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1. List five major functions of the skeletal system.

Support: Bones provide a framework for the attachment of muscles

and other tissues.
Protection: Bones such as the skull and rib cage protect internal
organs from injury.
Movement: Bones enable body movements by acting as levers and
points of attachment for muscles.
Blood cell production: The production of blood cells, or
hematopoiesis, occurs in the red marrow found within the cavities of
certain bones.
Energy storage: Lipids, such as fats, stored in adipose cells of the
yellow marrow serve as an energy reservoir.

2. Describe the process of bone formation and growth.

Ossification (osteogenesis) begins by the sixth or seventh week of

embryonic life. There are two osteogenic pathwaysintramembranous
ossification and endochondral ossification

During intramembranous ossification, compact and spongy bone develops

directly from sheets of mesenchymal (undifferentiated) connective tissue (
flat bones of the face )

In endochondral ossification, bone develops by replacing hyaline cartilage.

Cartilage does not become bone. Instead, cartilage serves as a template to
be completely replaced by new bone. ( long bones )

The epiphyseal plate is the area of growth in a long bone. It is a layer of

hyaline cartilage where ossification occurs in immature bones. On the
epiphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate, cartilage is formed. On the
diaphyseal side, cartilage is ossified, and the diaphysis grows in length

3. What types of bones are there and describe them..

There are flat bones in the skull (occipital, parietal, frontal, nasal, lacrimal,
and vomer), the thoracic cage (sternum and ribs), and the pelvis (ilium,
ischium, and pubis) .
Flat bones are somewhat flattened, and can provide protection, like a shield;
flat bones can also provide large areas of attachment for muscles.

Long bones, longer than they are wide, are mostly located in the appendicular
skeleton and include bones in the lower limbs (the tibia, fibula, femur,
metatarsals, and phalanges) and bones in the upper limbs (the humerus,
radius, ulna, metacarpals, and phalanges).
 Short bones are about as long as they are wide. Located in the wrist and
ankle joints, short bones provide stability and some movement.
The carpals in the wrist (scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, hamate, pisiform,
capitate, trapezoid, and trapezium) and the tarsals in the ankles (calcaneus,
talus, navicular, cuboid, lateral cuneiform, intermediate cuneiform, and medial
cuneiform) are examples of short bones.

Irregular bones vary in shape and structure and therefore do not fit into any
other category. They often have a fairly complex shape, which helps protect
internal organs.
For example, the vertebrae, irregular bones of the vertebral column, protect
the spinal cord.

Sesamoid bones are bones embedded in tendons. These small, round bones
are commonly found in the tendons of the hands, knees, and feet. Sesamoid
bones function to protect tendons from stress and wear.
The patella, commonly referred to as the kneecap, is an example of a
sesamoid bone.

4. What are bone processes?

Bony processes are parts of bones that stick out from the main body of the bone,
serving as attachment sites for muscles, ligaments or other connective tissues.
Each of the different processes that exist in the body are named, such as the traverse
processes, which are part of the vertebrae

5. Say something about cranial bones

There are 22 bones of the Skull, which include:

8 Cranial Bones: 1 x Ethmoid Bone

1 x Frontal Bone
1 x Occipital Bone
2 x Parietal Bones
1 x Sphenoid Bone
2 x Temporal Bones
Ethmoid Floor of the cranium, Forms part of the nasal
inferior to the frontal bone cavity and the orbits.
and anterior to the Main support structure of
sphenoid. the nasal cavity
Frontal Forehead, extending down to form
the upper surfaces of the orbits.
Anterior roof of the skull.
Occipital Back and base of the cranium, The occipital condyles articulate
forms the back of the skull. with the atlas , enabling movement
Non-technically: Lower back of the of the head relative to the spine.
head. Has a large opening called the
Foramen Magnus which the spinal
cord passes through.
Parietal Top and sides of the cranium,
posterior roof of the skull.
Sphenoid Anterior to the temporal bones and Articulates with the frontal, parietal
forms the base of cranium - behind and temporal bones.
the orbitals.
Consists of a body, two "wings" and
two "pterygoid processes" that
project downwards.
Temporal Sides of the skull, below the
parietal bones, and above and
behind the ears

