlighting the section of interest. To
do this, click and hold the left mouse button here ( ), and drag the cursor to here ( ). This
should highlight basically the whole selection, from left to right. Next, select File
Export Selection. Click the drop-down menu for Save as type and select WAV
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(Microsoft) signed 16 bit PCM. Save the file in a directory you will remember. Just
click Ok when the Edit Metadata window pops up upon saving the file.
12. Now, run WAVEosSCOPE by navigating to the folder where you extracted its files, and
clicking on wos21.exe. A window will pop up like the one below. Notice that the
program is in German.

This is the open window, asking you which .wav file you would like to open. Navigate
to the file you just saved, select it, and click Open. The program will load the file in a
spectral view (showing the frequencies) as below:
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13. Notice that this time, the fundamental frequency lines are shown vertically instead of
horizontally, as they were previously shown in the Audacity program. The x-axis is
frequency, and the y-axis is time. In order to have maximum resolution of the frequency
lines, ensure the FFT Analysis is being performed using a sample size of 1024. To do
this, drag the FFT Filter Zahl bar to the far right.
14. Now we will calculate the aircraft ground speed using this program. First, tell the
program the air temperature. As before, like we did in the Audacity calculation, we will
assume the air temperature is 20C. Click the up arrow next to the box titled
Lufttemperatur until the value reads 20. This is the Air Temperature box, in
degrees Celsius.
15. Now, tell the program where the low and high frequencies are, on an individual
fundamental frequency line, by clicking with the LEFT mouse button on any of the low
frequency values and click with the RIGHT mouse button on the high frequency of the
same fundamental frequency line. (Actually it doesnt matter which button you use on
the low/high values, so long as you use one mouse button on one value, and the other
mouse button on the other value.) You will see something like the screen below:
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16. The program indicates the exact frequency values here ( ) and here ( ). The program also
calculated and output the velocity value here ( ). In this example, it says 298.01 km/h (
4.95 km/h). Multiply km/h by 0.62137 to get mph. In this case, the velocity in mph is
185.17 mph 3.08 mph. This is almost exactly the same answer we got in Audacity!!!
a. Unlike in Audacity, however, where you had to look up the speed of sound from
the table and then manually perform the calculation, WAVEosSCOPE does the
entire velocity calculation (Eqn. 12) automatically for you!!!
b. Note: Instead of looking up the speed of sound from a table, this program
calculates it based on the equation , where is the ratio of specific
heats, and equals 1.4 for air, and R is the specific gas constant for air, and equals
287.04 J/(kg*K), and T is the temperature of the air in degrees Kelvin.

17. Now you have determined the speed of an aircraft, FOR FREE, using two different
computer programs!!! The final point is this: it doesnt matter which fundamental
frequency line you use, they will all give you the same answer! Any variations in the
answer are due to error, and lower frequencies have more error since the frequency step
is not as large. Try it! Continue clicking more fundamental frequency lines in
WAVEosSCOPE to verify that they all produce roughly the same answer, with the lower
frequency lines having more error! Also, practice manually performing the calculation
yourself!
a. Some notes about the lower frequency lines, and the maximum frequency
(Nyquist Frequency) that WAVEosSCOPE analyzes:
i. In the above screenshot, notice that WAVEosSCOPE shows frequencies
up to 22055 Hz. See here ( ). In actuality, in this particular spectral
analysis, WAVEosSCOPE only analyzed frequencies up to 22050 Hz.
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The reason why is that there exists something called the Nyquist
Frequency, which must be applied. The principle of the Nyquist
Frequency is that in order to have accurately sampled frequency data, the
highest frequency that can be detected is of the sampling rate. In this
case, the sampling rate was 44100 Hz, and the Nyquist Frequency was
therefore half of that, or 22050 Hz, and hence WAVEosSCOPE put 22055
Hz as the maximum value on the frequency scale. If you go back to
Audacity, where we exported the .wav file to be analyzed by
WAVEosSCOPE, you will see that the sampling rate was set to 44100 Hz.
See here ( ). You can change this number manually by typing in any value
you desire, or by clicking the dropdown arrow and selecting a value.

