Pagei

"Onceagain,AlfieKohndestroysauniversalmyththistimeconvincinglyexposingthedestructiveeffectsofusingrewardstocontrolchildrenandadults.Every
parent,teacher,andmanagershouldreadthisbookandhurry."
ThomasGordon,FounderofParentEffectivenessTraining(P.E.T.)

"Unorthodox,occasionallyutopian,revolutionaryinitsimplications,thiseyeopeningcritiqueofbehavioristrewardandpunishmentpsychologywillchallengeand
enlighten."
PublishersWeekly

"AlfieKohnopensanewworldofliving,helpingthereadertoclarifytheheavylossesfromrewardandtoreplacecostlypracticeswithbetterones."
W.EdwardsDeming,ManagementConsultant

"Aclearandcompellingchallengetosomeofourmostcherishedassumptionsaboutwhatmakespeopletick.PunishedbyRewardswillberelevanttomanagers,
teachers,andparentsandunnervingtothosewhorelyonthecarrotandstick."
RichardM.Ryan,ProfessorofPsychology,UniversityofRochester

"Kohn,arguingthat...[rewards]killpeople'sdesiretodotheirbest,...isabletobackuphiscriticismofourmotivationalpracticeswithsolid,exhaustiveevidence."
LosAngelesTimes

"Wonderfullyclear,provocative,andsatisfying.AlfieKohn'sgroundbreakingexplorationoftheharmfuleffectsofrewardsshouldbemandatoryreadingforevery
parentandteacher."
AdeleFaber,coauthor,HowtoTalkSoKidsWillListenandListenSoKidsWillTalk

 Pageii

ALSOBYALFIEKOHN

NoContest:TheCaseAgainstCompetition

TheBrighterSideofHumanNature:AltruismandEmpathyinEverydayLife

YouKnowWhatTheySay...:TheTruthAboutPopularBeliefs

BeyondDiscipline:FromCompliancetoCommunity

EDITOR:

Education,Inc.:TurningLearningintoaBusiness

WhattoLookForinaClassroom...andOtherEssays

TheSchoolsOurChildrenDeserve:MovingBeyondTraditionalClassroomsand"TougherStandards"

 Pageiii

PunishedbyRewards
TheTroublewithGoldStars,IncentivePlans,A's,Praise,andOtherBribes

AlfieKohn

WithanewAfterwordbytheAuthor

HOUGHTONMIFFLINCOMPANY
BostonNewYork

 Pageiv

Afterwordcopyright(c)1999byAlfieKohn
Copyright(c)1993byAlfieKohn

Allrightsreserved

Forinformationaboutpermissiontoreproduceselectionsfromthisbook,writetoPermissions,HoughtonMifflinCompany,215ParkAvenueSouth,NewYork,
NewYork10003.

LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData
Kohn,Alfie.Punishedbyrewards:thetroublewithgoldstars,incentive
plans,A's,praise,andotherbribes/AlfieKohn.
p.cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN06180018161.Reward(Psychology)2.Motivation(Psychology)
3.Behaviorism(Psychology)I.Title.
BF505.R48K651993
153.8'5dc209321897CIP

PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica

QUM10987654321

 Pagev

ToAlisa

 Pagevii

CONTENTS

Preface xi

PartOne
TheCaseagainstRewards

1 3
SkinnerBoxed:TheLegacyofBehaviorism

PigeonsandRodentsandDogs

BringintheReinforcements

BehindtheAppealofBehaviorism

2 19
IsitRighttoReward?

SavingRoomforJustDeserts

TreatingPeopleLikePets

3 35
IsitEffectivetoReward?

DoRewardsChangeBehavior?

DoRewardsImprovePerformance?

4 49
TheTroublewithCarrots:FourReasonsRewardsFail

I.RewardsPunish

II.RewardsRuptureRelationships

III.RewardsIgnoreReasons

IV.RewardsDiscourageRisktaking

5 68
CuttingtheInterestRate:TheFifthReasonRewardsFail

TheOldMan'sPlan

TheScopeoftheEffect

TheReasonfortheEffect

 Pageviii

"ButIfWeJust..."

MinimizingtheDamage

6 96
ThePraiseProblem

"GoodWork!"vs.GoodWork

HookedonPraise

EncouragingWords

TheFearofSpoiling

PartTwo
RewardsinPractice

7 119
PayforPerformance:WhyBehaviorismDoesn'tWorkintheWorkplace

IncentivesPrevail

IncentivesFail

WhyIncentivesFail

Money

TheFiveProblemswithRewards...atWork

8 142
LuresforLearning:WhyBehaviorismDoesn'tWorkintheClassroom

TheMotivationtoLearn

MakingStudentsLearn

TighterControl:TheCaseofSpecialEducation

"How'mIDoin'?"

9 160
BribesforBehaving:WhyBehaviorismDoesn'tHelpChildrenBecomeGood
People

ThePriceofObedience

PunishingChildren

TheConsequencesof"Consequences"

"AndIfYou'reGood..."

PartThree
BeyondRewards

Introduction 179

10 181
ThankGodIt'sMonday:TheRootsofMotivationintheWorkplace

StepOne:AbolishIncentives

 Pageix

StepTwo:ReevaluateEvaluation

StepThree:CreatetheConditionsforAuthenticMotivation

Collaboration

Content

Choice

11 198
HookedonLearning:TheRootsofMotivationintheClassroom

RemovetheRewards

NeedWeGrade?

TheStraightAStudent:ACautionaryTale

FromDegradingtoDeGrading

LearningasDiscovery

TheThreeC'sAgain

Collaboration:LearningTogether

Content:ThingsWorthKnowing

Choice:AutonomyintheClassroom

12 228
GoodKidsWithoutGoodies

BeyondControl

SolvingProblems:ReturnoftheThreeC's

CaringKids

TheRoleoftheSchools

TheChancetoChoose

DegreesofFreedom

BarrierstoChoice

FreedomfromRewards

Afterword 257

AppendixA:AConversationwithB.F.Skinner 279

AppendixB:WhatIsIntrinsicMotivation? 290

AppendixC:TheBehavioristsTalkBack 297

Notes 305

References 377

NameIndex 412

SubjectIndex 415

 Pagexi

PREFACE
IcameveryclosetofailingIntroductiontoPsychology.Thiswasataschool,youshouldunderstand,wherethewordpsychologymeant"theexperimentalstudyof
animalphysiologyandbehavior,"andtheonlythingwestudentswererequiredtodo,apartfromsittingthroughlectures,wastotraincagedratstopressalittlebar.
WereinforcedthemwithRiceKrispiesfordoingthis,andsincetheyhadbeenstarvedto80percentofnormalbodyweight,theywouldhavedonealmostanythingfor
alittlecereal.

Iwassuccessful,then,incarryingouttheassignment,butlesssuccessfulinfiguringoutthereasonIwasdoingit.Inarathersophomoricactofrebellion(whichwas
onlyappropriategiventhatIwasinmysecondyearofcollegeatthetime),Iturnedinalabreportwrittenfromtherat'spointofview.Thereportdescribedhow,
merelybypressingabar,ithadtrainedacollegestudenttoengageinbreakfastfeedingbehavior.*Theinstructorwasnotamused,andasIsay,Ibarelypassedthe
course.Butthatdidn'tstopmefromimmediatelywritingaparodyofapsychologyjournalarticlefortheschoolpaper.Ihadthearticle'sauthorclaiminga100percent
successrateinconditioninghisratstoavoidpressingLeverB(whichcausedathreehundredpoundanviltodropsuddenlyfromthetopofthecage),proudlynoting
thatnotasinglerathadtouchedthatlevermorethanonce.

Inretrospect,IthinkitcanfairlybesaidthatIdidnottakewelltobehaviorismwhenfirstintroducedtoit.Nordiditgrowonmeastheyearswentby.BythetimeI
hadmovedtoCambridge,homeofB.F.Skinner,IdecideditwastimetoaskhimsomeofthequestionsthatIhadfuriouslyscrawledinmycopiesofhisbooks.I
invitedhim
*OnlymuchlaterdidIlearnthatessentiallythesamejokehadappeareddecadesearlierintheformofacartoon(muchbelovedbybehavioristswithasenseofhumor)inthe
ColumbiaUniversitynewspaper.

 Pagexii

tocomespeaktoaclassIwasteachingand,tomysurprise,heagreedandevengamelysmiledfortheInstamaticsheldbyawedstudents.

AfewmonthslaterIhitontheideaofwritingaprofileofProfessorSkinnerforamagazine,whichgavemetheopportunitytointerviewhimtwicemore.Inthese
sessionshepatientlyansweredallmyquestions.Ifoundmyselfadmiringthefactthatwhilehisagehaddulledhiseyesightandhearing,ithadnotmutedhisevangelical
fervorforbehaviorism.(ExcerptsfromthoseinterviewsarereprintedinAppendixAofthisbook.)

EventuallyIrecoveredfrommypreoccupationwithSkinner'sideas,butthenonlytobecomeincreasinglyconcernedaboutthepopularversionofbehaviorism,
wherebywetrytosolveproblemsbyofferingpeopleagoodyiftheydowhatwewant.When,forexample,Ibegantodiscoverinmyresearchesanextensive
collectionofevidencedemonstratingthatcompetitionholdsusbackfromdoingourbestwork,itsoonbecameclearthatoneofthereasonsforitssurprisingfailureis
itsstatusasanextrinsicmotivatoraRiceKrispie,ifyouwill.Later,investigatingthequestionofaltruism,Ifoundstudiesshowingthatrewardingchildrenfortheir
generosityisaspectacularlyunsuccessfulwayofpromotingthatquality.

Graduallyitbegantodawnonmethatoursocietyiscaughtinawhoppingparadox.Wecomplainloudlyaboutsuchthingsasthesaggingproductivityofour
workplaces,thecrisisofourschools,andthewarpedvaluesofourchildren.Buttheverystrategyweusetosolvethoseproblemsdanglingrewardslikeincentive
plansandgradesandcandybarsinfrontofpeopleispartlyresponsibleforthefixwe'rein.WeareasocietyofloyalSkinnerians,unabletothinkourwayoutofthe
boxwehavereinforcedourselvesinto.

Iheadedbacktothelibrariesandfoundscoresofstudiesdocumentingthefailureofpopbehaviorism,studieswhoseexistenceremainsunknowntoallbutafewsocial
psychologists.Nowondertherehadneverbeenabookwrittenforageneralaudiencethatshowedhowrewardsundermineoureffortstoteachstudentsormanage
workersorraisechildrenmuchlessabroadercritiquethatlookedatallthreearenas.ThisiswhatIsetouttowrite,wellawarethatsuchachallengeto
conventionalthinkingwouldbeevenmoreunsettlingthanalabreportwrittenfromtherat'sperspective.

Ofthisbook'stwelvechapters,thefirstsixlayoutthecentralargument.Chapter1brieflyreviewsthebehavioristtradition,theprevalenceofpopbehaviorisminour
society,andsomereasonsforits

 Pagexiii

widespreadacceptance.Chapter2weighsargumentsabouttheintrinsicdesirabilityofrewardingpeople,firstchallengingtheclaimthatdoingsoismorallyorlogically
required,andthenproposingthatthereisactuallysomethingobjectionableaboutthepractice.

Chapter3movesfromphilosophicalargumentstopracticalconsequences,summarizingtheresearchevidenceshowingthatrewardssimplydonotworktopromote
lastingbehaviorchangeortoenhanceperformanceinfact,theyoftenmakethingsworse.Then,inchapters4and5,Iexplainwhythisistrue,offeringfivekeyreasons
forthefailureofrewards,allofwhichamounttoseriouscriticismsofthepracticeapartfromtheireffectsonperformance.Chapter6examinesoneparticularreward
thatfewofuswouldeverthinktocriticize:praise.

Thesecondhalfofthebookexaminestheeffectofrewards,andalternativestothem,withrespecttothethreeissuesI'vementioned:employees'performance,
students'learning,andchildren'sbehavior.Thispartofthebookisarrangedsothatreadersprimarilyinterestedinonlyoneofthesetopicswon'thavetowadethrough
discussionsoftheothertwo.Workplaceissuesarediscussedinchapters7and10,educationalissuesinchapters8and11,andthequestionofchildren'sbehaviorand
values(whichisrelevanttoteachersaswellasparents)inchapters9and12.Seriousreaderswillfindthattheendnotesprovidenotonlycitationsforthestudiesand
quotationsbutadditionalthoughts,qualifications,anddiscussionoftheissuesraisedinthetext.

Becausethisprojectisbothambitiousandcontroversial,theonlysensiblethingtodoatthispointistrytoplacesomeoftheblameformyconclusionsonthepeople
whohelpedme.Iwasfirstintroducedtoresearchonthedetrimentaleffectsofrewards(particularlywithrespecttocreativity)byTeresaAmabile.Myviewsonraising
andteachingchildrenhavebeenmightilyinfluencedbythewisdomofEricSchapsandMarilynWatson.IcontinuetotakeadvantageofeverychanceIgettoexchange
ideaswiththesethreepeople,allofwhomIconsiderfriends.

Ihavealsospenthoursbadgeringanumberofotherwritersandresearchers,pickingtheirbrains,challengingtheirideasandinvitingthemtoreciprocate.Forsome
reasontheyagreedtothis,eventhoughmostofthemdidn'tknowme.I'mverygratefultoRichRyan,BarrySchwartz,JohnNicholls,EdDeci,MarkLepper,Carole
Ames,andthelateB.F.Skinner(who,ofcourse,wouldhavebeenappalledby

 Pagexiv

theresult).FriendswhohavepressedmetothinkharderabouttheseissuesovertheyearsincludeLisaLahey,FredHapgood,SarahWernick,andAlisaHarrigan.

Anentirelydifferentcommitmentoftimeandenergywasinvolvedinreadingandcriticizingdraftsofmychapters.HereprofusethanksareduetoEricSchaps,Teresa
Amabile,AlisaHarrigan,PhilKorman,JohnNicholls,CaroleAmes,EdDeci,andmostofall,tothreepeoplewhotookthetimetoreadvirtuallytheentiremanuscript,
offeringoneincisivecommentafteranother:BarrySchwartz,RichRyan,andBillGreene.Bill,whohasdonethisformefourtimesnow,haslongsincegonebeyond
thecallofdutyorfriendship.Actually,yououghttobethankinghimsincehehassparedyoufromhavingtoreadmyfirstdrafts.

Finally,letmeacknowledgetheassistanceandsupportprovidedbyRuthHapgoodandBetsyLerner,myeditors,andJohnWare,myagent,aswellasallthepeople
who,havingheardmespeakaboutrewards,askedhardquestionsthatforcedmetorethinkmycritique,refinemypresentation,andreconsidertheevidence.They've
donemeagreatservicebychallengingsomeofmyassumptions.IhopeIcanreturnthefavor.

 Page1

PARTONE
THECASEAGAINSTREWARDS

 Page3

1
SkinnerBoxed:TheLegacyofBehaviorism
Fortheanthropomorphicviewoftherat,Americanpsychologysubstitutedarattomorphicviewofman.
ArthurKoestler,TheActofCreation

Thereisatimetoadmirethegraceandpersuasivepowerofaninfluentialidea,andthereisatimetofearitsholdoverus.Thetimetoworryiswhentheideaisso
widelysharedthatwenolongerevennoticeit,whenitissodeeplyrootedthatitfeelstouslikeplaincommonsense.Atthepointwhenobjectionsarenotanswered
anymorebecausetheyarenolongerevenraised,wearenotincontrol:wedonothavetheideaithasus.

Thisbookisaboutanideathathasattainedjustsuchastatusinoursociety.Theideaisthatthebestwaytogetsomethingdoneistoprovidearewardtopeoplewhen
theyactthewaywewantthemto.Scholarshavedebatedthemeaningandtracedthedevelopmentoftheintellectualtraditionknownasbehaviorism.Whatinterests
me,though,isthepopular(orpop)incarnationofthisdoctrine,theversionthatlivesinourcollectiveconsciousnessandaffectswhatwedoeveryday.

Thecoreofpopbehaviorismis''Dothisandyou'llgetthat.''Thewisdomofthistechniqueisveryrarelyheldupforinspectionallthatisopentoquestioniswhat
exactlypeoplewillreceiveandunderwhatcircumstancesitwillbepromisedanddelivered.Wetakeforgrantedthatthisisthelogicalwaytoraisechildren,teach
students,andmanageemployees.Wepromisebubblegumtoafiveyearoldifhekeepsquietinthesupermarket.WedangleanAbeforeateenagertogetherto
studyharder.WeholdoutthepossibilityofaHawaiianvacationforasalesmanwhosellsenoughofthecompany'sproduct.

Itwillnottakemorethanafewparagraphstomakethecasethatwearedeeplycommittedtothiswayofthinkingandbehaving.But

 Page4

myaimisconsiderablymoreambitious.Iwanttoarguethatthereissomethingprofoundlywrongheadedaboutthisdoctrinethatitsassumptionsaremisleadingand
thepracticesitgeneratesarebothintrinsicallyobjectionableandcounterproductive.Thislastcontentioninparticular,thatfromapurelypragmaticpointofviewpop
behaviorismusuallyfailstoproducetheconsequencesweintended,takesupmostofthepagesthatfollow.

Tooffersuchanindictmentisnottosuggestthatthereissomethingwrongwithmostofthethingsthatareusedasrewards.Itisnotbubblegumitselfthatisthe
problem,normoney,norloveandattention.Therewardsthemselvesareinsomecasesinnocuousandinothercasesindispensable.Whatconcernsmeisthepractice
ofusingthesethingsasrewards.Totakewhatpeoplewantorneedandofferitonacontingentbasisinordertocontrolhowtheyactthisiswherethetroublelies.
Ourattentionisproperlyfocused,inotherwords,noton"that"(thethingdesired)butontherequirementthatonemustdothisinordertogetthat.

Mypremisehereisthatrewardingpeoplefortheircomplianceisnot"thewaytheworldworks,"asmanyinsist.Itisnotafundamentallawofhumannature.Itisbut
onewayofthinkingandspeaking,oforganizingourexperienceanddealingwithothers.Itmayseemnaturaltous,butitactuallyreflectsaparticularideologythatcan
bequestioned.Ibelievethatitislongpasttimeforustodoso.Thesteeppricewepayforouruncriticalallegiancetotheuseofrewardsiswhatmakesthisstorynot
onlyintriguingbutalsodeeplydisconcerting.

PigeonsandRodentsandDogs

Rewardswereinuselongbeforeatheorywasdevisedtoexplainandsystematizetheirpractice.JohnB.Watsonsuggestedthatbehaviorism,ofwhichheisknownas
thefather,beganwithaseriesoflectureshegaveatColumbiaUniversityin1912.Butasummarystatementverysimilarto"Dothisandyou'llgetthat"thesocalled
LawofEffect,whichstatesthatbehaviorleadingtoapositiveconsequencewillberepeatedwassetoutbypsychologistEdwardThorndikebackin1898.1
What'smore,

OneyearbeforeWatson'slectures,FrederickW.Taylorpublishedhisfamousbook,ThePrinciplesofScientificManagement,whichdescribedhowtasksata
factoryshouldbebrokenintoparts,eachassignedtoaworkeraccordingtoapreciseplan,withfinancialrewardsmetedouttoencouragemaximumefficiencyin
production.2

 Page5

Afullcenturyearlier,asystemdevelopedinEnglandformanagingthebehaviorofschoolchildrenassignedsomestudentstomonitorothersanddistributedtickets
(redeemablefortoys)tothosewhodidwhattheyweresupposedtodo.*

Foraslongasanimalshavebeendomesticated,peoplehavebeenusingrudimentaryincentiveplanstotraintheirpets.

Inshort,popbehaviorismmightbesaidtopredateandunderliebehaviorismproper,ratherthantheotherwayaround.Butafewwordsaboutthemoreacademic
version,andtheremarkablebeliefsofitsfounders,willhelpusunderstandjustwhatisinvolvedwhenrewardsareofferedineverydaylife.3

Survivorsofintroductorypsychologycourseswillrecallthattherearetwomajorvarietiesoflearningtheory:classicalconditioning(identifiedwithPavlov'sdogs)and
operant,orinstrumental,conditioning(identifiedwithSkinner'srats).Classicalconditioningbeginswiththeobservationthatsomethingsproducenaturalresponses:
Roversalivateswhenhesmellsmeat.Bypairinganartificialstimuluswiththenaturalonesay,ringingabellwhenthesteakappearsRovercomestoassociate
thetwo.Voilaresponsehasbeenconditioned:thebellaloneisnowsufficienttoelicitdogdrool.**

Operantconditioning,bycontrast,isconcernedwithhowanactionmaybecontrolledbyastimulusthatcomesafteritratherthanbeforeit.WhenarewardSkinner
preferredtheterm"reinforcement"4 followsabehavior,thatbehaviorislikelytoberepeated.Agooddealofresearchhasrefinedandembellishedthis
straightforwardprinciple,focusingonsuchissuesashowtotimetheserewardsforbesteffect.ButSkinneriantheorybasicallycodifiesandbestowssolemnscientific
namesonsomethingfamiliartoallofus:"Dothisandyou'llgetthat"willleadanorganismtodo"this"again.

Virtuallyeveryonewhohasthoughtaboutthematteragreesthatbothoftheseprinciplesareusefulfordescribinghowsomelearningtakesplace.Thereisnoshortage
offamiliarexamplestofleshouttheconcepts.Anyonewhohaseverheardatoiletflushwhiletakingashowerandimmediatelyjumpedbackwardprovidesaliving
illustra
*Thisplan,similartowhatwouldlaterbecalleda"tokeneconomy"programofbehaviormodification,wasadoptedbythefirstpublicschoolinNewYorkCityintheearlyyearsof
thenineteenthcentury.Itwaseventuallyabandonedbecause,intheviewoftheschool'strustees,theuseofrewards"fosteredamercenaryspirit"and"engenderedstrifesand
jealousies.".3
**Actually,Pavlovdidnotsetouttoinvestigatelawsofbehavior.Hewasstudyingthephysiologyofdigestionwhenhenoticed,atfirsttohisannoyance,thatthedoginhis
laboratorywasdroolingbeforebeingabletosmellanymeat.

 Page6

tionofhowonestimulus(aflushingsound)cancometobeassociatedwithanother(scaldingwater).Anyonewhohaseverwatchedachildsettledowninahurry
whenpromisedatreatfordoingsoknowsthatrewardscanaffectbehavior.

Thisbookismoreconcernedwiththesecondsortoflearning,operantconditioning.Tobeginwith,though,itfocusesonasetofbeliefsaboutthisphenomenonand,by
implication,abouthumanbeings.Skinneriansarenotonlyinterestedinfiguringouthowrewardsworktheyareapttoarguethatvirtuallyeverythingwedoindeed,
whowearecanbeexplainedintermsoftheprincipleofreinforcement.Thisistheessenceofbehaviorism,anditisthepointofdepartureforourinvestigation.

B.F.Skinnercouldbedescribedasamanwhoconductedmostofhisexperimentsonrodentsandpigeonsandwrotemostofhisbooksaboutpeople.Thisfactdid
notgivehimpause,becausepeopletohimweredifferentfromotherspeciesonlyinthedegreeoftheirsophistication.Asabehavioristseesit,youaremorecomplex
thanapigeon(inlargepartbecauseyouhavevocalcords),butthetheoryoflearningthatexplainshowabirdtrappedinalaboratoryapparatuscalledaSkinnerbox
comestopeckrepeatedlyatadiskalsosufficestoexplainhowyouandIcometounderstandsymbolism."Manisananimaldifferentfromotheranimalsonlyinthe
typesofbehaviorhedisplays,"WatsonannouncedontheveryfirstpageofBehaviorism,5 thebookthatconvincedSkinnertobecomeapsychologist.Thusitisthat
behavioristsspeaksweepinglyofhow"organisms"learn.

Formostofus,theexistenceofuniquelyhumancapacitieswouldraiseseriousquestionsaboutthistheory.ButBurrhusFredericSkinner,whodiedin1990attheage
ofeightysix,wasnotmostpeople.Oneofthefirstthingsyourealizewhenreadinghisbooksisthatitishardtoofferanunfaircaricatureoftheman'sviews.Itisalso
difficulttousethetechniqueofreductioadabsurduminchallengingthem.Criticshaveexclaimed,"Butifthat'strue,thenhere'sthe[obviouslyludicrous]conclusionthat
follows."Andinsteadofbackpedalingandbecomingflustered,Skinnerwouldnodandcheerfullysay,"Rightyouare."Forexample,heinsistedthatorganisms
(includingus,remember)arenothingmorethan"repertoiresofbehaviors,"andthesebehaviorscanbefullyexplainedbyoutsideforceshecalled"environmental
contingencies.''"Apersonisnotanoriginatingagentheisalocus,apointatwhichmanygeneticandenvironmentalconditionscometogetherinajointeffect."6 But
thiswouldseemtoimplythat

 Page7

thereisno"self"asweusuallyusetheterm,woulditnot?Yesindeed,repliedSkinner.

ButsurelyFredSkinnerthemannotthescientist,butthefellowwhoatehisbreakfastandtoldagoodjokeandbecamelonelysometimessurelyhewasaself.
Amazingly,poignantly,hesaidno.IntheepiloguetoSkinner'smemoirsweread:
Iamsometimesasked,"Doyouthinkofyourselfasyouthinkoftheorganismsyoustudy?"Theanswerisyes.SofarasIknow,mybehavioratanygivenmomenthasbeen
nothingmorethantheproductofmygeneticendowment,mypersonalhistory,andthecurrentsetting....IfIamrightabouthumanbehavior,Ihavewrittentheautobiographyof
anonperson.7

Sureenough,overthecourseoffourhundredpages,thebookgivestheimpressionthatsomeoneelseistellingthestorysomeonewhodoesn'tcaremuchabout
him,infact.(Hismother'sdeathisrelatedwithoutfeeling,andtheprocessofraisinghistwodaughtersisdescribedasifitwereoneofFrederickTaylor'sefficiency
studies.)Thisuncannydetachmentpermeatedhislife."WhenIfinishedBeyondFreedomandDignity,"Skinneroncesaid,"IhadaverystrangefeelingthatIhadn't
evenwrittenthebook....[It]justnaturallycameoutofmybehaviorandnotbecauseofanythingcalleda'me'oran'I'inside."*

Oncetheselfhasbeendispatched,itrequiresonlyaminormoppingupoperationtofinishoffthefeaturesofbeinghumanthatwetreasure,suchascreativity,love,
morality,andfreedom.Talking,afterall,isonly"verbalbehavior,"andthinkingisonlysilenttalking.8 Soitisnotmuchofareachtoreducecreativitytoaseriesof
novelbehaviorsselectedbytheenvironment."Beethoven,"Skinnersaid(orverballybehaved),
wassomeonewho,whenhewasveryyoung,acquiredalltheavailablemusicatthetime,andthen,becauseofthingsthathappenedtohimpersonallyasaccidentsandvariations,
heintroducednewthingswhichpaidoffbeautifully.Sohewentondoingthem,andhewrotebecausehewashighlyreinforcedforwriting....

*ThiscommentandotherunattributedquotationsthatfollowaretakenfromaseriesofinterviewsIconductedwithSkinnerin1983and1984.Excerptsfromthoseinterviewsare
containedinAppendixA.

 Page8

Andlove?Braceyourself.Whentwopeoplemeet,
oneofthemisnicetotheotherandthatpredisposestheothertobenicetohim,andthatmakeshimevenmorelikelytobenice.Itgoesbackandforth,anditmayreachthepoint
atwhichtheyareveryhighlydisposedtodonicethingstotheotherandnottohurt.AndIsupposethatiswhatwouldbecalled"beinginlove."9

Morality,forSkinnerandotherbehaviorists,hasbeenreducedtothequestionofwhethersocietydeemsanactionappropriateorinappropriate,adaptiveor
maladaptiveitisneverinherentlyrightorwrong.
Tomakeavaluejudgmentbycallingsomethinggoodorbadistoclassifyitintermsofitsreinforcingeffects....Theonlygoodthingsarepositivereinforcers,andtheonlybad
thingsarenegativereinforcers...."Youshould(yououghtto)tellthetruth"...wemighttranslate...asfollows:"Ifyouarereinforcedbytheapprovalofyourfellowmen,you
willbereinforcedwhenyoutellthetruth."10

Philosophersdistinguishbetweenthisnonmoraluseofthewordgood(asin"It'sgoodtotakeoutthetrashbeforethebaggetstoofull")andamoraluse("It'sgoodto
tellthetruth").Skinnereliminatedthelatteraltogether,collapsingitintotheformer.

Hisviewoffreedom,meanwhile,isbetterknownsincethisisoneofthetwoconceptsbehaviorismhelpsustomovebeyond,accordingtothetitleofhisbestselling
bookpublishedin1971.Someyearsago,SkinneracceptedmyinvitationtogiveaguestlectureataclassItaught.Attheconclusionofhisremarks,Icouldn'tresista
bitofflippanthumor."Wecertainlywanttothanktheenvironmentalcontingenciesresponsibleforyourbeingherethisafternoon,"Isaid.Hedidn'tlaugh.Smiling
courteously,hereplied,"I'mverygladtheyoccurred."

Skinnerbelievedthathehad"chosen"tovisitmyclassandthatallofus"choose"ouractionsaboutasmuchasarockinanavalanchechooseswheretoland.
Butthen,thenotionthataselffreelydecidesisnotlikelytomakemuchsensetoamanwhohasrepudiatedtheveryideaofaselfinthefirstplace.Iftherestofus
presumptuouslypersistintalkingabout"intending"todosomething,itiseitherbecausewederivecomfortfromthinkingofourselvesasbeingincontrolorbecausewe
areignorant,individuallyandcollectively,oftheforcesthatactuallydetermineourbehavior.Freedom'sjustanotherwordforsomethinglefttolearn:itisthewaywe
refertotheeverdiminishingsetofphenomenaforwhichsciencehasyettospecifythecauses.11

 Page9

Andnowwehavethekeytounderstandingtheessenceofbehaviorism:itproceedsfromaboundlessfaithinscienceandspecifically,anarrowlydefinedversionof
sciencethatnevercaughtupwithmodernphysicstotelluseverythingweneedtoknow.Thisisdescribedbysomephilosophersas"scientism,"bywhichismeant
theassumptionthatalltrueknowledgeisscientificknowledge.Humanbeingsaretobeanalyzedinpreciselythesamewayaswewouldanalyze"achemicalcompound
orthewayaplantgrows,"saidWatson.Iftherearepartsofourhumanitybeyondthegraspofscience,somuchtheworseforthoseparts.Anythingthatisnot
observable,testable,andquantifiableeitherisnotworthourtimeordoesnotreallyexist.PsychologistswhotalkaboutconsciousnessputWatsoninmindof"the
ancientdaysofsuperstitionandmagic."12Ifanything,Skinnerwasevenmoreemphaticinarticulatingtheseideas.

Theconsequenceofpatterningpsychologyafterthenaturalsciencesispredictable:psychology'ssubjectmatter(us)isreducedtothestatusofthesubjectmatterof
physicsandchemistry(things).Whenwetrytoexplainthings,weappealtocauses.Whenmostofustrytoaccountforhumanbehavior,though,wetalkabout
reasonsaconsciousdecision,ratherthananautomaticresponsetosomeoutsideforce,usuallyplaysarole.ButforSkinner,ouractions,too,canbecompletely
describedintermsofcauses.Freedomisjustanillusion.Remember,thereisno"self"tobefree:whatweareisnothingotherthanwhatwedo.Thisisthebeliefthat
givesbehaviorismitsname.

Itisnotonlyacademicbehavioristswhobelievethatonlymeasurablebehaviorisreal.Afewyearsago,agroupofbusinessmenacceptedaresearcher'sofferofafree
mealinexchangefortheircommentsonhernewpsychologicalquestionnaire.Oneofthemen,onhisthirdcigarettebeforedinner,wasscornfulofaquestionthat
referredtoa"feelingoftrust"intheworkplace.Hesaidhedidn'tunderstandwhatthewordtrustmeant,apartfromitsmostliteraldenotation:"I'trust'thatyouare
writingdownwhatI'msayingrightnow."Laterhespokeuptoobjecttoanotheritem,thisoneaskingwhether"failureisacceptableifagoodefforthasbeenmade."
This,hedeclared,wasacontradictionintermsallthatmattersismeasurableoutcome,andifthatisjudgedafailure,theeffortbydefinitionwasnotgoodenough.In
fact,ifitcan'tbequantified,it'snotreal.13

ThisviewreflectsathoroughlyAmericansensibility.Itisnoaccidentthatbehaviorismisthiscountry'smajorcontributiontothefieldofpsychology,orthattheonly
philosophicalmovementnativetotheUnitedStatesispragmatism.Weareanationthatprefersactingtothinking,andpracticetotheorywearesuspiciousof
intellectuals,

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worshipfuloftechnology,andfixatedonthebottomline.Wedefineourselvesbynumberstakehomepayandcholesterolcounts,percentiles(howmuchdoesyour
babyweigh?)andstandardizedtestscores(howmuchdoesyourchildknow?).Bycontrast,weareuneasywithintangiblesandunscientificabstractionssuchasa
senseofwellbeingoranintrinsicmotivationtolearn.

Athoroughcriticismofscientismwouldtakeustoofarafield.Butitisimportanttounderstandthatpracticedoesrestontheory,whetherornotthattheoryhasbeen
explicitlyidentified.Theoverwhelmingmajorityofteachers,accordingtoonesurvey,areunabletonameordescribeatheoryoflearningthatunderlieswhattheydoin
theclassroom,14butwhattheydowhatanyofusdoesisnolessinformedbytheoreticalassumptionsjustbecausetheseassumptionsareinvisible.Behindthe
practiceofpresentingacolorfuldinosaurstickertoafirstgraderwhostayssilentoncommandisatheorythatembodiesdistinctassumptionsaboutthenatureof
knowledge,thepossibilityofchoice,andwhatitmeanstobeahumanbeing.Ifthepremisesofbehaviorismtroubleusoncetheyhavebeenlaidbare,perhapsthatis
aninvitationtoquestionthespecificpracticesthatrestonthosepremises.

IsitunfairtoindictallofbehaviorismonthebasisofwhatWatsonandSkinnerhadtosay?Yesandno.Itistruethattheyweremoreextremethansubsequent
researchersandtherapistsoncertainissues,suchasthestatusofaninnerlife.Feelings,attitudes,andintentionsweresuspecttothemuselessforexplaininganything
peopledo,completelydeterminedbyexternalfactors,largelyirrelevanttotheirversionofpsychology.Inmanyintellectualmovements,thepioneersare
unreconstructedandimmoderateitislefttothenextgenerationtotemperandqualifyandblendinwhatisusefulfromothertheories.Tosomeextent,behaviorismdid
moveonwhileSkinnerstoodstill.Longbeforehisdeath,hewasspinninginhishousefromwhatwasbeingofferedunderthenameofbehaviortherapy.(Inhislast
paper,completedthenightbeforehedied,Skinnerreiteratedthat"thereisnoplaceinascientificanalysisofbehaviorforamindorself.")15

ButifmorerestrainedandlessquotablebehavioristshavetrimmedofftheroughedgesofSkinnerianpsychology,theyarecarryingonatraditionthatisfundamentally
consistentwithwhatIhavebeendescribing,atleastwithrespecttotheissuesthatmattermost.Theymayhavefastenedonthefindingthatwealsolearnfromwatching
otherpeoplereceiverewards,orthatattitudesaswellasbehaviorscanbereinforced,butthesearenotdecisivedeparturesfromSkinnerwithregardtowhatconcerns
ushere.

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Moreimportant,wecandepartfromSkinneratthispointandbegintoaddressourselvestocontemporarypayforperformanceplansintheworkplaceorthe
techniqueofpastingagoldstaronacharteachtimeachildcomplieswithherparents'demands.Torepeat,thisbookisintendedasacritiqueofthesesortsof
practices,ofpopbehaviorismratherthanofSkinner,sowhetherthevisionofaseamlesslycontrolledutopialikeWaldenTwochillsyouisbesidethepoint.Thereis
reasonenoughtobeconcernedoncewereflectseriouslyontheimplicationsof"Dothisandyou'llgetthat."

BringIntheReinforcements

Somesocialcriticshaveahabitofoverstatingthepopularityofwhateverbelieforpracticetheyarekeentocriticize,perhapsfordramaticeffect.Thereislittledanger
ofdoingthatherebecauseitishardtoimaginehowonecouldexaggeratetheextentofoursaturationinpopbehaviorism.Regardlessofpoliticalpersuasionorsocial
class,whetheraFortune500CEOorapreschoolteacher,weareimmersedinthisdoctrineitisasAmericanasrewardingsomeonewithapplepie.

Toinducestudentstolearn,wepresentstickers,stars,certificates,awards,trophies,membershipinelitesocieties,andaboveall,grades.Ifthegradesaregood
enough,someparentsthenhandoutbicyclesorcarsorcash,therebyofferingwhatare,ineffect,rewardsforrewards.Educatorsareremarkablyimaginativein
inventingnew,improvedversionsofthesamebasicidea.AtonehighschoolinGeorgia,forexample,studentsweregivengoldIDcardsiftheyhadanAaverage,
silvercardsforaBaverage,andplainwhitecardsiftheydidn'tmeasureupuntilobjectionswereraisedtowhatwaswidelyviewedasacastesystem.16This
objectionhasnotdeterredanumberofschoolsacrossthecountryfromusingaprogramthatnotonlyissuescolorcodedIDcardsbutalsogetslocalmerchantsto
offerdiscountstostudentsonthebasisoftheirgradepointaverage.17

Afewyearsago,someexecutiveatthePizzaHutrestaurantchaindecidedletusassumeforentirelyaltruisticreasonsthatthecompanyshouldsponsora
programtoencouragechildrentoreadmore.Thestrategyforreachingthisgoal:bribery.Foreverysomanybooksthatachildreadsinthe"BookIt!"program,the
teacherpresentsacertificateredeemableforfreepizza.Thisprogramandotherslikeitarestillinoperationalloverthecountry.