6. Say something about facial bones

There are 14 facial bones. Most of them are paired except of two( mandible and vomer).
Facial bones are maxilla, nasal bones, palatine bones, lacrimal bones, zygomatic bones and
inferior nasal concha.
7. Describe veretbral column
Vertebral column, also know as backbone or spine. It consists of 33 vertebrae, there are 7
cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral which are fused in sacrum, and 4 coccyxgeal fused
into tail bone. Spine has 2 lordotic curves( cervical and lumbar curve) and one kyphotic
thoracic curve.
8. Name the bones of thorax and pelvis
Bones of thorax are sternum and ribs. We have 12 ribs, 7 of them are connected with
sternum. 8,9,10th ribs are called false ribs because their costal cartilage does not articulates
with sternum. They articulate with the rib above. 11 th and 12th are called floating ribs
because they are not attached to sternum or to the rib above.
Pelvic bone = hip bone consists of 3 sections ilium, ischiu and pubic bone.
9. Name and show bones of the arms and hand
Bones of the arm are humerus, ulna, radius. They articulate at the elbow joint. We have 27
bones in our hand. 8 of them are called carpal bones ( scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, pisiform,
trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate). They articulate with metacarpal bones. In fingers,
we have phalanges, which can be divided into proximal, intermediate and distal phalanges.
10. Name and show bones of the leg and foot.
Bones ofthe leg are thigh bone (femur), knee cap( patella), the shin bone ( tibia), calf bone (
fibula). Foot has many bones which can be divided in 3 groups: tarsus ( 7 bones, talus,
calcaneus, cuneiformes(3), cuboid,navicular), metatarsus ( 5 metatarsal bones), phalanges.

11. Mention types of joints.

Structural classification:
fibrous joint joined by dense regular connective tissue that is rich in collagen fibers
cartilaginous joint joined by cartilage
synovial joint not directly joined the bones have a synovial cavity and are united
by the dense irregular connective tissue that forms the articular capsule

Functional classification:
synarthrosis permits little or no mobility. Most synarthrosis joints are fibrous joints
(e.g., skull sutures).
Amphiarthrosis permits slight mobility. Most amphiarthrosis joints are cartilaginous
joints (e.g., intervertebral discs).
synovial joint (also known as a diarthrosis) freely movable. Synovial joints can in
turn be classified into six groups according to the type of movement they allow:
plane joint, ball and socket joint, hinge joint, pivot joint, condyloid joint and saddle
joint.

12. What is bursa?

A bursa is a small fluid-filled sac lined by synovial membrane with an inner capillary layer of
viscous synovial fluid (similar in consistency to that of a raw egg white). It provides a cushion
between bones and tendons and/or muscles around a joint.
13. Name at least three pathological conditions of the musculoskeletal system and
describe them.
Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disease wherein the body produces antibodies against
joint tissues causing chronic inflammation resulting in severe joint damage, pain and
immobility.
Tendonitis is an inflammation of the tendon, resulting in pain and difficulty with movement
involving the muscle. Tendons have a poor blood supply; therefore, they typically take a long
time to heal on the order of six weeks or more.
Muscular dystrophy is a group of inherited diseases in which the muscles that control
movement progressively weaken. The most common form in children is called Duchenne
muscular dystrophy and affects only males. It usually appears between the ages of 2 to 6 and
the afflicted live typically into late teens to early 20s.

14. Name types of muscles

Skeletal muscles or striated muscles are those which attach to bones and have the
main function of contracting to facilitate movement of our skeletons.
Smooth muscle is also sometimes known as Involuntary muscle due to our inability to
control its movements.
Cardiac muscle (heart muscle) is found solely in the walls of the heart, and is highly
specialised it is highly resistant to fatigue due to the presence of a large number of
mitochondria, myoglobin and a good blood supply.

15. Say something about skeletal muscles.

Skeletal muscle are those which attach to bones and have the main function of
contracting to facilitate movement of our skeletons. They are also sometimes known
as striated muscles due to their appearance. The cause of this 'stripy' appearance is
the bands of Actin and Myosin which form the Sarcomere, found within the
Myofibrils. Skeletal muscles are also sometimes called voluntary muscles, because we
have direct control over them through nervous impulses. Their contractions can vary
to produce powerful, fast movements or small precision actions.