ii. In the above example, had you wanted to remove the useless data above
~10,000 Hz, you could have changed the sampling rate (Project Rate) to
20,000 Hz. Go back to Audacity and click the Project Rate box, then
type in 20000. Now, highlight the section again and export it the same
was as before (File Export Selection). Open the newly exported .wav
file into WAVEosSCOPE and you will see the following screenthis
time with the maximum frequency analyzed (Nyquist Frequency) being
only 10,000 Hz (see screen belowit shows 10002 Hz )!!! The benefit
of this is that you have essentially Zoomed In on the important data so
that you can see it better and be more accurate and precise in clicking the
low and high frequency values to get a good speed calculation.
The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
Staples (77/86)

iii. Now lets say you want to just zoom in on the lowest frequency line in the
above screen shot. The lowest frequency line ( ) has a high value of
~1098 Hz. To cut off all frequencies above that, thereby zooming in on
this line, go back to Audacity and make the sample rate (Project Rate)
2400 Hz. Now, the Nyquist Frequency will be 1200 Hz, essentially
zooming in on that one frequency line!!!
This is a very important trick to remember when analyzing speeds of
objects which produce very low frequencies, such as regular cars on a
highway! (Note: the cars I have analyzed showed good frequency lines
around 600 Hz, so I had to make the sample rate (Project Rate) as low as
2000 Hzin order to have a Nyquist Frequency of 1000 Hzso that
WAVEosSCOPE would zoom in properly on the frequency axis and allow
me to adequately view and select those very low frequency lines.)

b. A few last notes about Audacity:

i. Under the Edit Preferences Spectrograms settings, a
Window Size value of 2048 is best to make the higher (> 3000 Hz)
fundamental frequency lines most pronounced, and a value of 4096 is best
for lower frequencies ( 3000 Hz). If you are analyzing even lower
frequencies than that, sequentially try even higher Window Size values
to help you see the frequency line better. Play around with the other
settings as you desire.
ii. If you ever try to click on Edit Preferences and Preferences is
grayed out and you cannot click on it, then click on the Stop button
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
Staples (78/86)

( ) and it will fix the problem.

c. One last note about the Doppler Speed calculation method described above: It is
only as good as your ability to properly identify the high and low frequency
values on any given fundamental frequency line. The more careful you are, the
more accurate your result will be. With a reasonably careful application of this
method in the above example, and using the assumption that air temperature from
the video is 20C, expect your results to be as much as 6% of the actual value of
184 mph, or in other words, expect your results to range from ~173 mph to ~195
mph. Again, the more careful you are, the more accurate your results will be.

So now that you know how to use the Doppler Effect to determine ground speed of an object, go
ahead and play with it. Grab a camera and go stand by the road and see if you can use this
method to measure the speed of cars going by (I have done this, it works), a speeding school bus,
or a cop car/ambulance/fire truck with their siren on! (Just remember though, that for very low-
frequency vehicles such as cars on a highway, as I said above, you will need to lower the sample
rate, or Project Rate, as required in Audacity prior to exporting the selection to be analyzed by
WAVEosSCOPE). Also, next time youre at an air show, record the planes flying by overhead
and go home and determine their speed too! Go to a racetrack and record your own video/sound
to analyze, or look for a YouTube video of NASCAR, or other flying RC aircraft, and see if you
can figure out those speeds as well! This is a simple, yet effective technique, and you can have
lots of fun with it! Use your imagination and go check some speeds!!!
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
Staples (79/86)

Specific Setups and Additional Info.

1) Good Beginner Airplane Options to get your personal RC experience started
-See additional handout titled, One Recommended Beginner Airplane, By Gabriel Staples. If
you do not have a copy of this stand-alone document, email me at the email address listed at the
end of this document and I will send you a copy or tell you where it can be downloaded for free.

2) Multicopter
-uses 3 or more airplane motors and propellers, mounted skywards, to fly like a helicopter.

-Usually requires a programmable control

board with 3 built-in gyros for stability (one
on each axis; for example, check out this
control board sold on HobbyKing: [insert link
here]), though a tricopter *may* be built with
4 gyros and no control board using a
helicopter swash-plate setting on your
computerized Tx (see here:
http://www.rcexplorer.se/projects/tricopter/tricopter.html).
Tricopter Pictured Above. Estimated Cost: ~$150 using parts from HobbyKing.com, without
Tx/Rx. Source: http://www.rcexplorer.se/projects/tricopter/tricopter.html

-Other fantastic, inexpensive, tri-copter and quad-copter frames (made of laser-cut plywood, with
fiberglass or wooden arms) are available from Radical RC here:
http://www.radicalrc.com/category/Multi-Rotor-Copters-458. For low-cost and easy
construction, I recommend to use Radical RCs laser-cut frames, with electronics (motors and
ESCs) from either hobbypartz.com or hobbyking.com. For stability, a control board with a 3-
axis gyro system (such as the kk board here: ) will need to be purchased and used on the
multicopter as well.