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Butwhystopwithediblerewards?RepresentativeNewtGingrichcongratulatedWestGeorgiaCollegeforpayingthirdgraderstwodollarsforeachbooktheyread.
"Adultsaremotivatedbymoneywhynotkids?"heremarked,apparentlymanagingtoovercomethepurportedconservativeaversiontothrowingmoneyat
problems.18Noristheuseofrewardsconfinedtoaparticularideology.ProposalstorescueAmericaneducation,offeredbypublicofficialsandcorporatechieftains
(thelatterhavingbeenpermittedauniquelyprivilegedroleinthisdiscussion),areuniformlybehavioristic,regardlessofwhethertheycomefromliberalDemocratsor
conservativeRepublicans.Politiciansmayquibbleoverhowmuchmoneytospend,orwhethertoallowpublicfundstofollowstudentstoprivateschools,butvirtually
noonechallengesthefundamentalcarrotandstickapproachtomotivation:promiseeducatorspayraisesforsuccessorthreatentheirjobsecurityforfailure
typicallyonthebasisoftheirstudents'standardizedtestscoresanditisassumedthateducationalexcellencewillfollow.

Toinducechildrento"behave"(thatis,dowhatwewant),werelyonpreciselythesametheoryofmotivationtheonlyoneweknowbyhaulingoutanotherbag
ofgoodies.Athome,weofferextratimeinfrontofthetelevisionoraspecialdessertormoneywhenchildrencomplywithourrequests.Atschool,teacherspromise
extrarecessorspecialpartiesforobedientclasses.InanIndianaelementaryschool,childrendemonstratingexemplarydocilityinthecafeteriaarerewardedwitha
fancydressupmeal.19InaTexasjuniorhighschool,"excellentbehavior"(definedas"any...actthattheteacherdeemsappropriate")earnsa"GoodasGold''card
thatentitlestheholdertomoviepasses,Tshirts,orotherprizes.20

Theseexamplescanbemultipliedbythethousands,andtheyarenotrestrictedtochildren.Anytimewewishtoencourageordiscouragecertainbehaviorsgetting
peopletoloseweightorquitsmoking,forinstancethemethodofchoiceisbehavioralmanipulation.Thus,whenseveralPlannedParenthoodchapterswantedtoget
seriousaboutteenagepregnancy,theynaturallyreachedforthereinforcements,inthiscasebypayingyoungmothersadollarforeverydaytheyavoidedgetting
pregnantagain."TheFederalGovernmentpaysfarmersnottoplantcrops,"reasonedthepsychologistwhocameupwiththeidea."Whyshouldn'twepayteenagers
nottohavebabies?"21

Americanworkplaces,meanwhile,areenormousSkinnerboxeswithparkinglots.Fromthefactoryworkerlaboringforpieceworkpaytotopexecutivesproddedby
promisesofstockoptions,fromspecialprivilegesaccordedtoEmployeesoftheMonthtosalespeople

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workingoncommission,therecipealwayscallsforbehaviorisminfullstrengthconcentrate.Dependingonthesizeandtypeoftheorganizationssurveyedandtheway
thequestionisframed,recentestimatesofthenumberofU.S.companiesusingsomeformofincentiveormeritpayplanrangefrom75to94percent,andmanyof
theseprogramsapparentlyhavejustbeenadoptedduringthelastfewyears.22Thelivelihoodofaveritableherdofconsultantsisbasedondevisingfreshformulasfor
computingbonusesordreamingupnewmoneysubstitutestodangleinfrontofemployees:vacations,banquets,specialparkingspaces,cuteplaquesthelistof
variationsonasingle,simplemodelofmotivationislimitless.Topagethroughbusinessbookstodayistoencounterrepeatedassertionssuchasthisone:''Whatgets
measured,getsproduced.Whatgetsrewarded,getsproducedagain."23Magazinesandjournalsoffermoreofthesame.Onearticle,entitled"IfEmployeesPerform,
ThenReward'Em,"declaresflatly,"Themoremoneyyouoffersomeone,theharderheorshewillwork.''24

Nosurveyofthepervasivenessofpopbehaviorismwouldbecompletewithoutmentionoftheonepracticethatiscommontoallarenas(school,work,andhome)and
usedforallconceivableobjectives(enhancinglearning,improvingproductivity,andchangingpeople'sattitudesorbehavior).Iamspeakingofpraise,whichSkinner
called"thegreatesttoolinbehaviormodification."Booksandseminarsonparentingandclassroommanagementurgeadultstocatchchildrendoingsomethingrightand
praisethemforitonearticleremindedmothersthat"nomatterhowmuch[praise]yougive,youcanalwaysgivemore"25andcorporatemanagersareoffered
similaradvice.Evenpeoplewhohaveconcernsaboutpilingontangiblerewardsshownohesitationabouttheindiscriminateuseofverbalrewards,whichare,of
course,anothermanifestationofthesameprinciple.Approvalorpleasureisoftennotmerelyexpressedbutdoledoutdeliberately,conditionally,aspartofacalculated
strategytoshapeothers'behavior.(Iwillhavemoretosayaboutthedistinctionbetweenusefulpositivefeedbackandpraiseasaninstrumentofmanipulationin
chapter6.)

BehindtheAppealofBehaviorism

Likemostthingsthatweandthepeoplearoundusdoconstantly,theuseofrewardshascometoseemsonaturalandinevitablethatmerely

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toposethequestion,Whyarewedoingthis?canstrikeusasperplexingandalso,perhaps,alittleunsettling.Ongeneralprinciple,itisagoodideatochallenge
ourselvesinthiswayaboutanythingwehavecometotakeforgrantedthemorehabitual,themorevaluablethislineofinquiry.

Itisnotbyaccidentthatpopbehaviorismhascometosuffuseourlives.Thereareidentifiablereasonstoaccountforitspopularity,beginningwiththebeliefsystems
alreadyinplacewhichitcomplements.OneoftheseImentionedearlier:ourpragmatism,andspecificallyourtendencytofavorpracticaltechniquesforgettingthejob
doneasopposedtogettingboggeddownwiththeoriesandreasons.Anationofbusypioneersandentrepreneurshasnotimeforfiguringoutthesourceofaproblem
muchmorecompatiblewiththeAmericanspiritisasimpledeclarationthatwouldseemtoassureresults:"Dothisandyou'llgetthat."

Promisinggoodiestopeoplewewanttochangeseemscomfortablyfamiliartousbecauseothertraditionsandbeliefsarebasedonasimilarwayofthinking.Itmay
seemabitofastretchtocomparepayforperformanceplanstoreligiousnotionsofredemptionorenlightenmentorkarma,whicharedecidedlydifferentfrom
behaviorism,buttheifthencontingencyisjustassalientinthelattersetofideas.Wehavebeentaughtthatethicalconductwillberewardedandevilactspunished,
evenifitdoesnothappeninthislifetime:"Whenthoumakestafeast,callthepoor,themaimed,thelame,theblind:Andthoushaltbe...recompensedatthe
resurrectionofthejust"(Luke14:1314).Wehavealsobeentaughtthatgoodactsorhardworkshouldberewarded,andthisposition,asIwillarguelater,leads
somepeopletoinclinetowardpopbehaviorismregardlessoftheresultsitproduces.

Ironically,rewardsandpunishmentsnotonlylieatthecoreoffaithbutarecentraltoourideaofrationalityaswell,particularlyasitmakesitspresencefeltineconomic
choices.Rationaldecisionmakers,bydefinition,aresaidtoseekwhatispleasurableandtoavoidwhatisaversiveorcostly.Rationality,inturn,iscentraltowhatit
meanstobehuman,atleasttomanyWesternthinkers.Anumberofwritershaverecentlychallengedbothstepsofthisargument,butpopbehaviorismmakesintuitive
sensetousasaresultoftheassumptionsbuiltintooureconomicsystem.

Infact,behavioralpsychologyandorthodoxeconomictheoryhaveestablishedasortofmutualadmirationsocietythatflattersbothfields,butonlybycreatinga
truncatedpictureofthehumanbeing

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whoseactionstheyseektoanalyze.Onthefirstpagesoftheirtextbooks,economistsoftennodinthedirectionofbehaviorismtojustifytheirfundamentalassumptions
aboutwhatmotivatesconsumersorworkers.Psychologistsinturnassumethattheprocessofweighingcostsandbenefitsthatdescribeshowwegoaboutpurchasing
anapplianceisalsowhatwearedoingwhentalkingwithalover.Amongthefeaturescommontobothdisciplines,moreover,istheassumptionthatthereward
seeking,punishmentavoidingimpulsethatdrivesallourbehaviorisnecessarilyandexclusivelydictatedbyselfinterest.26

Whatwebelieveinothercontexts,then,fromreligiontoeconomics,maypavethewayforbehaviorismbymakingusreceptivetoitspremises.Butwhatweseeand
doisalsocritical.Whatweseefromourearliestdaysistheuseofthecarrotandstickmodelofmotivationmostofuswereraisedthisway,anditiseasytoswallow
suchtheorieswholeandpassalongthepracticestoourownchildren.Manynewparentsarestartledwhentheyopentheirmouthsandheartheirownparents'
expressionscomeout,rightdowntotheinflection.Buteventhosewhowanttoknowhowtheirmothersmanagedtosneakintotheirlarynxesmaynotrecognizehow
theyhavealsoabsorbedbasicassumptionsfromwhichtheirapproachtoraisingchildrenderives.

Popbehaviorismisperpetuatedthroughtheexampleofothersignificantindividualsinourlives,too,includingteachersandpowerfulpeopleintheworkplace.
FrederickHerzbergobservedthatmanagerswhoemphasizerewardsandpunishments"offertheirownmotivationalcharacteristicsasthepatterntobeinstilledintheir
subordinates.Theybecomethetemplatefromwhichthenewrecruittoindustrylearnshismotivationalpattern."27Moregenerally,ifweconstantlyseepeoplebeing
manipulatedwithrewards,wemaycomenotonlytoacceptthisasnaturalbutalsotoassumethetacticcanbegeneralized:ifwepayadultsforworking,whynot
childrenforreading?Andwhenwerewardchildren,theymayabsorbthemessagethatthewaytogetotherpeopletodowhattheywantistobribethem.28

Ofcourse,ourownexperiencewiththeuseofrewardsalsohelpstoexplainwhywecontinuetousethem.Inaverylimitedsenseandjusthowlimitedisthe
subjectofmuchoftherestofthisbookrewardsandpunishmentsdowork.Intheshortterm,wecangetpeopletodoanynumberofthingsbymakingitworth
theirwhile.IfIofferyouaninducementthatyoufindsufficientlyrewarding,youwillactinwaysyouwouldnototherwiseconsider.(Children,infact,love

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toentertainthemselvesbyponderingjusthowmuchtheywouldhavetobepaidtoperformvariousunappetizingfeats.)IfImaketherewardcontingentonyournot
onlydoingwhatIwantbutdoingitimmediatelyorquicklyorrepeatedly,youmaywellcomply.Rewards,likepunishments,areveryeffectiveatproducingcompliance.

Ifyouareaparentwhohasfoundthatyourchildrenpromptlymaketheirbedswhenyoupromisethemicecreamconesfordoingso,youmayconcludethatrewards
areeffective.Youmayevendecidethatitisunrealistictoexpectchildrentodosuchthingsifyoudon'tusethem.ResearchbyAnnBoggianoandhercolleagueshas
shownthatAmericanadults,includingparents,arefirmbelieversinrewards.Typically,itisassumedthatrewardswillincreasechildren'sinterestinanacademic
assignmentortheircommitmenttoaltruisticbehavior.Evenwhenpresentedwithdataindicatingthatthereverseistrue,125collegestudentsinoneexperiment
continuedtoinsistthatrewardsareeffective.29(Asweshallsee,someresearchpsychologistswhochampionbehaviorismarejustaslikelytowaveawaydatathat
contradictwhattheyaresureistrue.)

Attendtoyourexperienceandyouwillnoticenotonlythatrewardswork(inthisverycircumscribedsense),butalsothattheyaremarvelouslyeasytouse.Inthe
middleofalectureonbehaviorismafewyearsagoinIdaho,oneteacherintheaudienceblurtedout,"Butstickersaresoeasy!"Thisisabsolutelytrue.Ifshefinds
herselfirritatedthatchildreninherclassaretalking,ittakescourageandthoughttoconsiderwhetheritisreallyreasonabletoexpectthemtositquietlyforsolong
ortoaskherselfwhethertheproblemmightbeherowndiscomfortwithnoise.30Ittakeseffortandpatiencetoexplainrespectfullytosixyearoldsthereasonforher
request.Ittakestalentandtimetohelpthemdeveloptheskillofselfcontrolandthecommitmenttobehaveresponsibly.Butittakesnocourage,nothought,noeffort,
nopatience,notalent,andnotimetoannounce,"Keepquietandhere'swhatyou'llget....

Exactlythesameistrueintheoffice.Goodmanagement,likegoodteaching,isamatterofsolvingproblemsandhelpingpeopledotheirbest.Thistootakestimeand
effortandthoughtandpatienceandtalent.Danglingabonusinfrontofemployeesdoesnot.Inmanyworkplaces,incentiveplansareusedasasubstitutefor
management:payismadecontingentonperformanceandeverythingelseislefttotakecareofitself.31

Anotherwayofframingthisissueistosaythatwhileauthorityfigurescanunilaterallydispenserewards,theymustacknowledgetheir

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lackofabsolutecontrolwithrespecttothingslikemotivation."Managementcanprovideorwithholdsalaryincrementsauthoritatively,whileitcanonlycreate
conditions(orfailto)forindividualstoachievesatisfactionoftheirhigherlevelneeds,"asDouglasMcGregorputit.32Thesamethingistrueintheclassroomorat
home:thereiscomfortinstickingtowhatwehavepowerover,andtheuseofpunishmentsandrewardsisnothingifnotanexerciseofpower.Alltold,thismaybethe
singlemostpowerfulreasontoexplainthepopularityofpopbehaviorism:itisseductivelysimpletoapply.

Butdoesn'tthewidespreaduseofrewardssuggest(contrarytowhatIhavebeenpromisingtoshowinlaterchapters)thattheywork?Whywouldafailedstrategybe
preferred?Theanswertothiswillbecomeclearer,Ithink,whenIexplainexactlyhowandwhytheyfailtowork.Fornow,itwillbeenoughtoanswerintemporal
terms:thenegativeeffectsappearoveralongerperiodoftime,andbythentheirconnectiontotherewardmaynotbeatallobvious.Theresultisthatrewardskeep
gettingused.33

Bythesametoken(sotospeak),itrarelydawnsonusthatwhilepeoplemayseemtorespondtothegoodiesweoffer,theveryneedtokeepofferingthesetreatsto
elicitthesamebehaviormayofferaclueabouttheirlongtermeffects(orlackofthem).WhackingmycomputerwhenIfirstturnitonmaysomehowhelptheoperating
systemtoengage,butifIhavetodothateverymorning,IwilleventuallygettheideathatIamnotaddressingtherealproblem.IfIhavetowhackitharderand
harder,Imightevenstarttosuspectthatmyquickfixismakingtheproblemworse.

Rewardsdon'tbringaboutthechangeswearehopingfor,butthepointhereisalsothatsomethingelseisgoingon:themorerewardsareused,themoretheyseem
tofeneeded.ThemoreoftenIpromiseyouagoodytodowhatIwant,themoreIcauseyoutorespondto,andeventorequire,thesegoodies.Asweshallsee,the
other,moresubstantivereasonsforyoutodoyourbesttendtoevaporate,leavingyouwithnoreasontotryexceptforobtainingagoody.Prettysoon,theprovisionof
rewardsbecomeshabitualbecausethereseemstobenowaytodowithoutthem.Inshort,thecurrentuseofrewardsisduelesstosomefactabouthumannaturethan
totheearlieruseofrewards.34Whetherornotweareconsciousthatthiscycleexists,itmayhelptoexplainwhywehavespunourselveseverdeeperintothemireof
behaviorism.

Here,then,wehaveaportraitofaculturethoroughlyandunreflectivelycommittedtotheuseofrewards.Theyofferatemptinglysimple

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waytogetpeopletodowhatwewant.Itistheapproachweknowbest,inpartbecauseitlikelygovernedhowweourselveswereraisedandmanaged.Itfitsneatly
withotherinstitutionsandbeliefsystemswithwhichwearefamiliar.Butasidefromsometroublingquestionsaboutthetheoryofbehaviorism,whatreasondowehave
fordisavowingthisstrategy?Thatisthequestiontowhichwenowturn.

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2
IsItRighttoReward?
Theinterestofthebehavioristinman'sdoingsismorethantheinterestofthespectatorhewantstocontrolman'sreactionsasphysicalscientistswanttocontrolandmanipulate
othernaturalphenomena.
JohnB.Watson,Behaviorism

Whatafascinatingthing!Totalcontrolofalivingorganism!
B.F.Skinner,1983

Whentwopeoplefindthemselvesatoddsoveranissuelikecapitalpunishment,thedisagreementmayconcerntheintrinsicrightnessorwrongnessofthepolicyas
opposedtoitsempiricaleffects.Anopponentofthedeathpenaltymayargue,forexample,thatthereissomethingoffensiveabouttheideaofkillingpeopleinthename
ofjustice.Evidenceregardingtheeffectofexecutionsonthecrimerateprobablywouldnotbeseenasrelevanttothisobjection.

Thesamedistinctioncanbemadewithrespecttoadiscussionaboutpopbehaviorism.Separatefromthequestionofwhetherrewardsdowhatwewantthemtodois
thequestionofwhetherthereissomethingfittingortroublingabouttheiruse.Somebelieveitisinherentlydesirabletogiverewards,thatpeopleoughttogetsomething
forwhattheydoquiteapartfromtheconsequencesthismaybring.*Othersbelievethereissomethingobjectionableaboutthewholeideaofgivingrewards.Lestthese
opposingvaluesgetburiedunderamoundofstudies(andbecomeconfusedwithfactualfindings),thischapterwillcarefullyexamineeachoftheminturn.
*Thisposition,Ishouldnote,wasnottakenbySkinner,norisitofferedasarulebyotherbehaviorists.

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SavingRoomforJustDeserts

ItisanintegralpartoftheAmericanmyththatanyonewhosetshismindtoitcansucceed,thatdiligenceeventuallypaysoff.Itseemstofollow,then,thatpeoplewho
donotsucceedcanbeheldresponsiblefortheirfailure.Failure,afterall,isprimafacieevidenceofnothavingtriedhardenough.Thisdoctrinehasspecialappealfor
thosewhoaredoingwell,firstbecauseitallowsthemtothinktheirblessingsaredeserved,andsecondbecauseitsparesthemfromhavingtofeeltooguiltyabout(or
takeanyresponsibilityfor)thosewhohavemuchless.

Thebeliefthatrewardswillbedistributedfairly,evenifittakesuntilthenextlifetimetosettleaccounts,isonecomponentofwhatissometimesreferredtoasthe"just
world"view.Socialpsychologistshavefoundthatthosewhoholdthispositionareindeedlikelytoassumethatapparentlyinnocentvictimsmusthavedonesomething
todeservetheirfatetofacethefactthatsufferingisvisiteduponinnocentpeopleis,ofcourse,torecognizethattheworldisnotparticularlyjustatall.Itdoesnottake
muchimaginationtoseewherethissortofthinkingcanlead:onegroupofchildren,afterwatchingafilmabouttheNazis,werereportedtohavesaid,"ButtheJews
musthavebeenguiltyortheywouldn'thavebeenpunishedlikethat."1

ThebeliefIhavebeendescribingcanbesummarizedasfollows:deservingpeoplewillberewarded.Underpinningthisideaisanevenmorebasicandwidelyheld
premise:deservingpeopleshouldberewarded.Intheory,thesetwoviewscanbeseparated,butinpracticethelatteroftendrivestheformer.Manypeopleassume,at
leastwithrespecttoimportantissues,thatthingseventuallyworkoutthewaytheyoughtto.Itisterriblyunsettling,afterall,toacknowledgethatoursociety,muchless
lifeitself,isnotespeciallyfair.Thesheerwishthatitwerecanproduceinsomepeopleabeliefthatthingsare,orintimewillbecome,whattheyshouldbe.

Letuslookalittlemorecloselyattheideathatrewardsshouldbebestowedonthosewhomeritthem.Formanypeople,themoralisticcorollarytothisassumptionis
thatbadthingsshouldbebestowedon,orgoodthingswithheldfrom,thosewhoareundeserving.Manyofushavewatchedpeoplebecomeuneasy,ifnotpositively
furious,whentheybelievesomeoffenseincludingonecommittedbyachildhasnotbeenpunishedseverelyenough.LaterinthisbookIwillarguethatachild's
misbehaviorisbestconstruedasa"teachablemoment,"aproblemtobesolvedtogetherratherthananinfractionthatcallsfor

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apunitiveresponse.Iwilltrytoshowthatthisapproachisnotonlymorerespectfulandhumanebutalsomuchmoreeffectiveoverthelonghaulathelpingchildren
developasenseofresponsibility.ButIhaveseenpeoplebrushasidesucharguments,sometimesbecomingvisiblydisturbedattheprospectthatamiscreantwillnot
havetosufferanyconsequencesforheraction.Consequencesmaybeacodewordforpunishment,andpunishmentmayproduceresentmentratherthan
responsibility,butnevermind.Theimportantthing,onthisview,isthatJusticeisserved,andcosmicbalancerestored,bycrackingdownonawrongdoer.*

Theentirelyreasonableidealofpersonalresponsibilityhasbeentransformedinourcultureintoaterrorofpermissivenessthatextendsbeyondchildrearingtoa
generalfearofsociallaxity.2 Weseeitinoutragedreactionstoprisonsthatarejudgedtoocomfortable,oreventoorganizationsthatcompensateemployeesonany
basisotherthanachievement.Whenpayisnotconditionedonperformancewearesometimessaidtoberewardingincompetence(orlaziness)andgivingsomepeople
afreelunchaprospectthatsendsshuddersthroughexecutivediningrooms.

Whenstrippedofthisharshrigidity,ofcourse,thebasicideathatpeopleshouldgetwhattheydeserve,whichsocialscientistsrefertoastheequityprinciple,seems
unremarkableand,indeed,sointuitivelyplausibleastoserveformanypeoplevirtuallyasadefinitionoffairness.Rarelydoweeventhinktoquestiontheideathatwhat
youputinshoulddeterminewhatyoutakeout.

Butthevalueoftheequityprincipleisnotnearlyasselfevidentasitmayseem.Oncewestoptoexamineit,questionsimmediatelyariseastowhatconstitutes
deservingness.Dowerewardonthebasisofhowmucheffortisexpended(workhard,getmoregoodies)?Whatiftheresultofhardworkisfailure?Doesitmake
moresense,then,torewardonthebasisofsuccess(dowell,getmoregoodies)?But"dowell"bywhosestandards?Andwhoisresponsibleforthesuccess?
Excellenceisoftentheproductofcooperation,andevenindividualachievementtypicallyisbuiltontheworkofotherpeople'searlierefforts.Sowho"deserves"the
rewardwhenlotsofpeoplehadahandintheperformance?
*Apopularwaytoexpressthispositionistosaythattheoffendermustbemadeto"pay"forwhathedidalocutionsuggestingthatweoftenconceiveofjusticeineconomic
terms.

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Thesequestionsleadusgraduallytotherecognitionthatequityisonlyoneofseveralwaystodistributeresources.Itisalsopossibleforeachpersontoreceivean
equalshareofthegoodsorforneedtodeterminewhogetswhat.Differentcircumstancesseemtocallfordifferentcriteria.Fewschoolprincipalshandoutmore
suppliestotheteacherswhostayeduplongerthenightbeforetofinishalessonplanrather,theylookatthesizeandrequirementsofeachclass.Fewparentsdecide
howmuchdinnertoservetoeachoftheirchildrenonthebasisofwhodidmoreforthehouseholdthatday.Fewpolicymakersandmoraltheorists,strugglingwiththe
knottyquestionofhowtodistributescarcehealthcareresources,automaticallyassumethatthemostproductivecontributorstosociety(whateverthatmeans)should
getthemostcare.

Inshort,theequitymodel,associalpsychologistMelvinLernerputit,"appliestoonlyalimitedrangeofthesocialencountersthatareaffectedbythedesirefor
justice."3 Specifically,itisthefavoredmodeof"impersonal,economicrelations."4 Toassumethatfairnessalwaysrequiresthatpeopleshouldgetwhatthey"earn''
thatthelawofthemarketplaceisthesamethingasjusticeisaverydubiouspropositionindeed.What'smore,asMortonDeutschwarns,''thedangerofconceiving
ofpersonalrelationsintermsappropriatetomarketplaceexchangesisthatithastensthedepersonalizationofpersonalrelationsbyfosteringtheintrusionofeconomic
valuesintosuchrelations."5

Justasimportantastherealizationthatprinciplesotherthanequitycouldlegitimatelybeinvokedinmanysituationsisthefactthatprinciplesotherthanequityare
invokedinmanysituations.Ifwewanttopredicthowpeoplewillchoosetodistributeresources,themostimportantthingweneedtoknowiswhatkindofrelationship
existsamongthoseinvolved.Theequityprinciple,notsurprisingly,ismorelikelytobethefirstchoiceofstrangers.6 (Thisiswhyitisalittlesuspiciousthatassumptions
abouttheuniversalityofthatprinciplearelargelybasedoncontrivedexperimentsinwhichthesubjectshavenevermeteachotherbefore.)7 Otherfactorsalsohelpto
determinewhichprincipleisused.Forexample,culturalbackgroundmatters:wherepeopleareaccustomedtothinkingincommunalratherthanindividualisticterms,
theyaremorelikelytodistributerewardsequallyratherthanonthebasisofwhoperformedbetter.8 Womenaremorelikelythanmentosharethispreferencefor
equalityasthebasisfordistribution.9 Finally,therearedifferencesonthebasisofindividualpersonality.10Itisinterestingtoreflectonwhatkindofpersonmight

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beexpectedtoinsistthatwhatsomeonegetsmustbebasedonwhatheproduced.

EdwardE.Sampson,apsychologistwhofrequentlywritesaboutAmericanculture,observedthatwehavebeenledto"takeequityasthenaturalstateanddeviations
fromitasunnatural."However,theassumptionthatpeopleshouldberewardedonthebasisofwhattheyhavedoneis"notasmuchapsychologicallawabouthuman
natureasitisapsychologicaloutcomeofaculture'ssocializationpractices."11Thisdoesn'tmeanthatitisimpossibletodefendtheviewthatpeoplewhohavedone
somethingshouldberewardedrather,itsuggeststhatthisviewmustbedefended,asopposedtotakenforgrantedasobviouslytrue.

Tothispoint,Ihavebeenreferringtorewardsasresourcestobedistributed,whichmaybeanappropriatewaytothinkabout,say,whattodowithacompany's
profitattheendoftheyear.Butthisdoesnotaccuratelydescribemanyotherkindsofrewards,suchasgradesorgoldstarsorpraise.Manygoodieshavebeen
inventedfortheexpresspurposeofrewardingcertainkindsofbehavior.Iftheequitymodelapplieshere,itcannotbeassumedonthebasisofrulesfordecidinghow
muchtopayemployees.

Notlongago,IheardateacherinMissourijustifythepracticeofhandingoutStickerstoheryoungstudentsonthegroundsthatthechildrenhad"earned"them.This
claimstruckmeasanattempttodeflectattentionawayfromperhapstoescaperesponsibilityforthedecisionshehadmadetoframelearningassomethingone
doesinexchangeforaprizeratherthanassomethingintrinsicallyvaluable.Howmanystickersdoesaflawlessspellingassignmentmerit?One?Ten?Whynotadollar?
Orahundreddollars?Afterthefact,onecouldclaimthatanyrewardwas"earned"bytheperformance(orperformer),butsincethesearenotneededgoodsthatmust
behandedoutaccordingtooneprincipleoranother,wemusteventuallyrecognizenotonlythatthesizeoftherewardisarbitrarilydeterminedbytheteacherbutthat
thedecisiontogiveanyrewardreflectsatheoryoflearningmorethanatheoryofjustice.

Whensuchindividualsarepressedontheirinsistencethatitissimplyrighttorewardpeopleforwhattheydo,itsometimesturnsoutthattheirrealconcerniswiththe
resultstheyfearwouldfollowtheabolitionofrewards.Onebusinessconsultant,forexample,writesthathewashorrifiedtolearnaboutacompanythatallocated
bonusesequallytoallemployees"mediocritywouldreceivethesamerewardsasexcellence,"heexclaims.Butaswereadon,wefindthatwhatat

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firstappearstoreflectamoralstance(youshouldpayforwhatyouget)isultimatelybasedonexpectationsabouttheconsequences(you'llgetwhatyoupayfor)a
verydifferentsortofobjection.Hissuspicionisthatworkerswillcometoask,"Whyworkharder"ifthereisnotangiblebenefittodoingso?12This,ofcourse,isa
questionthatcanbeaddressedbylookingatevidenceaboutwhatactuallymotivatespeopleandwhathappenswhenrewardsare(andarenot)used.

TreatingPeopleLikePets

Asbehavioristscheerfullyadmit,theoriesaboutrewardsandvariouspracticalprogramsofbehaviormodificationaremostlybasedonworkwithratsandpigeons.The
underlyingassumption,accordingtoonecritic,seemstobethat"thesemistarvedratinthebox,withvirtuallynothingtodobutpressonaleverforfood,capturesthe
essenceofvirtuallyallhumanbehavior."13

Butitisnotonlyresearcherswhomakethisassumption.Wejointhemintaking"onegiantleaptowardmankind"14whenweimporttheprinciplesandtechniquesused
totrainthefamilypettotherealmofraisingchildren.Thewaywesometimestalkabout(orto)ourdaughtersandsonsreflectsaviewofparentchildrelationships
quitecongenialtoacommittedbehaviorist.Discussionsabouthowto"handle"ourkidsareacaseinpointonreflection,thisseemsaratherpeculiarverbtouseinthe
contextofarelationshipwithanotherhumanbeing.15Likewise,whenwecalloutahearty"Goodgirl!''inresponsetoachild'sperformance,themostappropriate
replywouldseemtobe''Woof!"Withrespecttotheworkplaceorpublicpolicy,wetalkcasuallyabouttheuseof"carrotsandsticks,"andthereisfoodforthought
here,too.Beforethesewordscametobeusedasgenericrepresentationsofbribesandthreats,whatactuallystoodbetweenthecarrotandthestickwas,ofcourse,a
jackass.16

Presumablymostofusdonotintendtocompareourselvesormoreprecisely,thepeopletowhomweareadministeringtheseinducementstopoodlesor
donkeys.Surelyweknowthathumanbeingscanreflectonrewardsanddevelopcomplicatedexpectationsandopinionsaboutthem(andabouttheactivitiesforwhich
theyarebeingdispensed)inawaythatanimalscannot.Yetitisnotanaccidentthatthetheorybehind"Dothisandyou'llgetthat"derivesfromworkwithother
species,orthatbehaviormanagementisfrequentlydescribedinwordsbettersuitedtoanimals.

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Myclaimisthatpopbehaviorismisbyitsverynaturedehumanizing.ButIdonotmeanbythatwordmerelythatwearetreatedorunderstoodasbeingonaparwith
otherspeciesthisisjustasymptom.InthecaseofSkinneriantheory,thehumanselfhasbeenyankedupbyitsrootsandthepersonreducedtoarepertoireof
behaviors.Itishardtoimaginewhatcouldbemoredehumanizingthantheremovalofwhatdefinesusashuman.Infact,eventosuggestthatwelearnorworkonlyin
ordertoobtainrewardsanassumptionheldbybehavioristslessextremethanSkinnerisnotonlyinaccuratebutdemeaningaswell.

Someobserversthinkthattomanipulateworkerswithincentivesistotreatthemlikechildren.17Inawaythisistrue,butthereissomethingproblematicabouttreating
peopleofanyagethisway.Forothercritics,themoreaptcomparisonistohowwetrainanimals.Butagain,thischaracterizationdoesnotgofarenoughbecausethe
assumptionthatanorganism'sbehavioriswhollydependenton,andcontrolledby,reinforcementshasbeenshowntobeinaccurateevenforrodents.Perhaps,then,as
sociologistWilliamFooteWhyteproposed,whatrewardsystemsfinallysuggestisanimplicitcomparisontononlivingthings:
Managementalsoseemstoassumethatmachinesandworkersarealikeinthattheyarebothnormallypassiveagentswhomustbestimulatedbymanagementinordertogointo
action.Inthecaseofthemachines,managementturnsontheelectricity.Inthecaseofworkers,moneytakestheplaceofelectricity.18

Thebehaviorist'sconceptionofhumansaspassivebeingswhosebehaviormustbeelicitedbyexternalmotivationintheformofincentives19is,byanymeasure,
outdated.Althoughtheworkdonebysomemodernpsychologistscontinuestorelyimplicitlyonthisassumption,moreandmoreresearchershavecometorecognize
thatwearebeingswhopossessnaturalcuriosityaboutourselvesandourenvironment,whosearchforandovercomechallenges,whotrytomasterskillsandattain
competence,andwhoseektoreachnewlevelsofcomplexityinwhatwelearnanddo.Thisismoretrueofsomepeoplethanothers,ofcourse,andinthepresenceof
athreateningordeadeningenvironment,anyofusmayretreattoastrategyofdamagecontrolandminimaleffort.Butingeneralweactontheenvironmentasmuchas
weareactedonbyit,andwedonotdososimplyinordertoreceiveareward.

Withinthedisciplineofpsychology,thepassiveorganismviewhasfadedalongwiththeinfluenceofbehaviortheoryitself.Butinevery

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daylife,intheworkplaceandtheclassroomandthehome,thisviewcontinuestomakeitspresencefeltthroughthepracticesofpopbehaviorism.Toputthistheother
wayaround,oureverydaypracticesrestonanimplicittheoryofhumannaturethatfailstodousjustice.Whenwerepeatedlypromiserewardstochildrenforacting
responsibly,ortostudentsformakinganefforttolearnsomethingnew,ortoemployeesfordoingqualitywork,weareassumingthattheycouldnotorwouldnot
choosetoactthiswayontheirown.Ifthecapacityforresponsibleaction,thenaturalloveoflearning,andthedesiretodogoodworkarealreadypartofwhoweare,
thenthetacitassumptiontothecontrarycanfairlybedescribedasdehumanizing.*

Theunderlyingtheoryofhumannature,however,isnottheonlyreasonthathandingoutrewards(or,forthatmatter,punishments)isdehumanizing.Thatdescription
alsoseemstoapplybecausethepracticeis,atitscore,neithermorenorlessthanawayoftryingtocontrolpeople.Nowtherearecircumstances,especiallywhere
childrenareinvolved,inwhichitisdifficulttoimagineeliminatingallvestigesofcontrol.(Iwillsaymoreaboutthislater.)Butanyonewhoistroubledbyamodelof
humanrelationshipfoundedprincipallyontheideaofonepersoncontrollinganothermustponderwhetherrewardsareasinnocuousastheyaresometimesmadeout
tobe.

Clearly,punishmentsareharsherandmoreovertthereisnogettingaroundtheintenttocontrolin"Dothisorelsehere'swhatwillhappentoyou."Butrewardssimply
"controlthroughseductionratherthanforce."20Inthefinalanalysis,theyarenotonebitlesscontrollingsince,likepunishments,theyare"typicallyusedtoinduceor
pressurepeopletodothingstheywouldnotfreelydo"21orrather,thingsthatthecontrollerbelievestheywouldnotfreelydo.Thisiswhyoneofthemost
important(andunsettling)thingswecanrecognizeisthattherealchoiceforusisnotbetweenrewardsandpunishmentsbutbetweeneitherversionofbehavioral
manipulation,ontheonehand,andanapproachthatdoesnotrelyoncontrol,ontheother.22

Intheworkplace,thereisnogettingaroundthefactthat"thebasicpurposeofmeritpayismanipulative."23Oneobservermorebluntlycharacterizesincentivesas
"demeaning"sincethemessagetheyreallyconveyis,"Pleasebigdaddybossandyouwillreceivetherewardsthatthebossdeemsappropriate."24Theuseoftreatsat
home,mean
*Totheextentthatwesometimesdoseemtobedrivenbyrewards,thismaybeattributed,atleastinpart,tothewaypopbehaviorismcreatesadependenceonitself(seepage17).

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while,offersexactlythesamemessage,excepthere"bigdaddyboss"mayliterallybeBigDaddy.

Sometimesthecontrollingnatureofrewardsistooobvioustomiss.Considerthesocalledtokeneconomy,whichisusedprimarilywithcaptive,dependent
populationssuchaspatientsinpsychiatrichospitalsorchildreninschool.Theideaagain,explicitlyderivedfromworkwithlaboratoryanimals25isthatwhenthe
peopleinchargenoticethepatientsorchildrenengaginginthe"correct"sortofbehaviors,chipsorothermarkersarehandedoutthatcanbeexchangedlaterfor
privilegesortreats.Evenattheheightoftheirpopularity,*theseprogramsoffendedanumberofpeopleforanumberofreasons.27Butspecificobjectionsaside,itis
difficulttoimagineamoreflagrantexampleofcontrolthanoneperson'sgivinganotheratokenredeemableforcandyorprivilegestorewardhimforbeing
"cooperative."

Wedon'tneedcriticsofthisapproachtoteachusthis,howevertherelianceoncrudecontrolisapointmademoreconvincingly(albeitunintentionally)bythevocal
proponentsoftokeneconomies.Inanarticleforschoolpsychologists,apioneerofsuchplanswritesthat"childrenneedtoberemindedfrequentlythattheyare
workingforreinforcers"andthat"ateachermustalwayskeepinmindthattheteacheristhemanageroftheclassroom."Ifachildissneakyenoughtosaveuptokens
ratherthanfeelingdriventokeepearningnewones,wearewarnedthat"thechildandnottheteacherisincontrol"ofherbehavior(aprospectevidentlyregardedas
appallingonitsface).Anycomplaintsfromchildrenwhothinktheadministrationoftherewardsisunfair"canbeeasilyhandledbyignoringorredirecting''ifsuch
concernsare''simplynotreinforce[d]...theywillextinguish."28

Justasthreatsaresimplyamoreblatantversionofcontrolthanbribesare,sotokeneconomiesmerelyexaggeratethemanipulationthatdescribesother,less
systematic,applicationsofrewards.Thepointtobeemphasizedisthatallrewards,byvirtueofbeingrewards,arenotattemptstoinfluenceorpersuadeorsolve
problemstogether,butsimplytocontrol.Infact,ifataskisundertakeninresponsetothe
*ThefirstinstitutionaltokeneconomiesintheUnitedStatesweredevelopedinthe1960safterbeinginvogueforperhapsadecade,theirusedeclinedtothepointthatfew
hospitalsnowhavetheminplace.26Howwidelytheseprogramsarestillusedinschoolsisdifficulttodetermine,butprobablythesinglemostpopularprogramofclassroom
management(AssertiveDiscipline)isclearlyabehaviormodificationplanevenifitisnotstrictlyatokeneconomy.