16. Say something about the general structure of the nervous system.
The nervous system is the part of body that coordinates its actions and transmits
signals to and from different parts of the body. It consists of two main parts, the
central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS
contains the brain and spinal cord and the PNS consists mainly of nerves that
connect the CNS to every other part of the body. The PNS can further be divided into
somatic and autonomic nervous system. The whole nervous system is made of two
types of cells- neurons and glial cells. Neurons process and transmit information
through electrical and chemical signals, while glial cells provide structural and
metabolic support.
17. Describe CNS.
The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system that consists of
the brain and spinal cord. It is referred to as "central" because it integrates
information from the entire body and coordinates activity across the whole organism.
The brain is housed within and protected by the skull and the spinal cord flows from
the back of the brain, down the center of the spine in the spinal canal, stopping in the
lumbar region. The brain and spinal cord are also enveloped and protected by three
membranes called the meninges. The retina, optic nerve, olfactory nerves and
olfactory epithelium are also sometimes considered to be part of the CNS because
they connect directly with brain tissue without intermediate nerve fibers. The CNS
can be roughly divided into white and gray matter. White matter mostly consists of
axons (nerve projections), whereas gray matter consists mostly of the bodies of the
neurons.
18. Describe peripheral nervous system.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is the part of the nervous system that consists
of 12 pairs of cranial nerves, 31 pair of spinal nerves and ganglia- groups of nerve
cells outside of the brain and spinal cord. Its main function is to connect the CNS with
other parts of the body (organs,limbs and skin). The PNS can be divided into two
systems: the autonomic nervous system, which regulates involuntary actions such as
breathing and digestion, and the somatic nervous system, which governs voluntary
action and body reflexes. The autonomic nervous system has two parts: the
sympathetic nervous system, which increases body functions, and the
parasympathetic nervous system which slows body functions.

19. Say something about neurons.

Neurons or nerve cells are electrically excitable cells that process and transmit
information through electrical and chemical signals. They are the main components
of the brain and spinal cord of the central nervous system (CNS), and of the ganglia
of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Neurons are connected with each other and
with other cells via specialized connections called synapses. There are several types
of neurons: sensory neurons that respond to stimuli, motor neurons that receive
signals from the brain and spinal cord to cause muscle contractions and interneurons
that connect neurons to other neurons within the same region of the brain, or spinal
cord in neural networks. A typical neuron consists of a cell body (soma), dendrites,
and an axon. Soma contains many organells,including nucleus, and it is the
metabolic centre of a neuron. Dendrites are branched projections and their main
function is to receive and process impulses from the other neurons. Axon is a longer
projection of a nerve cell that typically conducts electrical impulses away from the
neuron's cell body.
20. Describe the parts of the brain.
Brain is the most complex organ of human body that controls all functions of the body
and interprets information from the outside world.It is contained in, and protected by
the skull bones of the head. The three main parts of the brain are cerebrum,
cerebellum and brainstem. The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and is
composed of right and left hemispheres. It performs higher functions like interpreting
touch, vision and hearing, as well as speech, reasoning, emotions, learning, and fine
control of movement.
The cerebellum is located under the cerebrum. Its function is to coordinate muscle
movements, maintain posture, and balance.
The brainstem includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla. It acts as a relay center
connecting the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord. It performs many
automatic functions such as breathing, heart rate, body temperature, wake and sleep
cycles, digestion, sneezing, coughing, and swallowing. Ten of the twelve cranial
nerves originate in the brainstem.

21. Describe the spinal cord and meninges.

Spinal cord is one of two main parts of the CNS. It is placed inside the spinal cord. Spinal cord
is composed primarily out of nervous tissue where grey and white matter can be
discriminated. White matter is made primarily out of myelinised axons and grey matter
contains mostly neuronal nuclei.
In the spinal cord, grey matter takes up the inner part and it is enclosed almost completely
by white matter.

Meninges are three membranes that protect our CNS. Dura mater is the outer membrane,
arachnoid is the middle one, and pia mater is the one closest to the brain and spinal cord.
Their primary function is protecting the brain of external influences. A lot of blood vessels
can be found between these membranes which bring food to our CNS.

22. Say something about CSF

Cerebrospinal fluid is a liquid which is produced by choroid plexus which is located inside
brain ventricles. Iti s verry similar to blood plasma. Iti s clear, transparent and more dense
than water.
Not much is actually known about CSF (there are a bunch of theories, though), in fact,
scientists at School of Medicine, University of Zagreb are trying to decipher the mistery
behind this odd fluid, on of them is our Dean Marijan Klarica.
 23. What is hydrocephalus and how can it be treated
Hydrocephalus is a condition in which there is an abnormal accumulation of CSF within the
brain. Hydrocephalus can be successfully treated by placing a drainage tube (shunt) between
the brain ventricles and abdominal cavity.