-Despite what others may say, by using the right radio and gyro settings, can be capable of loops,
rolls, and full aerobatics (other than sustained inverted flight unless using V/P (variable pitch)
aircraft motor/prop setups)See video here for one example of a simple, aerobatic, home-built
tricopter: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uZC5YFhMXpg.
-Often used as a stable FPV platform (see below for more info. on FPV)

A Few Recommended Quad-Copter Setups & Parts:

http://www.xheli.com/quadcopters.html

3) Good Beginner Helicopter Options to get into RC helicopters without breaking the
bank or going too advanced too quickly
ddd

A 2 channel helicopter is inherently stable, and designed for an absolute novice to radio
controlled helicopters. Today (year 2012) a 2 Channel helicopter is obsolete and has been
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
Staples (80/86)

replaced entirely by 3 channel helicopters. However, about 5 years ago, 2 channel

helicopters were the latest and greatest in micro RC helicopters.
A 3 channel helicopter is inherently stable, and designed for an absolute novice to radio
controlled helicopters. It has yaw control, throttle control, and fore-aft control (pitch). 3-
channel helicopters lack roll control, but most of these tiny little machines even have
miniature gyros to stabilize their yaw control. Many 3-channel helicopters are coaxial.
Coaxial means that one rotor axis [drive shaft] is within the other rotor axisthese
helicopters are easily identified by having a second set of main blades directly over the first
(lower) set of main blades. Fore-aft control on the 3-channel coaxial versions is often done
by a tiny motor on the tail with a little rotor aimed *upwards* (not left or right as most helis
are configured). This tiny tail rotor creates upwards or downwards force on the tail to cause
the tail to rise or fall, thereby causing the helicopter to pitch forwards (nose-down) or aft
(nose-up).
Video: here is what a 3-channel helicopter can do:
A 4 channel helicopter ..
o Fixed Pitch Single Rotor
o Fixed Pitch Coaxial
Video: here is what a 4-channel helicopter can do:
A 6 channel helicopter
Video: here is what a 6-channel helicopter can do (insert video of Justin Jee)

My Basic Recommended to buy List of Helicopters:

(note: technology changes soooooo rapidly that if you are reading this document more than 1-2
years after I completed it, or last modified it, you are likely to find a better heli out there than
these anyway, but these are at least good starting points to check out).
Good 1st Helicopter: -any micro 3 channel single-rotor-heli, or coaxial heli, that catches
your fancy. Cost: ~$20-$50.
Good 2nd Helicopter (or 1st Helicopter if youd like to go for it): 9958 (on xheli) or HK-
190 [same heli]. Cost: ~$50
Good 3rd Helicopter: micro 6 channel heli:
(http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/__21186__Solo_PRO_180_3G_Flybarless
_3D_Micro_Helicopter_Yellow_RTF_USA_Warehouse_.html). Cost: ~$150
Good 4th Helicopter (500 size). Cost: ~$XX???
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
Staples (81/86)

4) FPV (First Person View)

-This involves flying an RC aircraft through a live video feed to a headset or TV screen. This is
why it is called first person view; it is as if you are inside the aircraft flying it!

-Using various off-the-shelf components, radio-

Image source: video clip from http://vimeo.com/31119287
controlled distances of up to 54 miles have been
achieved, for approximately only $3000!!! (video
here: www.youtube.com/watch?v=LTClFTAfwMY
-Specs and standard FPV components of the aircraft
used for this record can be found (and purchased)
here: http://www.team-
blacksheep.com/products/product:3
- 54 flying wing (model: Ritewing Zephyr)
- 4.85 lb flying weight.
-for an RCGroups thread on Building the Ultimate

Ritewing Zephyr, see here: http://www.rcgroups.com/forums/showthread.php?t=1279141.

-Using extra batteries, current electric systems may achieve total distances traveled of greater
than 100 miles, though radio transmitter and video transmitter signal ranges currently limit
distances from the operator to approximately <50 miles, with 30 miles range being more
common/practical.

FPV Videos:
-http://vimeo.com/29466533 - Got Aerial and Aerial Exposure - Kevin Martin - aerial-
exposure - the more "professional" side of FPV
-http://vimeo.com/27224910 - Formation Proximity Trappy - Team Black Sheep leading
the way in RC FPV.
-Other videos by Trappy of Team Black Sheep: http://www.team-blacksheep.com/videos
Add video snapshot here.