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contingencysetupbytherewarder,"theperson'sinitialactioninchoosingthetaskisconstrained."29

Thisfeatureofrewardsismucheasiertounderstandwhenwearebeingcontrolledthanwhenwearedoingthecontrolling.Thisiswhyitissoimportanttoimagine
ourselvesintheotherposition,totaketheperspectiveofthepersonwhosebehaviorwearemanipulating.Itiseasyforateachertoobjecttoaprogramofmerit
paytoseehowpatronizingitistobebribedwithextramoneyfordoingwhatsomeadministratordecidesisagoodjob.Ittakesmoreeffortfortheteachertosee
howtheverysameistrueofgradesoroffersofextrarecesswhenshebecomesthecontroller.Exactlythesameistrueoftheworker,chafingundertheburdenofa
manipulativecompensationplan,whocomeshomeandmanipulateshischildwithaSkinneriansystemthatdiffersonlyinthetypeofreward.

Bydefinition,itwouldseem,ifonepersoncontrolsanother,thetwoindividualshaveunequalstatus.30Theuseofrewards(orpunishments)isfacilitatedbythislackof
symmetrybutalsoactstoperpetuateit.Naturally,theimpactofthisfactisdifferentintherelationshipbetweentwoadultsthanitisinthatbetweenanadultandachild,
butthefactitselfisworthpondering.Ifyoudoubtthatrewardingsomeoneemphasizestherewarder'spositionofgreaterpower,imaginethatyouhavegivenyournext
doorneighboraridedowntown,orsomehelpmovingapieceoffurniture,andthathethenoffersyoufivedollarsforyourtrouble.Ifyoufeelinsultedbythegesture,
considerwhythisshouldbe,whatthepaymentimplies.Again,thisfeelingofresentmentinresponsetothestatusdifferentialbetweengiverandreceivershouldbekept
firmlyinmindwhentheroleshavebeenreversedandwearetheonesdoingtherewarding.*

Ifrewardsnotonlyreflectdifferencesinpowerbutalsocontributetothem,itshouldnotbesurprisingthattheirusemaybenefitthemorepowerfulpartythatis,the
rewarder.Thispointwouldseemalmosttooobvioustobothermentioningexceptforthefactthat,inpractice,rewardsaretypicallyjustifiedasbeingintheinterestsof
theindividualsreceivingthem.Weclaimtoreinforcepeopletoteachthemthingsthattheyneedtobetaught.Butonewriter,aftertickingoffthespecificobjectivesof
behaviormodificationprograms,asks,"Inwhoseinter
*Anotherexamplewasprovidedbyaccountsofamagazineeditorwho,afterdisagreementswithothersonthestaff,wasgiventohandingoutbottlesofwineorgiftcertificates.
This,accordingtooneformerassociateeditor,"madeusfeellikeaMcDonald'sEmployeeoftheMonth."31Perhapsweshouldaskwhyanyone,evenanemployeeatMcDonald's,
shouldbemadetofeelthatway.

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estsisitforaprisoner,astudent,orapatienttobelesscomplaining,moreattentive,submissive,andwillingtowork?"32Whoreallybenefitswhenachildquietsdown
andsitsstill?

Tobesure,somebehaviormanagerstheparentwhotriestoreinforceachild'sdisplayofgoodvalues,ortheteacherwhoattemptstointereststudentsindoing
researchbyofferingextracreditforareportmaygenuinelybeconcernedtoimprovethelivesofthosetheyreward.Insuchcaseswecanproceeddirectlytoask
whethertheserewardshavetheintendedeffects.Butitispossiblethatotherswhouserewardsorpunishmentsarebeinglessthanhonestwiththemselveswhenthey
insisttheyareonlytryingtohelpwhomevertheyarecontrolling.Itmaybetheirownconvenience(orcontinuedcapacitytocontrol)thatisreallyatstake.

Cuibono?Whobenefits?isalwaysausefulquestiontoaskaboutadeeplyentrenchedandwidelyacceptedpractice.Inthiscase,itisnotmerelytheindividual
rewarderwhocomesoutaheaditistheinstitution,thesocialpractice,thestatusquothatispreservedbythecontrolofpeople'sbehavior.Apairofpsychologistswho
reviewedtokeneconomiesandsimilarplansinclassroomsettingsobservedthatthosepeddlingsuchsystems"haveusedtheirprocedurestoservethegoalsandvalues
oftheexistingschoolsystem."Moregenerally,thesepsychologistsencourageustoask,"Towhatextentisbehaviormodification...helpingtheexistinginstitutional
systemachieveitspresentgoals,e.g.,goalsofcontrolforthesakeofcontrol,orderand(misleading)tranquility,thuspreventingratherthanproducingneeded
change?"33

Butwedonothavetorelyoncriticstomakethispoint.Thefatherofbehaviorism,JohnWatson,madeithimself,candidlyacknowledgingthatheandhiscolleagues
areconstantlymanipulatingstimuli,danglingthis,thatandtheothercombinationinfrontofthehumanbeinginordertodeterminethereactionstheywillbringforthhoping
thatthereactionwillbe"inlinewithprogress,""desirable,"''good."(Andsocietyreallymeansby"desirable,""good,''"inlinewithprogress,"reactionsthatwillnotdisturbits
recognizedandestablishedtraditionalorderofthings.)34

Ifrewardsbolsterthetraditionalorderofthings,thenthepsychologistMihalyCsikszentmihalyiisrighttowarn(orpromise)that"todeemphasizeconventionalrewards
threatenstheexistingpowerstructure."35Thethrustofabooklikethisoneisrightlyviewedaspoliticalinsofarasitraisesquestionsaboutsystemsthatsupportthe
status

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quo,butitisnomorepoliticalthanpopbehaviorism,whichturnsouttobeaprofoundlyconservativedoctrineposingasavaluefreetechnique.

Inonesense,thisconclusionisparadoxical:mostpeoplewhocallthemselvesconservativeemphasizetheagencyandresponsibilityoftheindividual,whereasSkinner
spenthislifedenyingtheideaofchoiceandurgingustocontrolreinforcersintheenvironmentsincethey,inturn,controlus.*Indeed,somesocialreformershavebeen
enamoredofthebehavioristvision(derivedbyWatsonfromJohnLocke)ofhumanbeingsasblankslatesthatcanbewrittenonasonepleases.36

Paradoxicalornot,though,itisdifficulttodenytheconservatismofbehaviorcontrol.Inaverypracticalsense,appliedbehavioristsareanxiousnottooffendtheir
clients,andtheythereforeofferasystemofcontrolthathelpssustaintheinstitutionsandprogramsthatcurrentlyexist.ButIammakingamorefundamentalpoint.
Whileitmayseemthatrewardandpunishmentstrategiesareinherentlyneutral,thatanysortofbehaviorcould,inprinciple,beencouragedordiscouraged,thisisnot
completelytrue.Ifitwere,thefactthatthesestrategiesareinvariablyusedtopromoteorderandobediencewouldhavetobeexplainedasaremarkablecoincidence.

Morerealistically,wemustacknowledgethatbecausepopbehaviorismisfundamentallyameansofcontrollingpeople,itisbyitsnatureinimicaltodemocracy,37
criticalquestioning,andthefreeexchangeofideasamongequalparticipants.Rewardingpeopleformakingchangesintheexistingorder(whichmightincludethevery
orderthatallowssomeindividualstobecontrollersandotherscontrolled)isnotmerelyunlikelybutacontradictioninterms."Themaster'stoolswillneverdismantle
themaster'shouse,"asonewriterputit.38Thispointmayseemfarremovedfromtheactofpromisingachildaweekendtriptothezooifhegetstobedontimeall
week,butthatisallthemorereasontothinkseriouslyabouttheconnection,whichistosay,abouttheimplicationsofanysystemofcontrol.

Beforeconcludingthisdiscussion,Iwanttoconsiderthreeobjectionsthatmightbeofferedtotheseremarksconcerningcontrol.Thefirst
*AccordingtoSkinner,thereasonwehavenocausetofearabusebybehavioristsandtheirsurrogatesthereasonWaldenTwowillnotcometoresembletheworldofNineteen
EightyfouristhattheChiefReinforcer"doesn'tcontrolothershedesignsaworldthatcontrolsothers."Thislineofreasoninghasnotreassuredeveryone.

 Page31

istherelativelymodestpointthatitmaybemisleadingtospeakofrewardsasinherentlycontrolling,sincesomerewardsaremorecontrollingthanothers.Tosome
extentthisistrue.Infact,Iwouldexpandonthiscommentbyproposingaroughguidelinefordeterminingdegreesofcontrol:weneedtolookattheintentionofthe
rewarder,theperceptionoftherewardee,andvariouscharacteristicsoftherewarditself.

Suppose,therefore,thatwewishtopresentsomeonewitharewardbutalsotoreducetheextenttowhichthetransactioniscontrolling.Thefirststepistoexamineour
ownmotivation:areweultimatelytryingtoteachaskill,promoteavalue,boostselfesteem,orarewemostlyinterestedinmakingsomeonedowhatwewant?Next,
wemighttrytoputourselvesintherewardrecipient'sshoesandimaginewhethershemightfeelmanipulated,irrespectiveofourintentions.(Anexpressionofpositive
feedbackmightbeconstruedasusefulinformationbyonepersonandasacleverattempttocontrolwhatshedoestomorrowbyanother.)Finally,weoughttolookat
variousobjectivefeaturesoftherewardexperiencehowmuchemphasistheincentivehasbeengiven,howlargeorattractiveitis,howcloselyitistiedtothequality
ofperformance,andsoonwithaneyetominimizingtheextenttowhichtherecipientwillseetherewardasdrivinghisactions.

WhileIthinkitmakessensetoattendtothesefeatures,wehavetobecarefulaboutassumingthatdoingsocaneliminatetheproblementirely.Inflatingthemanipulative
featuresofarewardmaymakeabadthingworse,butthereisnogettingaroundthefactthatanytimewesay"Dothisandyou'llgetthat,"weareattemptingtocontrol
thebehaviorofthepersonweareaddressing.Probablyallarewardercandoisminimizeormoredisturbing,distractpeoplefromnoticingwhatisreallygoing
on.

Thismaysuggestasecond,moresweepingobjection,onethathasbeenmadenotonlybySkinnerandSkinneriansbutalsobysocialtheoristswithwhomtheyhave
littleincommon:controlisanunavoidablefeatureofhumanrelationshipsallthatactuallyvariesisthesubtletyofthesystemofreinforcement.Abriefsmileandnodare
justascontrollingasadollarbillmoreso,perhaps,sincesocialrewardsmayhaveamoreenduringeffectthantangiblerewards.Justbecausewecannotreadily
identifytheoperativeoperantdoesn'tmeanitisn'tthere.

TheintroductiontoabookentitledManControlledprettywellcapturesthisperspective.Thosewhoraiseconcernsaboutwhatthe

 Page32

titlesuggests,wearetold,simplyhavea"fearofnewknowledge"thathasbeencultivatedby"alarmists."Realistsrecognizethat"thetechnologyofbehaviorcontrolis
notgoodorbad,butneutral''therefore"notevenanissue"forthesimplereasonthatthereisnofreedom(infact,thiswordappearsonlywithinquotationmarks)
tobelost.Whetherwelikeitornot,''allbehavioriscontrolled....Theworldis,inasense,onelarge'Skinnerbox.'"39

Here,Ithink,wehavetobeverycarefultoteaseapartwhatareactuallyquitedifferentclaims.Thatsubtlerreinforcerstoocanbecontrollingisquitetrueinfact,I
arguedearlierthatrewardsarejustascontrollingaspunishments,anddelicaterewardsascontrollingasheavyhandedones.Buttoconcludefromthisthatallhuman
interactionisthereforebestdescribedasanexerciseincontrolseemstomeagravemistake.Peoplewhobelievethishavedoneoneoftwothings:eithertheyhave
takenonfaiththatselfhoodandchoiceareillusionsandwedoonlywhatwehavebeenreinforcedfordoing,ortheyhavestretchedthewordcontroluntilit
encompassesmanyotherkindsofinteraction,suchastryingtoconvincesomeoneofthevalueofone'spointofview.Atthispoint,thewordhasbecomesobroadand
impreciseastobeoflittleuse.IfIdecidethatwhenevertwopeopletalkaboutsomething,eachisreallytryingtocontroltheother,thenthisistrueonlybecauseofmy
rathercontriveddefinitionofcontrol,whichdoesn'thelpusunderstandverymuch.

Afarmoredefensibleposition,itseemstome,isthatsomeformsofhumaninteractionarecontrollingandsomearenot.Thelinemightnotbeeasytodrawinpractice,
butthedistinctionisstillmeaningfulandimportant.Considerananalogy:thelinebetweentruthandfalsehoodisn'talwayseasytodraweither(asinthecasewherea
possiblyrelevanttruestatementisomitted).Likewise,lotsofpeopletellsmalllies.Butwearenotentitledtoconcludefromthisthatallhumancommunicationis
fraudulentandthatitmakesnosensetoopposecategoriesoftalkthatareinherentlymisleading.Mypoint,ofcourse,isthatwecansaythesameaboutcontrol.

Thelastobjectionwemightanticipateisthatevenifitispossibletoavoidcontrollingotherpeople,controlissometimesanappropriate,evendesirable,modeof
interaction,whetherweuserewardsorsomeothertechnique.Itcouldevenbearguedthatparentswhofailtocontroltheirchildrenarenotlivinguptotheir
responsibilities.

Iwillhaveanumberofthingstosayonthissubjectinchapters9and12,butafewwordsatthispointmaynotbeoutofplace.Tobeginwith,whenpeopletalkabout
theneedtocontrolchildren,theyveryoftenmeanthatchildrencannotbeleftentirelytotheirown

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devices.Itishardtoimaginehowanyonecoulddisagreewiththis.Buttosaythatchildrenneedstructureorguidanceisverydifferentfromsayingtheyhavetobe
controlled.Ineverydayconversation,wetendtoconfusethesedifferentkindsofinterventionsonceweclarifythem,itisnotclearthatmanysituationsactuallycallfor
measuresthatmostofuswouldseeascontrollingormanipulative.

Ithinkitistruethatveryyoungchildrenmaysometimesrequirecontrollingresponsesthebottomlineisthatathreeyearoldcannotbepermittedtotoddleoutintothe
streetatwill.Butbeforeweresorttocontrol,weshouldbeabsolutelycertainthatlessintrusive,morerespectfulinterventionscannotwork.Weshouldalsothinkabout
howanactofcontrolisexercised:Dowejustifyitwithareasonableexplanation("CarscomebyhereveryfastsometimesandIloveyousomuchthatIhavetomake
sureyoudon'tgethurt")?Dowepausetoaskwhetherwhatwearegettingthechildtodo(orstopdoing)isreallynecessary?Arewethinkingabouthowbesttohelp
thechildbecomearesponsibleperson(asopposedtojusthowtogethertoobey)?

Parentsandteacherswhodefendtheuseofcontrolwithoutreservationdonot,asarule,pausetoaskthesesortsofquestions.Oftenthisisbecausetheyseethe
worldindichotomousterms:eitheryouarecontrollingoryouarepermissiveeitheryoucrackdownhardoryouletkidsgetawaywithanything.Todeviseflexibleand
reasonablerulesforchildren,preferablybyworkingwiththemtosolveproblemsratherthanimposingtheserulesonthem,isverydifferentfromcontrolontheone
handandalaissezfaireapproachontheother.

Somewhosupportmorecoercivestrategiesassumethatchildrenwillrunwildiftheyarenotcontrolled.However,thechildrenforwhomthisistruetypicallyturnout
tobethoseaccustomedtobeingcontrolledthosewhoarenottrusted,givenexplanations,encouragedtothinkforthemselves,helpedtodevelopandinternalize
goodvalues,andsoon.Controlbreedstheneedformorecontrol,whichthenisusedtojustifytheuseofcontrol.

Thethoughtfulpursuitofreasonableendsrequiresfarlessuseofcontrolforchildren,letaloneadults,thanmanyofusassume.Ifsomeonepersistsincontrollingothers,
somethingelsemaybeatworkasetofvaluesandaviewofrelationshipthatnoargumentorevidencewillsufficetochallenge.Intheend,wemayjusthavetotake
ourstandwithoneoranothervisionofhumanlife.HughLaceyandBarrySchwartzputitwell:
TherehasalwaysbeenamoralimpulsebehindSkinner'sdrivenandunrelentingcommitmenttobehaviorism,abeliefthattheimplementa

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tionofsystematicbehavioralcontrolswillcontributequicklytosolvingthebigsocialproblemsofthemodernworld.Andmuchofhisphilosophicalwritinghasbeendevotedto
arguingthatpersonsarethekindofbeingsdefinedbyrelationsofcontrol.Wetoohaveamoralmotive.Itisthatrelationsofdialogueinallaspectsoflifearebetterforeveryone
thanrelationsofcontrol.40

Thethrustofthischapter,then,hasbeenthatgivingpeoplerewardsisnotanobviouslyfairorappropriatepracticeacrossallsituationstothecontrary,itisan
inherentlyobjectionablewayofreachingourgoalsbyvirtueofitsstatusasameansofcontrollingothers.Somereaderswillrespondtothisbysayingthatregardlessof
whetherrewardsaregood,bad,orneutralfromamoralpointofview,themostimportantreasonweusethemisthattheywork.Letusnowseewhetherthisistrue.

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3
IsItEffectivetoReward?
[Rewards]haveeffectsthatinterferewithperformanceinwaysthatweareonlybeginningtounderstand.
JanetSpence,1971

LeonisonhiswayoutthedoortotakeawalkwhenPamcallsouttohim.Ifyouhelpmecleanthekitchenthisafternoon,shesays,I'lltakeyoutoyourfavorite
restauranttonight.Leonclosesthedoorandfindsasponge.

OnNora'slistoffavoriteactivities,workingonmathhomeworkranksjustbelowhavingarootcanal.SoPhilannouncesthatifshefinishestheproblemsetonpage
228beforeeighto'clock,hewillgiveherfivedollars.Norapullsoutherbook.

Whathashappenedhere?BothLeonandNoracompliedwithsomeoneelse'swishes,engaginginanactivitytheywereotherwisenotplanningtodo(atleastnotatthe
moment)inordertoobtainsomethingtheyvalued.Ineachcase,onepersonusedarewardtochangeanother'sbehavior.Theplanworked,andthat,mostofussay,is
allweneedtoknow.

Butlet'sprobefurther.Rewardsareoftensuccessfulatincreasingtheprobabilitythatwewilldosomething.Atthesametime,though,asIwilltrytoshowinthis
chapterandthetwothatfollow,theyalsochangethewaywedoit.Theyofferoneparticularreasonfordoingit,sometimesdisplacingotherpossiblemotivations.And
theychangetheattitudewetaketowardtheactivity.Ineachcase,byanyreasonablemeasure,thechangeisfortheworse.Mostbehavioristsarenotfondof
punishmentasoneSkinnerianhaswritten,thetrouble"maybenotthatitdoesn'tworkbutthatitworksonlytoowell."1 Ithinkexactlythesamethingcanbesaidof
rewards:wepayasubstantialpricefortheirsuccess.

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However,eventhatstatementconcedestoomuchbecausethesuccessofrewardsis,intruth,widelymisunderstoodandvastlyoverrated.Hereiswherewebeginour
investigation,then:withacloselookatthebeliefthatrewardingpeopleproduceschangesinbehavior,and(inthefollowingsection)atthebeliefthatrewardsimprove
performanceonavarietyoftasks.

DoRewardsChangeBehavior?

Toexaminetheclaimthatrewardsareeffectiveatalteringbehavior,weposethreequestions:First,forwhomaretheyeffective?Second,forhowlongarethey
effective?Andthird,atwhat,exactly,aretheyeffective?(IhavealreadyhintedatafourthquestionAtwhatcostaretheyeffective?butthiswewillsetasidefor
thetimebeing.)

1.Forwhomarerewardseffective?

Perhapsweshouldinsteadask,Forwhat...?giventhattheirmostimpressivesuccessestakeplaceinanimallaboratories.Butwhenwelookattheprobabilitythat
rewardswillchangehumanbehavior,apatternbeginstoemerge,astwomanagementspecialistshavenoticed:
Manyoftheearly(andhighlysuccessful)applicationsoftheprinciplesofbehaviormodificationhaveinvolvedanimals(suchaspigeons),children,orinstitutionalizedadultssuch
asprisonersormentalpatients.Individualsineachofthesegroupsarenecessarilydependentonpowerfulothersformanyofthethingstheymostwantandneed,andtheir
behaviorusuallycanbeshapedwithrelativeease.2

Noticethatthisisnotamoralobjectionitisastatementoffactabouthowbehavioriseasiertocontrolwhentheorganismyouarecontrollingisalreadydependenton
you.Inpart,thisistruebecauseadependentorganismcanbekeptinastateofneed.Laboratoryanimalsaretypicallyunderfedto$ensuretheirresponsivenesstothe
foodusedasareinforcer.Likewise,"inordertomakepeoplebehaveinaparticularway...theymustbe...needyenoughsothatrewardsreinforcethedesired
behaviour."3 Peoplewhohavesomedegreeofindependence,suchasLeon,willalsorespondtorewardsonoccasion,butitismoredifficulttomakethishappenina
predictable,systematicway.

2.Forhowlongarerewardseffective?

Theshortansweristhattheyworkbestintheshortterm.Forbehaviorchangestolast,itisusuallynecessarytokeeptherewardscoming.Assumingyourchildis

 Page37

reinforcedbycandy,youcaninducehimtocleanuphisroomforaslongasyoukeepprovidingsweets.Inpractice,however,thisraisesseveralproblems.Whatifhe
becomessatiatedwithsugarsothattherewardeventuallystopsbeingrewardingtohim?*Alternatively,whatifhisdemandstobepaidoffescalate(infrequencyifnot
inquantity)beyondyourdesireorabilitytomeetthem?Mostimportant,doyoureallywanthimtohelpoutaroundthehouseonlyaslongasyouhaveasupplyof
M&M'sonhand?

Intherealworld,evenifnotinthelaboratory,rewardsmustbejudgedonwhethertheyleadtolastingchangechangethatpersistswhentherearenolonger
anygoodiestobegained.Thisisthekeyquestiontoposetoamanagerwhoclaimsthatperformanceinherdivisionjumpedafteranincentiveplanwasintroduced,
ortoateacherwhobragsthathisstudentsreadmorebookswhentheyaregiventreatsfordoingso.Wewanttoknowwhathappenstoproductivity,ortothedesire
toread,oncethegoodieshaverunout.

Intheoryitispossibletokeephandingoutrewardpelletsforever.Inpractice,though,thisisusuallyimpractical,ifnotimpossible,tosustain.What'smore,mostpeople
withaninterestinseeingsomebehaviorchangewouldsayitisintrinsicallybettertohavethatchangetakerootsothatrewardsarenolongernecessarytomaintainit.
Evenbehavioristsgenerallyacceptthiscriterion.4 Virtuallyeverybehaviorforwhichchildrenarerewarded,frombrushingtheirteethtoactingaltruistically,is
somethingwe'dlikethemtokeepdoingwhentheyarenolongerrewarded.Atwork,peopleusuallycontinuetogetpaidforwhattheydo,butifthegoalistohelp
peoplechangetheirbehaviorforexample,byimprovingthequalityoftheirworkacontinueddependenceonrewardscancreatearangeofpracticalproblems,
includinganincreaseindemands(formoneyratherthanM&M's),asmanagerstryingtoimplementincentiveprogramsonapermanentbasishavediscovered.

Ifitdoesmakesensetomeasuretheeffectivenessofrewardsonthebasisofwhethertheyproducelastingchange,theresearchsuggeststhattheyfailmiserably.This
newsshouldnotbeshockingmostofus,afterreflectingcarefully,willconcedethatourownexperiencebearsthisout.However,whatisnotalwaysrecognizedis,
first,justhowutterlyunsuccessfulrewardsreallyareacrossvarioussituations,andsecond,justhowdevastatinganindictmentiscontainedinthisfact.
*Thesamepointapplies,ofcourse,tootherrewards,suchasgrades.

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Tokeneconomyprograms

Tostartwith,letusconsiderelaboratebehaviormodificationplanssuchastokeneconomies(wheremarkersthatcanberedeemedforprivilegesortreatsare
dispensedwhenpeopleact"appropriately").Theoretically,theseprogramsshouldhaveunusuallyhighprospectsforsuccesssincetheyaretypicallyimplementedin
laboratorylikesettingsclosedenvironmentswithdependentsubjects.*Inthefirstsystematicreviewoftheresearchontokeneconomies,conductedin1972,two
avidproponentsoftheideastatedthat
thegeneralizationoftreatmenteffectstostimulusconditionsinwhichtokenreinforcementisnotgivenmightbeexpectedtobetheraisond'treoftokeneconomies.An
examinationoftheliteratureleadstoadifferentconclusion.Therearenumerousreportsoftokenprogramsshowingbehaviorchangeonlywhilecontingenttokenreinforcementis
beingdelivered.Generally,removaloftokenreinforcementresultsindecrementsindesirableresponsesandareturntobaselineornearbaselinelevelsofperformance.

Translation:whenthegoodiesstop,peoplegorightbacktoactingthewaytheydidbeforetheprogrambegan.Infact,notonlydoesthebehaviorfail"togeneralizeto
conditionsinwhich[reinforcements]arenotineffect"suchastheworldoutsidethehospitalbutreinforcementprogramsusedeachmorninggenerallydon'teven
havemucheffectonpatients'behaviorduringtheafternoon!5

Tenyearslater,oneoftheseauthors,AlanKazdin,checkedbacktoseeifanythinghadchanged.Wastheinitialfailuredueonlytoinadequateimplementationofa
basicallysoundidea?Afterreviewinganotherdecade'sworthofresearch,thebesthecouldofferwastherathertepidstatementthatthegainsproducedbytoken
economies"arenotinevitablylost."Insomeprograms,"interventioneffectsareatleastpartiallymaintained"inothers,theyarenot.Oncloserinspection,though,even
thismodestclaimcouldn'tbedefended.Itturnedoutthattheprogramsthatseemedmostsuccessfuloftenhadbeencombinedwithother,moresubstantivereforms
(including,inthecaseofschools,reducingthesizeofclasses,gettingparentsmoreinvolved,andsoforth).Theseotherchanges,ofcourse,mightwellhavebeen
responsibleforanybeneficialeffects."Asageneralrule,"Kazdinwrote,withanalmostaudiblesigh,"itisstillprudenttoassumethat
*Ofcourse,itcouldbearguedthattheverydissimilaritybetweensuchartificialmilieusandtherestoflifemakesitevenmoredifficulttocreatelastingchange.

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behavioralgainsarelikelytobelostinvaryingdegreesoncetheclientleavestheprogram."6

Onestudyconductedinaclassroomshouldconveyafeelforthekindofresearchhereviewed.Overthecourseoftwelvedays,fourthandfifthgraderswere
rewardedforplayingwithcertainmathrelatedgamesandwerenotrewardedforplayingwithothers.(Noneoftheseactivitieswasinherentlymoreinterestingthanany
other.)Whentherewardsstarted,thekidspromptlygravitatedtothegamesthatledtoapayoff.Whentherewardsdisappeared,theirinterestinthosegamesdropped
significantly,tothepointthatmanywerenowlessinterestedinthemthanwerechildrenwhohadneverbeenrewardedinthefirstplace.Theresearchersconcluded
that
theuseofpowerfulsystematicrewardprocedurestopromoteincreasedengagementintargetactivitiesmayalsoproduceconcomitantdecreasesintaskengagement,insituations
whereneithertangiblenorsocialextrinsicrewardsareperceivedtobeavailable.7

Otherreviewerssurveyingthelandscape,includingcommittedbehaviorists,havereachedaconclusionsimilartoKazdin's,findingplentyofreasontodoubtthelong
termeffectivenessoftokeneconomyprogramsor,atbest,claimingthattherestillisn'tenoughresearchtoknowforsurethattheywork.8 Perhapsmosttellingisthe
findingthatinthosecaseswherebehaviorchangedidcontinueaftertheinitialrewardswerewithdrawn,itwasonlybecausenewrewardsweresubstitutedforthe
originalones.9

Isthisfailuretopromoteenduringchangerestrictedtotokeneconomies?Theseprogramsarerarelyusedtoday,butbehavioristsarestillcalledintohelppeople
developgoodhabitsorbreakbadhabits.Threeareaswherethereisenoughevidencetopermitatleastprovisionaljudgmentsabouttheirsuccessarelosingweight,
quittingsmoking,andusingseatbelts.10Here'swhatthedatashow:

Losingweight

Inonedietingstudy,somesubjectswerepromisedatwiceaweekrewardoffivedollarseachtimethescaleshowedgoodnews,whileothersgotnothing.Thosewho
werepaiddidmakemoreprogressatthebeginning,butthengainedbacktheweightandthensomeoverthenextfivemonths.Bycontrast,thosewhohadnot
beenrewardedkeptgettingslimmer.11Thisstudywasquitesmall,andalotofthesubjectswereunavailableformeasurementattheend,soweprobablyshouldn't
giveittoomuchweight.Butasimilarstudypublishedtenyearslaterofferedlittlesolaceforbehaviorists:afterayear,nodifferencewasfoundbetweenthepayment
and

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nonpaymentgroups.(Actually,therewasonedifference:manyofthosewhohadbeenpromisedmoneyforsheddingpoundsfailedtoshowupforthefinalweighin.)
12

Quittingsmoking

Losingweightandkeepingitoffareinordinatelydifficult,soitmaybeunfairtorejectpopbehaviorismjustbecauseithasn'tworkedmiracleshere.Thetroubleisthatit
hasn'tdonemuchbetterelsewhere,assumingwearelookingforlongtermgains.Takesmokingcessation.Averylargestudy,publishedin1991,recruitedsubjectsfor
aselfhelpprogramdesignedtohelppeoplekickthehabit.Somewereofferedaprizeforturninginweeklyprogressreportssomegotfeedbackdesignedtoenhance
theirmotivationtoquiteverybodyelse(thecontrolgroup)gotnothing.Whathappened?Prizerecipientsweretwiceaslikelyastheotherstoreturnthefirstweek's
report.Butthreemonthslater,theywerelightingupagainmoreoftenthanthosewhoreceivedtheothertreatmentandevenmorethanthoseinthecontrolgroup!
Salivasamplesrevealedthatsubjectswhohadbeenpromisedprizesweretwiceaslikelytolieabouthavingquit.Infact,forthosewhoreceivedbothtreatments,"the
financialincentivesomehowdiminishedthepositiveimpactofthepersonalizedfeedback."Notonlywererewardsunhelpfultheyactuallydidharm.13*

Usingseatbelts

Evenmoreresearchhasbeendoneonapplyingbehaviorismtothepromotionofseatbeltuse.Infact,anenthusiasticpartisanofbehaviorismandhiscolleagues
reviewedtheeffectsoftwentyeightprogramsusedbyninedifferentcompaniestogettheiremployeestobuckleupnearlyhalfamillionvehicleobservationswere
madeoversixyearsinthisresearch.Theresult:programsthatrewardedpeopleforwearingseatbeltsweretheleasteffectiveoverthelonghaul.Infollowup
measuresrangingfromamonthtomorethanayearlater,programsthatofferedprizesorcashforbucklingupfoundchangesinseatbeltuserangingfroma62percent
increasetoa4percentdecrease.Programswithoutrewardsaverageda152percentincrease.Theauthors,whoclearlydidnotexpectthisresult,hadtoconfessthat
"thegreaterimpactofthenorewardstrategiesfromboth
*Recallthatrewardswerealsopositivelyharmfulintheprogramthatpromisedgoodiestochildrenforplayingwithcertainmathgames.There,interestinthegamesdroppedbelow
whatwasfoundatthebeginninghere,gettingaprizeforquittingsmokingwasworsethangettingnothingatall.Thissortofthinghappensoftenenoughthatbehavioristshave
hadtoinventaneutralsoundingnameforit:itistechnicallyknownasthe"contrasteffect."

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animmediateandlongtermperspective...[was]notpredictedand[is]inconsistentwithbasicreinforcementtheory."14

Otheruses

Somepsychotherapistsandcouplescounselorsalsouserewardstochangebehavior.Onebehaviorist,forexample,actuallysuggeststhatspouses"usetokenswith
eachothertoencourageconversation[or]tocontrolexcessivetalk."15Anattempttoassesstheeffectivenessofrewardsherewouldpullusintoalongand
complicateddiscussionabouthowtherapyworksandhowitssuccesscanbemeasured.Whatstandsout,though,inanyevaluationofthetopicisthatplanstosolve
problemsbyrewardingcertainbehaviorscanonlybeexpectedtoworkforaslongastheserewardsarestillineffect.Moreover,"elicitingdesiredbehaviorsisnotthe
only,indeed,notevennecessarilythemostimportantoutcomeofpsychotherapy"whatmattersmoreare"theunderlyingpsychologicalprocesses,"whichbehavioral
approachesrefrainfromaddressing.16

Inchapter9Iwillarguethatpreciselythesameistruewithrespecttooureffortstohelpchildrenbecomeresponsibleandcaring:thereisnoreasontoexpectrewards
(orpunishments)tocontributeanythingtothesegoals,becauseachildpromisedatreatforactingresponsiblyhasbeengivennoreasontokeepbehavingthatway
whenthereisnolongerarewardtobegainedfromdoingso.

3.Atwhat,exactly,arerewardseffective?

Toaskhowlongrewardslast,andtolearnthattheyrarelyproduceeffectsthatsurvivetherewardsthemselves,istoinvitecuriosityaboutjustwhatitisthatrewards
aredoing.Whydon'tpeoplekeepactingthewaytheywereinitiallyreinforcedforacting?Theansweristhatreinforcementsdonotgenerallyaltertheattitudesand
emotionalcommitmentsthatunderlieourbehaviors.Theydonotmakedeep,lastingchangesbecausetheyareaimedataffectingonlywhatwedo.If,likeSkinner,you
thinkthereisnothingtohumanbeingsotherthanwhatwedothatweareonlyrepertoiresofbehaviorthenthiscriticismwillnottroubleyouitmayevenseem
meaningless.If,ontheotherhand,youthinkthatactionsreflectandemergefromwhoapersonis(whatshethinksandfeels,expectsandwills),theninterventionsthat
justcontrolactionswouldn'tbeexpectedtohelpachildgrowintoagenerouspersonorevenhelpanadultdecidetoloseweight.

Whatrewardsandpunishmentsdoisinducecompliance,andthistheydoverywellindeed.Ifyourobjectiveistogetpeopletoobeyanorder,toshowupontimeand
dowhatthey'retold,thenbribingorthreateningthemmaybesensiblestrategies.Butifyourobjectiveistogetlongtermqualityintheworkplace,tohelpstudents
becomecare

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fulthinkersandselfdirectedlearners,ortosupportchildrenindevelopinggoodvalues,thenrewards,likepunishments,areabsolutelyuseless.Infact,asweare
beginningtosee,theyareworsethanuselesstheyareactuallycounterproductive.

DoRewardsImprovePerformance?

In1961,agraduatestudentattheUniversityofKentuckyfoundsomethingshedidn'texpect.Forherdissertation,LouiseBrightwellMillerarrangedaseriesofsimple
drawingsoffacessothatpairsofnearlyidenticalimageswouldbeflashedonascreen.Thenshebrought72nineyearoldboysintoherlaboratoryoneatatimeand
challengedthemtotellthetwofacesapart.Someoftheboyswerepaidwhentheysucceededothersweresimplytoldeachtimewhetherornottheywerecorrect.

Millerexpectedthattheboyswoulddoabetterjobwhentherewasmoneyatstake.Instead,shefoundthatthosewhoweretryingtoearntherewardmadealot
moremistakesthanthosewhoweren't.Itdidn'tmatterhowmuchtheywerepaid(onecentorfiftycents)orwhethertheywerehighlymotivatedachievers(as
measuredbyapersonalitytest).Thediscoveryleftherscratchingherhead:''Theclearinferiorityoftherewardgroupswasanunexpectedresult,unaccountableforby
theoryorpreviousempiricalevidence,''sheandheradviserconfessed.17

Thefollowingyear,anothergraduatestudent,SamGlucksberg,publishedtheresultsofhisowndissertationresearchatNewYorkUniversityinthesamejournal.This
timeitwasundergraduates,128oftheminall,whowerebroughtintoalabindividually.Eachwasgivenmatches,thumbtacks,andtheboxestheycameinandtoldto
mountacandleonawallusingonlythesematerials.(Theyweresupposedtofigureoutthatanemptyboxcouldbetackedtothewallandthecandleplacedontopof
it.)Someofthestudentsweregivenemptyboxes,withmatchesandtacksonthesideothersgotfullboxes,whichmadethesolutionmuchlessobvious.

AswithMiller'sexperiment,someofthestudentswereinformedthattheycouldearnanywherefrom$5to$20quitealotofmoneyin1962iftheysucceeded
othersweren'tpromisedanything.Eventhoughthesubjectswereolderandtheassignmentquitedifferent,Glucksberg'sresultsechoedMiller's:whenthetaskwas
morechal

 Page43

lenging,thosewhowereworkingforthefinancialincentivetooknearly50percentlongertosolvetheproblem.18

Nobodypaidmuchattentiontothesestudiesatthetimeorsince,forthatmatter.Butbecausemostofusassumethatbetterworkisdonebypeoplewhoknow
theyaregoingtoberewardedfordoingit,thisearlyresearchtakesonacertainretrospectivesignificance.Thosegraduatestudentsmaynothaverealizedit,butthey
hadstumbledontosomethingenormouslyimportant.