24. What is blood composed of?

Blood is composed out of plasma and blood cells. Plasma contains ions, proteins (that can be
separated in fractions by electrophoresis so we differentiate albumins and alpha, beta and
gamma globulins). Blood cells are erytrhocytes, leukocytes and thrombocytes (platelets)

25. Say something about erythrocytes.

Eryhtrocytes, or red blood cells, are cells which do not contain a nucleus. Their primary
function is bringing oxygen to every cell in our bodies. They contain a protein called
Hemoglobin. It is a protein which binds oxygen in our lungs and it releases it in other tissues
in need of it.

26. white blood cells are the cells of the immune sistem. They are involved in protecting the
body of infections diseases and foreign antigens. All WBCs are produced from multipotent
cells (hematopoetic stem cells) in the bone marrow. They are found in the blood and
lymphatic system.
The number of leukocytes in the blood is often an indicator of disease.
Five main types: neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes and monocytes.
Neutrophil: They defend against bacterial or fungal infection. They are active in
phagocytosing bacteria and are present in large amount in the pus of wounds. They die after
having phagocytosed a few pathogens.
Eosinophil: They are rare in the blood but numerous in the mucos membranes of respiratory,
digestive and lower urinary tracts. They are predominant inflammantory cells in alergic
reactions. They secrete chemicals that destroy large parasites that are too big for any other
cell to phagocyte.
Basophil: They are responsible for alergic and antigen response by releasing histamin causing
the dilatation of blood vessels and it makes them more permeable so neutrophils and
clotting proteins can get into connective tissue more easily.
Lyphocytes:
 B-cells they make antibodies that can bind to pathogens, block their invasion and
activate complement system.
T-cells helper T-cells (CD4+) bind antigenic peptides presented on MHC ll on
antigen-presenting molecules. They make cytokines ond help coordinate immune
system
-cytotoxic T-cells (CD8+) bind antigens presented on MHC l and kill them
Natural killer cells they are able to kill cells of the body that do not display MHC l
molecules
Monocyte: They are phagocytes. They present pieces of pathogens to T-cell. They can leave
the bloodstream and become macrophages, which remove dead cell debris and attack
microorganisms.

27. Platelets are the fragments of cytoplasm that circulate in our blood. They are not real
cells because they don't have a nucleus. They bind together when they recognize damaged
blood vessels, causing a plot clot. First, platelets attach to substances outside the interrupted
endothelium. Second, they change shape, turn on receptors and secrete chemical messengers.
Third, they connect to each other through receptor bridges. Formation of this platelet plug
(primary hemostasis) is associated with activation of the coagulation cascade which creates
fibrin (second hemostasis).
They are produced from large cells megakaryocytes in bone marrow.
28. Blood plasma is a coloured liquid component of blood . It makes about 55% of the body's
total blood volume. It is mostly water (up to 95% by volume). It contains proteins (serum
albumins, globulins, and fibrinogen), glucose, clotting factors, electrolytes, hormones, carbon
dioxide and oxygen. It plays a vital role in an intravascular osmotic effect that keeps
electrolytes in balanced form and protects the body from infection and other blood disorders

29. plasmapheresis removal, treatment and return or exchange of blood plasma. Blood is
initially taken out of the body through a needle or the catheter. Plasma is then removed
from the blood by a cell separator. After separation, blood cells are returned to the patient,
while the plasma, which contains antibodies, is treated and then returned in the patient.
30. group A anti B antibodies in the plasma, A antigen in RBCs
Group B anti A antibodies in the plasma, B antigen in RBCs
Group AB no antibodies, A and B antigens in RBCs, universal acceptor
Group 0 anti A and anti B antibodies in the plasma, no antigens in RBCs, universal
donor
31. clotting or coagulation is the process by which blood changes from a liquid to a
gel, forming a blood clot. The mechanism of coagulation involves activation,
adhesion, and aggregation of platelets along with deposition and maturation of fibrin.
32. pathological blood conditions:

anemia Deficiency in erythrocytes or hemoglobin

Reduction of red cells due to excessive

hemolytic anemia
destruction

An inherited defect in the ability to

thalassemia produce hemoglobin, usually seen in
persons of Mediterranean background