FPV Components:
2 main parts: 1) video (and video transmission), 2) RC Control
-Video involves camera, video transmitter, video receiver, and viewing source (such as these Fat
Shark Dominator video goggles:
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/uh_viewItem.asp?idProduct=19445).
-additional components may be required, such as an OSD (On-Screen Display), which displays
pertinent information on the video screen while you fly, such as battery current draw, milliamp-
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
Staples (82/86)

hours used, transmitter signal strength, ground-speed, altitude, distance from user, and latitude-
longitude coordinates, etc.
-Many FPV users, such as Trappy (mentioned above), use one primary video camera mounted on
the plane to fly with (which also has the OSD information overlaid on the video and visible to
the pilot through the goggles), and a separate HD (high-definition) secondary video camera
mounted on the plane (next to the primary) to record video with. Due to the high bandwidth
required to transmit HD video, and current technology limitations, this is the best method to fly
without a high lag time in video transmission while still having a recorded HD video product to
show at the end.

Some FPV Info. and Tips Specifically from FPV user, Kevin Martin:
Easy Ready to fly FPV package:
http://www.readymaderc.com/store/index.php?main_page=product_info&cPath=4&products_id
=699
Biggest Tip: look at www.FPVLab.com and READ READ READ
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-Side note- if you are going to be experimenting with FPV in Colorado, 1.3GHz video
transmission is *not* recommended because it is already a very crowded band in Colorado, and
FPV flyers do not wish to risk being shot down while flying out here.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Take-Away: FPV isn't something you just "learn", it takes a lot of reading and practicing.
There's no guaranteed answer, it's all extremely subjective, and varies a lot depending on what
you use. The best advice truly is to read read read online at www.FPVLab.com and
www.RCGroups.com. If you want to experiment with FPV, you really need to learn it all on
your own, or you will quickly be frustrated with all the opinions out there.
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
Staples (83/86)

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Links & Additional Information:
(Links with asterisks (*) next to them are especially highly used or recommended by the author.
More asterisks indicate a higher rate of use, or a higher recommendation, by the author.)

Additional info on Batteries, ESCs, and www.spektrumrc.com

Props: www.parkzone.com
***http://www.rcdiscuss.com/showthread.p www.amainhobbies.com
hp?26461-LiPo-Batteries-Selection-Run- www.e-fliterc.com
time-ESC%92s-and-Prop-Selection- www.gravesrc.com
Extensive-Article ***http://www.rcpowers.com/forum/showth
read.php?8300-RCPowers-Master-Parts-List
Additional Info On Selecting a Power **www.progressiverc.com
System: *****???http://www.progressiverc.com/
****http://www.stevensaero.com/Selecting- celllog-updates
an-Electric-Powersystem-R1.0-nid-5.html
***http://www.mycoolrc.com/SizingMotor. Local Hobby Shops
html
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store Finding a Local Flying Club
/lipo_basics.asp -The Academy of Model Aeronautics
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store (AMA) is the Official national body for
/ebasic.asp model aviation in the United States. To
find a local AMA-chartered flying club, go
Purchase & Manufacturers Websites to the AMA website at
****www.hobbyking.com www.modelaircraft.org and click on
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/sto Members and Clubs Club Services
re/lipo_basics.asp <--READ THIS!!! Find a Club, or just click this link here:
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/sto www.modelaircraft.org/clubsearch.aspx.
re/ebasic.asp <--READ THIS!!! -add info. about using a buddy box (trainer
**www.graysonhobby.com system) and getting a simulator.
***http://www.rcpowers.com/community/th
reads/rcpowers-master-parts-list.8300/ Common Connectors You May Need
**www.towerhobbies.com ***JST:
*www.nitroplanes.com ***XT-60:
**www.xheli.com ***Servo Leads/Extensions:
***www.hobbypartz.com
***www.helidirect.com Forums or Sites To Learn/Ask Questions
www.commonsenserc.com ***www.rcgroups.com
*www.rchotdeals.com **www.rcdiscuss.com
Their new website: *www.rchotdeal.com **www.rcexplorer.se
click on RC Hot Deals in the ***www.rcpowers.com
Categories box. ***www.mycoolrc.com
*www.rcfoam.com *www.myrcguides.com
***www.bananahobby.com **www.rcfoamfighters.com
www.horizonhobby.com *http://mikeysrc.com
**www.futaba-rc.com www.rcuniverse.com
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
Staples (84/86)