Intheearly1970s,abatchofnewreportscameoutthatshowedtheearlyresultswerenoflukes.JanetSpence,apsychologistattheUniversityofTexaswholater
becamethepresidentoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation,publishedtwostudiesinwhichchildrenwereaskedtorememberwhichoftwowordswas"right"(as
arbitrarilydeterminedbytheexperimenter)andthenchoosethatoneoverotherswhenitcameupagainlater.Someofthechildrensimplysawalightcomeon(ora
beandropdownachute)whentheychosecorrectlyothersgoteitheranM&MoratokenthatcouldbeexchangedforanM&Mwhentheywerefinished.Itturned
outthatthechildrenwhoreceivedcandyorthepromiseofcandygotfewerrightthanthosewhoreceivednothingmorethaninformationabouthowwelltheywere
doingaresultthatledhertomakethecommentthatappearsatthebeginningofthischapter.19

Fourotherstudies,eachconductedbyadifferentexperimenterandpublishedinadifferentjournal,werereportedthatsameyear:

Oneresearcheraskedundergraduatesto"selectthepatternoneachpagethatwasleastliketheothertwopatternsonthatpage."Tohissurprise,hefoundthat
students"whowerenotofferedmoneyperformedsignificantlybetterthanthosewhowerepaid."Sohedoubledtheamountoftherewardandgotexactlythesame
result.20

Inanexperimentthatventuredoutsidethepsychologylaboratory,collegestudentswhoworkedontheschoolnewspaperwereobservedastheylearnedto"writ[e]
headlinesaccordingtoprescribedrules."Astheygotbetterovertime,theywereabletoworkmorequickly.Forawhilesomestudentswerepaidforeachheadline
theyturnedoutwiththeresultthattheirperformancestoppedimproving.Thosewhoreceivednomoneykeptgettingbetter.21

Fourthgradersperformedmorepoorlyonataskwhentheywereofferedtheveryreward(somesortoftoyorcandy)thattheyhadearlierindicatedtheyespecially
liked.Theexperimenterpronouncedtheresults"puzzling."22

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Highschoolstudentsweregivenfivedifferenttasks,sometestingtheirmemoryandsomerequiringtruecreativity.Onceagain,somewerepromisedarewardwhile
otherswerenot.Andonceagain,regardlessofthetask,therewardedsubjectsdidn'tdonearlyaswell.23

Asthe1970sworeon,stillmoreevidenceaccumulated.Preschoolerswhoexpectedanawardfordrawingwithfelttippensdrewatleastasmanypicturesasthose
whodidn'texpectanaward,butthequalityoftheirdrawingswasjudgedtobeappreciablylower.24(Thatrewardscanhaveoneeffectonquantityandanotheron
qualityhasbeennoticedbyotherresearchers,too.)25

Anothergroupofcollegestudentstooklongertosolveaproblemrequiringcreativitywhentheywererewardedfordoingso.26Andinaparticularlyintriguing
experiment,sixthgradegirlswhowerepromisedfreemovieticketsforsuccessfullyteachingyoungergirlstoplayanewgamewoundupdoingalousyjobastutors:
theygotfrustratedmoreeasily,tooklongertocommunicateideas,andendedupwithpupilswhodidn'tunderstandthegameaswellasthosewholearnedfromtutors
whoweren'tpromisedanything.27

Bythe1980s,anyonewhokeptupwiththissortofresearchwouldhavefounditimpossibletoclaimthatthebestwaytogetpeopletoperformwellistodanglea
rewardinfrontofthem.Asthestudiesbecamemoresophisticated,thesamebasicconclusionwasrepeatedlyconfirmed.Collegestudentsexhibited"alowerlevelof
intellectualfunctioning"whentheywererewardedfortheirscoresonthemorecreativeportionsofanintelligencetest.(Theirscoresontheportionsofthetestrequiring
lessinsightanddiscoverywereneitherhinderednorhelpedbyrewards.)28Inaseparatestudy,thirdgraderswhoweretoldtheywouldgetatoyforworkingonsome
"games"(which,inreality,werealsoIQtests)didn'tdoaswellasthosewhoexpectednothing.29InresearchbyBarrySchwartz,adultswhohadtofigureouttherules
toanothersortofgame,ineffecttryingtothinklikescientists,werelesssuccessfuliftheyhadbeentrainedatthetaskearlierandpromisedamonetaryrewardfor
doingwell.(Theyhadtroublebreakingoutofthefixedpatternofbehaviorthathadsucceededinproducingrewardsforthembefore.)30

Afewyearslater,TeresaAmabile,aleadingstudentofcreativity,publishedtworeportsthatclinchedthecaseagainsttheuseofrewards.Inthefirst,youngcreative
writerswhomerelyspentfiveminutesthinkingabouttherewardstheirworkcouldbring(suchasmoneyandpublicrecognition)wrotelesscreativepoetrythanothers
whohadn'tbeenreflectingonthesereasonsforpursuingtheircraft.

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Thequalityoftheirwritingwasalsolowerthantheworkthattheythemselveshaddonealittlewhileearlier.31ThenAmabileconductedaseriesofstudieswith
childrenandadultsthatinvolvedsuchtasksasmakingcollagesandinventingstories.Somesubjectswerepromisedrewardsrealonesthistimeandothers
weren't.Again,rewardskilledcreativity,andthiswastrueregardlessofthetypeoftask,thetypeofreward,thetimingofthereward,ortheageofthepeople
involved.32

Asrecentlyas1992,researcherswerestillfindingthatrewardsunderminedifferentkindsofperformance.Amabileandherassociatesdiscoveredthatprofessional
artistsdolesscreativeworkwhenthatworkiscommissionedthatis,whentheyhavecontractedinadvanceforareward.33AndMarkLepper,whowasonce
Amabile'sadviser,conductedastudywithagraduatestudentinwhichfourthandfifthgradersweregivenaproblemsolvingtasksimilartotheboardgameClue.
Thosewhowerepromisedatoyfordoingwell"formulatedhypothesesinamuchlesssystematicfashion"andtooklongertogetthesolutionthanthosewhoweren't
promisedanything.Evenmoredisturbing,thoseanticipatingarewardalsodidapoorerjobonanentirelydifferenttaskaweeklater.34

Stillotherresearchers,approachingthetopicfromdifferentangles,havefoundadditionalreasonstoquestionthewisdomofpopbehaviorism.Oneseriesof
investigationsconsideredthebasisonwhichpeoplearerewarded.Afterconductingsixseparatestudies,MortonDeutschconcludedthat"thereisnoevidenceto
indicatethatpeopleworkmoreproductivelywhentheyareexpectingtoberewardedinproportiontotheirperformancethanwhentheyareexpectingtoberewarded
equallyoronthebasisofneed."35(InlaterchaptersIwillciteotherevidencesuggestingthatpayforperformanceintheworkplaceandanemphasisongradesinthe
classroomarebothcounterproductive,exactlyasDeutsch'sdatawouldleadustopredict.)

Otherinvestigators,meanwhile,havebeenlookingatpeople'sattitudestowardrewards.AnnBoggianoandMartyBarrettfoundthatchildrenwhoareextrinsically
motivatedthatis,concernedaboutthingsliketherewardsandapprovaltheycangetasaresultofwhattheydoinschooluselesssophisticatedlearning
strategiesandscoreloweronstandardizedachievementteststhanchildrenwhoareinterestedinlearningforitsownsake.Therewarddrivenchildrendomorepoorly
evenwhentheyarecomparedwithchildrenwhosescoresthepreviousyearwereidenticaltotheirown.36

<><><><><><><><><><><><>

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Ihavedescribedthesestudiesindividuallyratherthanjustsummarizingthebasicfindingbecausewithoutthesupportingdetailsoftheresearchtheconclusionmightbe
hardtoaccept.Afterall,itwashardfortheresearchersthemselvestoacceptatleast,untiltheresultsappearedsoconsistentlythattheyhadnochoice.Butbefore
goingontoexaminethereasonsfortheseresults,letustakeamomenttosortthemoutandthinkaboutwhattheyimplyandwhytheyseemsostartling.

Recallthethreequestionsposedatthebeginningofthischapter:Forwhomarerewardseffective,forhowlong,andatwhat?Weknowthatsomepeoplewilldoa
betterjobatsomethingswhenthere'sagoodyatstake,butfewofushavestoppedtoconsiderjusthowlimitedthecircumstancesareinwhichthisistrue.Forwhom
dorewardsworkbest?Forthosewhoare"alienatedfromtheirwork,"accordingtoDeutsch.37Ifwhatyou'vebeenaskedtodoseemssillyorsimple,youmight
decidetomakearealeffortonlywhenthereissomethingelse,somethingoutsidethetaskitself,tobegained.(Itshouldn'tbesurprising,then,thatresearchersfind
rewardsareleasteffectiveinfact,positivelycounterproductivewhenpeoplegettheserewardsfordoingthingsthatareoptimallychallengingforthem,neither
toohardnortooeasy.)38This,ofcourse,sayssomethingaboutthetaskasmuchasabouttheindividualsinvolvedmoreaccurately,itspeakstotherelationbetween
thetwo.

Forhowlongdorewardswork?Mostoftheresearchonthisquestionconcernsbehaviorchange,thesortofeffectsdiscussedintheprecedingsection.Virtuallyallof
thestudiesconcernedwithperformancelookathowwellpeopledoatataskimmediatelyaftergetting,orbeingpromised,areward.Inorderforrewardstohaveany
hopeofboostingperformanceoveralongperiodoftime,wetypicallyhavetocontinuegivingthemout,oratleastholdingoutthepossibilitythatmorewillfollow.

Wecome,finally,tothekeyquestions:Atwhatsortoftasksdopeopledoabetterjobwhentheyarerewarded?And"better"inwhatsense?Bynowwehave
alreadyseenenoughevidencetoguesstheanswers.Rewardsusuallyimproveperformanceonlyatextremelysimpleindeed,mindlesstasks,andeven
thentheyimproveonlyquantitativeperformance.TheunexpectedresultsfromthosefirstdissertationstudiesbyMillerandGlucksmanappearedagainsta
backdropofresearchbybehavioriststhatcountedthingslikeanincreaseinthenumberoftimesanorganismpressedaleverasproofthatreinforcementimproves
performance.Ifyouweregivenanenor

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mouspileofenvelopestoseal,youwouldprobablylickthemalotfasterifyouwerepaidtodoso.Thetroubleisthatwehaveincorrectlyinferredfromthisfacta
generallawofhumannatureRewardpeopleandthey'lldoabetterjobandapplieditinourworkplacesandschools.Thisfaultyapplication(whichabehaviorist
mightrefertoas"responseovergeneralization")goesalongwaytowardexplainingwhysomanyofourworkplacesandschoolsarenowintrouble.

Oneofthemostinfluentialpapersonthetopicofrewards(influential,thatis,fortheveryfewsocialpsychologistswhoarespecialistsinthefield)reachedthefollowing
conclusionbasedonresearchconductedupuntilthemid1970s:
Incentiveswillhaveadetrimentaleffectonperformancewhentwoconditionsaremet:first,whenthetaskisinterestingenoughforsubjectsthattheofferofincentivesisa
superfluoussourceofmotivationsecond,whenthesolutiontothetaskisopenendedenoughthatthestepsleadingtoasolutionarenotimmediatelyobvious.39

ThisanalysisbyKennethMcGrawprovidesuswithagoodpointofdeparturefromwhichtofigureoutwhenrewardsarelikelytofail.Subsequentinvestigations,for
example,haveconfirmedthataSkinnerianapproachisparticularlyunlikelytoproveusefulwhenitiscreativitythatwearetryingtopromote.40

ButMcGraw'srulemayunderstatethefailureofrewardsbysuggestingthattheywillmiscarryonlywhenusedwithinterestingandcreativetasks.Ithinkitismore
accuratetosaythattheyaremostlikelytohaveadetrimentaleffect,ortohavethemostpronounceddetrimentaleffect,withthesetasks.Itistruethatsomestudies
havefoundthatpeople'sperformanceatverybasicthings,suchasmultiplication,mayimprovewhentheyareexpectingtoreceiveareward.ButtheresearchIhave
describedinthissectionincludesenoughexamplesofimpairedperformanceatratherstraightforwardtasksoratleastafailuretoenhanceperformanceatthese
tasksthatwecannotcasuallyassumeitmakessensetoreachforthereinforcementsforeverythingthatdoesn'tdemandcreativity.

"Dothisandyou'llgetthat"turnsouttobebadnewswhetherourgoalistochangebehaviorortoimproveperformance,whetherwearedealingwithchildrenor
adults,andregardlessofwhethertherewardisagrade,adollar,agoldstar,acandybar,oranyoftheotherbribesonwhichweroutinelyrely.Evenassumingwe
havenoethicalreservationsaboutmanipulatingotherpeople'sbehaviortogetthemtodowhatwewant,theplaintruthisthatthisstrategyislikelytobackfire.

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Asonepsychologistreadtheavailableresearch,peoplewhoareofferedrewardstendto
chooseeasiertasks,arelessefficientinusingtheinformationavailabletosolvenovelproblems,andtendtobeanswerorientedandmoreillogicalintheirproblemsolving
strategies.Theyseemtoworkharderandproducemoreactivity,buttheactivityisofalowerquality,containsmoreerrors,andismorestereotypedandlesscreativethanthework
ofcomparablenonrewardedsubjectsworkingonthesameproblems.41

Inthenexttwochaptersweexaminewhyallthisistrue.

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4
TheTroublewithCarrots:FourReasonsRewardsFail
Itisbetternottomakemeritamatterofreward
Lestpeopleconspireandcontend.
Laotzu

Confrontedwithirrefutableevidencethatpeoplewhoaretryingtoearnarewardendupdoingapoorerjobonmanytasksthanpeoplewhoarenot,researchersat
firstcouldonlyscratchtheirheadsinpuzzlement.Afewtentativelysuggestedorinonecase,triedtoprovethattheparadoxicaleffectofrewardsmustbedueto
thefactthattheydistractpeoplefromthetaskathand.1

Indeed,itmakessensethatthetantalizingprospectofreceivingsomethingwelikemightpreventusfromfocusingonwhatwearedoingandtherebypreventusfrom
doingitwell.Butsubsequentresearchhasshownthatalotmoreisinvolvedthansimpledistraction.Thinkingaboutareward,asitturnsout,isworsethanthinking
aboutsomethingelseequallyirrelevanttothetask.2 Evidentlyrewardshaveapeculiarlydetrimentaleffectonthequalityofourperformance.

Thereare,Ibelieve,fivecorereasonsforthisfailure,fourofwhicharedescribedinthesectionsthatfollow,withthefifthoccupyingthewholeofthenextchapter.(The
secondhalfofthebookwillplayouttheimplicationsofthesefivepointsintheworkplace,theclassroom,andthefamily,andthendiscussalternativestotheuseof
rewards.)Notallofthesereasonspertaintotheresultsofthelaboratorystudiesdescribedearliersomeaccountforthedetrimentaleffectsonachievementfoundinthe
realworld.Inanycase,theproblemsIdescribearemorethanexplanationsforwhypeopledon'tperformaswellwhentheyexpecttoberewarded.Theyarealso
seriousindictmentsintheir

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ownright,raisingconcernsabouttheuseofrewardsbeyondwhattheydotoproductivity.Collectivelytheyconstitutethecentralcaseagainstpopbehaviorism.

I.RewardsPunish

Agrowingnumberofparents,teachers,andmanagershavecometobelievethatpunishment,definedasanyattempttochangesomeone'sbehaviorbyforcinghimor
hertoundergosomethingunpleasant,isbadnews.Laterinthisbook,Iwilldefendthepositionthatpunishingpeopleshouldindeedbeavoidedwheneverpossible,
bothforpracticalandmoralreasons.Fornow,Iwanttoaddressreaderswhoalreadysharethisview,andwhothereforetrytouserewardsinstead.

Incertaincircles,ithascometobetakenasrevealedtruththatwearesupposedtostoppunishingandcriticizingandinsteadattemptto"catchpeopledoingsomething
right"andrewardthemwithprivilegesorpraise.Itisnearlyimpossibletoopenupabookonmanagement,orscananarticleonraisingchildren,orattendaseminaron
teachingwithoutcomingacrossthiscounsel.Theunderlyingassumptionisthatthereareexactlytwoalteratives:punitiveresponsesorpositivereinforcement,sticksor
carrots,"slapsorsugarplums."3

Whenthechoiceisframedthisway,ofcourse,onlyasadistorasimpletonwouldfailtopickthelatterineachpair.Rewardsarelessdestructivethanpunishments,
andthedifferencebetweenthetwobecomesmoreimportantasthepunishmentinquestionbecomesmoreharsh.Butthedichotomyisafalseone:ourpractical
choicesarenotlimitedtotwoversionsofbehaviorcontrol.Andthatisverygoodnewsindeedbecausedespitetherelativesuperiorityofrewards,thedifferences
betweenthetwostrategiesareovershadowedbywhattheyshare.Thetroublingtruthisthatrewardsandpunishmentsarenotoppositesatalltheyaretwosides
ofthesamecoin.Anditisacointhatdoesnotbuyverymuch.

Inrespectsmajorandminor,rewardsandpunishmentsarefundamentallysimilar.AsKurtLewin,thefounderofmodernsocialpsychology,recognized,bothareused
whenwewanttoelicit"atypeofbehaviorwhichthenaturalfieldforcesofthemomentwillnotproduce."4 Moreover,thelongtermuseofeithertacticdescribesthe
verysamepatterneventuallywewillneedtoraisethestakesandoffermoreandmoretreatsorthreatenmoreandmoresanctionstogetpeopletocontinueactingthe
waywewant.

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Underlyingthesetwofeaturesisanevenmorecriticalfact:punishmentandrewardproceedfrombasicallythesamepsychologicalmodel,onethatconceivesof
motivationasnothingmorethanthemanipulationofbehavior.Thisisnottosaythatbehavioristsfailtodistinguishbetweenthetwoinfact,Skinnerarguedfervently
againsttheuseofpunishmentinmostcircumstances.Butthetheoryoflearningand,ultimately,theviewofwhatitistobeahumanbeingarenotsignificantlydifferent
forsomeonewhosays"Dothisandyou'llgetthat"andsomeonewhosays"Dothisorhere'swhatwillhappentoyou."

Thecorrespondenceisnolessstrikingwhenweturnfromtheorytopractice.Althoughmanypeoplecounterposerewardstopunishments,itisinterestingtoobserve
thatthetwostrategiesoftengohandinhandintherealworld.Inastudyreportedin1991,elementaryschoolteachersfromthirteenschoolswereobservedcarefully
overaperiodoffourmonths.Itturnedoutthattheuseofrewardsandpunishmentsintheclassroomwereveryhighlycorrelatedtheteacherswhousedonewere
more,notless,likelytousetheother.5 Asurveyofseveralhundredmothersofkindergartenagechildrenrevealedasignificantpositiverelationshipbetweenthe
frequentuseofrewardsandthefrequentuseofphysicalpunishment.6 Otherstudieshavefoundthatevenpraise,theformofrewardusuallyviewedastheleast
objectionable,isoftenfavoredbypeoplewhosestyleofdealingwithchildrenisconspicuouslycontrollingorautocratic.7 Thesefindingsdon'tproveanythingaboutthe
inherentnatureofrewards,buttheydoofferonekindofanswertothequestionofhowrewardsandpunishmentsarerelated.

Themostcompellingaspectofthatrelationship,though,canbesuccinctlydescribedintwowords:rewardspunish.Thosewhodispenserewardsinordertoavoid
punishingpeoplemaynothavethoughtaboutthepunitivefeaturesthatarebuiltintotheprocessofrewarding.Twosuchfeaturescometomind.Thefirstderivesfrom
thefactthatrewardsareeverybitascontrollingaspunishments,eveniftheycontrolbyseduction.Imadethisargumentatsomelengthinchapter2inthecourseof
identifyingwhatmightbeseenasanintrinsicallyoffensiveaspectofrewards.Philosophicalobjectionsaside,though,ifrewardrecipientsfeelcontrolled,itislikelythat
theexperiencewillassumeapunitivequalityoverthelongrun,eventhoughobtainingtherewarditselfisusuallypleasurable.8

Oneeducationwritercomparesthetendencyofteachersto"blithelyadminister...kneejerkjoltsofpositivereinforcement"to

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theuseofelectriccattleprods,9 acomparisonthatmayseemfarfetcheduntilwepausetoconsidertheultimatepurposeofrewardsandhowmanipulationis
experiencedbythoseonthereceivingend.Ortryadifferentanalogy:thequestionisnotwhethermorefliescanbecaughtwithhoneythanwithvinegar,butwhythe
fliesarebeingcaughtineithercaseandhowthisfeelstothefly.

Thatrewardspunishisnotdueonlytothefactthattheyarecontrolling.Theyalsohavethateffectforasecond,evenmorestraightforward,reason:somepeopledo
notgettherewardstheywerehopingtoget,andtheeffectofthisis,inpractice,indistinguishablefrompunishment.Manymanagersandteachersmakeapointof
withholdingorwithdrawingarewardiftheirchargesdonotperformasinstructed.Thegoodyisdangledandthensnatchedaway.Infact,thisispreciselywhatmany
behavioristsrecommenddoing.Whiletakingcaretourgethatchildrennotbepunished(bywhichismeantmakingsomethingbadhappentothem),theyfreely
prescribetheuseof''responsecosts''(bywhichismeantmakingsomethinggoodnothappentothem).*Unfortunately,thosewhohaven'tbeentrainedtomakesuch
distinctionsmightfailtounderstandthatwhensomethingdesirablehasbeentakenawaytheyarenotsupposedtofeelpunished.

AparenttellsachildthatcontinuedgoodbehaviorwillberewardedwithavisittothecircusonSunday.OnSaturday,thechilddoessomethingthatannoystheparent,
whichpromptsafamiliarwarning:"Keepthisupandyoucanforgetthecircustomorrow."Cantherebeanydoubtthatthisthreattoremovearewardisfunctionally
identicaltoathreattoemployapunishment?

Butevenwhenthepersonwiththepowerdoesnotdeliberatelywithdrawtherewardwhenmeetingaclearsetofcriteriadoesresultinthepayoffitoften
happensthatsomepeoplewon'tmeetthesecriteriaandthereforewillnotgetthereward.Themoredesirablethereward,andthemorepossibleitonceseemedto
attain,themoredemoralizingitwillbetomissout.Giventhattherearedisadvantagestotheuseofrewardsevenwhenpeopledomanagetogetthem,andtotheuse
ofcontestsevenforthewinners,"imaginetheeffectsofworkingforarewardandnotgettingitorofcompetingandlosing!"10

Thereare,itwouldseem,onlytwowaysaroundthisproblem.Thefirstistogivearewardtopeopleregardlessofwhethertheyfulfilled
*"Negativereinforcement"isdifferentfromeitherofthese.Itmeansmakingabadthingnothappentosomeonethatis,removingsomethingunpleasant.Contrarytocommon
usage,itisthusclosertopositivereinforcement(makingagoodthinghappentosomeone)thanitistopunishment.

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thestatedrequirements.Championsofequitytheory,whosewarcryis"Everythingmustbeearned!Nofreelunches!"findthishorrifying.(Infact,anumberof
criticismsofrewardingchildrenthathaveappearedinthepopularpressoverthelastfewyearsturnouttobecriticismsonlyofgivingrewardstoofrequentlyortoo
easily.)Ihaveadifferentsortofobjection:agoodygivenunconditionallyisnotreallyarewardatall.Areward,bydefinition,isadesiredobjectoreventmade
conditionalonhavingfulfilledsomecriterion:onlyifyoudothiswillyougetthat.IfIpromisetogiveyouabananatomorrow,thatisnotareward.IfIpromisetogive
youabananatomorrowforhelpingmeouttoday,thatisarewardandifIdon'tgiveittoyou,youwillprobablyfeelasifyouarebeingpunished.Toavoidhaving
thishappen,Imustavoidgivingyouthingsonacontingentbasis.

Theonlyotheralternativeisnottosetoutanycriteriaorpromiseanyrewardsinadvance.Instead,thepersoninchargecouldpresentsomethingafterthefact:"For
havinghelpedmeoutyesterday,here'sabanana."Asithappens,moststudieshavefoundthatunexpectedrewardsaremuchlessdestructivethantherewardspeople
aretoldaboutbeforehandandaredeliberatelytryingtoobtain.Butapartfromthepracticalproblemsoftryingtokeeppeoplefromexpectinganotherreward
tomorrow,itisnocoincidencethatthegreatmajorityofrewardsarepromisedinadvance.Thewholepointistocontrolpeople'sbehavior,andthemosteffectiveway
todothisistodescribewhatwillbegiventothemiftheycomplyordonetothemiftheydon'tcomply.Forthisveryreason,thepossibilityofendingupwithoutthe
reward,whichmakestheprocessessentiallypunitive,isalwayspresent.Thestickiscontainedinthecarrot.

Theobjectionhereisanythingbutacademic.Mostbusinesspeoplecanrememberaninstancewhenthey,ortheircolleagues,wereexpectingabonus,onlytobecome
demoralizedwhentheyendedup,forwhateverreason,notgettingit.Parentsreadilytellstoriesofexactlythesamethinghappeningwhentheirchildrenfailedtoget
somerewardatschoolthattheywerecountingon.Mostofusarefamiliarwiththisphenomenon,butfewofushaveconsideredthatitisnotmerelywidespreadbut
endemictotheuseofrewards.

Thenewschool,whichexhortsustocatchpeopledoingsomethingrightandrewardthemforit,isthereforenotallthatmuchofanimprovementovertheoldschool,
whichhaduscatchingpeopledoingsomethingwrongandthreateningtopunishthemiftheyeverdiditagain.Whatismostlytakingplaceinbothapproachesisthata
lotofpeoplearebeingcaught.Thisismorethanaplayonwords.Whatwearetalkingaboutistheexperienceofbeingcontrolledandfeeling

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punished.Theseareproblematicrealitiesintheirownright,andtheyalsohappentobeimpedimentstoworkingorlearningeffectively.

II.RewardsRuptureRelationships

EarlierIsuggestedthatrewardsandpunishmentsflourishinasymmetricalrelationships,whereonepersonhasmostofthepower.Evenmoretroubling,rewardsand
punishmentscreate,oratleastexacerbate,thatimbalance.If,asamatterofprinciple,wewouldliketoseedisparitiesinpoweramongpeopleminimizedwhenever
possible,wealreadyhavereasontoturnawayfromappliedbehaviorism.

Butthisgeneralprincipleisonlythebeginningofthestory.Rewardsalsodisruptrelationshipsinveryparticularwaysthataredemonstrablylinkedtolearning,
productivity,andthedevelopmentofresponsibility.Theyhavetheseeffectsbothwithrespecttohorizontalrelationships(thoseamongpeers)andverticalrelationships
(thoseamongpeoplewhosestatusisdifferent,suchasteacherandstudent,parentandchild,supervisorandemployee).

Inconsideringthequestionofrelationshipsamongworkersorstudents,weneedtobeginbyrecognizingthatcooperationdoesnotjustmaketasksmorepleasantin
manycases,itisvirtuallyaprerequisiteforquality.Moreandmoreteachersandmanagersarecomingtorecognizethatexcellenceismostlikelytoresultfromwell
functioningteamsinwhichresourcesareshared,skillsandknowledgeareexchanged,andeachparticipantisencouragedandhelpedtodohisorherbest.

Rewards,bycontrast,aretypicallybasedonthefaultyassumption"thattheorganization'seffectivenessisthesimpleadditivecombinationofindividuals'separate
performances,"inthewordsoforganizationalpsychologistJoneL.Pearce11areductiveviewthatoverlooksthenatureandvalueofgroupinteraction.Inthe
classroom,oneofthecentralmessagescommunicatedbyteachers,especiallythoseenamoredofrewardsandpunishments,isthattiredoldslogan"Iwanttoseewhat
youcando,notwhatyourneighborcando."Thistraininginindividualismpersistsdespiteconsiderableevidencethatwhenstudentslearntogetherincarefully
structuredgroups,thequalityoftheirlearningistypicallymuchhigherthanwhateventhesharpestofthemcouldmanageinsolitude.Asonepairofeducational
psychologistslikestosay,"Allofusaresmarterthananyofus."12

Atbest,rewardsdonothingtopromotethiscollaborationorasenseofcommunity.Moreoften,theyactuallyinterferewiththese

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goals:anundercurrentof"strifesandjealousies"iscreatedwheneverpeoplescrambleforgoodies,aseducatorsinNewYorkCityfoundnearlytwocenturiesagoafter
watchingabehaviormodificationprograminaction(seefootnoteatpage5)."Complaintsofunequaltreatment"and"playingfavorites"arecommon.13

Asarule,rewardsarenotconducivetodevelopingandmaintainingthepositiverelationshipsthatpromoteoptimallearningorperformance.Buttwocommon
arrangementsforrewardingpeopletakeabadthingandmakeitmuchworsebyexplicitlysettingpeopleagainsteachother.Thefirstoftheseisaconditionofartificial
scarcity.Imaginethatyouareoneoftwentyorthirtystudentsinaclassroom.Theteacherannouncesatthebeginningoftheyearthatwhoevermakesthehighestscore
oneachFriday'squizwillbeeligibletowearaGENIUSOFTHEWEEKbadgeandenjoyasetofprivilegesthatgowithit.Howisthislikelytoaffectthewayyou
viewyourfellowstudents?Howinclinedwillyoubetohelpsomeoneelsewithanassignment?Howeasywillitbeforasenseofcommunitytotakerootinthatroom?

Inthisscenario,nomatterhowwelleveryoneintheclassdoesoneachtest,onlyonestudentispermittedtogettheprize.Thecentralmessagethatistaughthere
thecentralmessageofallcompetition,infactisthateveryoneelseisapotentialobstacletoone'sownsuccess.Iftherewardsystemsetspeopleupasone
another'srivals,thepredictableresultisthateachwillviewtheotherswithsuspicionandhostilityand,dependingontheirrelativestatus,perhapswithcontemptorenvy
aswell.14

Ofallthewaysbywhichpeopleareledtoseekrewards,Ibelievethemostdestructivepossiblearrangementistolimitthenumberthatareavailable.Todosoisto
replacethepossibilitythatpeoplewilltrytoassisteachotherwiththenearcertaintythattheywilltrytodefeateachother.Butwhetheritissimplypermittedbya
standardindividualincentivesystem*oractuallyrequiredbyaraceforawards,contestsaredestructiveforseveralreasonsbeyondthefactthattheyprecludethesort
ofteamworkthatleadstosuccess.
*Somewritershaveacknowledgedmanyoftheseproblemsandsuggestedthatthesolutionistostoprewardingindividualsandusesmallgroupincentivesinstead,eitherinthe
workplaceortheclassroom.Unfortunately,offeringgoodiestoteamssimplyshiftstherivalrytoanotherlevel,maximizingthecompetitionandtherebyminimizingthecoordination
amonggroups.Moreover,thefourothermajorproblemsdiscussedinthischapterandthenextarenotalleviatedbychanginghowmanypeoplereceiveareward.Thereisresearch
toshowthat"sharedincentivesdonotamelioratethenegativeeffectsofperformancecontingentrewards."15

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First,mostcompetitioncreatesanxietyofatypeandlevelthattypicallyinterfereswithperformance.16Second,thosewhobelievetheydon'thaveachanceofwinning
arediscouragedfrommakinganefforthavingbeengivennoreasontoapplythemselvesexcepttodefeattheirpeers,andconvincedthattheycannotdoso,these
peoplearealmostbydefinitiondemotivated.17Third,accordingtoaseriesofstudiesbypsychologistCaroleAmes,peopletendtoattributetheresultsofacontest,as
contrastedwiththeresultsofnoncompetitivestriving,tofactorsbeyondtheircontrol,suchasinnateabilityorluck.Theresultisadiminishedsenseofempowerment
andlessresponsibilityfortheirfutureperformance.18

Butcompetitionisonlyonevariationonthebehavioristthemethatpracticallyguaranteesenmity.Theotheristhedeploymentofacollectivereward."Ifallofusstayon
ourverybestbehavior,"intonestheteacher(speakinghereinthefirstpersoneventhoughtheteacher'sownbehaviorisneveratissue),"wewillhaveanicecream
partyattheendoftheday!"Anexcitedmurmurintheroomsoonfadeswiththerealizationthatanytroublemakercouldspoilitforeveryoneelse.Thisgambitisoneof
themosttransparentlymanipulativestrategiesusedbypeopleinpower.Itcallsforthaparticularlynoxioussortofpeerpressureratherthanencouraginggenuine
concernaboutthewellbeingofothers.19Andpitythepoorchildwhosebehavioriscitedthatafternoonasthereasonthat"thepartyhasbeen,I'msorrytosay,boys
andgirls,canceled."Willtheothersresenttheteacherfortemptingandthendisappointingthem,orforsettingthemagainstoneanother?Ofcoursenot.Theywillturn
furiouslyonthedesignateddemon.That,ofcourse,isthewholeidea:divideandconquer.

Collectivepunishmentiswidelyseenasunfair,butcollectiverewardisnotmuchbetter.What'smore,neithercollectivenorartificiallyscarcerewardsareconfinedto
elementaryschool.Manycorporationsexplicitlyrankemployeesagainsteachotherorholdoutthepossibilityofanincentivebasedonanentiredepartment's
performance.Inthissettingthereisnoneedtoannouncewhowasresponsibleforthedisappointingresultslastquarter.Someonewillbefoundtotaketheblame,
irrespectiveofwhetheritisdeserved.Furthermore,generaldistrustandstressflourishinjustsuchasystem.Atonecompanywhere"thepayofalldependson
everyone'sefforts...peerpressurecanbesohighthatthefirsttwoyearsofemploymentarecalledpurgatory."20

Severalstudieshaveexaminedthewaywecometoregardotherswhentheiractionsdeterminewhetherwegetareward.Whenolder

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girlswerepromisedarewardfortutoringyoungergirls(seepage44),theynotonlybecamelesseffectiveteachersbutalso"valuedtheyoungerchildasafunctionof
herutilityinobtainingthedesiredgoal":ifshewasn'tlearningfastenough,shecametobeviewednegatively.21Inaverydifferentkindofexperiment,merelycallingthe
attentionofyoungadultstothepossiblerewardsofbeinginvolvedinaromanticrelationship(forexample,impressingone'sfriends)ledthemtoreportlesslovefor
theirpartnersthanwasexpressedbypeoplewhohadn'tfocusedonthosefactors.22

Themajorpointhereisthatwhetherornotpeopleareofferedadirectincentivetowisheachotherill,theveryfactthattheyhavebeenledtoseethemselvesas
workingorlearninginordertogetsomethingmeansthattheyarenotverylikelytofeelwelldisposedtowardothersandtoputtheirheadstogether.23Somereward
programspromotecompetitionandinhibitcooperationmorethanothersdo.Buttowhateverextenttheyhavethiseffect,theresultisultimatelylikelytobetothe
detrimentofquality.

SofarIhavebeentalkingabouttheeffectsofrewardsonrelationshipsamongpeopleofcomparablestatus.Theothersortofrelationshipaffectedbyarewardisthat
betweenthepersonwhogivesitandtheonewhogetsit.Eveninsituationsinwhichwehavenoobjectiontothefactofthisunequalstatus,weneedtounderstand
whattheprocessofrewardingdoestotheinteractionbetweengiverandreceiver.Someonewhoisraisingorteachingchildren,forexample,probablywantstocreate
acaringalliancewitheachchild,tohelphimorherfeelsafeenoughtoaskforhelpwhenproblemsdevelop.Thisisverypossiblythesinglemostfundamental
requirementforhelpingachildtogrowuphealthyanddevelopasetofgoodvalues.Foracademicreasons,too,anadultmustnurturejustsucharelationshipwitha
studentifthereistobeanyhopeofthestudent'sadmittingmistakesfreelyandacceptingguidance.Thesamegoalappliestotheworkplace,whereitiscriticalto
establishagoodworkingrelationshipcharacterizedbytrust,opencommunication,andthewillingnesstoaskforassistance.

Thisispreciselywhatrewardsandpunishmentskill.Ifyourparentorteacherormanagerissittinginjudgmentofwhatyoudo,andifthatjudgmentwilldetermine
whethergoodthingsorbadthingshappentoyou,thiscannothelpbutwarpyourrelationshipwiththatperson.Youwillnotbeworkingcollaborativelyinordertolearn
orgrowyouwillbetryingtogethimorhertoapproveofwhatyouaredoingsoyoucangetthegoodies.If,forexample,"theprincipalbasis

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forcompensationistheboss'whim,theonlyrealincentiveistostayonhisgoodside."24Apowerfulinducementhasbeencreatedtoconcealproblems,topresent
yourselfasinfinitelycompetent,andtospendyourenergiestryingtoimpress(orflatter)thepersonwithpower.Atleastonestudyhasconfirmedthatpeopleareless
likelytoaskforhelpwhenthepersontowhomtheywouldnormallyturnwieldsthecarrotsandsticks.25Needlesstosay,ifpeopledonotaskforhelpwhenthey
needit,performancesuffersonvirtuallyanykindoftask.

Thisresultissomewhateasiertoseewhentheindividualinchargeisperceivedasapunisher:theparentwhomightsendthechildtoherroom,theteacherwhomight
writeazeroinhisbook,thesupervisorwhomightturninanegativeperformanceappraisal.Ifyouarethepersonwhomightbepunished,youareapproximatelyas
gladtoseethatpersoncomingasyouaretoseeapolicecarinyourrearviewmirror.(Thisisonepricethatparentspayforpresentingthemselvesasenforcersof
"consequences"formisbehavior.)