Excessive bleeding caused by hereditary

lack of one of the protein substances
hemophilia
(either factor VIII or factor IV) necessary
for blood clotting

33. Haemophilia-is a mostly inherited genetic disorder that impairs the body's ability
to make blood clots, a process needed to stop bleeding. This results in people
bleeding longer after an injury, easy bruising, and an increased risk of bleeding inside
joints or the brain.
There are two main types of haemophilia: haemophilia A, which occurs due to not
enough clotting factor VIII, and haemophilia B, which occurs due to not enough
clotting factor IX. Haemophilia A affects about 1 in 5,00010,000, while haemophilia
B affects about 1 in 40,000, males at birth
34. Lymph is the fluid that circulates throughout the lymphatic system. The lymph is
formed when the interstitial fluid is collected through lymph capillaries. It is then
transported through larger lymphatic vessels to lymph nodes, where it is cleaned by
lymphocytes, before emptying ultimately into the right or the left subclavian vein,
where it mixes back with the blood. It is generally similar to blood plasma except that
it doesn't contain red blood cells. Lymph contains white blood cells. In particular, the
lymph that leaves a lymph node is richer in lymphocytes.
35. The lymphatic system is a linear network of lymphatic vessels and secondary
lymphoid organs. It is the site of many immune system functions as well as its own
functions:
1. It is responsible for the removal of interstitial fluid from tissues into lymph fluid,
which is filtered and brought back into the bloodstream
 2. It absorbs and transports fatty acids and fats as chylomicrons from the digestive
system

3. It transports white blood cells and dendritic cells to lymph nodes where adaptive
immune responses are often triggered.

36. Anatomy - Lymph vessels from the right chest and arm, right side of head and neck join
the right lymphatic duct. This duct empties at junction of right internal jugular and right
subclavian vein. Lymph from all other parts of the body joins the thoracic duct, which empties
at junction of left internal jugular and left subclavian vein.

37. Formation: Interstitial fluid forms at the arterial end of capillaries because of the higher
pressure of blood compared to veins, and most of it returns to its venous ends; the rest (up to
10%) enters the lymph capillaries as lymph. Lymph when formed is a watery clear liquid with
the same composition as the interstitial fluid. As it flows through the lymph nodes it comes in
contact with blood, and accumulates more cells (lymphocytes) and proteins.

The lymphatic systems main functions are:

Restoration of excess interstitial fluid and proteins to the blood

Absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins from the digestive system and transport of
these elements to the venous circulation
Defense against invading organisms
38.Spleen- it is an organ that acts primarily as a blood filter. It removes old red blood
cells and holds a reserve of blood, which can be valuable in case of hemorrhagic
shock, and also recycles iron. The spleen synthesizes antibodies in its white
pulp and removes antibody. It is located in the left upper quadrant of
the abdomen.

39.Thymus gland-The thymus is a specialized primary lymphoid organ of
the immune system. It is composed of two identical lobes and is located
anatomically in the anterior superior mediastinum, in front of the heart and
behind the sternum. It consists of medulla and cortex. The thymus is largest
and most active during the neonatal and pre-adolescent periods. Within the
thymus, T cells or T lymphocytes mature.

40.Immunity- Immunity is the balanced state of multicellular organisms having
adequate biological defenses to fight infection, disease, or other unwanted
biological invasion.
An immune system may contain innate and adaptive components.
Innate immunity, also called native immunity, exists without a previous
infection. It is divided into two types: (a) Non-Specific innate immunity, a
degree of resistance to all infections in general. (b) Specific innate immunity,
a resistance to a particular kind of microorganism only.
 Adaptive immunityis divided in natural and artificial. acquired immunity can be
further subdivided depending on whether the host built up immunity itself by
antigen as 'active immunity' and lasts long-term. 'Passive immunity' is acquired
through transfer (injection or infusion) of antibodies or activated T-cells from
an immune host; it is short lived. The diagram below summarizes these
divisions of immunity