www.flyinggiants.com Aerofly
www.runryder.com RealFlight
Phoenix
Enthusiast websites (free pdf planes Clearview
available on many of them) FMS (by E-Sky)
***www.rcpowers.com
***http://www.rcpowers.com/forum/show Instructional Videos
thread.php?8300-RCPowers-Master-Parts- -flying 3D with Michael Wargo
List
**www.flitetest.com Fun Videos & Extras:
**www.rcfoamfighters.com -180 mph Funjet:
*http://mikeysrc.com/ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=26B3968
***http://www.rcexplorer.se/ 9ct8
-Here is an RC electric multicopter capable
Valuable YouTube Channels of carrying a full-sized man:
Format: Username Real Name: Link -Here is a fully aerobatic tricopter:
(Add links) -FREE pdf 3D plane here:
Nightflyyer Dave Herbert http://www.rcpowers.com/forum/showthrea
http://www.youtube.com/user/NightFlyy d.php?625-EX-300-(FREE!)
er/videos -Here is an RC electric multicopter capable
FliteTest Josh Bixler and Josh ?? of carrying a full-sized man:
Nitroplanes -Here is a fully aerobatic tricopter:
Xheli -very neat tricopter build - requires
RCPowers computer radio capable of 120 deg ccpm
rcFoamFighters Frank & Paul heli
SmarterEveryDay a lot about helicopters settings: http://www.rcexplorer.se/projects/tr
in Episodes 46-51 icopter/tricopter.html
-great flying wings: info
here: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RD
FPV (First Person View) Websites 1b3Z7K2bE&feature=player_embedded
***www.aerial-exposure.com buy here:
**www.team-blacksheep.com bonsai: http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyki
**www.immersionrc.com ng/store/__17968__Hobbyking_Bonsai_EP
***www.fpvlab.com P_Wing_600mm_ARF_.html and tek
www.fpvpilot.com sumo: http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbykin
www.fpvhobby.com g/store/uh_viewItem.asp?idProduct=17969
*www.ritewingrc.com For $100 you can also get a cinderblock to
fly. The total weight of this thing was ***48
lbs!!!*** Skip to 7 min in the video to see it
Flight Simulators lift off.
-very useful to help you learn to fly without http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bns5x4p
crashing your plane. Can be very vl5Y&feature=player_embedded. They
inexpensive yet still accurate to real RC couldnt' get it very high since it was way
flying, or can be very expensive and even underpowered and needed to fly under
betterbeing nearly identical to real RC ground effect (ie: close to the ground, with
flying! the wings compressing the air between the
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
Staples (85/86)

wings and the ground). For $200 they could

have got it to fly properly, and much higher,
but they were trying to prove it was possible
for only $100.

Here's a light balsa electric, hovering:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aqOEwC
zR3YQ&feature=relmfu
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 The Basics of Electric Radio Control Aircrafta Technical Perspective with an Economical Approach
Staples (86/86)

Authors Contact Info:

Gabriel Staples, rcflyyer@gmail.com.
-If you send me an email regarding this document, please include the words RC Document in
the email subject line.

FPV-Help Contact Info:

Kevin Martin
-Kevin owns an FPV Ritewing Zephyr flying wing, similar to the one that Trappy flew for a
record distance of 54 miles. He also owns an FPV hexacopter, which is a multicopter with
six motors. Kevins contact info: kevin@aerial-exposure.com, www.aerial-exposure.com

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Authors Disclaimer:
I, the author, assume no liability for any injury or damage due to your personal use of RC
products or equipment. It is your responsibility to thoroughly flight-check your own equipment,
ensure it is in good working condition and flight-worthy, and use it in a legal and responsible
manner.

It is my intent to provide useful, complete, and accurate information. I acknowledge that due to
the expansive nature of RC flying, the rapidly changing and technologically-advancing industry,
and differences in individual users taste, many differing opinions exist out there. In cases where
I have exerted my opinion, product preference, favorite websites, etc., I recognize it may be
different from your opinion and/or other expert opinions out there. However, if I have written
any blatantly inaccurate information or have factual errors in any way, including in the
equations presented, please feel free to contact me at my email address above and I will examine
the information you provide me and make an attempt to correct any factual errors herein. Your
comments, opinions, feedback and/or favorite websites are also welcome, though if provided, I
may or may not incorporate them into the document, at my personal discretion. Lastly, upon
receiving your feedback, comments, or corrections, it is assumed that I have your permission to
incorporate into this document any information you provide me (unless you state otherwise when
providing me the information), and therefore I will not be asking specifically for permission to
do so. Thank you for reading, and thank you for your help and feedback!

HAPPY FLYING!!!