Whatsomeobservershavemissedisthatrelationshipsarerupturedjustassurelywhenweseethepowerfulpersonassomeonetobepleasedaswhenweseehimor
herassomeonetobefeared.WilliamGlasserhaslaboredforaquarterofacenturytotransformschoolsintoplaceswherestudentsarenotperpetuallypunishedand
madetofeellikefailures.Butheerrsinsuggestingthatteacherscan"reducetheadversarialatmosphere"iftheyuse"rewardsinsteadofpunishment."26Suchashiftwill
notproduceadifferentatmosphereatleast,itwillnotbedifferentinthewaysthatmatter.Bothrewardsandpunishmentsinduceabehaviorpatternwherebywetryto
impressandcurryfavorwiththepersonwhohandsthemout.Whetherwearelookingtosecurearewardoravoidapunishmentisalmostbesidethepoint.Eitherway,
whatwedon'thaveisthesortofrelationshipthatisdefinedbygenuineconcernandthatinvitesustotaketheriskofbeingopenandvulnerablethesortof
relationshipthatinspirespeopletodotheirbestandcantrulymakeadifferenceintheirlives.

Justastheessentiallycontrollingnatureofrewardsismosteasilynoticedbythosewhoarebeingcontrolled,sotheeffectsofrewardsonrelationshipsaremostreadily
seenbythosewhomustdependonotherstogetwhattheywant.Thisiswhyitisimportantonceagainforsomeonewhodispensesrewardstoimaginativelyputherself
inthepositionofwhoeverisdependentonher,andtoreflectonthekindofrelationshipthatnowexistsbetweenthetwoofthem(andtheconsequencestotheother
personofnothavingadifferentkindofrelation

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ship).Thisactofperspectivetakingiseasierforsomeonewhoplaysbothrolesatonce,someonewhoisresponsiblefordecidingwhathappenstohissubordinates
whilesimultaneouslyremainingatthemercyofasuperiorforhisownrewards.

Thepresenceorabsenceofrewardsis,ofcourse,onlyonefactoramongmanythataffectthequalityofourrelationships.Butitisafactortoooftenoverlookedinits
tendencytocauseflatterytobeemphasizedinplaceoftrustandtocreateafeelingofbeingevaluatedratherthansupported.This,combinedwithitsimpactonthe
relationshipsamongthoseseekingthegoodies,goesalongwaytowardexplaininghowrewardsoftenreduceachievement.

III.RewardsIgnoreReasons

Exceptfortheplaceswheretheirusehasbecomehabitual,punishmentsandrewardsaretypicallydraggedoutwhensomebodythinkssomethingisgoingwrong.A
childisnotbehavingthewaywewantastudentisnotmotivatedtolearnworkersaren'tdoinggoodworkthisiswhenwebringinthereinforcements.

Whatmakesbehavioralinterventionssoterriblyappealingishowlittletheydemandoftheintervener.Theycanbeappliedmoreorlessskillfully,ofcourse,buteven
themostmeticulousbehaviormodifiergetsoffprettyeasyforonesimplereason:rewardsdonotrequireanyattentiontothereasonsthatthetroubledeveloped
inthefirstplace.Youdon'thavetoaskwhythechildisscreaming,whythestudentisignoringhishomework,whytheemployeeisdoinganindifferentjob.Allyou
havetodoisbribeorthreatenthatpersonintoshapingup.(Noticethatthistoodescribesafundamentalsimilaritybetweenpunishmentsandrewards.)

AmotherinVirginiawrotetomenotlongagotochallengemycriticismofbehavioralmanipulation."IfIcannoteitherpunish(orallowconsequences)orreward
(bribe)mychildren...whatdoIdowhenmyalmostthreeyearold...wandersoutofherroomagainandagainatbedtime?"sheasked.Fairenough:letusconsider
threepossiblewaysofdealingwithachildwhowillnotstayinbed.BehavioristAfavors"consequences":"Ifyou'renotbackinthatbedbythetimeIcounttothree,
younglady,youwon'tbewatchingtelevisionforaweek!"BehavioristBfavorsrewards:"Ifyoustayinbeduntilmorningforthenextthreenights,honey,I'llbuyyou
thatteddybearyouwanted.''

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Butthenonbehavioristwondershowanyonecouldpresumetoproposeasolutionwithoutknowingwhythechildkeepspoppingoutofbed.Withverylittleeffortwe
canimagineseveralpossiblereasonsforthisbehavior.Maybeshe'sbeingputtobedtooearlyandsimplyisn'tsleepyyet.Maybeshefeelsdeprivedofquiettimewith
herparents,andtheeveningoffersthebestopportunityforhertocuddleortalkwiththem.Maybeshe'sstillwoundupfromwhathappenedafewhoursearlierand
needstorehearseandclarifytheday'seventstotrytomakesenseofwhathappened.Maybetherearemonstersunderherbed.Ormaybeshecanjusthearpeople
talkinginthelivingroom.(Isthereanyonetoooldtorememberhowalltheexcitementseemedtostartafterwewereputtobed?)

Thepointiswedon'tyetknowwhat'sreallygoingon.Butthebehaviorists'solutionsdon'trequireustoknow.Echoingabeercommercialofthelate1980s,their
credoseemstobe"Whyaskwhy?"Thatposturehelpstoexplainthepopularityoftherewardandpunishmentmodelandalsoitsineffectivenessoverthelongrun.
Eachofthepossibleexplanationsforwhythisgirldoesn'tstayinbedatnightwouldseemtocallforadifferentsolution.(Thisisonereasonitisdifficulttogiveasimple
replytopeoplewhodemandtoknowwhat"thealternative"istousingrewards.)Rewardsarenotactuallysolutionsatalltheyaregimmicks,shortcuts,quickfixesthat
maskproblemsandignorereasons.Theyneverlookbelowthesurface.*

Fromoneperspective,thissortofcriticismisnotnew.ItwasoffereddecadesagobyFreudians,whoarguedthatbehavioraltherapyineffectaddressedonlythe
symptomsofdeeperproblems.Itwassaidthattheunderlyingemotionalissueswouldforcetheirwayupagainintheformofanewsymptom.Butonedoesn'thaveto
beapsychoanalysttoseewhatisdeficientaboutthebehavioralapproach.Itisnotnecessarytoattributeouractionstounconsciouswishesandfearsorrepressed
childhoodeventstorecognizethatmerelycontrollinganindividual'sbehaviorwithbribesorthreatsmissesmostofwhatisgoingon.
*Thingsarehappeningbeneaththesurfaceevenwhenwethinkthereasonforabehaviorisstraightforward.Achildeatscandyafterbeingtoldnottodoso,andweassumethe
motiveisobvious:candytastesgood.Butperhapsthereismorethanmeetstheeyehere.Didlunchatschoolnotfillhimup?Ishisbloodsugarlow?Areother,healthiersnacks
unavailable?Ishereachingforsomethingforbiddenasawayofexpressingangeraboutsomethingelse?Evenwhenwearesurethatnothingcomplicatedisgoingonandthe
causeoftheobjectionablebehaviorisreallyasobviousasitseems,weneverthelessneedtoaddressthatcausesomehowratherthanjusttryingtochangethebehavior.

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Let'ssaythatastudentrepeatedlycomestoclasslateordaydreamswhiletheteacheristalking.Suchbehaviormightsignalthatthestudenthasgivenuponthesubject
matterafterhavingstruggledunsuccessfullytounderstandtheassignmentsperhapsforlackofadequatestudyskills,perhapsbecauseofhowtheteacherpresents
thematerial,perhapsforsomeotherreason.Whatevertherealproblemis,itremainsunsolvedifourinterventionconsistsofpromisingarewardforanimprovementin
punctualityandattentiveness(orthreateningapunishmentifthereisnoimprovement).Moreover,thisrewardwillnotbedeliveredifthestudentdoesn'tshowsufficient
progress,inwhichcasetheentireexerciseislikelytoleadtofurtheralienation,anevenmorenegativeselfimage,andaspiralofdefeat.

Thesamegoesforadultsatwork,regardlessofthekindofworktheydo.Asuddendeteriorationinperformancefrequentlyturnsouttobeduetoproblemsathome.
Achronicrecordofmediocreperformance,meanwhile,mayindicate,amongmanyotherpossibilities,thatthereissomethingwrongwiththejobitselforwithan
organizationalstructurethatholdsemployeesresponsibleforthingsthattheyarepowerlesstocontrol.Turningtheworkplaceintoagameshow("Tellouremployees
aboutthefabulousprizeswehaveforthemiftheirproductivityimproves...")doesexactlynothingtosolvetheseunderlyingproblemsandbringaboutmeaningful
change.Oftenittakesnogreatpsychologicalsophisticationtoidentifywhatisgoingononlyawillingnesstodosomethingotherthandangleagoodyinfrontof
people.

Takeanotherexample,thisonefromthepagesofpublicpolicy.Somepoliticians,notingthatpoorteenagersoftengiveuponhighschool,haveresortedtorewarding
themwithadditionalpublicassistancepaymentsiftheyattendclassesregularly,punishingthembycuttingtheirbenefitsiftheydropout,andsometimeseventhreatening
tostopthecheckstotheirparentsinordertogeneratesufficientfamilypressuretogettheteenagersbackinschool.Apartfromconcernsaboutthefairnessofthese
tactics,27whatinterestsmeisthefailuretoconsidertheunderlyingreasonsthatsomeone,particularlyintheinnercity,mightdecidenottocontinueattendingschool.
Ratherthanaddressingthestructuralcausesofpovertyorthelackofperceivedrelevanceofwhatthecurriculumhastooffer,theinclinationissimplytomanipulate
people'sbehaviorwithacarrotorstick.Ifthemoneyisneededdesperatelyenough,themanipulationmaysucceedinincreasingschoolattendanceforawhile.Itwill,
ofcourse,donothingaboutthedeeperissues.

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Somepeopleuserewardsbecausetheyareimpatientforresults,howeverfleetingorsuperficial:theirattentionisfocusedonthebottomlineandtheydon'tparticularly
careabout''deeperissues."Butothersareguidedbytheviewthattheseissuesactuallymakenodifference.Thecoreofbehaviorism,onwhichsomedecisionstouse
behavioralstrategiesarebased,isthathumanbeingsarenomorethanwhattheydo.Changewhattheydoandyouhavedealtwiththeproblem.Onewriterconcisely
describesbehaviorismasthe"confusionofinnermotiveswiththeiroutwardexpression."28Butmypointisnotjustthatthepsychologicaltheoryisinadequateitisthat
thepracticeisunproductive.Ifwedonotaddresstheultimatecauseofaproblem,theproblemwillnotgetsolved.

Thisisnottosaythatpeoplewhoresorttoincentivesarenecessarilysodullorinsensitivethattheywillfailtoseeorcareaboutotherfactors.Ateacherwho
brandishesagradebook(onthetheorythatanappetiteforA'sorafearofF'sis"motivating")mayneverthelessrealizethatastudentisfailingbecauseofanabusive
homeenvironment,andmayevenendeavortodosomethingaboutthis.Mypurpose,therefore,isnottogeneralizeaboutthekindofpeoplewhouserewardsbutto
examinetheimplicationsofthestrategyitself.Inprinciple,behavioralinterventionsexcludefromconsiderationthefactorsthatmaymattermost.Inpractice,behavioral
interventionsdistractthosewhousethemfromattendingtosuchfactors.Thisgivesusonemoreexplanationforwhytryingtomotivatepeoplebyrewardingthemis
notaveryusefulstrategy.

IV.RewardsDiscourageRisktaking

Rewardscansometimesincreasetheprobabilitythatwewillactthewaysomeonewantsustoact.Buttheydosomethingelseatthesametimethatmanyofusfailto
recoguize:theychangethewayweengageinagivenbehavior.29Tostartwith,whenwearedrivenbyrewards,ourfocusistypicallymorenarrowthanwhenno
rewardsareinvolvedwearelesslikelytonoticeorrememberthingsthataren'timmediatelyrelevanttowhatwearedoing.

Sayyouarehandedapileofindexcards,eachofwhichhasadifferentwordprintedonit.Eachcardalsohappenstobeadifferentcolor.Youaretoldthatyouwill
winaprizeforsuccessfullymemorizingallofthewords,andyousettoworklearningthem.Later,afterrecitingasmanyasyoucanremember,youareunexpectedly
askedto

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trytorecallthecolorofthecardthatcorrespondstoeachword.Chancesareyouwillnotdonearlyaswellonthistaskassomeonewhowasgiventheidentical
instructionsbutwasn'tpromisedaprize.30

Thisisanexampleofwhatresearcherscall"incidentallearning,"atypeofperformancethatrewardsinvariablyundermine.Butthereasonthishappensisevenmore
importantthantheeffectitself.Theunderlyingprinciplecanbesummarizedthisway:whenweareworkingforareward,wedoexactlywhatisnecessarytogetit
andnomore.Notonlyarewelessapttonoticeperipheralfeaturesofthetask,butinperformingitwearealsolesslikelytotakechances,playwithpossibilities,
followhunchesthatmightnotpayoff.Risksaretobeavoidedwheneverpossiblebecausetheobjectiveisnottoengageinanopenendedencounterwithideasitis
simplytogetthegoody.Onegroupofresearchersexplainedthatwhenwearemotivatedbyrewards,"featuressuchaspredictabilityandsimplicityaredesirable,since
theprimaryfocusassociatedwiththisorientationistogetthroughthetaskexpedientlyinordertoreachthedesiredgoal."31Anotherpsychologistwasmoresuccinct:
rewards,hesaid,arethe"enemiesofexploration."32

Thisdoesn'tmeanthatwecan'tgetpeopletotakesomekindsofrisksbyholdingoutthepossibilityofarewardiftheyaresuccessful.Thesportssectionandthe
businesssectionofthenewspaperarefullofactivitiesonwhichpeoplegamblemoneyinthehopesofmakingmore.Butnoticehownarrowthissortofrisktakingis.
First,gamblerstrytomaximizetheirwinningsbyminimizingtherisks:thisiswhytheystudyhorsesorstockscarefullybeforebettingonthem.Themoretheyare
concernedaboutthepayback,themorecertaintytheyseekevenwithinanactivitythat,bydefinition,cannotprovideabsolutecertainty.Second,gamblersare
engagedindoingsomethingwherethenature(andsometimeseventhepreciseextent)oftheriskshasbeenclearlylaidout.Theyarenotinvolvedinchallengingthe
boundsofanactivitybyapproachingitfromanewdirection.Byplayingtheodds,theyare,paradoxically,doingsomethingquitestraightforward.

Bycontrast,thefarmoremeaningfulkindofrisktakingentailedbyexploringnewpossibilitiesispreciselywhatpeopleareunlikelytodowhentheyaretryingtoobtain
areward.Farmorecommoninmostactivitiesisanorientationofunreflectiveexpediencetheveryoppositeofwhatcreativityrequires.

TeresaAmabile,whospecializesinthistopic,asksustopicturearatinthebehaviorist'smazetryingtofinditswaytothecheese.Theratdoesnotstoptoweighthe
advantagesoftryinganotherroute,

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startingoffonapathwherethecheddarsmellislesspronouncedinthehopeoffindingaclevershortcut.No,itjustrunstowardwhereitthinksitsbreakfastwaits,as
fastasitstinylegscantakeit."Thesafest,surest,andfastestwayoutofthemaze[is]thewellwornpathway,theuncreativeroute,"saysAmabile."Themoresingle
mindedlyanexternalgoalispursued,thelesslikely...thatcreativepossibilitieswillbeexplored."Thenarrowfocusinducedbyrewardsissimilarlyworrisome,she
adds,sincebeingopento"theseeminglyirrelevantaspects[ofatask]mightbepreciselywhatisrequiredforcreativity."33Incidentallearningmayturnouttobe
integral.

Butwhatifcreativityisbuiltintotheprocess?Ifpeoplewilldowhateverisrequiredtoobtainareward,won'ttheythinkcreativelyifthat'swhatittakestogetit?Alas,
it'snotthateasy,asBarrySchwartzdiscovered.Usingreinforcements,hetriedunsuccessfullytogetpigeonstopeckinasequencethatwasdifferentfromtheir
peckingpatternintheprecedingsession.Eventually,heconcludedthatitwaspossibletoproducevariation,butonlyintheformofrandomresponses.Thedifficultyof
tryingtooperantlyconditiongenuinelynovelbehavior,heargued,isnotduetothefactthatpigeonsaren'tverysmart.Itisinherentinthenatureofreinforcement.We
havetobeabletospecifyasetofcharacteristicssharedbycertainbehaviorssothatwecanofferarewardwhenthey(andonlythey)appear.Butthisisimpossibleto
dowhenwhatwearelookingforissomethingnew.34

Schwartzthenswitchedtohumansubjectsandmorecomplicatedtasks(seepage44).Hefoundthatrewardssometimesseemedtoelicita"stereotypic"orrepetitive
approachtodoingthings.Afterall,"onceonefindssomeresponsepatternthatworksreliably[tosecureareward],itispointless,evenfoolish,todeviatefromit."35
Unfortunately,Schwartzfound,whenwearerewardedforwhatwearedoing,wearelesslikelytobeflexibleandinnovativeinthewaywesolveproblemseven
verydifferentproblemsthatcomealonglater.Why?"Reinforcementencouragestherepetitionofwhathasworkedinthepast,inpartbecausetheaimofthe
activityisnottoproducesomethinglikeageneralprincipleorarule,buttoproduceanotherreinforcer."36

Tobeagoodscientist,behavioralorotherwise,onehastoexpectandevenwelcomesomenegativeresults.Itisonlybycomparingeventsthatleadtoacertain
outcomewiththosethatdon'tleadtoitthatwecanfigureoutwhatisgoingonandwhy.But,asSchwartzobserves,peopleworkingforrewardsdon'twanttorisk
negativeresultstheywanttosucceedasoftenandasquicklyaspossible.This,

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ofcourse,hasimportantimplicationsnotonlyforhowwetrainphysicistsbutalsohowwesetuporganizationsandclassroomsinwhichwewanttoencouragepeople
tothinksystematicallyaboutanything.

Itisnotentirelyaccurate,though,tosaythatwhenweareworkingforrewardswejustwantfastandfrequentsuccess.Thetruthisevenworsethanthat.Our
objectiveisnotreallytosucceedatthetaskatall(inthesenseofdoingitwell)itistosucceedatobtainingthereward.Ifitweresomehowpossibletoobtainit
withoutfinishingtheassignment,wewouldabandonthetaskinaminute.KurtLewinsaidasmuchinthe1930stworesearchersconfirmedthiseffectempiricallyinthe
1980s.37*

Ifwedousuallycompletethetask,itisonlybecausedoingsoisaprerequisiteforgettingthegoody.Butevenwhenthisistrue,wewill,givenachoice,selectthe
easiestpossibletask.Atleasttenstudieshavefoundjustthat,withpreschoolersworkingfortoys,olderchildrenworkingforgrades,andadultsworkingformoneyall
tryingtoavoidanythingchallenging.39Furthermore,researchindicatesthat(1)thebiggerthereward,theeasierthetaskthatpeoplechoose40(2)whentherewards
stop,thosewhoreceivedthemearliercontinuetoprefertodoaslittleaspossible41and(3)easiertasksareselectednotonlyinsituationswhererewardsareoffered
butbypeoplewhoare,asageneralrule,morerewardoriented.42

Thebasicpropositionheremakeslogicalsense.Ifyouhavebeenpromisedareward,youcometoseethetaskassomethingthatstandsbetweenyouandit.The
easierthatjobis,thefasteryoucanbedonewithitandpickupyourprize.43It'slogical,allright,butthepracticalimplicationsarestaggering.Ourworkplacesand
classrooms,saturatedinpopbehaviorismastheyare,havetheeffectofdiscouragingpeoplefromtakingrisks,thinkingcreatively,andchallengingthemselves.

Considerthepopularprogramthatoffersfreepizzatochildrenforreadingacertainnumberofbooks.Ifyouwereaparticipantinthisprogram,whatsortofbooks
wouldyoubelikelytoselect?Probablyshort,simpleones.Andwhatwouldbethelikelyeffectofthisprefer
*Bycontrast,fromtheperspectiveoftheindividualdolingouttherewards,"theultimategoalofbehaviormodificationshouldalwaysbetogetthemaximumbehaviorforthe
minimumreinforcement,"astwoadvocatesoftokeneconomiesputit.38Theveryessenceofrewardingpeople,then,setstherewardgiverandrecipienttoworkingatcross
purposesanotherwaytothinkaboutitseffectsonrelationships.

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enceonyourreadingskillsandyourattitudetowardbooks?Theanswerisdistressinglyobvious.Ifwewantchildrentoreadmore,toreadcarefully,andtocareabout
reading,thenofferingthembribesedibleorotherwiseisexactlythewrongwaytogoaboutit.

Likewise,ingettingstudentstoconcentrateonthegradestheywillreceiveforsuccessfullycompletinganassignment,wemaymanagetogetthemtodoit.Butwhat
sortoftaskswilltheycometopreferasaresult?Everytimeateacherremindstheclasswhatanassignmentis"worth"(notintermsofitsmeaning,ofcourse,butin
termsofhowmanypointstowardagradeitrepresents),everytimeaparentasksachildwhathe"got"onapaper(ratherthanwhathegotfromtheactofwritingit),
animportantlessonisbeingtaught.Thelessonisthatschoolisnotaboutplayingwithideasortakingintellectualrisksitisaboutdoingwhatisnecessary,andonly
whatisnecessary,tosnagabetterletterornumber.Moststudentswillquicklyaccommodateus,choosing"todothatwhichwillmaximizethegradeandnotattempt
[ing]tasksinwhichtheymightfail,eventhoughtheywouldchoosetochallengethemselvestoagreaterdegreeunderothercircumstances."44

Thelastpartofthatquotationiscritical.Ifithasescapedournoticeupuntilnowthatrewardsgrades,ofcourse,beingonlyoneexamplehavetheseunhappy
effects,thismaybebecauseweassumethatpeoplenaturallyavoidchallengingthemselves,thatitis"humannature"tobelazy.Theevidenceshowsthatifanything
deservestobecallednatural,itisthetendencytoseekoptimalchallenge,tostruggletomakesenseoftheworld,tofoolaroundwithunfamiliarideas.Humanbeings
areinclinedtopushthemselvestosucceedatsomething(moderately)difficult.45Asarule,weretreatfromdoingsoandtaketheeasywayoutonlywhensomething
elseintervenessomethinglikerewards.Ifpeopleallaroundusgenerallypicktheeasytask,itmaybebecauserewardsareallaroundustoo.

Justasitispossibleforabehaviorallyorientedteachertothinkaboutthedeeperreasonsforastudent'sactions,soitisconceivablethatsomeonepromisedareward
couldchoosetotakerisksandworkonchallengingtasks.Theoretically,forthatmatter,almostanypsychologicaleffectcanbeovercomebysomeonewhois
sufficientlydetermined.Butforthistohappen,onemustswimupstream,attemptingtotranscendthemindsetthatrewards,bytheirverynature,tendtoinduce.Most
peopleproddedbythepromiseofarewardwillapproachtasksinthemannerdescribedhere.Ifthatorientationdisturbsus,thenurgingpeopleto"becreative"or"go
theextramile"is

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apttobefarlesseffectivethantakingahardlookatouruseofrewardstogetpeopletoperform.

"Dothisandyou'llgetthat"makespeoplefocusonthe"that,"notthe"this."46Promptingemployeestothinkabouthowmuchwillbeintheirpayenvelopes,or
studentstoworryaboutwhatwillbeontheirreportcards,isaboutthelaststrategyweoughttouseifwecareaboutcreativity.Wecansummarizethisdiscussionas
follows:Dorewardsmotivatepeople?Absolutely.Theymotivatepeopletogetrewards.

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5
CuttingtheInterestRate:TheFifthReasonRewardsFail
Whowouldhavethoughtthatplaycouldbeturnedintoworkbyrewardingpeoplefordoingwhattheyliketodo?
RosemarieAndersonetal.,1976

Wecomenowtowhatisprobablythemosttragicsingleconsequenceofappliedbehaviorismand,atthesametime,themostimportantreasonforitsfailure:how
rewardschangethewaypeoplefeelaboutwhattheydo.

Psychologistssometimesrefertorewardsandpunishmentsas"extrinsic"motivators,becausetheyareinducementsoutsideofthetaskitself.Peoplewhohavebeenled
tothinkintermsofwhattheywillgetfordoingsomethingcanbedescribedasextrinsicallymotivated.Theoppositeofthisisintrinsicmotivation,whichbasically
meansenjoyingwhatonedoesforitsownsake.*

Ifourgoalisquality,oralastingcommitmenttoavalueorbehavior,noartificialincentivecanmatchthepowerofintrinsicmotivation.Thinkaboutsomeoneyouknow
whoistrulysuperlativeathisjob.NowaskyourselfwhetherhehasabumperstickeronhiscarthatsaysIOWE,IOWE...IT'SOFFTOWORKIGOor
THANKGODIT'SFRIDAYorWORKSUCKS,BUTINEEDTHEBUCKS.(Onecouldscarcelyimaginemorevividsignsofaneconomicsystemincrisis.)
Clearly,thisisnotthesortofsentimentweassociatewithpeoplewhodoexcellentwork.Suchpeoplemaybegladtobepaid,andevenmoregladtobewellpaid,but
theydonotseethemselvesas
*Forafullerdiscussionoftheconceptofintrinsicmotivation,seeAppendixB.

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workingprimarilyinordertocollectapaycheck.Theylovewhattheydo.Sometimestheyevenkeepdoingitontheirowntime.

Thisdoesn'tmeanthatourinterestinataskfullyaccountsforhowwellwedoit1 orevencompletelyexplainswhyperformancedropsinthepresenceofrewards.2
Butintrinsicmotivationremainsapowerfulpredictorofhowgoodajobsomeonewilldointheworkplaceorhowsuccessfullyheorshewilllearninschool.Asone
groupofresearcherssummeduptheavailableevidence,''Intrinsicallymotivatedpeoplefunctioninperformancesettingsinmuchthesamewayasthosehighin
achievementmotivationdo:Theypursueoptimalchallenges,displaygreaterinnovativeness,andtendtoperformbetterunderchallengingconditions."3

Fewreaderswillbeshockedbythenewsthatextrinsicmotivatorsareapoorsubstituteforgenuineinterestinwhatoneisdoing.Whatislikelytobefarmore
surprisinganddisturbingisthefurtherpointthatrewards,likepunishments,actuallyunderminetheintrinsicmotivationthatpromotesoptimalperformance.Ihave
alreadyofferedhintsaboutthisphenomenonindescribinghowcomingtoseeourselvesasengaginginatasktogetarewardtypicallyaltersthewayweviewthattask.
Wewillnowexplorethiseffectmorecarefully.

TheOldMan'sPlan

Psychology,andsocialpsychologyinparticular,isoftenaccusedofdoinglittlemorethanratifyingcommonsenseanddescribingwhatwealreadyknewtobetruein
moreimpressivesoundinglanguage.Whenresearchersfindsomethingthatupsetstheconventionalwisdom,itisthereforeworthpayingattention.Thediscoveryof
howrewardsaffectachievementoffersatextbookexampleofsuchacounterintuitivefinding(evenifitisstillignoredbymanypsychologytextbooks).Andifwepeel
backtheeffectonachievement,wefindourselveslookingatsomethingnolessfundamentalandsignificant:theeffectofrewardsoninterest.

Thisresearchfirstappearedintheearly1970s,withtwoinvestigatorsstumblingontothesamefindingindependently,asoftenhappensinscience.Inthiscase,thetwo
werepsychologistsintheirlatetwentieswholivedacrossthecountryfromeachotherandfavoreddifferentexperimentalapproaches.EdwardDeci,attheUniversity
ofRochester,performedthefirstofwhatturnedouttobeaseriesof

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experimentswithcollegestudents.Thebasicdesignwasingeniouslysimpleand,astendstobethecaseinsocialpsychology,alittledeceptive.Eachsubjectwasasked
toworkonaninterestingspatialrelationspuzzle.Halfwerepromisedmoneytheotherhalfweren't.Thentheexperimenterannouncedthatitwouldbeafewminutes
beforethenextphaseofthestudygotstarted.Thesubjectwasleftaloneinaroomtowait,whereheorshecouldcontinueplayingwiththepuzzle,readamagazine,or
daydream.

Actually,thiswasthenextphaseofthestudythesubjectsweresecretlywatchedtoseehowlongtheyworkedonthepuzzlewhentheyhadachoice.Thosewhohad
beenpaid,itturnedout,nowspentlesstimeonitthanthosewhohadn'tbeenpaid.Itappearedthatworkingforarewardmadepeoplelessinterestedinthetask.Or,
asDeciputit,"moneymayworkto'buyoff'one'sintrinsicmotivationforanactivity."4

Whenthepublishedreportofthisexperimentarrivedwithhismail,MarkLepperofStanfordUniversitywasalreadybusywritinguptheresultsofhisownstudy.
Lepper'sinterestinthesubjecthadbeenkindledinthelate1960s,whenheobservedyoungchildreninHeadStartclassrooms.Manyteachersthereusedrewardsto
inducechildrentoplaywithlearninggames,whichtheydutifullydid.Butwhentherewardswerenolongeravailable,Leppernoticedthatthekidswantednothingtodo
withtheseactivitiesanymorewhereasinclassroomsthatleftituptothechildrentodecidewhattoplaywith,lotsofthemeagerlyplayedwiththeverysamegames.

"Youdidn'thavetobeapsychologisttoseethattherewardsworkedtheyreallycontrolledkids'behavior,"Lepperremarkedmanyyearslater."Butthenegative
effectswerehardertosee,I'mnotsureIwouldhavenoticedthemmyselfifIhadn'tgonetotheseotherschools[thatdidn'tuserewards]wherekidswerelovingthe
activities."5

LepperandhiscolleaguessetaboutconductinganexperimenttofigureoutwhathadbeengoingoninthoseHeadStartclassrooms.Theygavefiftyonepreschoolers
achancetodrawwithMagicMarkerssomethingthatmostchildrenofthatagefindveryappealing.Someofthem,however,weretoldthatiftheydrewpictures
theywouldeachreceiveaspecial,personalizedcertificate,decoratedwitharedribbonandagoldstar.Betweenaweekandtwoweekslater,thechildrenwere
observedintheirclassrooms.Thosewhohadbeentoldinadvanceofthecertificatetheywouldreceive,Lepperdiscovered,nowseemedtobelessinterestedin
drawingwithMagicMarkersthan

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theotherchildrenwereandlessinterestedthantheythemselveshadbeenbeforetherewardwasoffered.6

Deci'sstudylookedattheimmediateeffectsthatafinancialrewardhadonadults'interestinapuzzle.Lepper'sstudylookedatthedelayedeffectsthatasymbolic
rewardhadonchildren'sinterestindrawing.Despitethedifferencesindesign,thetwoexperimentsconvergedonasingleconclusion:extrinsicrewardsreduce
intrinsicmotivation.People'sinterestinwhattheyaredoingtypicallydeclineswhentheyarerewardedfordoingit.Overthenexttwodecades,scoresofother
studiesconfirmedthisconclusion.7 Althoughvariousfactors,whichIwilltalkaboutlater,dohaveanimpactonthestrengthofthiseffect,andwhilecriticismsof
varyingdegreesofpersuasivenesshavebeenleveledagainstthisbodyofresearch(seeAppendixC),thecentralfindinghasbeendocumentedbeyondanyreasonable
doubt.Remarkably,however,itisnotwidelyknownevenintheneighboringfieldsofeducationalandorganizationalpsychology,muchlessinthecultureatlarge.

Ontheonehand,mostpeoplearesurprisedtolearnthatrewardskillinterest.Itiswidelyanderroneouslyassumedthatifyouaddaninducement(suchasmoneyor
grades)todosomething,anindividual'smotivationtodoitwillautomaticallyincrease.Ontheotherhand,oncethefindingisdescribedandexplained,manypeople
immediatelyrecognizeitsplausibility.8 Mostofus,afterall,canthinkofsomethingweusedtodojustbecausewefounditenjoyableuntilwestartedgettingpaidfor
engagingintheactivity,afterwhichtherewasnowaywewouldconsiderdoingitforfree.Somehowourintrinsicinterestevaporatedafterrewardswereintroduced.

Anoldjokecapturesthisphenomenonaswellasanystudycould.Itisthestoryofanelderlymanwhoenduredtheinsultsofacrowdoftenyearoldseachdayas
theypassedhishouseontheirwayhomefromschool.Oneafternoon,afterlisteningtoanotherroundofjeersabouthowstupidanduglyandbaldhewas,theman
cameupwithaplan.HemetthechildrenonhislawnthefollowingMondayandannouncedthatanyonewhocamebackthenextdayandyelledrudecommentsabout
himwouldreceiveadollar.Amazedandexcited,theyshowedupevenearlieronTuesday,holleringepithetsforalltheywereworth.Truetohisword,theoldman
ambledoutandpaideveryone."Dothesametomorrow,"hetoldthem,"andyou'llgettwentyfivecentsforyourtrouble."Thekidsthoughtthatwasstillprettygood
andturnedoutagainonWednesdaytotaunthim.Atthefirstcatcall,hewalkedoverwitharollofquartersandagainpaidoff

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hishecklers.''Fromnowon,"heannounced,"Icangiveyouonlyapennyfordoingthis."Thekidslookedateachotherindisbelief."Apenny?"theyrepeated
scornfully."Forgetit!"Andtheynevercamebackagain.

Theoldman'splanwasslybutalsoelegantlysimple.Herewardedthechildrenforsomethingtheyhadbeendoingvoluntarily,somethingtheythoughtwasfun,and
rightawaytheycametoseethemselvesasharassinghiminordertogetpaid.Assoonastherewardwasnolongerthere,neitherwerethey.This,ofcourse,wasthe
wholeidea:tosaptheirintrinsicmotivation.Butthatisalsowhatmillionsofuswellmeaningparents,teachers,andmanagersaredoingtothepeoplewereward,
whetherwerealizeitornot:killingofftheirinterestintheverythingswearebribingthemtodo.

Oneofthemostmemorablestudiestoconfirmthiseffectwasconductedbyaresearcherwhosespecialtyistheinvestigationnotofrewardsbutoffoodpreferences.
LeannLippsBirchandhercolleaguesattheUniversityofIllinoistookagroupofchildrenandgotthemtodrinkkefir,afruitflavoredyogurtbeveragetheyhadnever
tastedbefore.Thechildrenweredividedintothreegroups:somewerejusthandedafullglass,somewerepraised("That'sverygood,youdrankitallthewaydown"),
andsomeweregivenafreemovieticketfordrinkingit.

Whodrankmore?Skinner,ofcourse,wouldpredicthigherlevelsofconsumptionbythosewhoreceivedeitherverbalortangiblereinforcement.Washeright?
WheneverIputthisquestiontoagroupofpeoplewhohavejustlistenedtoanaccountofhowrewardsarebadnews,mostofthemnowassumethateverything
SkinnersaysmustbewrongoratleastthatIwouldn'tbringupthestudyunlessitrefutedhisprediction.Infact,though,hispredictionisabsolutelycorrect.Ifa
rewardisattractiveenough,peoplewilldoalmostanythingtogetit.Afewextragulpsofliquidyogurtaresurelyworthamovieticket.

ButBirchwasnotinterestedinwhowoulddrinkmorekefiratthetimetherewardswereoffered.Whatshewantedtoknowwashowtheincentiveswouldaffectthe
children'slongtermpreferences.Whatshefoundwasthatthosewhogotnothingfordrinkingitlikedthebeveragejustasmuch,ifnotmore,aweeklater.Butthose
whohadreceivedticketsor,tohersurprise,praisenowfoundthestuffmuchlessappealing.9

Withthepossibleexceptionofdairyfarmers,nooneparticularlycareswhatchildrenthinkaboutkefir.Thepoint,ofcourse,isthatreinforcementcanalsokillataste
forcreativewritingorfinancialanalysisorgenerousbehaviororanythingelsewevalue.Infact,this

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effectissopredictablethatrewardingpeoplemightevenberegardedasacleverstrategyfordeliberatelyundermininginterestinsomething.RecentlyIwastoldabout
aSundayschoolteacherwhohandedoutcandybarswhenherstudentscorrectlyrecitedBibleverses.Itoccurredtomethatthis,giventheprobablelongtermeffects,
wouldbeashrewdtacticforanardentopponentofreligiontouse.

Allthosereadingincentivecampaignsinflictedonelementaryschoolchildrenacrossthecountryprovidesoberingevidenceofjusthowmanyparentsandeducatorsare
trappedbySkinnerianthinking.Theyalsoillustratetheconsequencesofextrinsicmotivatorsmoregenerally.AskedaboutthelikelyresultsofPizzaHut'spopularfood
forreadingprogram,educationalpsychologistJohnNichollsreplied,onlyhalfinjest,thatitwouldprobablyproduce"alotoffatkidswhodon'tliketoread."10

ConsiderthefollowingexcerptfromarecentarticleinUSAToday:
Whenschoolletoutforthesummer,aPhiladelphiamotherwasconcernedher9yearoldsonwouldtakeathreemonthvacationfromreading.

"Hehasnotlearnedtolovebooks,"ChristinaLongsaidthen."Heonlyreadswhat'srequiredofhim."

ThatwasbeforeGregPrestegordlearnedhecouldearnpacksofbaseballcardsandotherprizesbyreadingbooksthroughhislibrary'ssummerreadingprogram.

Twodayslatertheavidbaseballfancheckedoutsixbooks.

"That'swhyI'mdoingit,"Gregsays."Imusthaveamillionbaseballcards."11

Thearticlegoesontonotethatthissummerprogramissimilartoothersaroundthecountrythatoffermovieparties,zoopasses,andotherprizestochildrenwhopick
upenoughbooks.Presumablythelibrarianswhoadministerthemandtheparentswhosupportthemhavetheverybestofintentions.ButifMs.Longistypical,they
arenotlisteningtowhattheirchildrenaretellingthem.Gregisbothcandidandunequivocal:thebaseballcardsare"whyI'mdoingit,"hesays.Thus,heisstillreading
(ashismotherputsit)"only...what'srequiredofhim"allthathaschangedisthatreadingisnowrequiredtogetacardinsteadofagrade.Aprogramthatturns
vacationreadingintosomethingonehastodotoobtainarewardishardlylikelytoproducechildrenwhohave"learnedtolovebooks."Quitethecontrary.