41. Give examples of immunotherapy.

Immunotherapy is the treatment of disease by inducing, enhancing, or suppressing
an immune response.
We can divide immunotherapy in active, passive and hybrid.
Examples of active are :
Vaccination (use of weakened or dead pathogenes)
Cell therapy (adoptation of T-cells)
Adjuvans (material wich when combined with antigen boosts immune
response)
Passive immunotherapy example is monoclonal antibody transfer.
We sometimes need to supress immune system when dealing with allergies or during
an attempt to develop immune tolerance so the body does not reject transplated
organs.
42. What is immunodeficiency?
Immunodeficiency is a state in which the immune system's ability to fight infectious
disease and cancer is compromised or entirely absent.
It can be manifested as humoral immunodeficiency as the result of B cell deficiency
or dysfunction, asplenia as a lack of spleen or T cell deficiency as a result of AIDS,
lyphoma etc.
43. Give some examples of disorders of the lymphatic and immune systems
Examples of lymphatic disorders are : lymphoma (cancer)
lymphangitis (inflammation of lymph
vessels),
lymphedema (pooling of lymph fluid in
tissues)
lymphocytosis (high lymphocyte count)
Examples of immune system disorders are: AIDS (caused by HIV)
myasthenia gravis (own antibodies block
acetylcholine receptors in neuromuscular joints)
allergy (immune hypersensitivity)
44. Say something about antigens and atnibodies.
Antigens are foreing or own abnormal substances wich induce immune reaction in
our bodies. They can be parts of pathogens (virus, bacteria etc), parts of our tumour
cells or even normal parts of our body (autoimmune reactions). They contain epitope
(specific part) wich is recognised by our antibodies.
Antibodies are large Y shaped immunoglobulines produced by our plasma cells
(mature B cells of our adaptive system). They contain paratope in specific region
wich recognises antigens epitope. They are composed of 2 light and 2 heavy chains.
We can divide them in 5 classes, IgE, IgM, IgA, IgD and IgG.

45. Describe a cell structure

Cells consist of cytplasm enclosed with plasma membrane, nucleus wich is main and
central part of cell and it contains our genetic material, cytoskelet wich is used for
structure and vesicle transportation. Mitochondria are our energy generating
factories. Endoplasmic reticulum wich can be divided in rough and smooth. Rough
produces proteins in association with ribosomes. Smooth one keeps calcium and
takes part in lipid production. Golgi apparatus serves us for molecule packing.
Lysosomes and Peroxisomes are spheroid vesicles that contain enzymes used for
peroxidation and digestion of various molecules and cell parts.
46. Normal human body temperature is a narrow temperature range indicating optimal health
and thermoregulation. Individual body temperature depends on various factors, but despite
these factors, typical values are well established. For example, oral (under the tongue): about
37 C. Thermoregulation is the ability of an organism to keep its body temperature within
certain boundaries, even when the surrounding temperature is very different. Body heat is
generated mostly in the deep organs. There are four ways of heat loss: convection,
conduction, radiation, and evaporation. The core temperature of a human is regulated and
stabilized primarily by the hypothalamus.
47. The regulation of blood pressure depends on several mechanisms. Those are baroreceptor
reflex, renin-angiotensin system, aldosteron release and baroreceptors in low pressure zones
(e.g. vena cava, pulmonary veins and atria.
48. The sensors for the arterial blood gas regulator are situated in the aortic and carotid
bodies, which are primarily sensitive to the partial pressure of oxygen in the arterial blood,
and surfaces of the medulla oblongata in the brain stem which measures the partial pressure
of carbon dioxide and pH of the cerebrospinal fluid and consequently the arterial blood.
Information from these sensors is conveyed along nerves to the respiratory center in the brain
stem. From the respiratory center the skeletal muscles of ventilation, in particular the
diaphragm, are alternately activated to cause air to move in and out of the lungs.
49. Oedema is an abnormal accumulation of fluid in the interstitium, located beneath the skin
and in the cavities of the body, which can cause severe pain. Clinically, oedema manifests as
swelling. The amount of interstitial fluid is determined by the balance of fluid homeostasis;
and the increased secretion of fluid into the interstitium, or the impaired removal of the fluid,
can cause the condition.
50. High partial pressures of gases in deep sea can cause a lot of problems while diving. High
nitrogen concentrations are similar to alcohol intoxication while oxygen can cause oxidative
stress. The most dangerous consequence is decompression sickness which is caused by a quick
return to the surface after a long and deep diving, and its mainly caused by formation of
nitrogen bubbles in circulation.