"Butatleasthe'sreadingnow,"Ms.Longmightprotest."Atleasthe'sbeingintroducedtonewbooks!"Andthisistrue.Thereward

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buysusabehaviorinthiscase,theactofcheckingoutabookandreadingit.Butatwhatprice?Thequalityofperformanceingeneral(aswesawinchapter3)and
oflearninginparticular(aswe'llseeinchapter8)tendtodeclinesignificantlywhenpeopleareextrinsicallymotivated.Oncethelibraryrunsoutofbaseballcards,
childrenarenotonlyunlikelytocontinuereadingtheyarelesslikelytoreadthantheywerebeforetheprogrambegan.Thinkaboutit:readinghasbeenpresentednot
asapleasurableexperiencebutasameansforobtainingagoody.Theexperienceofchildreninanelementaryschoolclasswhoseteacherintroducedaninclass
readingforrewardprogramcanbemultipliedhundredsofthousandsoftimes:
Therateofbookreadingincreasedastronomically...[buttheuseofrewardsalso]changedthepatternofbookselection(shortbookswithlargeprintbecameideal).Italso
seemedtochangethewaychildrenread.Theywereoftenunabletoanswerstraightforwardquestionsaboutabook,evenonetheyhadjustfinishedreading.Finally,itdecreased
theamountofreadingchildrendidoutsideofschool.12

Noticewhatisgoingonhere.Theproblemisnotjustthattheeffectsofrewardsdon'tlastalthough,aswesawinchapter3,thatistrueinonesense:longterm
changeofthekindwewantisnoteffectedbymanipulatingpeople'sbehaviorwithincentives.Themoresignificantproblemispreciselythattheeffectsofrewardsdo
last,buttheseeffectsaretheoppositeofwhatwewerehopingtoproduce.Whatrewardsdo,andwhattheydowithdevastatingeffectiveness,issmotherpeople's
enthusiasmforactivitiestheymightotherwiseenjoy.

TheScopeoftheEffect

Furtherscientificexaminationsofhowrewardsaffectintrinsicmotivationhaveturnedupadditionalevidenceoftheextentoftheirdestructivepower.Asingle,onetime
rewardfordoingsomethingyouusedtoenjoycankillyourinterestinitforweeks.13Itcanhavethateffectonalongtermbasis,infact,evenifitdidn'tseemtobe
controllingyourbehavioratthetimeyoureceivedit.14Therewardmayalsospillovertospoilyourattitudeaboutbrandnewactivities,15ineffectmakingyoumore
dependentonextrinsicincentivesgenerally.Andjustasyoudon'thavetobetheonesmokingacigaretteinordertobeharmedbyit,merelywatchingsomeoneelse
getarewardforengaginginsomeactivitycanhaveatleastatemporarymotivationkillingeffect.16

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Thescoresofstudiesthathavedocumentedtheharmsofrewardshaveusedmanydifferenttypesofincentiveswithoutanyapparentdifferenceinresult.Candycan
spoilone'sappetitefortheactivityinquestion,butsotoocanmoney,achancetoplaywithatoy(foryoungchildren)oracamera(forolderchildren),acertificateor
award,atourofacollegepsychologydepartment(forhighschoolstudents),movietickets,andmanyotherextrinsicincentives.

Thatdoesn'tmeanthatallrewardsshouldbetreatedasiftheywereequal.Theremaybeotherreasonsforobjectingmorestrenuouslytotheuseofcertaingoodies.
Forexample,weshouldbeespeciallyconcernedaboutpresentingfoodasaprizeonaregularbasisifthereisanychancethatdoingsocouldcontributetoeating
disorders.Moreimportant,somethingsoughttobemadeavailableunconditionally,suchasloveandaffectionforchildrenorcertainbasicrightsforpeoplein
institutions,andthereforeshouldnotbepresentedasrewardsforactingincertainways.

Thesespecificconcernsaside,though,anyrewardhasthepowertomakeataskseemlessinteresting.Thebasicdemotivatingeffect,moreover,occurswithallkinds
ofpeople.

Age

Clearly,aswehaveseen,"theeffectsofrewardsonintrinsicmotivationhavebeenfoundtobesimilaracrosstheages,"fromveryyoungchildrentoadults.17Oneis
nevertooyoungortoooldtohaveone'sinterestinataskreducedwhenthattaskispresentedasawayofgettingareward.

Sex

Menandwomen,boysandgirls,respondtorewardsinprettymuchthesamewaymostresearchershavehadnoreasontoexpectdifferentresultsonthebasisof
genderandhavefoundnone.18(Theoneexceptiontothistrendconcernsresponsestopraise,whichtendstoaffectfemalesmorenegativelythanmales,forreasonsto
bediscussedinchapter6.)Therehasn'tbeenmuchresearchongenderdifferencesinoverallextrinsicorintrinsicorientation,andthatwhichhasbeenpublisheddoesn't
pointtoaclearconclusion.19Ofcourse,malesandfemalesmayresponddifferentlytoaparticularreward(suchasgradesormoney)dependingonwhattheyhave
beenraisedtovalue.Butgivenrewardsthatareequivalentlydesirable,thetasksforwhichtheyaregivenwillthemselvesbevaluedlessbypeopleofeithergender.

Raceandsocialclass

AsfarasIcandetermine,noresearcherhaseversetouttoinvestigatewhetherrewardsaffectone'sinterestinataskdifferentlydependingonraceorsocialstatus.
Therearesomedata,however,onhowrewardsaffecttaskperformance.Studiesinthe1950sand1960sfoundthat"lowerclass"children,unliketheir

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middleclasscounterparts,tendedtoperformbetteroncertainisolatedtaskswhengiventangibleincentivessuchascandy.20Thereason,sometheoristsproposed,is
that"the'extrinsiccontext'ismorecommoninlowerincomehomes."21Sincerewardscan,ineffect,displaceanintrinsicorientation,itisconceivablethatasteadydiet
ofthem(withorwithoutpunishments)couldmakesomeonemoredependentonextrinsicmotivators.Butasofthe1970s,mostresearchersstoppedfindingtheseclass
differences:tangiblerewardseitherdidn'timproveoractuallyimpededthequalityofperformancebyblackchildrenoflowsocioeconomicstatus,justastheydidwith
middleclasswhites.22Moreover,surveysdesignedtomeasuretheintrinsicmotivationofstudentshavefoundnodifferencesbyraceorsocialclass.23(Not
surprisingly,though,adultsintheworkplacedotendtobealotmoreconcernedaboutmoneyiftheyaren'tmakingmuchofitandhaveverylittlesayoverwhatthey
doallday:"Mantendstoliveforbreadalonewhenthereislittlebread,"asDouglasMcGregoronceputit.)24

TheReasonfortheEffect

Ihaveofferedfiveseparatereasonstoaccountforthedeclineinperformanceassociatedwithrewards,oneofthembeingthedeclineininterestinthetask.Buthow
doweaccount,inturn,forthateffectforwhatrewardsdotointerest?Variousexplanationshavebeenproposedovertheyears,25anditisprobablyimpossibleto
proveonceandforallthatanyoneofthemiscorrect.Twoseemtostandout,though,asespeciallyplausibleandstraightforward.

Thefirstexplanationhasanappealingsimplicitytoitandseemstomakesenseonthebasisofourreallifeexperience:anythingpresentedasaprerequisitefor
somethingelsethatis,asameanstowardsomeotherendcomestobeseenaslessdesirable."Dothisandyou'llgetthat"automaticallydevaluesthe"this."
Therecipientoftherewardfigures,"Iftheyhavetobribemetodothis,itmustbesomethingIwouldn'twanttodo."OrastheeducatorA.S.Neillputit,promisinga
rewardforanactivityis"tantamounttodeclaringthattheactivityisnotworthdoingforitsownsake.''26Thus,aparentwhosaystoachild,''Ifyoufinishyourmath
homework,youmaywatchanhourofTV"isteachingthechildtothinkofmathassomethingthatisn'tmuchfun.

NearlyadecadeafterMarkLepperkilledpreschoolers'interestindrawingwithMagicMarkersbygivingthemanaward,hewentbacktothesameschoolwitha
newplan.Henoticedthatchildrenordinar

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ilylovetodrawnotonlywithfelttippensbutalsowithpastelcrayons.Sohetoldhalfofthemthatinordertobeabletodrawwiththepenstheywouldfirsthaveto
spendsometimedrawingwiththecrayonstheotherhalfweretoldthereverse.Whenhereturnedtwotothreeweekslater,hefound,sureenough,thatwhichever
activityhadbeentheprerequisitefortheotherwasnowsomethingthechildrenwerelessinterestedindoing.27Otherresearchers,meanwhile,havefoundthatthe
greatertheincentiveweareoffered,themorenegativelywewilltendtoviewtheactivityforwhichwereceivedit.28

Evenpeoplecanbedevalued(asKantrealized)ifhumaninteractionisseenasameanstosomeotherend.Whenchildrenwereinvitedtoplaywithsomeoneelsein
orderthattheymighthaveaccesstooneofthatchild'stoysor,inanotherstudy,whentheywereofferedcookiesforplayingwithapartnertheywereless
interestedinfutureinteractionswiththeotherchild.Similarly,collegestudents,exceptthosewhowereveryshy,turnedouttobelesslikelytocontinuetalkingwitha
strangeriftheyhadbeenpaidearlierfordoingso.29

Thesamemeansendsexplanationprobablyaccountsfortheresultsofthekefirexperiment:thebeveragewasinstantlydevaluedbybeingpresented,ineffect,as
somethingyougotrewardedfordrinking.Anotherpairofresearcherssubsequentlyconfirmedthatchildrenwerelesslikelytochooseasnackfoodthathadearlier
beenpresentedassomethingtheyhadtofinishinordertoeatsomethingelseeventhoughthetwofoodswereviewedasequallyappealingbeforetheexperiment.
(Justgivingthechildrenonesnackbeforetheotherdidn'thavethiseffect.)30Infact,amischievousresearchermightbetemptedtotestthelimitsofthismechanismby
tellingatoddler,"NoBrusselssproutsforyou,youngman,untilIseeeverybitoficecreamgonefromthatdish."*

Evenifprerequisitesdocometoseemlessattractive,doesthatmeanthatendsbecomemoreattractive?Behavioristsobservethatanyactivityweparticularlyenjoy
canbeusedasareinforcer(togetustodosomethingelse)isitalsotruethatanythingusedasareinforcerwill
*Actually,onegraduatestudenthasconductedsuchastudy,andthemajorresultwasamuseddisbelieffromhersubjects.Presumablythesechildren,threetofouryearsold,had
alreadybeenintroducedtothesamefoodsundertheusualcontingencypatternvegetablesasprerequisite,dessertasrewardsotheyjustgiggledatthereversal.31Ideally,
theexperimentwouldhavetobeconductedwhenthesefoodswerefirstofferedtothem,assumingparentscouldbringitoffwithastraightface.Eventhen,itislikelythatthe
inherentappealofasweet,fattyfoodlikeicecreammightoverrideitsstatusasameanstoanotherend.(Likewise,nothingshortofamiraclecouldmakemostpeoplelookforward
tobitingdownonaBrusselssprout.)

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becomesomethingweenjoy?Whenwehear"Dothisandyou'llgetthat,"inotherwords,dowecometolikethe"that"morethanwedidbefore?Thispossibility,
dubbedthe''bonuseffect,''hasreceivedonlylimitedsupport.Oneteamofresearchersdidfindthatanactivitylookedbettertochildrenwhowereallowedtoengagein
itasarewardthanitdidtotheirpeers.32WhenLeppertoldchildrentheyhadtodrawwithpensbeforetheycoulddrawwiththecrayons,however,interestinthe
penswentdownbutinterestinthecrayonsdidn'tgoup.Likewise,thetwosnackstudydidn'tfindenhancedappealfortherewardsnackonlydiminishedappeal
fortheprerequisitesnack.

JohnNicholls,whosuggestedthatpizzaforreadingprogramsarelikelytoproducefatkidswhodon'tliketoread,laterjokedthatwemightbemoresuccessfulat
gettingchildrenhookedonreadingifweoffered"afreebookforeverypizzatheyeat."It'sacleverline,butisitapromisingstrategy?Canweturnthedestructive
effectsofrewardstoouradvantagesimplybyturningthebehaviororobjectwewanttopromoteintothegoodytobegained?Probablynot.Thereasonisthatthereis
asecondexplanationforthelossofinterest:rewardsareusuallyexperiencedascontrolling,andwetendtorecoilfromsituationswhereourautonomyhas
beendiminished.Simplyexchangingthemeansandendsdoesn'tchangethiscrucialfeatureofappliedbehaviorismandthereforewillnotmitigateitsnegativeeffecton
intrinsicmotivation.

ForyearsEdwardDeci,RichardRyan,andotherswhohavepassedthroughthepsychologydepartmentattheUniversityofRochesterhavebeenpropoundingand
refiningthisexplanation.33Itspremiseisthatallofushaveabasicdesiretofedselfdeterminingor,asRicharddeCharmswouldhaveit,likean"origin"insteadofa
"pawn."Weneedtomaintainameasureofcontroloverourowndestiny,tohavesomechoiceaboutwhathappenstous.34Whensomethinginterfereswiththissense
ofselfdeterminationwhen,forexample,wearesimplytoldwhatwehavetodo(andhowandwhentodoit),variousundesirableconsequencesfollow.LaterIwill
describehowcontrollingenvironmentsaffectchildren'slearningandbehavior.Fornow,thepointtobeemphasizedisthat,allthingsbeingequal,wearelessinterested
indoingthingswhenwearemadetofeellikepawns.Ifwehaveverylittlediscretionaboutwhatwedoalldayatworkorschool,thereisagoodchancewewillspend
thetimewishingtheweekendwouldarrive.

Deci,Ryan,andtheircolleaguesarguethatarewardforactinginaparticularwaydoestwothings:itgivesusinformationaboutwhatwe

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havedone,anditcontrols(orattemptstocontrol)ourfuturebehavior.Themorevividlyweexperiencethelatter,themorelikelythatwewillloseinterestinwhatever
wearedoing.Ifwearedrawingapictureinthehopeofgettingaprize,orwritingareportinordertoreceiveafavorablerecommendation,wecometofeelthatour
workisnotfreelychosenanddirectedbyusrather,therewardis"pulling"ourbehaviorfromtheoutside."Intrinsicmotivationistheprototypicalformofself
determination,"35while''rewardsingeneralappeartohaveacontrollingsignificancetosomeextentandthusingeneralruntheriskofunderminingintrinsic
motivation."36

Iftheproblemwithrewardsisduetothefactthattheyarecontrolling,thenotherthingsthatlimitourabilitytobeselfdeterminingshouldhaveexactlythesameeffect
onhowwefeelaboutatask.37Someevidenceevensuggeststhattheextenttowhichweexperienceanenvironmentascontrollingisabetterpredictorofreduced
interestthanwhetherwehavebeenofferedareward.38Inanycase,thereisnoquestionthatintrinsicmotivationisoftencorrodedbycircumstancesotherthan
receivingrewards,suchaswhenweare

Threatened.Warningsaboutwhatwillhappenifwedon'tdosomethingwellenoughwillmakethatactivityalotlessappealingtous.39Iftherehasn'tbeenmuch
researchonthispoint,itisprobablybecausehardlyanyonedoubtsthatitistrue.(Thesurprisingdiscovery,afterall,isthatcarrotsaren'tmuchbetterthansticks.)

Watched.Studieswithchildrenaswellasadultssuggestthatwhenwearecarefullymonitoredasweworkonatask,wetendtoloseinterestinit.40Laterresearch
indicatesthatthiseffectseemstooccuronlywhenthesurveillanceisperceivedascontrollingforexample,whenwehavereasontothinkthattheobservationis
beingconductedtocheckourperformanceorcompliancewithinstructions(ratherthan,say,justoutofcuriosity).41Theimplicationsaredisturbing,giventhe
increaseduseofsurveillance,nowaidedbycomputers,inthemodernworkplace.*

Expectingtobeevaluated.Closelyconnectedtosurveillanceisevaluationthepurposeofwatching,afterall,isusuallytoseehow
*Infact,thedisadvantagesofthispracticeextendbeyonditseffectsonmotivation.Backinthe1950s,anexperimentfoundthatmerelyinstructingsubjectstokeepaclosewatch
overtheir"subordinates"ledthemtoassume(withoutanyevidence)thatthosewhoseperformancetheyweremonitoringdidtheirjobsonlybecausetheywereunder
surveillanceinotherwords,thattheywerenottobetrustedandthereforeneededtobecloselywatched.Likerewards,thiswayofcontrollingpeopletendstofeedonitselfand
createitsowndemand.42

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goodajobsomeoneisdoing.Lettingpeopleknowtheirperformanceisgoingtobeevaluatedissometimessaidtoprovide"accountability"abuzzwordinboththe
publicandprivatesectorsandtopushpeopletodotheirbest.(Thestrategyisparticularlypopularwiththosewhoassumemotivationmustcomefromoutsidethe
individualandthatpeoplealwaystrytogetawaywithdoingaslittleaspossible.)Onceagain,however,controlbackfires.Whenpeoplethinktheywillbeevaluated,
theirintrinsicmotivationsuffersevenifnorewardisofferedfordoing.well,andeveniftheevaluationturnsouttobepositive.43Performancetoodeclines,
especiallyontasksdemandingcreativity.44Infact,anytimeweareencouragedtofocusonhowwellwearedoingatsomething(asopposedtoconcentratingonthe
processofactuallydoingit),itislesslikelythatwewillliketheactivityandkeepdoingitwhengivenachoice.45Thissimple,muchreplicatedfindinghasvery
significantimplicationsforeducation,andIwillreturntoitinchapter8.

Forcedtoworkunderdeadline.Justastheperformanceofcertaintaskscanbeartificiallyboosted(intheshortrun)byofferingareward,sotheimpositionofa
deadlinecansometimeslightafireunderus,makingitmorelikelythatwewillfinishajob.Somepeople,foravarietyofreasons,growtodependonanexternally
imposedstructuretothepointthattheywaituntilthelastpossibleminutebeforestartingatask.Buthowdodeadlinesaffectlongterminterestinand,byextension,
performanceofthetask?Iknowofonlytwostudiesonthissubjectboth,bycoincidence,conductedwithmaleundergraduatesbothfoundareductionof
interestasaresultofimposedtimepressures.46

Orderedaround.Whenparentstalktotheirchildreninwaysthatseemcontrolling,orintendedtopressurethemtodospecificthings,theactivitiesinwhichtheyare
engagedcometoseemlessappealingtothesechildrenasaresult.47Whenadultsareassignedperformancegoalswithrespecttoareasonablyinterestingtask,they
areapttobecomelessinterestedinthattaskthanthoseallowedtoworkattheirownpace.48

Competingagainstotherpeople.Ifweareconcernedaboutintrinsicmotivation,theonlythingworsethanscrutinizingpeople'sperformance,evaluatingit,and
makingthemworryaboutdeadlinesistocausearewardorpunishmenttohingeontheoutcome.Andtheonlythingworsethanthatistosetuptheactivitysothatone
personcanbesuccessfulonlywhensomeoneelseisnot.Whenrewardsaremadescarceartificiallywhensuccessisturnedintowinning,an

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outcomeavailabletoonlyonepersonorteam,bydefinitiontheconsequencesincludeadrasticreductionininterest.Thatdoesn'tmeanwenecessarilystop
engagingintheactivity.Wemaycontinuebecauseweknowofnoformofrecreationexceptthekindthatinvolvestryingtodefeatotherpeople,becauseweare
powerlesstochangetherulesoftheworkplaceorclassroom,andsoon.Buttypicallywedosowithlessinterestinthetaskitself.Thedominantmotivatorisnowthe
possibilityofvictory,orsomeotherextrinsicfactor:"oneneedstherewardofwinninginordertopersist."Nowonderthedatashow"competitivelycontingent
rewards...tobe[thekindthatis]mostcontrolling(andthusmostunderminingofintrinsicmotivation),"accordingtoDealandRyan.49

Eachofthesevariousformsofcontrolisbadenoughonitsownputtingthemtogetherjustacceleratesthelossofselfdetermination.Theuseofsurveillanceand
rewards(eitheratangibleincentiveorpraisethatispresentedinacontrollingmanner)isworsethaneitherbyitself.50Rewardingchildrenforplayingagamemakes
themlessinterestedinittellingthemwhichgametheymustplayreducesitsappealfurther.51Butrewardsalonedoplentyofdamage,andtheydoit,inpart,because
ofourreducedsenseofautonomy.

"ButIfWeJust..."

Insomesituations,wemaybeinclinedtoexplaintheconsequencesofusingrewardsbynotingthatwhateverhastobedonetogetthemisseenasjustaprerequisite
inothersituations,wemaynoticethatpeopleloseinterestbyvirtueoffeelingcontrolled.Ineithercase,thereductioninintrinsicmotivationisthesame,andthisfact
makesitdifficulttorescuepopbehaviorism.Iwantnowtoconsideravarietyofclaimsthatarefrequentlyofferedindefenseoftheuseofrewardsorproposed
modificationsoftheiruseandwhytheyfailtogetatthecruxoftheproblem.(InAppendixC,Idealwithotherresponses,mademostlybyresearcherssympathetic
tobehaviorism,totheargumentsandevidencepresentedhere.)

"Twokindsofmotivationarebetterthanone."Outsideofpsychologydepartments,veryfewpeopleexplicitlydistinguishbetweenintrinsicandextrinsic
motivation.Butsomewhodomakeuseoftheseconceptsapparentlyassumethetwocansimplybeaddedtogetherforbesteffect.52Motivationcomesintwoflavors,
thesepeopleseemtobe

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saying,andbothtogethermustbebetterthaneitheronebyitself.Whatresearch(and,ifweareattentivetolongtermconsequences,experience)makesquiteclearis
thatthingsdon'talwaysworkthiswayintherealworld.Youcancombinedifferentformsofcontroltomakepeoplelessmotivated,butit'snotsoeasytocombine
intrinsicandextrinsicmotivationtomakethemmoremotivated.Findingataskinteresting,whichisbothcriticaltoexcellenceandhighlydesirableinitself,isusually
erodedbytheadditionofareward.

"Aslongasyoudon'tuserewardspermanently,there'snoproblem."Theideathatextrinsicmotivatorsareharmlessifusedonlytemporarilyisfavoredby
someteachers:giveachildachocolatebarformasteringwritingskillsandthen,oncetheinherentappealofusingthelanguagehastakenhold,graduallyreducethe
frequencyorsizeofthebribe.Thistechnique,avariantoftheold"baitandswitch"gambitusedbysalespeople,isenormouslyappealingbecauseitseemstooffer
someonewhoisskepticalaboutextrinsicsawayofusingthemwithimpunity.Unfortunately,theevidenceonhowinterestisunderminedraisesseriousdoubtsabout
theideathatwecan,sotospeak,haveourcandyandeatit,too.

Whataretheunderlyingpremisesofthisstrategy?First,itassumesthatalittlebitofsomethingcannotpossiblydoanyrealdamage.(Inreality,justbecausethisistrue
ofeatingcandydoesn'tmeanit'strueofusingcandyasareward.)Second,thepracticeproceedsfromamodelofhumanbehaviorthatassumeswecandosomething
toanindividualandthen,oncewehavestoppeddoingit,beassuredthatthereisnolastingeffectratherlikemovingapieceoffurnitureintosomeone'slivingroom
andthenmovingitoutagainwithouthavingchangedtheroomitself.RicharddeCharmsrealizedthatthetruthisquitedifferent:givingsomeoneanextrinsicreasonfor
behavinginacertainway"changesthewholeeventitdoesnotjustaddareward."53TheGestalthasbeenshiftedtheperceptionofthetaskandofone'smotives
maynolongerbewhattheywere.

Morespecifically,thebeliefthatwecanofferrewardstojumpstartabehaviorandthensimplyfadethemoutpresumes,accordingtoBarrySchwartz,that"theeffects
ofrewardsdonotcarryoverbeyondacquisitionintolateroccurrencesoftheactivityinquestionanddonottransfertorelated,butdifferentactivities."And,he
continues(consistentwiththeevidencealreadyreviewedhere),"thereisnoreasontobelievethatthereisanythingselfcontainedabouttheeffectsofareinforcement
regimen."54Thisdoesn'tmeanthatoncewehaverewardedpeoplewehavenochoicebuttokeepdoingsountilthey

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die.Butwecannotsimplyproviderewardsandexpecttobeabletowithdrawthemlaterwithoutanycomplications.

"Rewardingpeopleisnotonlyinevitablebutapparentlydesirablesincepeoplewantthegoodieswegivethem."Thetroublewiththisclaimisthatit
confuseswhatweareofferingpeoplewithhowitisbeingoffered.Thereisnothingobjectionableaboutateacher'sthrowingapopcornpartyforherclassthe
problemismakingthepartycontingentonstudents'behavior("DowhatItellyouandthenyouwillgetatreat").Tobesure,thereisnothingwrongwithofferingachild
acceptanceandreassurance,butthereissomethingverywrongwithturningtheseintorewardsthatareprovidedonlywhenthechildactsinacertainway.Thereisno
questionthatpeoplewantandneedtobepaidfortheworktheydothedangercomesfrompushingmoneyintopeople'sfacesbypromisingmoreofitforbetter
performance.Inshort,justbecauseweareinterestedinanobjectthatisbeingusedasarewarddoesn'tmeanthatthepracticeofusingitasarewardisitself
innocuous.Infact,themoreyouwantwhathasbeendangledinfrontofyou,themoreyoumaycometodislikewhateveryouhavetodotogetit.

InanearlierchapterIobservedthatthemorewearerewarded,themorewemaycometodependonrewards.Now,withtheresearchofDeciandLepper,withthe
kefirstudyandthelogicoftheoldman'splan,itbecomesclearerhowthisviciouscircleworks.Whenwearerepeatedlyofferedextrinsicmotivators,wecometofind
thetaskorbehaviorforwhichwearerewardedlessappealinginitselfthanwedidbefore(orthanotherpeopledo).Thereafter,ourintrinsicmotivationhavingshrunk,
wearelesslikelytoengageintheactivityunlessofferedaninducementfordoingso.Afterawhile,weappeartoberesponsivetoindeed,torequirerewards.
Butitistheprioruseofrewardsthatmadeusthatway!
Asrewardscontinuetocooptintrinsicmotivationandprecludeintrinsicsatisfaction,theextrinsicneeds...becomestrongerinthemselves.Thus,peopledevelopstronger
extrinsicneedsassubstitutesformorebasic,unsatisfiedneeds....Theyendupbehavingasiftheywereaddictedtoextrinsicrewards.55

Theteachershrugsandsays,"Hey,ifIdon'ttellthemthismaterialwillbeonthetest,theywon'tbothertolearnit."Themanagerinsiststhejobwon'tbedoneright
unlesssheoffersabonus.Theparentisconvincedit'sunrealistictoexpectchildrentodowhatthey're"supposedto"intheabsenceofanincentive.Butlookagain:
thesearenot

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argumentsforpopbehaviorism.Theyaresignsthatsomethingisterriblywrongwithhowtheclassroomorworkplaceisarranged(orwithwhatpeoplearebeingasked
todo).Giventhatrewardscanundermineinterest,thelastthingweoughttobeprovidingismoreofthesame.Promisingarewardtosomeonewhoappears
unmotivatedordemotivatedislikeofferingsaltwatertosomeonewhoisthirsty:it'snotthesolutionit'stheproblem.56

"Letpeoplerewardthemselves."Givingchildrenabookforeachpizzatheyeatpreventsreadingfrombeingseenasjustameanstoanendinfactthebook
becomestheend.Butthisstrategydoesn'tsolvetheotherproblemwithrewards,becausethechildrenarestilldeprivedofselfcontrol.Exactlythereverseistrueof
another,morecommonlysuggestedidea:tellingsomeonetoadministerhisownrewards.Thismaysolvethesecondproblem(bylettinghimmakedecisionsthatwould
normallybemadebysomeoneelse)butnotthefirst(becausethedesiredbehaviorisstillframedasaprerequisiteforanobstacletogettingthegoody).

Formanybehaviorists,ofcourse,thereisnoquestionofrestoringselfcontrolbecausethereisnosuchthingasselfcontrol57thereisonlyselfadministrationof
reinforcements.Inpractice,manybehavioristshavetriedtodeviseawaybywhichpeoplecanbemadetodowhatthecontrollerwantswhilelettingthempopM&M's
intotheirownmouthsthatis,allowingthemtochoosehoworwhentorewardthemselves.58Notice,though,thattheultimategoalisstillcompliance,andthe
processisthereforenolesslikelytobeexperiencedascontrolling.Theresult:onceagain,lessintrinsicmotivation.

Maybethisiswhyonebehaviorist'sreviewofresearchon"selfadministeredcontingencies"foundonlya"weak"improvementwithrespecttohowlongsuchbehaviors
lastedcomparedtorewardsadministeredbysomeoneelse.59Evenwhentheobjectiveisn'tnecessarilytoconformtoanotherperson'sdemands,''peoplecanand
presumablydopressurethemselvesinmuchthesamewaythattheycanbepressuredbyexternalevents,andtheresultsofcontrollingthemselvesinthesewaysare
similartotheresultsofbeingexternallycontrolled,"asDeciandRyanhaveobserved.60

Whatevertheexplanation,thoughfailingtochangethemeansendcontingency,failingtochangethegoalofcompliance,orfailingtoremovetheunpleasant
experienceofpressuretwostudieshavefoundthatjustbecausewerewardourselvesdoesn'tmeanthatourinterestinthetaskstayshigh.Youngchildrenwho
wereallowedtogivethemselvesgoldstarswhentheythoughttheyhaddoneagood

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jobsolvingamazelostinterestintheactivity,exactlyasthosereceivingrewardsfromanadultdid.61Andcollegestudentswhoworkedonapuzzleandthenselected
andreadtothemselvesastatementreflectingthequalityoftheirperformanceastatementcouchedincontrollinglanguage(forexample,"Good.I'mdoingjustasI
should")lostinterestinthetasktothesameextentasstudentswhoheardasimilarevaluationfromtheexperimenter.62

Ifwearedeterminedtouserewards,itdoesseemtomakesensetoletpeoplehaveasmuchcontrolaspossibleoverwhattheywillgetandwhattheywillhavetodo
togetit.Allthingsbeingequal,themorepeopleretainasenseofautonomy,andthemoretheyperceivethewholearrangementasfair,thelessdamagewillbedone.
Butbehaviorismwithafriendlyfaceisstillbehaviorism,andmanyofitseffectswillbethesame.

"Theonlyproblemisthatweareofferingincentivesforthewrongbehaviors.Ifwemaderewardscontingentonpeople'sdoingexactlywhatneedsto
bedone,theproblemwoulddisappear."Twoeducationresearchershavestated(withoutanysupportingdata)thatthe"undesirableeffectsofrewardscanbe
minimizedbytyingrewarddeliverytoqualityratherthanmerequantityofperformance."63Anynumberofmanagementconsultantshavemadethesameassertion,64as
havebehavioristseagertodefendSkinnerianpracticesfromthechargethattheyunderminemotivation.65Itistrue,ofcourse,thatifIpromisedyouarewardforevery
pictureyoudrew,youwouldverylikelydashoffanimpressivenumberofpoorlydrawnsketches.ButcanIturnthingsaroundjustbymakingtherewarddependent
ongoodwork?True,yourartmightbebetterthanitwaswhenyouwerepaidforsheerquantity.Butwillitimprovecomparedtoasituationwithoutanyextrinsic
motivatoratall?

Ofthefivereasonsthataccountforhowincentivesimpedeperformancetheirhiddenpunitiveside,theireffectonrelationships,theirfailuretouncoveranddealwith
thesourceoftheproblem,theirtendencytodiscouragerisktaking,andtheirlongtermnegativeeffectonintrinsicmotivationnotonewilldisappearjustbecause
wechangethecriteriaforgettingthereward.Theproblemdoesnotresultfromtheapplicationofreinforcementsitresidesattheverycoreofextrinsicmotivation.

Therehasbeenadebateamongresearchersforsomeyearsabouttherelativeeffectsofmakingrewardscontingentonperformanceratherthanonsimplydoingthe
taskadollarforeverypuzzleasubjectsolvescorrectlyversusafixedpaymentfortakingpartinthe

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study,forexample.Somehavearguedthatperformancecontingentrewards(PCRs)oughttoboostinterestinatasksincetheyofferevidencethatajobhasbeen
donewell,whichmakestherecipientfeelcompetent,whichisinturnhighlymotivating.66

Thebestthatproponentsofthisviewcando,however,istociteevidencewithmajorqualificationsattached.Insomeresearch,interestwasn'tunderminedbyPCRs,
butneitherwasitenhanced.67Intwostudies,theeffectoninterestwaspositive,butonlyforboys(inonecase)68andonlyforlowachievingstudents(intheother).69
Generally,forPCRstohaveevenaneutraleffectitisnecessarythatpeoplebeledtobelievetheyaresuccessfulsotheyfeelcompetent.70Butifcompetenceisakey
tointrinsicmotivation,whathappenstothemotivationofallthosewhoareworkingforaPCRanddon'tgetit?Moreover,ifinformationalfeedbackisdesirable,it's
easytotellpeoplehowwellthey'vedonewithoutturningthisintoanexerciseinSkinnerianmanipulation.(OnestudyfoundthatpeoplewhogotPCRsbecameless
interestedinthetaskthanthosewhojustreceivedfeedbackabouttheirperformance.)71

Evenwiththesequalifications,thestudiesshowinganyadvantagetobasingarewardonthequalityofperformanceareintheminority.FromDeci'sfirstexperimentin
1971toanexperimentthatastudentofLepper'sconductedin1992,theresearchliteratureindicatesthatthistechniqueusuallyunderminesintrinsicmotivation.72A
studythatisbilledasthefirsttoexplicitlycomparetheeffectsofpayingsubjectsjustfortakingpartinanexperimentwithpayingthemonthebasisofhowgoodajob
theydidatataskfoundthattheirinterestwassignificantlylowerintheperformancecontingentsituation.73Inshort,PCRsaremoredestructiveoratbest,noless
destructivethanotherrewards.

Theseresultsmakeperfectsensesince,asRichardRyanputsit,bymakingagoodycontingentonperformance,"notonlydoyoucontrolwhatIdobutyoucontrol
howwellIhavetodoitbeforeyourewardme"74asituationmoredestructiveofautonomy(andthereforeofmotivation)thanonewheretherewardisprovided
withoutreferencetothequalityofperformance.*Italsosetsupasituationthatvirtuallydemandstheuseofothercontrollingstrategies,suchassurveillanceand
evaluation.InlaterchaptersIwilldiscusstheimplicationsofthis
*Thishelpstoexplainthedestructiveeffectsofcompetition,whichis,ofcourse,performancecontingentbydefinition.

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researchfortheuseofsalaryversuscommissions,andforhowwegradestudents.

"Ifwe'reworriedaboutreducingintrinsicmotivation,thenwhat'stheproblemwithgivingpeoplerewardsfordoingthingstheydon'tfindinteresting?"
Itistruethatrewardsaremostlikelytokillinterestwherethereisthemostinteresttobekilledifintrinsicmotivationisalreadyatrockbottom,it'shardtoloweritany
further.Itisalsotruethatshortterminterestintedious(andextremelysimple)taskscansometimesbeenhancedbyofferingarewardforworkingonthem.75Finally,
itistruethatthemostdestructivewaytouseextrinsicmotivatorsistoofferthemfordoingsomethingthatispotentiallyinterestinginitsownright.

(Perhapsabetterwaytoputthislastpointistosaythatitismostimportanttoavoidrewardingpeopleforengaginginanactivityorbehaviorthatwewouldlikethem
tofindintrinsicallymotivating.Thus,aregimenofpositivereinforcementforpottytrainingatoddlerisnotlikelytodolastingharmputtingasideforamomentthe
questionofitsmanipulativenessandtheissueofwhetherchildrenshouldbeinducedtousethetoiletbeforetheyareready.Why?Becausewearenotterribly
concernedtoinstillalifelongloveofdefecation.Buttheuseofrewardsforreading,writing,drawing,actingresponsiblyandgenerously,andsooniscausefor
concern,notonlybecausethesethingscouldbeintrinsicallymotivatingbutbecausewewanttoencourageratherthanextinguishthatmotivation.Extrinsicmotivators
aremostdangerouswhenofferedforsomethingwewantchildrentowanttodo.)

Allofthisistrue.Butdoesitamounttoaninvitationtorewardpeoplefordoingthingsthatarenotveryinteresting?No.Here'swhy:

1.Ifweareconcernedaboutperformanceaswellasinterest,rememberthatanumberofstudieshaveshownthatwhileextrinsicmotivatorsnearlyalwaysreduce
creativity,theysometimescausepeopletodoapoorerjobatfairlyroutine(andpresumablyuninteresting)tasks,too,suchasmemorizing,distinguishingbetween
similardrawingsandpatterns,andsoon.Recallalsothatrewardsaregenerallyineffectiveatleadingtothelongtermadoptionofuninterestingbehaviors,suchasusing
seatbelts.Evenwhenoursoleconcernisgettingpeopleinterestedinaboringtask,rewardscannotalwaysbecountedontohelp.Inonestudy,forexample,"extrinsic
rewardswerenomoreeffectiveinincreasingthemotivationofchildrenwhoseinitiallevelofinterestwaslowthanweresimplerequeststoworkonthetasks."76

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Butlet'stakethepointonestepfurther.Itisoftenpossibletodevisecreative,interestingwaysofdoingthingsthatareofthemselvesquitedull.Afriendofmine
managedthemindnumbingmemorizationofanatomyrequiredinmedicalschoolbyinventingelaboratefablesinwhichdifferentpartsandsystemsofthebodyplayed
starringroles.77Onepsychologisthasdescribedcreativewaystomakemowingthelawnlessboring.78Clericaltaskscanseemlesstediousiftheyareturnedintoa
gamedevisingmoreefficienttechniques,comingupwithinventivewaysofkeepingtrackofwhatisstilltobedone,andsoforth.

Idonotmeantoimplythateverythingwehavetodocanbemadeenthralling,orthatpeoplewhoworkatmenialjobshaveonlythemselvestoblamewhenthey
becomebored.Wometasksarelessinterestingthanothers.Rather,thepointisthatwhateveropportunitiesdoexistforreconfiguringadulltaskareputatriskwhen
rewardsareused.Extrinsicmotivatorshavethecapacitytoreduceinterestnotonlyinthetaskitselfbutinthestrategieswemightusetobrightenthetask.

Incidentally,itisimportanttodistinguishbetweentasksthatareinherentlyuninterestingfromthosethatcertainindividualshappennottobeinterestedin.Evenifpeople
whoareboredbyataskseemtorespondtoareward,79itseemsunwisetouseartificialinducementstotrytointerestsomeoneinanactivitythatotherpeoplealready
enjoyonitsmerits.*Itwouldbefarmoreproductivetoaskwhyheorsheisbored.(Perhapsthetaskissimplytooeasyortoohardforher,inwhichcaseadjusting
thelevelofchallengewouldseemtomakemoresensethanofferingabribe.)Italsounderminesthepossibilitythatshewillfindherselfintrinsicallymotivatedatsome
laterpoint.
Thesuggestionhasbeen[made]thatextrinsicrewardsmayenhancetheinterestandthusthelearningofapersonwithlowinitialinterestintheproblemortaskathand,even
thoughtheirusewithhighlymotivatedindividualsisunwarranted.Thismaybesobutif,aswesuspect,theserewardscreateacontextthatelicitsadifferentpatternofinteraction
withthetask,theymaybeapoorwayto''motivate"evenuninterestedchildren.Iftheofferofrewardsproduces...amoresuperficialinterac

*Ironically,someresearchershaveofferedtheoppositeargument,attemptingtojustifytheuseofextrinsicmotivatorsfortasksthatpeoplefindhighlymotivating,orforpeople
whoareingeneralhighlymotivated.Theargumentisnotthattheyarenecessaryinsuchcasesbutthatinterestlevelsmayatsomepointberesistanttotheeffectsofrewards.80

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81
tionofsubjectwithtaskthenwemaybeloathtousethemeventoencourageuninterestedchildrento"learn."

Lookatitanotherway:someonewhoisobligedtoworkonsomethinguninterestingmay,infact,experiencepreciouslittlesenseofselfdetermination.82Thelastthing
thispersonneedsistobecontrolledfurther,whichiswhatrewardsdo.

2.Inpractice,theideathatwecansurgicallycarveoutwhatisboringinlifeanduseextrinsicmotivatorshere(andonlyhere)isnaive.First,whenteachingormanaging
agroupofpeople,itisnoeasymattertoindividualizetheuseofrewardssothattheyareofferedonlytothosewhoareyawning.("Billgetsabonusforfinishinghis
reportbecausehisintrinsicmotivationislow.You'realreadyinterestedinit,Hillary,soyougetnothing.")83

Second,evenifeveryindividualhadsimilarinterests,agiventopicwillusuallycontainsomeelementsthataremuchmoreinterestingthanothers.Considerelementary
schoolmath.Memorizingthemultiplicationtableisnotalotoffun,butexploringmathematicalconceptsishighlystimulatingandverymuchlikeagamewhenpresented
byatalentedteacher.HowdowedangleA'sinfrontofchildrentolearntheformerandabruptlyceasegivinggradessoasnottokillintrinsicmotivationinthelatter?
Thepracticalproblemiscompoundedwhenenjoyableandmonotonouscomponentsarecontainedwithinasingletask,suchaswritingareport.

If,therefore,weassumeitisacceptabletoofferrewardswhenintrinsicmotivationislow,wewillendupgivingthemtosomepeoplewhoarealreadymotivated,orfor
someactivitiesthatarealreadymotivating.Decreasedinterestisthelikelyresult.Gettingpeopletofinishboringtasksmorequickly(bypromisingareward)issimply
notworthitifintheprocessweturnpotentiallyinterestingtasksintoboringones.

3.Thepracticeofrewardingpeopleconvenientlysparesusfromaskinghardquestionsaboutwhyweareaskingpeopletodothingsthataredevoidofinterestinthe
firstplace.Letmeimmediatelyconcedethattheremaybetediousjobsthatmustbedoneinorderforasociety,orevenahousehold,tofunction.Likewise,theremay
bethingswedecidechildrenoughttolearnthatholdlittleappealforthematthetime.Buttoacknowledgesuchnecessityintheabstractisverydifferentfromassuming
thateverydeadeningjobtowhichpeopleareconsignedeveryworkingdayoftheirliveshastobedone(orhastobeorganizedasitisatpresent),orthateveryfillin
theblankor

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learnbyheartassignmentmustbegiventostudentsjustbecausethatwaswhatwehadtodowhenwewereinschool.

Weneedtoask,Whichboringtasksreallyareindispensable?Andwhy?Instead,wetakeonfaiththatsomepeoplewillhavetochopupanendlessconveyorbeltof
chickencarcassesregardlessofwhatitdoestotheirhealthandsanity.Weacceptwithoutquestionthatchildrenhavetomemorizethestatecapitalseventhoughthey
couldlookupthatinformationwhenevertheyneedit.Likeanyothertoolforfacilitatingthecompletionofaquestionabletask,rewardsoffera"how"answertowhatis
reallya"why"question."Reachforthereinforcementsifpeoplefindataskuninteresting"isasloganthatperpetuatesthestatusquoandallowsus,asteachersand
managersandcitizensinademocracy,tocontinuetakingcertainthingsforgranted.

4.Evenwhenwehavedecidedthataparticularuninterestingtasksimplymustbecompleted,artificialinducementsarenotouronlyoption.Thereareotherways,less
manipulativeandmorerespectful,toencouragepeopletodothingsthattheyareunlikelytofindintrinsicallymotivating.Theruleofthumbforgettingpeopleto
internalizeacommitmenttoworkingatsuchtasksistominimizetheuseofcontrollingstrategies.Deciandhiscolleagueshaveproposedathreeprongedapproach:
First,imaginethewaythingslooktothepersondoingtheworkandacknowledgecandidlythatitmaynotseemespeciallyinteresting.Second,offerameaningful
rationalefordoingitanyway,pointing,perhaps,tothelongtermbenefitsitoffersorthewayitcontributestosomelargergoal.Third,givetheindividualasmuch
controlaspossibleoverhowtheworkgetsdone.84

Thelastofthesesuggestionsbringsusbackfullcircle,sincethedeprivationofselfdeterminationhelpsexplainthedamagethatextrinsicmotivatorsdo.Anaffirmative
emphasisongivingpeoplechoicewillplayacentralroleinthelastthreechaptersofthisbook,whichareconcernedwithlayingoutpracticalwaystoachievethe
advantagesthatcannotberealizedthroughtheuseofbehavioristtactics.

"Somepeoplearemoreextrinsicallyorientedthanothers.Whynotgiverewardstothosewhoseemtowantorneedthem?"Atfirstglance,nothingcould
bemorelogicalthanmatchingatreatmenttothepersonalpredilectionoftheindividual.Thisideaisparticularlyappealingtoeducatorswhosupporttherecent
emphasison"learningstyles,"whichrecognizesthatstudentshavedistinctlydifferentskillsandwaysofknowing.Thepremiseisdifficulttodisputebutnotalways
appreciated:whereteachingisconcerned,onesizejustdoesnotfitall.

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Thereissomethingfundamentallytroubling,however,aboutstretchingthisapproachuntilitincludestheprovisionofextrinsicmotivators.I'mnotreferringheretothe
practicalproblemsoftryingtoindividualizerewardsinaworkorschoolsettingletussetthoseasideforthesakeoftheargument.Twoquestionsthatareevenmore
importantneedtobeaskedinweighingwhethertorewardpeoplejustbecausetheyseempredisposedtorespondtorewards:Wheredidthisdispositioncomefrom?
Andwhatareourlongtermgoalsforpeopleparticularlychildrenwithrespecttomotivation?

Allofusstartoutinlifeintenselyfascinatedbytheworldaroundusandinclinedtoexploreitwithoutanyextrinsicinducement.Itisnotpartofthehumanconditionto
bedependentonrewardsinfact,thereisnoreasontothinkthatanyoneisbornwithanextrinsicorientation.Ifsucha"trait"exists,itisonlyintheweakestsenseof
thisword.Wearenottalkingaboutaninnatecharacteristic,orevennecessarilyanenduringone,85butsomethingthatislearnedand,presumably,canbeunlearned.It
isafunctionofthewaywehavebeentreated,theextenttowhichwehavebeentrainedtothinkthatthereasontolearnorworkorliveaccordingtocertainvaluesis
togetarewardoravoidapunishment.

Ryanandhiscolleaguesputitthisway:"Givenparticularouterconditionsandapproachestoeducation,aninnerworldwilleventuallyemergewhichconformstoand
matchesit."86Ifpeople's"extrinsicness"isreallyaresultofinternalizingtheorientationoftheirenvironments,thenitshouldvarydependingonone'sexperience.Thisis
exactlywhatwefind:teacherswhousecontrollingtechniquessuchasextrinsicmotivatorstendtoproducestudentswhoaremoreextrinsic,whilethosewhoemphasize
students'autonomyproducestudentswhoaremoreintrinsic.87

MostAmericanschoolsmarinatestudentsinbehaviorism,sotheresult,unsurprisingly,isthatchildren'sintrinsicmotivationdrainsaway.Theytypicallybecomemore
andmoreextrinsicallyorientedastheygetolderandprogressthroughelementaryschool.88Forustoturnaroundandsayofthosestudentswhoareparticularly
dependentonextrinsicmotivatorsthatthisisjusttheirmotivationalorientationor"learningstyle"somethingtowhichwemustreconcileourselvesandtowhichwe
havetorespondbyprovidingmorerewardsseemsunsatisfying,tosaytheleast.*
*Thesameistrueregardingadultworkerswithanextrinsicorientation:thereisevidencetosuggestthatthisissimplyaresponsetothedeprivationofintrinsicsatisfactions(see
page131).

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Thesecondquestionweshouldaskbeforedishingoutmorerewardsforthosewhoarelackinginintrinsicmotivationconcernswhatwearehopingtoachieve.Isour
ultimategoalsimplytoeffectapleasingcorrespondencebetweentheindividualandtheintervention?Theresultwillbetoensureacontinuedlackofgenuineinterestin
learningoractingresponsibly,thusrequiringanendlesssupplyofextrinsicmotivators.Tworesearchershavequestionedthelongtermbenefitsofrelyingon
"educationalpracticesmatchedtotheparticularmotivationalorientationofeachstudent"sincetodoso
furtherreinforcesandmaintainsthisextrinsicorientation....[If]externalteachercontroloftheclassroomisnottheultimatelongrangeobjective...theteachermust...move
beyondrelyingonpunishmentandreward...tomoreautonomousclassroomenvironments...[inorder]toencouragedevelopmentofan[intrinsicmotivation]orientationin
[extrinsicallymotivated]students.89

Ifweseeintrinsicmotivation(andselfdirectedlearning)assomethingworthpromoting,thenitwillnotdotosayweshouldgiverewardstothosewhoseemtoneed
themandleaveitatthat.

MinimizingtheDamage

Thepointoftheprecedingsectionwasthatthedetrimentaleffectsofappliedbehaviorism,especiallywithrespecttosubsequentinterestinthetaskforwhichpeople
havebeenrewarded,areinherentintheveryideaof"Dothisandyou'llgetthat."InPartThreeIwilltalkaboutalternativestoextrinsicmotivatorsinthecontextofthe
workplace,theclassroom,andthefamily.Butforpeoplewhomust,orfeeltheymust,continuetohandoutrewards,itispossibletoreducetheextentoftheharmthey
do.Herearehalfadozenpracticalsuggestionsforlimitingthedamageoverthelonghaul:

Getrewardsoutofpeople'sfaces.Iftheymustbegiven,atleastreducethesalienceoftherewardsthatis,howconspicuousandrelevanttheyare.Research
suggeststhatthemoreprominentanextrinsicmotivatoris,themoreintrinsicmotivationisundermined.90Ourchallengeistoofferfewerofthem,makeeachone
smaller,givethemoutprivately,andavoidmakingabigfussoverthewholeprocess.

Offerrewardsafterthefact,asasurprise.Peoplewhoprotestthattheirintentisnottocontrolpeoplebutonlyto"recognizeexcel

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lence"(anideatakenupinthenextchapter)ortoshowappreciationcandemonstratetheymeanwhattheysaybytakingcarenottotellpeopleinadvancewhatthey
willgetfordoingsomething.Lepperandacolleaguearguethatthereceiptofanunexpectedreward"shouldnottypicallyleadsubjectstoseetheirpreviousbehavior
ashavingbeendirectedtowardattainmentofthereward,"whichmeansthatintrinsicmotivationislesslikelytodecline.91Indeed,moststudieshavefoundthatbeing
presentedwithanunexpectedgoodyneitherhelpednorhurt.92Theproblem,ofcourse,isthatifpeoplereceiveasurpriserewardthistime,theymaycometoexpect
anotheronenexttimethen,whethertheygetoneornot,theirinterestinthetaskmaydrop.

Neverturnthequestforrewardsintoacontest.Extrinsicmotivators,asIhavenoted,becomemoredestructivewhenthenumberofthemisartificiallylimited
thatis,whenperformanceismeasuredinrelativeratherthanabsoluteterms.93Ifbonusesaretobehandedoutatwork,theyshouldbeavailabletoanyonewho
meetsagivenstandardinsteadofmakingeachpersonanobstacletotheothers'success.Likewise,thetendencyofsomeclassroomteacherstogradeonacurveis
nothingshortofimmoral:itgratuitouslylimitsthenumberofgoodgradesjustsotheresultwillconformtoanarbitrary,fixeddistribution(fewgradesthatareverybad,
anequallysmallnumberthatareverygood,andalotthataremediocre).Thisrequiresmakingmeaninglessdistinctionsbetweenessentiallycomparableperformances
sothatonlyafewstudentswillreceiveatopmark.Moreimportant,itturnsstudentsintorivals,creatinganatmosphereofhostilityandsabotagingthepossibilityof
cooperationthatleadstohigherqualitylearning.Finally,inanorganizationorschoolthatcaresaboutexcellencethereisnoplaceforawardsassembliesorbanquets.
(Thesemightbedefinedaspubliceventsthatinstantlytransformmostofthepeoplepresentintolosers.)Eitherpeopledonottakethemseriously,inwhichcasethere
isnoreasonforthemtoexist,orpeopledotakethemseriously,meaningthatwatchingsomeoneelsegetanawardisapowerfuldemotivatorinwhichcase,again,
thereisnoreasonforthemtoexist.94

Makerewardsassimilaraspossibletothetask.Socalledendogenousrewardsreducethegapbetweenwhatpeoplearedoingandwhattheyaregettingfor
it.95Ifyoufeelcompelledtogiveachildsomethingforhavingreadabook,giveheranotherbook.

Givepeopleasmuchchoiceaspossibleabouthowrewardsareused.Althoughrewardsarebasicallymechanismsforcontrolling

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people,youcanminimizethedestructiveconsequencesbyincludingthepotentialrecipientsintheprocessofdecidingwhatwillbegivenoutandhowandtowhom.96
Attheveryleast,theyshouldplayamajorroleinevaluatingthequalityofwhattheyhavedone.Takecare,though,thatthisprocessdoesnotturnintosuchamajor
productionthattherewardsbecomemoresalientthantheywouldotherwisebe.

Trytoimmunizeindividualsagainstthemotivationkillingeffectsofrewards.Itispossiblethatinsomecircumstancespeople'sintrinsicmotivationcanbe
shoredupsothattheyaremoreresistanttotheharmfuleffectsofrewards.Somelaboratoryexperimentshavecounteredtheseeffectsbyconvincingpeoplethatthey
findthetaskinteresting,97remindingthemthattheyusedtobeinterestedinit,98ortrainingthemtofocusonwhatisintrinsicallymotivatingaboutit.99Theimplicationis
thatincertaincasestheactofofferinganextrinsicmotivatorwillnotloweranindividual'sintrinsicmotivation.However,therisksinvolvedaretoogreat,thelegacyof
rewardstooominous,andthefindingsofthisresearchtootentative(andlaboratorybound)tochoosesuchastrategyoversimplyminimizingrewardswhenthelatteris
anoption.Whenitisnot,wemightaswelldowhatwecantohelppeopleshrugofftheimplicitmessageofferedbyextrinsicmotivators.

Allofthereasonsthatrewardsfailtoimprovethequalityofperformancearealsomorethanthat:theyareargumentsagainstpopbehaviorismintheirownright.Thisis
mostdecisivelytrueinthecaseoftheexplanationdiscussedinthischapter.Doingsomethinginordertoreceiveanextrinsicmotivatormakesuslessinterestedinwhat
wearedoing.

Themoretasksthatareunderminedinthisway,themoretragicthisphenomenonbecomes.Ifitwereonlychanginginnertubesthatbecameboringtoabicycle
repairman,ifitwereonlyhistoryclassthatseemedtoateenagertolastforever,thatwouldbeonething.Butfinancialincentivesfortheworkerandanemphasison
makingthehonorrollforthestudentmayturnthebulkofwhattheydofromMondaythroughFridayintoonelong,drearyprerequisite.Grantedthatsomekindsof
work(andschoolcurricula)aretediousintheirownrightrewardsarehardlytheonlyreasonthatpeoplelose,orneverdevelop,interestinwhattheyaredoing.But
adduptheimpactofwhathasbeendescribedinthischapterandyouarelookingatanenormoussacrificeforthedubiousshorttermgainsofferedbybehav

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iorism.When''Dothisandyou'llgetthat"istheruleratherthantheexceptioninourlives,wecometofeel,inthewordsofoneexpertinmotivation,"thatpsychic
energyinvestedinnewdirectionsiswastedunlessthereisagoodchanceofreapingextrinsicrewardsforit...[whichmeanswe]endupnolongerenjoyinglife."100

Andthepsychologicalcostsdonotendthere.Oursenseofourselvesasbasicallycompetentandworthwhile,ofbeingabletohaveanimpactontheeventsthatshape
ourlivesinshort,ourmentalhealthisinjeopardywhenextrinsicmotivationdisplacesintrinsic.101Recentresearchcorroboratesthisbyindicatingthat
extrinsicallyorientedpeople,presumablyasaresultofhavingbeensubjectedtoextrinsicenvironments,tendtobemoredepressedandtofeelmorehelplessthan
intrinsicallyorientedpeoplewhenthingsaren'tgoingwell,theirreactiongetsevenworse.Helplessnessisanunderstandablereaction,giventhatsomeoneelseisina
positiontodecidewhetherornotwegettherewardforwhichwehavebeenworking.102

Itisnotaprettypicture,butitisonewhoseformsandshadingsweknowverywell.Whatwedon'talwaysrecognizeisitsconnectiontotheSkinnerianlandscapethat
surroundsus.

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6
ThePraiseProblem
Childrenhaveanintrinsicdesiretolearn.Praiseandmanipulationcanonlyservetostiflethatnaturalmotivationandreplaceitwithblindconformity,amechanicalworkstyle,or
opendefiancetowardauthority.
RandyHitzandAmyDriscoll,1988

Itisonethingtoconsiderabandoningtheuseofgoldstarsandcandybars.Butpraise?Allofushungerforapprovalmanyofuswishwehadgottenalotmorepraise
(andalotlesscriticism)aschildren.Whentheexpertstellustogetinthehabitoffindingsomethingaboutpeople'sbehaviorthatwecansupportwithpositive
comments,thisstrikesusintuitivelyassoundadvice.Sowhatcouldpossiblybewrongwithtellingourchildren(orstudentsoremployees)thatthey'vedoneagood
job?

Inthischapter,buildingonwhathasgonebefore,Itrytoanswerthatquestion,arguingthatweneedtolookcarefullyatwhywepraise,howwepraise,andwhat
effectspraisehasovertimeonthosereceivingit.Idistinguishbetweenvariousformsofpositivefeedback:ontheonehand,straightforwardinformationabouthowwell
someonehasdoneatatask,orencouragementthatleavestherecipientfeelingasenseofselfdeterminationontheotherhand,verbalrewardsthatfeelcontrolling,
makeonedependentonsomeoneelse'sapproval,andingeneralprovetobenolessdestructivethanotherextrinsicmotivators.

Ifbythewordpraisewemeanonlythelatterformoffeedback,thenitwouldseemtofollowthatpraisingpeopleisalwaysproblematic.Ifweprefertodefinethe
wordmorebroadlysothatittakesinallformsofpositivefeedback,thenwecansafelysaythatonlysomeversionsofpraiseneedtobeavoided.Whichdefinitionwe
usedoesn'tmatter.Thecriticalpointsarethatsomeapprovingcommentsarenotonlyacceptablebutpositivelydesirable,andsomeareneither.

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Onitsface,thisthesisseemsquiterestrainednottomentionmoremoderatethanwhatIhavesaidaboutothersortsofrewards.Butevensuchaqualifiedcriticism
mayseemsurprisinginlightofthewidespreadassumptionthatpraiseisalwaysagoodthing.Postersforonebehavioristicclassroommanagementsystemurgeteachers
toPRAISEEVERYCHILDEVERYDAY,andteachersaresometimesevaluatedonthebasisofhowclosetheycometothisstandard.Mostbooksonparenting
offernohintthatpositivecommentscouldbeanythingbutconstructive.*Evensomewriterswhowarnabouttheoveruseoftangiblerewardsimplythatreplacingthem
withpraisewillsolveeverything.

Totrytomakesenseofthecontraryclaimthatmuchpraise,asdistinctfromwelcomeexpressionsofloveandencouragement,isactuallyundesirable,webeginwitha
deceptivelysimplequestion:Whatisthepurposeofpraise?Aswiththeuseofrewardsmoregenerally,therealpointoftenturnsouttobeamatterofbenefitingthe
giverratherthantherecipient.Ifwepraisepeople,theyaremorelikelytodowhatwewant,whichisnotonlyadvantageoustousinitselfbutalsoconfersonusa
senseofpower.Peoplewhomwepraisemaycometolikeusbetter,tooanothersignificantinducement.Asonewriterputit,"Oftenthechangewhichpraiseasks
onetomakeisnotnecessarilybeneficialtothepersonbeingpraisedbutwillredoundtotheconvenience,pleasure,orprofitofthepraiser."1 Clearly,itisworth
reconsideringtheuseofpraiseifitturnsouttobesomethingweneedtosaymorethansomethingtheyneedtohear.

Butletusassumethatourprimarymotivetrulyistohelpthepersonwearepraising.What,specifically,arewetryingtodo?Threegoalsarementionedmost
frequently:enhancingperformance(learning,achievement,andsoforth),promotingappropriatebehaviororpositivevalues,andhelpingtheindividualtofeelgood
abouthimselforherself.Overthelonghaul,praise,atleastintheformitusuallytakes,failstoachieveanyoftheseobjectivesandmayevenprovecounterproductive.
*Muchoftherelevantresearch,whichchallengesthisunconditionalendorsementandraisesseriousdoubtsaboutthewaymostofusactuallypraisepeople,hasfocusedonthe
schoolsetting.Thatwork,however,isgenerallyapplicabletothewaywetreatchildrenathome,too.Infact,althoughIwillnotusemanysuchexamples,mostofthekeypointsare
alsorelevanttowhatwesaytootheradults.

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''GoodWork!"vs.GoodWork

Studiesontherelationshipbetweenpraiseandachievementareremarkablyscarce.Apparently,blindfaithintheSkinnerianmodelhasconvincedmostpeoplethat
tellingsomeonewhatagoodjobsheisdoingwillcausehertolearnorperformmoreeffectivelyinthefuture.Foralltheexhortationstopraiseone'semployeesthat
onefindsin"howtomanage"books,notasinglestudy,tothebestofmyknowledge,haseverexaminedwhetherthispracticereallydoesimproveperformanceonthe
job.

Twoscholars,however,havereviewedtheavailableresearchonclassroomperformance.Onefoundthat"praisedoesnotcorrelatewithstudentachievementgains,"2
andtheotherconcludedthat"correlationsbetweenteachers'ratesofpraiseandstudents'learninggainsarenotalwayspositive,andevenwhencorrelationsare
positive,theyareusuallytoolowtobeconsideredsignificant."3

Tworecentexperimentsunderscorethepoint.Inone,fifthandsixthgradersinIsraelwereaskedtoworkonataskrequiringcreativity.Thosewhowerepraisedfor
theirperformancewentontodolowerqualityworkonasimilartaskascomparedtosubjectswhoreceivedmoreneutralcomments.What'smore,thesechildren
didn'tdoasgoodajobastheythemselveshaddonebeforebeingpraised.4 InaseriesofstudieswithAmericancollegestudents,meanwhile,"praiseconsistentlyledto
impairmentinskilledperformance.Indeed,"theresearchersconclude,"theseresultssuggestthataneffectivewaytodisruptskilledperformanceistocomplimentthe
performerimmediatelybeforehand."5

What'sgoingonhere?Whyshouldpraisenotonlyfailtoboostachievementbutactuallydragitdown?Inadditiontotheexplanationssuggestedinchapter4,four
reasonscometomind.First,whensomeoneispraisedforsucceedingattasksthataren'tterriblydifficult,hemaytakethistomeanheisn'tverysmart:thatmustbe
whysomeonehastopraisehim.Thisinferenceleadsto"lowexpectationsofsuccessatdifficulttasks,whichmayinturnresultindecreasedpersistenceand
performanceintensityatthesetasks."6 *
*Praisingpeople'seffortmaysignalthattheyhavetotrysohardbecausetheyaren'tverygoodatwhattheyaredoing.Forthisreason,someresearcherssuggestpraisingability
instead,whichissupposedtoenhanceone'sfeelingofcompetence.Unfortunately,encouragingpeopletoattributetheirsuccess(or,byimplication,theirfailure)tosomethingthat
isoutsidetheircontrol,suchasafixedlevelofability,maymakematters

(footnotecontinuedonthenextpage)

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Second,tellingsomeonehowgoodsheiscanincreasethepressureshefeelstoliveuptothecompliment.Thispressure,inturn,canmakehermoreselfconscious,a
statethatofteninterfereswithperformance.SylviaPlathoncecommentedthatwhileshewantedherpoetrytobeacceptedbyothers,theacceptance"ironicallyfreezes
meatmywork."8 TheartistAndrewWyethobservedthat,onhearingexpressionsofapprovalforapaintinginprogress,"youbecomefearfulyouaregoingtolose
it."9 Whatistrueforhighlycreativeindividualssurelyappliestotherestofus.Infact,thoseofuswithoutextraordinarytalentmaybeevenmoresusceptibletosuch
praiseinducedparalysis,particularlyifthepraiseisexplicitlytiedtofutureperformancesuchcommentsas''Sinceyoudidsowellonthat,youshouldalsobeableto
dowellonthis."10

Third,whileSkinnerdeclaredthatpraise"encouragesustotaketherisksthatexpandourlives,"11thereisreasontothinkthatexactlytheoppositeoftenoccurs.One
classicclassroomstudy,byMaryBuddRowe,foundthatelementaryschoolstudentswhoseteachersfrequentlyusedpraiseshowedlesstaskpersistencethantheir
peers.12Why?Perhapsbecausepraisesetsupunrealisticexpectationsofcontinuedsuccess,whichleadspeopletoavoiddifficulttasksinordernottoriskthe
possibilityoffailure.Ifwesteerclearofsituationsinwhichwemightfail,weeliminateanychanceofbeingcriticizedbytheverypersonwhojustpraisedus.Praise
encouragessomechildrentobecomedependentontheevaluationsofferedbytheirteachersapointtowhichIwillreturnshortlyand"thosewhoareunableto
meettheirteachers'expectations...ultimatelydecidetogiveuptrying."13

Finally,praise,likeotherrewards,oftenunderminestheintrinsicmotivationthatleadspeopletodotheirbest.Isay"often"becausethelaboratoryresearchisnot
entirelyconsistentonthispoint.Oneofthereasonsforthisinconsistencymaybethefactthatdifferentresearchersmeandifferentthingsby"praise"(or"verbal
reward,""socialreward,"or"positivefeedback'').Sometimesthecommentofferedtosubjectsisnothingmorethananexclamation("Goodwork!"),andsometimesit
includesspecificinformationabouthowwelltheydidonthetask.Itmayinvolveacomparisontotheirearlierperformance,ortotheperformanceofothers,orneither.
Thecommentmayfocuson

(footnotecontinuedfromthepreviouspage)
worsebydiscouragingthemfromtakingresponsibilityforworkingtoimprovetheirperformance.Itmaybemostsensibletoavoidcastingpraiseasacommentoneithereffortor
ability.7

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thepersonoronlyontheworkitself.Itmayrefertoability("You'reverycreative")ortoeffort("Icanseeyou'retryingawfullyhard").Thesevariationsfromonestudy
toanothercouldwellberesponsibleforthedifferenteffectstheyhaveturnedup.14Infact,evensubtledifferencesininflectioncanimpartanentirelydifferentflavorto
acompliment:"That'sverygood''maybespokenwithapompoussolemnity,withanoteofsurprise,accompaniedbyaslow,thoughtfulnod,andsoforth.Depending
onthedelivery,wemightreactwithdelight,indifference,orevenirritation.

Whateverthereason,though,theresearchfindingsarenotuniform.Beforeturningtotheworkthatdocumentsnegativeresults,weshouldpausetoconsiderthefact
thatafewstudieshavefoundthatpeopleseemedmoreinterestedinataskafterbeingpraisedforwhattheyweredoing15andstillothershavefoundthatpraiseneither
helpednorhurt.16

Thoseimpressedbythispositiveorneutralresearchhavearguedthatpraiseisn'tasbadasotherextrinsicmotivatorsforseveralreasons.First,itislesssalient.
Somethingyouhearshouldhavelessofanimpactthansomethingphysicallyhandedtoyou,thelatterservingasalingeringreminderthatyougotagoodyforwhatyou
didandyoumayhavedoneitforthatveryreason.17Second,praiseisthoughttobelesscontrolling.Youmaynotcomeawayfeelingthatsomeoneistryingto
manipulateyourbehaviorifthatpersongivesyouacomplimentratherthanmoneyorM&M's.*Third,praiseislesslikelytobepromisedinadvance.Rewardsare
mostdamagingwhentheyareexpectedthatis,when"Dothisandyou'llgetthat"isheardbeforewedosomethingwhereaspraisegenerallycomesasasurprise,
afterthefact.18

Thecasethatpraiseislessharmfulthanotherrewardsrestsmostlyonthesethreeclaims.Butwhatifanyorallofthesedistinctivefeaturesdon'tapply?Surelypraise
canbeplentysalient,making(andretaining)justasmuchofanimpactasanytangiblereward.19Itcanalsobeheardasanattempttomanipulateourbehavior,notjust
asfeedbackonourperformance.Anditcanbesomethingweanticipatereceiving,especiallyifit'sbeengiventousinthepastwhenwecompliedwithsomeone's
wishes.Wheneverpraiseissalient,controlling,orexpected,
*Itisworthnoting,incidentally,thatsubjectsinlaboratorystudiesarepraisedbypeopletheydon'tknow,whichmaynotbeexperiencedascontrolling.Thisfactcastsdoubton
theassertionbysomepsychologiststhatpraiseisinnocuous.Inreallifewemayreactquitedifferentlytopraisefromourparents,teachers,andmanagers.

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itshouldlowerinterestinwhatwearedoing,justasotherrewardsdo.Wemaypersistwithwhateverwewereworkingoninthehopeofbeingcomplimented,butwe
wouldnolongerbeintrinsicallymotivatedbytheactivityitself.(SeeAppendixBformoreonthisdistinction.)

Agooddealofresearchhasfoundthatintrinsicmotivationdoesindeeddeclineasaresultofpraise.That'swhathappenedintheIsraelistudy,whichisprobablywhy
thechildren'screativeperformancedeclinedaswell.Inthekefirexperimentdescribedinthepreviouschapter,childrenwhowerepraisedfordrinkingthebeverage,
likethosewhowererewardedwithmovietickets,cametofinditlessappealing.Yetanotherstudyfoundthatelementaryschoolstudentswhogenerallydidn'tsee
themselvesashavingmuchcontrolovertheirown'livesshowedlessinterestinwhattheyweredoingafterbeingtold,"That'sthebestworkyou'vedonesofar."20

Whenresearchersdeliberatelyerasethefactorsthataresaidtomakepraiseharmless,thenegativeeffectsareparticularlyvisible.Ifundergraduatesareledtoexpecta
"socialreward,"theirinterestinataskdeclines.21Thesamething,accordingtothreedifferentstudies,happenswhenchildrenoradultsaregivenpositivefeedbackthat
soundscontrolling(forexample,"You'redoingfineasyoushouldbedoing").22

Here,then,wehavefouraccountsofhowpraisemayimpedeperformance:itsignalslowability,makespeoplefeelpressured,invitesalowriskstrategytoavoid
failure,andreducesinterestinthetaskitself.Regardlessofwhichoftheseseemstobeoperating,theevidencesuggeststhatpraise"interactswithothervariablesina
manneranalogoustotangiblerewards."23Thatmeansitisapoorbetforenhancingthequalityofwhatpeopledo.

HookedonPraise

Wepraisepeople,especiallychildren,notonlytogetthemtodogoodworkbutalsotohelpthemdevelopgoodvaluesandhealthyselfesteem.Heretoo,though,we
mustbecareful.Parentsmustofferloveandsupportaswellasguidanceandinstruction,andinthefollowingsectionIwillelaborateontheideasofinformational
feedbackandencouragement,whichcontributetothesegoals.Butwordsofpraisethattaketheformofverbalrewardsgenerallydomoreharmthan

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good,particularlywhentheyaredoledoutaspartofadeliberatestrategytoreinforcecertainwaysofbehaving.

"Givingpraiseforprosocialbehavior"thatis,forcaring,sharing,andhelping"isoneofthemostcommonwaysparentstrytoencouragealtruismintheir
children,"psychologistJoanGrusecandacolleagueobservedrecently.24Sincethepromotionofgoodvaluesisthesubjectofchapters9and12,Iwillconfinemyself
heretopointingoutthat,forthispurpose,praiseagainseemstobeplaguedbyexactlythesameproblemswefindwithotherrewards.Assumingthatachilddesiresthe
parent's(orteacher's)approval,asupportivecommentmayalterbehaviorforawhile.Butitprobablywillnotcreateapersonalcommitmenttothevalueinquestion
infact,itmightactuallyreducethelikelihoodthatgoodbehaviorwillcontinuewhenthereisnolongeranyonearoundtopraiseit.Inastudyofyoungchildrenpublished
in1991,Grusecfoundthatthosewhowerefrequentlypraisedbytheirmothersfordisplaysofgenerositytendedtobeslightlylessgenerousonaneverydaybasisthan
otherchildren.25

Praiseisnomoreeffectiveatbuildingahealthyselfconcept.Wedonotbecomeconfidentaboutourabilities(orconvincedwearebasicallygoodpeople)just
becausesomeoneelsesaysnicethingstous.Onekeyquestioniswhethertheacknowledgmentwereceivehelpsustofeelasifweareresponsibleforthatis,the
causeoftheseadmirableattributes.Rewards,includingcommentsthatsoundlikeverbalrewards,leadustofeeljusttheopposite:ourbehaviorseemstobea
responsetothesecontrollingdevices.Thus,theeffectofpraisemayonceagainbecounterproductiveratherthanmerelyineffective.

Somepeoplereactquitenegativelytopositivereinforcement,eitherbecomingopenlydefiantorwithdrawinginashowofpassiveresistance.Aretheseactsofsheer
perversity?Notatall.Theyarereactionstoaverybasicbutrarelynoticedfact:themostnotableaspectofapositivejudgmentisnotthatitispositivebutthatit
isajudgment.Olderchildrenandadultsmayhearpraiseascondescending,asareminderof(oranattempttobolster)thegreaterpowerofthepersongivingit.
Supposeyouarehavingadiscussionaboutpoliticswithsomefriendsandoneofthemnodsgravelyafteryousaysomethingandproclaims,"Thatisaverygoodpoint."
Dependingonavarietyoffactors,yourreactionmightwellbeintenseannoyanceratherthanpleasure:"Whothehellishetojudgethevalueofmycomment?"

"Itisinterestingtonoteherethatwhentheworkofahighstatuspersonispraisedbyalowstatusperson,thisisoftenseenaspresumptuousoreveninsulting,"one
writerpointsout.26Preciselybecausepraiseusuallyimpliesadifferenceinposition,itcanproduceresis

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tance.Interestingly,someoftheverypeoplewhorecoilfromtheprospectofjudgingpeopleorbeingjudgedwhospeakthephrase"valuejudgment"asifitwerean
epithetareenthusiasticproponentsofpraise.Whattheyfailtoseeisthattellingsomeoneherworkisgoodiseverybitasmuchavaluejudgmentassayingitisbad.
Eventuallythepersonbeingjudgedwillcatchontowhatishappening.

Apartfromtheimpliedpowerimbalance,therecipientsofpraisemaynotbehappybecausetheyrealizethatthepersonofferingapositivejudgmentcouldjustaswell
bemakinganegativeone:"Todayshepraisesme,butwillshestartcriticizingmetomorrow?"*Justaseverycarrotcontainsastick,soeveryverbalrewardcontains
withinittheseedofaverbalpunishment.Thechildmayreason(evenifnotexplicitly),"Bettertorepudiatethewholebusinesssoastodepriveherofthepowertodo
meharm."27

Yetathirdpossibilityisthatpraisemayclashwithwhattherecipientalreadythinksabouthimself.
Thepersoncompareswhathe"knows"abouthisabilitiesandaccomplishmentswithwhatheisbeingtoldaboutthem....Insearchingtheevidencebearingongeneralpraise,the
personismorelikelytoencounterinstancesthatareinconsistentwiththeevaluationcontainedinthepraise.Hemusttheneitherbeginexplainingsuchinstancesawayorqualify
thepraise,perhapsrejectingitaltogether...[perhapsincliningtoward]activeselfcriticismorconsciousattemptstosabotageperformance.28

Onthesurface,anegativereactiontoapositivecommentseemsbewildering.Butthissortofsabotagemakesperfectsenseinlightofthegapbetweenwhatoneistold
andwhatonebelievestobetrue.Anotherwriteroffersaconcreteexample:
Supposetheteachersays,"Whatagoodboyyouare,Jack!Youreturnedthebookwithoutmyaskingyou."DoesreturningthebookmakeJackagoodboy?Ofcoursenot!Jack
knowsthisandmaythinktheteacherisnottooswift,andthentrytoshow[her]thathecanbea"bad"boyandstillreturnbooks.29

Asageneralrule,weshouldexpectmoreresistancewhenthepraiseisextravagantandverygeneral("Whatagoodboyyouare"ratherthan"Thatwasnicehowyou
sharedyoursandwichwithBarbara")and
*Thatthisismorethanareflectionofsuspiciousnessorinsecurityseemsclearfromtheevidencethatthesamepeoplewhopraiseareindeedlikelytocriticizeoractina
controllingmanner(seepage51).

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alsowhenitclasheswiththeperson'sexistingbeliefs.Themoreselfdoubt,themoredifficulttoreconcilethecomplimentwithwhatonethinksaboutoneself.

Ofcourse,onlysomechildrenreacttopraiseinthisway.Othersrespondmorecooperatively,moresubmissively,more"appropriately."Wetellthemhowgoodthey
areandtheylightup,eagertoplease,andtrytopleaseussomemore.Thesearethechildrenweshouldreallyworryabout.

Thedesireforapprovalisverynearlyuniversalinyoungchildren.Thisfactisworthemphasizinginitself,especiallybywayofresponsetotheassumptionthatreckless
orinappropriatebehaviormust'reflectmalignmotives.Ifwerecognizethatthesimpleabsenceofskillsmayexplainwhatisgoingonthatchildren,sofarfromtrying
tomakeourlivesmiserable,basicallyyearnforouracceptancewecanavoidsettingupthesortofselffulfillingprophecythatcomesfromassumingtheyareupto
nogood.Butatthesametimethisdesiretopleasemustbetreatedwithcaution.Wehaveanenormousresponsibilitynottoexploititforourownends.

Praise,atleastascommonlypracticed,isawayofusingandperpetuatingchildren'sdependenceonus.Itgetsthemtoconformtoourwishesirrespectiveofwhat
thosewishesare.Itsustainsadependenceonourevaluations,ourdecisionsaboutwhatisgoodandbad,ratherthanhelpingthembegintoformtheirownjudgments.
Itleadsthemtomeasuretheirworthintermsofwhatwillleadustosmileandofferthepositivewordstheycrave.RudolfDreikurssawthisbackinthe1950s:praise,
hesaid,can"leadtoadependencyonapproval.Overdone,itpromotesinsecurityasthechildbecomesfrightenedattheprospectofnotbeingabletoliveupto
expectations."30

Notlongago,ateacherinMassachusettslistenedtoacriticalpresentationaboutpraiseandshookherheadskeptically.Maybesomechildrencandowithoutit,she
said,butwhataboutthosewhoseselfesteemisinthebasement?Shewentontodescribetwostudentsinherclasswhowerecontinuallyinsecureandseemedtoneed
reassuranceabouteverything.Howcouldshebeexpectedtowithholdpraisefromthem?

Whathadnotoccurredtothiscaringteacherwasthepossibilitythatherpraisemightbemakingthesechildrenmoreinsecure.Everytimeshetoldthem,"Goodjob!
Youreallyhelpedmeouttoday!"thedesiretopleasehergrew.Theywerenoclosertoachievingthesecuritythatcomesfromconfidenceintheirowndecisionsabout
howtoact,ortodevelopingasetofstandardsbywhichtojudgetheirown

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behavior.Theireyeswereonherandtheirmoodsoaredorplummeteddependingonwhethershehadreactedwithsufficiententhusiasmtowhatevertheyhaddone.

MaryBuddRowe'sstudy,theonethatfoundlesstaskpersistencebychildrenwhoseteacherspraisedthemheavily,alsodiscoveredthatthesestudentsseemedmore
tentativeintheirresponses,moreapttoanswerinaquestioningtoneofvoice.Theywerelesslikelytotaketheinitiativetosharetheirideaswithotherstudents.And
praisewasonefactorcontributingtoatendencytobackofffromanideatheyhadproposedassoonasanadultdisagreedwiththem.31

Praisingchildrenfortheworktheydomaydiscourageselfdirectedlearning,sinceitisourverbalrewards,andnotloveofwhattheyaredoing,thatdrivethem.
Praisingchildrenforthewaytheybehave,meanwhile,givesthemnoreasontocontinueactingresponsiblywhennooneislikelytosaynicethingstothemaftertheydo
so,anditgivesthemneithertheskillsnortheinclinationtomaketheirowndecisionsaboutwhatconstitutesresponsiblebehavior.*

Butletusreturntothefactthatnotallchildrenreactthesamewaytopraise.Whileutterancesthatareunmistakablymanipulativeleadpredictablytocertainreactions,
positivefeedbackofamoreambiguoussortthekindthatcouldbeperceivedeitherasusefulinformationaboutone'sperformanceorasanattempttocontrol
willprobablybeinterpreteddifferentlydependingonwhohearsit.Atleasttwostudieshavefoundthat"identicalstatementsmadebythesameteacherunderthesame
circumstancesproducedifferentresultsfordifferentstudents."32Thisisanidealillustrationofthefutilityofsearchingforlawsoflearningorbehaviorthatapplytoall
children(muchlessallorganisms):people'svariousexperiencesandwaysofmakingsenseoftheworldtransformthemeaningandconsequencesofwhattheyhear.

Thelikelihoodthatsomeonewillrespondpositivelytopraise33orforthatmatter,thathewillbeafrequentrecipientofpraise34mayvaryaccordingtoachild's
backgroundandpersonality.Thebestsingle
*Somechildrenwillinternalizethatvoiceofadultapprovalsothatitcontinuestogoverntheirbehaviorwhenthereisnoauthorityfigureinsight.Thisissometimesregardedas
evidenceofsuccessfulsocialization.But,asDeci,Ryan,andothershavepointedout,somekindsofinternalcontrolraisetroublingquestions.Ifanyinternalizationoccursasthe
resultofcontrollingchildren'sbehaviorwithpraiseandotherrewards,itismerelylikelytoreplaceanexternalsenseofcompulsionwithaninternalsenseofcompulsion.Thereisa
worldofdifferencebetweenthisandtheexperienceofmakingone'sowndecisionsandjudgments.Iwillhavemoretosayaboutthislater.

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predictorofresponseisgender:ingeneral,praiseismorelikelytohaveundesirableconsequencesforfemalesthanformales.Twostudieswithcollegestudentsfound
thatwomen(butnotmen)whowerepraisedfortheirworkbecamelessinterestedinitthanthosewhoweren'tpraised.35Decispeculatedthatthiseffectwasdueto
thefactthatwomenaremorelikelythanmentoviewpositivefeedbackascontrolling,ratherthanjustprovidinginformationabouthowtheydid.Alaterexperiment
withchildrensupportedthishypothesis,36whileotherresearchsuggestedthat"girlswerelessabletoattributeactionsinternallyandperceivethemselvesasaltruistic"
preciselybecauseadultsare"morelikelytopraisegirlsforthistypeofbehavior."37

EncouragingWords

Incaseanyreadermightbewonderingwhetherthesefindingsmeanthatwearesupposedtoscowlatkidsallday,letmebeveryclearaboutwhatdoesanddoesnot
follow.Myreadingoftheevidenceisthatitdoesnotrequireustostopsmiling.Itdoesnotsuggestthatweoughttoholdourselvesbackfromexpressingenthusiasm
aboutwhatotherpeoplehavedone.Itdoesnotimplythatweshouldrefrainfrommakingpositivecomments.Apartfromthefactthatfewofusareabouttotakesuch
drasticstepsregardlessofwhatthedatashow,mypointisthatthereisnoreasonweshould.

Ontheotherhand,Ithinkweareobligedtothinkverycarefullyaboutthepotentialpitfallsofverbalrewardsandhowwecanavoidthem.Thisstatement(andthe
argumentsleadinguptoit)canbeterrificallyunsettlinginitself.Peoplesometimesreactwithnervouslaughter,declaring,somewhatfacetiously,thatiftheytakeallthis
seriouslytheywillbecomeparalyzedwithfear:"WhatifIaccidentallysaythewrongthingandpraisesomeone?"Butitisimportantthatthisconcern,whichisa
perfectlyunderstandablereactiontobeingaskedtoquestionanautomaticbehavior,notbeusedasanexcusetocontinuedoingsomethingthatdoesn'tmakesense.

Theproblemwithourpraiseisnot,assomepeopleseemtothink,justthatweoverdoit.Theproblemiswiththenatureofthepraise,withwhatwesayandhow.The
solutionIproposeconsistsofkeepinginmindtwogeneralprinciplesthatmightbethoughtofasthestandardsagainstwhichallpraiseshouldbemeasured.Thefirst
principleisselfdetermination.Witheverycommentwemakeandspecifically,everycomplimentwegiveweneedtoaskwhetherweare

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helpingthatindividualtofeelasenseofcontroloverhislife.Areweencouraginghimtomakehisownjudgmentsaboutwhatconstitutesagoodperformance(ora
desirableaction)?Arewecontributingto,oratleastpreserving,hisabilitytochoosewhatkindofpersontobe?Orareweattemptingtomanipulatehisbehaviorby
gettinghimtothinkaboutwhetherhehasmetourcriteria?Theotherprincipleisintrinsicmotivation.Areourcommentscreatingtheconditionsforthepersonweare
praisingtobecomemoredeeplyinvolvedinwhatsheisdoing?Oraretheyturningthetaskintosomethingshedoestowinourapproval?

Todeterminethelikelyeffectofpraisewithrespecttothesetwoguidelines,weneedtoexamine,first,ourownmotives.Arewetryingtocontrolsomeone'sbehavior
forourownconvenience,orsayingnicethingsjusttohavesomethingtosay,orhopingtogetthatpersontolikeusmore?Second,weneedtothinkabouthowour
commentssoundtotheindividualwhohearsthem.Ourintent,forexample,maybetoofferusefulfeedbackaboutthequalityofsomeone'swork,buthemayinterpret
whatwesayaslimitinghisautonomy.(Wecansimplyaskolderchildrenoradultshowtheyperceivewhatwehavesaidpeopleofanyagecanbeobservedforsigns
ofresistance,dependency,orreducedinterest.)Finally,weoughttoattendtotheobjectivecharacteristicsofwhatwesayandhowwesayit.

Iwanttooffersomespecificsuggestionsforhowwemightpraise,butit'susefultorememberfirstofallthatgivingfeedbackdoesnotrequireustoofferpraiseatall.
Toputitanotherway,thoseofuswhoaredisinclinedtogiveverbalrewardsarenotobligedtostaysilent.Thereisanotheralternative,atleastinsomecircumstances,
whichissimplytoprovideinformationabouthowwellsomeonehasdone.Inthecourseofanintricateanalysisofhowteacherspraisestudents,educationresearcher
JereBrophysaysthis:
Itisessentialthatstudentsgetfeedbackabouttheiracademicprogressandclassroomconduct,butthisdoesnotrequirethemoreintensiveandevaluativereactionsimpliedby
"praise."Indeed,Iseenostrictnecessityforanypraise...atall.Studentsdonotactuallyneedpraiseinordertomasterthecurriculum,toacquireacceptablestudentrole
behaviors,oreventodevelophealthyselfconcepts.38

Infact,totheextentthatpraisecanhaveapositiveeffectintheclassroomorworkplace,itmaywellbebecauseoftheinformationitprovides(regardingone'ssuccess
atperformingthetask)ratherthantheexpressionofapproval.Someresearchonthisquestion39al

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thoughnotallofit40hasfoundthatadultsandchildrenalikebecomemoreinterestedinwhattheyaredoingwhentheygetstraightforwardfeedbackabouthow
theyaredoingit.

Interpretingthisfinding,however,issomewhatcomplicatedbythefactthatthefeedbackofferedbytheseresearchersisalmostalwayspositive.Ifyouperkupatthe
newsthatyou'vedonewellatsomething,itisprobablyduetothefeelingofcompetenceyouderivefromthisinformation.Inreallife,ofcourse,youoftendon't
succeed,andthereisreasontothinkthatfeedbackabouthowyoufailedwon'tdomuchinitselftoboostyourintrinsicmotivation.41Thechallengeforteachersand
managers,infact,istoavoiddestroyingpeople'smotivationwhilelettingthemknowtheyhaven'tdonewellthatis,toprovidenegativefeedbackinawaythat
doesn'tkillinterest.(Onewaytodothisistodescribethefailure"intermsofaproblemtobesolved"andtoinvolvethepersonperformingthetaskinfiguringoutways
toimprove.)42

There'sanotherproblemwithchoosingtoprovideinformationalfeedbackratherthanpraise:thetwocan'talwaysbeseparated.Evenwhenwedecidesomeonehas
donewellandtellhimso,it'snoteasytostripthatinformationofemotionalweight:justassomeoneinformedthathehasdonepoorlymayfeelcriticized,someonetold
hehasdonewellmayinterpretthisasaverbalreward,whichisalsoundesirable.Thetrickistohelppeopleregardfeedbackasinformationtheycanuse.Someone
whotendstobeintrinsicallymotivatedasaruleismorelikelytoseethingsthatway.43Likewise,asIwillarguelater,wecanhelpfreestudentsfromtherewardand
punishmentframeofreferencebydeemphasizingtheperformanceaspectoflearning.

Inallsituations,though,Ibelievetherearethingswecandotobluntthedamagingimpactofpraise.Herearefourpracticalsuggestions.

1.Don'tpraisepeople,onlywhatpeopledo.It'slesslikelythattherewillbeagapbetweenwhatsomeonehearsandwhathethinksabouthimselfifwedon'tmake
sweepingcommentsaboutwhatheislikeasaperson."Toomuchglobalpositiveevaluation...trainschildrentothinkglobally,tomaketheirselvestheissuein
whatevertheydo,andthustobepronetobothgrandiosityandselfcontempt,"asonechildpsychiatristseesit.44Sayingsomethingaboutwhatthepersonhasdone
(orisdoing)makesmoresense:"That'sareallynicestory"isbetterthan"You'resuchagoodwriter."

2.Makepraiseasspecificaspossible.Notonlyshouldwefocusontheactorproduct,butweshoulddosobycallingattentiontothespecificaspectsthatstrike
usasespeciallyinnovativeorotherwise

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worthyofnotice.This''enablesitsrecipienttojudgeforhimselfwhethertheevaluator'sstandardsareappropriate,"45anditpullshimintothetaskitselfratherthan
fixinghisattentiononthefactofourapproval.46Evenbetterthan"That'sareallynicestory"is"That'sneatattheendwhenyouleavethemaincharacteralittle
confusedaboutwhathappenedtohim."*

3.Avoidphonypraise.Aparentorteacherwhoisgenuinelydelightedbyorappreciativeofsomethingachildhasdoneshouldfeelfreetoletthatexcitement
show.Praisebecomesobjectionablewhenitisclearlynotaspontaneousexpressionbutadeliberatestrategy,agimmickthatseemstohavebeenpickedupfroma
bookorseminar.Whenweareinstructedto"catchpeopledoingsomethingright"andpraisethemforit,oreventopracticepraisingotherpeople,wearebeing
schooledinatechnique.Theresultisunavoidablycontrived.

Onesymptomofphonypraiseisasqueaky,saccharinevoicethatslidesupanddownthescaleandbearslittleresemblancetothewayweconversewithourfriends.
Anotherisapausebeforepraisingthatsuggestswehavefirstdecidedtohandoutaverbalrewardandarenowtryingtofindsomeonetowhomitcanbepresented
orevenworse,wearetryingtocontrolthebehaviorofagroupofchildrenbycreatingsomesuspenseaboutwhowillbemadetheobjectofthepraise."Ilikethe
waaaaaaay[thesyllableisdrawnoutwhiletheteacherlooksaroundtheroomandthechildrenscrambletobethechosenonewhileshesettlesonthewinner]...
Stewart!issittingsoniceandquietandreadytowork."

Afouryearoldcanusuallytellthedifferencebetweenagenuineexpressionofpleasureandphonypraise,betweenasinceresmileandonethatismanufacturedand
timedforbesteffect.Heismorelikelytobewarmedbytherealthingafactthatperplexesbehavioristssince,intheirparlance,itispreciselythatwhichisnot
intendedtoreinforcethatismostreinforcing.Ontheotherhand,justbecausepraiseisgenuineandspontaneousdoesnotmeanthatitisguaranteedtobebeneficial:
theveryfactthatitmeansmoretoachildsuggests
*Specificityisalsousefulforpreservinginterest(andselfrespect)whengivingcriticism.Hearingaboutparticularmistakesonehasmadeismuchlessthreateningthanseeingan
F,receivingapooroverallperformancerating,orhearingageneraldismissalofone'swork.Feedbackthatpinpointsthesourceoftheproblemandofferssuggestionsfor
improvementislikelytominimizethedangersinherentincriticism.(Noticethatpointingthewaytowardimprovementisverydifferentfromfutureorientedcommentssuchas"You
candobetter,"whicharelikelytobeviewedascontrollingandtocreatepressure.)

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thatitmaybeevenmoreeffectiveatcreatingadependenceonthepraisegiver.Fortunately,whenourresponsesaregenuine,thechildwillatleastsensethatour
motiveisnottocontrol.

4.Avoidpraisethatsetsupacompetition.Itisneveragoodideatopraisesomeonebycomparinghertosomeoneelse.Phraseslike''You'rethebestinthe
class"(orforadults,"...inthisdepartment")oughttobestruckfromourvocabulary.Theresearchisquiteclearthatsuchcommentsundermineintrinsicmotivation,47
buttheirmostperniciouseffectsaresubtler:theyencourageaviewofothersasrivalsratherthanaspotentialcollaborators.What'smore,theyleadpeopletoseetheir
ownworthintermsofwhethertheyhavebeateneveryoneelsearecipeforperpetualinsecurity.48

Competitionisalsofosteredbygivingpraisepublicly.Forexample,theelementaryschoolteacherwhoannouncesinfrontoftheclass"IlikethewayStewartissitting
soniceandquietandreadytowork"hassetupacontestforNicest,QuietestStudent,andeveryoneotherthanStewarthasjustlost.Thissortofpraiseis
objectionableforthreeotherreasonsaswell.First,itdoesStewartnofavorshisstandingwithhispeersisunlikelytoimproveasaresultofhavingbeenidentifiedas
NicestandQuietest.Second,themostimportantwordinthatsentenceisIStewartisnothelpedtoreflectonthevalueofbeingniceorquietbutonlytofigureout
howtopleasetheteacher.49Last,theinteractionisfundamentallyfraudulentbecausetheteacher,whilepretendingtoaddressStewart,isactuallyusingStewartto
manipulatethebehaviorofothersintheroom.Makinganexampleofsomeoneisatroublingpracticeregardlessofwhetherwedosowithpunishmentsorrewards,
andpublicpraiseisreallynotmuchofanimprovementoverpubliccriticism.ThisiswhyIjoinwithanumberofothereducatorsinurgingthatpositivecommentsbe
offeredinprivate.50

Idosodespitethefactthatpublicpraise,sometimesinvolvingelaboratecompetitiveceremoniesandawards,isoftenjustifiedonthegroundsthatweare"recognizing
excellence."Fewofusstoptoaskwhatthatphrasereallymeansandwhatourmotivesreallyare.Whyisitimportantthatexcellenceberecognized?

Iftheideaistoletsomeoneknowthatshehasdonegoodwork(whichpresumesthatsheisunawareofthisfact),suchfeedbackcanbeofferedwithoutthe
trappingsofbehaviorism.

Iftheideaistoconvincethepersonbeingrecognizedtokeepupthegoodwork,weneedtoask,first,whetherthisisreallynecessary(didhegetthisfaroutofa
questforrecognition?),andsecond,whetherofferingarewardmightactuallyunderminehismotivationforallthereasonsreviewedinpreviouschapters.

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Iftheideaisthatotherpeoplewillbemotivatedbywatchingoneoftheirpeersgetrewarded,thereisampleevidencethatextrinsicmotivatorsaremorelikelyto
demotivateandthatlosinginacompetition(whichiswhatselective"recognition"oftenfeelslike)isevenworse.

Iftheideaistoclarifyandcommunicatetoawideraudiencewhatexcellenceconsistsof,thiscanbedonewithoutalotofhoopla.Moreover,itoughttobedoneina
formatthatismorelikeaconversationthananannouncement.

Iftheideaissimplythatitwouldbenicetoshowsomeonewhodidagoodjobthatthishasbeennoticed,thereisnoneedtodosoinawaythatmaystirupothers'
resentmentandpossiblyevenembarrassthepersonbeingpubliclypraised.Privatecomments,offeredsoastopromoteselfdeterminationandintrinsicmotivation,are
enoughtoletpeopleknowtheirworkisappreciated.Thereisnoreasontoofferthesecommentsfromastageortoweightthemdownwithtrophiesorcertificates.

Considerasituationwherealargenumberofpeopleattendingaschool,workinginanorganization,orparticipatinginaneventaregratefultosomeonewhohas
workedhardforthebenefitofeveryone.Ifthankingthatpersoninpublicdoesnotseemparticularlyobjectionable,thismaybepartlybecausetheprocessofdoingso
isdemocratic.Bycontrast,inthetypicalceremonyfor"recognizingexcellence,"thepeopleinchargehaveunilaterallyselected,attheirowndiscretionandbasedon
theirowncriteria,somepeopletorecognizeover,andinfrontof,others.Itistheirpowertodosothatisultimatelybeingrecognized.

Ratherthantalkingabouthowwecanminimizethepotentialdisadvantagesofpraise,RudolfDreikursandhisfollowersprefertotalkaboutrespondingtochildrenin
waysthat"encourage"them.51Someofthesuggestionsforputtingthatapproachintopractice,aswellasthereasonsfordoingso,overlapwithwhatIhavebeen
talkingabout.Ofcourse,whetherweprefertocasttheissueasacontrastbetweenbadpraiseandgoodpraiseorbetweenpraiseandencouragementdoesn'tmatter
nearlyasmuchasthesubstanceofourresponses.

WhattheDreikursianscontributetothisdiscussionisthecriticalpointthatevaluativecommentsareoftenentirelyunnecessary.*We
*Inthisconnection,itisworthpointingoutthatpraiseappearstobeentirelyabsentinsomeculturesafactthatwouldseemtobelietheassumptionthattheprocessof
socializationrequiresthatchildrenreceiveselectiveverbalreinforcement.52

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canbelessjudgmentalandcontrollingandinthelongrun,moreeffectiveatpromotingselfdeterminationandintrinsicmotivationbysimplyacknowledgingwhat
achildhasdone.Justpointingoutanaspectofachild'sessayordrawingthatseemsinteresting(withoutsayingthatit'sniceorthatyoulikedit)willlikelybesufficient
toencourageherefforts.

Irecentlyheardathirdgradestudentreadanoriginalstorytoherclassmates.Whenshewasfinished,herteachersaid,"Youworkedhardonthatending.Youwrote
thatpartthreetimes."Presumably,theteacherhadofferedsomefeedbackearlieronwhatworkedandwhatdidnotworkinthestoryinordertohelpthestudent
improve(andencouragehertothinkcriticallyaboutwhatconstitutesimprovementinstorywriting).Nowthatshewasdone,itwassufficienttoshowthatherefforts
hadbeennoticedandappreciatedthesuperlativesfollowedbyexclamationpointsthatwetendtolavishonchildrenseemedtotheteacheraltogetherunnecessary.
(Notice,incidentally,thatwhenthechildturnedinapaperthatwasunsatisfactory,shewasgiventheopportunitytorewriteitratherthanbeingpenalizedwithabad
grade.Theemphasisinthisclassroomwasonimprovementandlearningratherthanevaluation.)

Supposethatayoungchildfinishesadrawingandshowsittoyou.Ihavesaidthatitisbettertofocusontheartthanontheartist,andbetteryettobespecificinour
commentsabouttheart.Butwheneverthosecommentsamounttopraiseinthetraditionalsense,weruntheriskoftiltingachildtowardthegoalofelicitingour
approvalinsteadofhisown,andmakinghimmoreintentontheverbalrewardthanontheprocessofplayingwithcoloranddesign.Theseareriskswecanminimize
byofferingobservationsandquestionsaboutwhathehasdone("Arethesemountainsoverherenearthewater?Boy,thisoneishuge,isn'tit?Howcomeyoudecided
todrawthemingreen?...Whatareyouplanningtodrawnext?")

Whydomostofusrespondinsteadwithabarrageofcompliments?First,becausenothoughtisnecessarytoofferthempraiseischeapandeasy.Bycontrast,ittakes
skillandcareandattentiontoencouragepeopleinsuchawaythattheyremaininterestedinwhattheyaredoinganddon'tfeelcontrolled.(Itisalwayseasiertodo
thingstopeople,ortotakeoveranddothingsforthem,thanitistoworkwiththemtohelpthemmaketheirowndecisions.)

Second,itfeelsgoodtohavesomeone,evensomeoneveryshort,inthepositionoflookingtous(figurativelyandsometimesliterally)forourapproval.Thismotive
doesnotplayapartineveryone'spraise,of

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course,butwemightconsidercarefullywhetheritisjustacoincidencethatwhatwesayhastheeffectofensuringthatotherskeepneedingtohearwhatwethink.

Third,manyofusfearthatthereissomethingsterileandchillyaboutgivingcommentswithoutcompliments.Itmayfeelatfirstasifwearewithholdingpraiseand
thereforebeingstingywithourapproval.Whatmatters,though,iswhetherourresponsesareofferedinsuchawayastocommunicatewarmthandconcern.Ifso,
childrenwillbeencouragedratherthanfrustratedbywhatwesay.Ifnot,thenpraise,too,nomatterhowlavish,isunlikelytobehelpful.

Theseargumentsoftenprovokeresistancebecausetheyseemtochallengeawidespreadconvictionthatallchildrenindeed,allpeoplewouldbebetteroffwith
morekindwords.Butwhenwecontemplatetherealityofemotionallyimpoverishedfamilies,ortheeffectofunrelentingcriticism,letuskeepinmindthattheproblem
insuchhouseholdsisnottoolittlepraise.Itistoolittleencouragementandsupport.Toquestiontheuseofverbalrewardsisnottofavorverbalpunishmentor
indifference.Onthecontrary,childrenoughttoknowtheyaresodeeplycaredaboutthattheirparentsandteachersarewillingtoputtheirlongterminterestsaheadof
theshorttermcompliancethatextrinsicmotivatorscansecure.

AteacherinMissouriwonderedaloudnotlongagohowshecouldbringherselftostoppraisingherstudentssincemanyofthemcamefromdesperatecircumstances,
fromloveless,brutalhomes.Theyneedmysupportandapproval,sheexclaimed.Andsotheydo.Buttheyneeditwithoutstringsattachedtheyrequireunconditional
love.Bycontrast,praise,likeallrewards,isconditional.(Onlyifyoudothiswillyougetthat"that"referringheretoexpressionsofdelightandsupport.)Moreover,
childrenindistressneedtofeelnotonlylovedbutpotent,capableofmakingchoicesandhavingsomesayaboutwhathappenstothem.Whattheydonotneedisto
becontrolled,evenbyhoneyedphrases.

Preciselybecauseitissomethingthattakesthoughtandeffort,respondingwithencouragementratherthanpraiserequirespracticeandcannotbetaughtinfiveeasy
lessons.Wewillneedtomakesurethatthisapproach,likemostsuggestionsfordealingwithchildren,isnotimplementedmechanically,withtheresultthatitcomesto
seemanaffectation.Wewillneedtokeepinmindtheageandcapacitiesofthechildtowhomwearespeaking.(Withadults,evenaresponseintendedtoencourage
ratherthanjudgemayseemcondescending.)

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Andwewillneedtobepreparedforthefactthatwemaylapsebackintopraisesometimesitisnotaneasyhabittobreak.

TheFearofSpoiling

Ihavenotbeenreticentaboutcriticizingrewardsingeneralorpraiseinparticular.ButthereisonecomplaintthatIhavenotoffered,andtoavoidany
misunderstanding,Iwantnowtodistancemyselffromitexplicitly.Thisistheviewthatleadspeopletosayweshouldstoprewardingchildrensooftenbecausewe're
spoilingthem,andthatkidstodayexpectagoody,oratleastacompliment,foreverythingtheydo.

Thepopularityofthiscriticismseemstohavegrowninrecentyearstothepointthat,whilenegativecommentsaboutrewardsarenotofferedveryfrequently,the
majorityofthosethataremadetendtotakethisline.Thus,articlesurgeparentsandteachersto"praiseconservatively"53or"concentrateongivingtrulydeserved
rewards"54oruse''ToughPraise''predicatedon"honest,diligentwork,"lestchildrenbetherecipientsof"praisethatcomestooeasily."55AcoverstoryinNewsweek
inearly1992tookaimateducationalprogramsdesignedtoenhancechildren'sselfesteem,snickeringattheuseofgoldstarsandstickersandatadultswhogive
"praiseforwalkingacrosstheroomwithoutfallingover."56

Letusexplorethesensibilityreflectedinthiscriticism.Tobeginwith,itsuggeststhattheproblemwithrewardsislimitedtohoweasilywegivethemthetitleofa
representativearticlewrittenfromthisperspectivecomplainsthat"GiveawaysHaveGoneTooFar!"57Thisseemstomeasuperficialanalysisbecauseitignoreswhat
isattheheartofthetroubletheideaofextrinsicmotivation.

Moreimportant,though,thosewhocomplainthatwearespoilingchildrenwithrewardsoftenbetrayadeeperreasonfortheirdiscomfort:theyseemtothinkthatkids
shouldjustdowhatwewantthemtodobecausewetellthemtodoit.Itwouldnotsurprisemetolearnthatmanyofthesecriticsareequallyunhappywiththeidea
thatweoughttoexplaintochildrenthereasonforourrequests.Anythingotherthanautomatic,unquestioningcomplianceisannoyingtosomepeople.Thereisno
attentiongiventowhatweareaskingchildrentodo,whethertherequestisreasonableortheschoolassignmentisworthdoing.Theyshouldsimplydowhatis
expectedofthemwithoutrequiringencouragementorjustification.

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Iobjectnotonlytothisdemandforobediencebutalsotothetendencytofocusonhoweasykidshaveittoday.Therealproblemisnotthatchildrenexpecttobe
praisedforeverythingtheydoitisthatadultsaretemptedtotakeshortcuts,tomanipulatetheirbehaviorwiththeuseofrewardsinsteadofexplaining,helpingthemto
developneededskills,fosteringacommitmenttogoodvalues,andbringingtheminontheprocessofdecidinghowtolearnandbehave.

Traditionalistswhoridiculeattemptstoboostselfesteemliketosaythatpeoplefeelgoodaboutthemselvesasaresultofwhattheyhaveachievedtheydon'tachieve
becausetheyfeelgoodaboutthemselves.Theremaywellbesometruthtothis.Atanyrate,itisahypothesisworthconsidering.*Butlurkingbeneaththeassaulton
suchprogramsisamorevisceralobjectionthatmightbeidentifiedasafearthatsomebodyisgoingtogeta"psychologicalfreelunch"andbepleasedwithhimself
withoutearningthatright.(Oneimaginesthatlastphrasebeingbarkedoutwhileafistisslammedonthetableforemphasis.)IfIamrightabouttheideologythatisat
workhere,itisadifficultonetodefend.Conservativeeconomicprinciplesareoutofplacewhenwearetalkingaboutwhatchildrenneedanddeserve.Whatthey
need,asIhavesaid,isunconditionalapprovalandacceptancetheveryoppositeofverbalrewards,andespeciallyofToughPraise.Whattheydeserve,Ibelieve,is
whattheyneed.

Otherscouchtheobjectioninmorepragmaticterms.Childrenwillbecomefatandlazytheywillstopdoingschoolworkoractingresponsiblyunlesstheyhaveto
jumpthroughhoopstogetadults'approval.Thispositionisbasedonassumptionsaboutlearningand"humannature"thatsimplydonotstandupunderclosescrutiny
andwhichIhavebeguntoaddressintalkingaboutequitytheory(chapter2)andthefutilityofmakingrewardscontingentonquality(chapter5).Letmejustsayhere
thatselectivereinforcementandindiscriminatereinforcementaretwoversionsofthesamething,twomanifestationsofthesametheoryofmotivation.Thetroublewith
rewardsisnotthat
*Ofcourse,bothmaybetrue:achievementfortifiesselfesteem,andconfidenceinoneselfalsofacilitatesachievement.Inanycase,thefactthatstudentsneedtoachieve
somethingofwhichtheycanbeproudisnot,asisoftenassumed,aninvitationtogo"backtobasics"thatis,toatraditionalcurriculumemphasizingmemorizationand
recitation.Weignoreatourperil(andmoreimportant,ourchildren'speril)thequestionofwhetherthematerialtheyareaskedtolearnisengagingandrelevanttotheirlife
experience.Whatsortofachievementleadschildrentofeelgoodaboutthemselvesisverymuchanopenquestion.

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wehandthemouttooeasilyitisthattheyarecontrolling,ultimatelyineffective,andlikelytoundermineintrinsicinterest.Thatmeanstheywillbecounterproductive
evenwhenmaybeespeciallywhentheyaremostclearlycontingentonwhatprecedesthem.Givingrewardslessfrequentlyormorestringentlywillnotsolvethe
underlyingproblem,becausetheproblemisbehaviorismitself.

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PARTTWO
REWARDSINPRACTICE

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7
PayforPerformance:
WhyBehaviorismDoesn'tWorkintheWorkplace
[Thefaultdoesnotlie]withtheuseofpoortechniquesinadministeringincentivesystems....[Rather,]thereissomethingwrongwiththetheoryofworkermotivationuponwhich
thepoliciesandproceduresarebased.
WilliamFooteWhyte,1955

ExecutiveSummary

NotonlyareincentivesystemsandpayforperformanceplanspervasiveinU.S.companies,butthereexistsadeepandrarelyquestionedcommitmenttothebelief
thatofferingpeoplerewardswillcausethemtodoabetterjob.Theevidence,however,suggeststhatextrinsicmotivatorsintheworkplacearenotonlyineffectivebut
oftenpositivelycounterproductive.Themostfamiliarreasonsproposedtoexplainthisfailuredealwithrelativelyminorissuesthatapplyonlytospecificincentive
programs.Butseveralotherreasonsstrikeattheheartoftheassumptionsaboutmotivationthatunderlieallsuchprograms.Thebottomlineisthatanyapproachthat
offersarewardforbetterperformanceisdestinedtobeineffective.

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IncentivesPrevail

Ifpopbehaviorismwereareligion,Americanmanagerswouldhavetobedescribedasfundamentalists.Itisdifficulttooverstatetheextenttowhichthey,andthe
peoplewhoadvisethem,believeintheredemptivepowerofrewards.Certainly,thevastmajorityofcorporationsutilizesomesortofprogramwhosepurposeisto
motivateemployeesbytyingpay(orotherformsofcompensation)tooneoranotherindexofperformance.1

TogetabettersenseofthebreadthanddepthofthisallegiancetotheSkinnerianmodel,though,wemightattendtowhatmanagers,aswellasconsultantsand
businessschoolinstructors,havetosayonthematter.Tellingly,itdoesnotoccurtomostofthemeventoquestionthevalueofextrinsicmotivators.Atypical
handbookoncompensationmatteroffactlystatesthattopay"correctly"istopay"inrelationtoperformance."2 Inbusinessjournalsweregularlycomeacross
declarationslikethisone:"Organizationsmustgivethegreatestrewardstothosewhoperformbest.Todootherwiseisinconsistentwithconcernforproductivity."3
Andfromanacademicanthologyonincentives:''Themorecloselypayistiedtoperformancethemorepowerfulitsmotivationaleffect."4 Suchassertionshaveabout
themtheflavorofobvioustruthsthatneednotbedefendedbecausenoonedoubtstheirveracity.Theyaretalismansthatthewritertouchesbeforemovingontodeal
withsomethingcontroversial.5

Occasionallyonecomesacrossanarticleorbookthatattemptstobringsome"psychological"perspectivetobearonthefieldofmanagement,drawingfrom
humanisticorpsychoanalytictheory,forexample.Suchworksstandoutinsharpreliefagainstabackgroundofthousandsofotherpublications,butthetruthisthatall
theseotherwritingsarealsobasedonapsychologicaltheory.6 Thattheoryhappenstobebehaviorism,whichissopervasiveinthefieldthatnooneevenregardsitas
atheory.Itspreceptsareaxiomatic.*

Thisisnottosaythatnoonecriticizesincentivesystems.Plentyofarticlesdojustthat,andtheyareoftenpublishedunderarrestingtitles:"WhyIncentivePlansFail,"
"HowtoRuinMotivationwithPay,"andsoforth.Buttheproblemwithsuchplans,theseauthors
*Behaviorism,inturn,asIsuggestedinchapter1,embodiescertainassumptionsaboutlearningandhumannature.Considertherecommendationbyagroupofconsultantsthat
employeesbegiven"anincentive(anaward)forlearning.Whatislearnedbecomesworthknowing"8theimplication,ofcourse,beingthatanythinglearnedintheabsenceof
anartificialinducementisnotworthknowing.

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eventuallygiveustounderstand,concernsnothingmorethanthedetailsoftheirimplementation.9 Onlyfinetunethecalculationsanddeliveryoftheextrinsic
incentiveor,perhaps,hiretheauthorasaconsultantandallwillonceagainberightwiththeworld.Evenresearcherswhohavedocumentedtheutterfailureof
suchprogramsrushtoassureusthat,ofcourse,"meritpayisdesirableinprinciple."10Wejusthavetolearnhowtodoitright.
Anyonereadingtheliteratureonthissubjectpublished20yearsagowouldfindthatthearticleslookalmostidenticaltothosepublishedtoday.Mostexpertsonthesubjectwere
then,andarestill,decryingthefactthatwearedoingapoorjobofadministeringmeritpayplans....[Despitethe]newapproaches...theresultsneverseemtoimprove.11

Thatassessment,whichcouldhavebeenwrittenthismorning,wasactuallyofferedin1975.Criticismsthatdigdeepenoughtoquestionourassumptionsaboutwhat
motivatespeoplearepublishednowandthen,butmostlythen.Asageneralrule,themoreexplicitlyabusinessrelatedbookorarticlechallengesoreven
identifiesthebehavioristunderpinningsofincentiveplans,thegreatertheprobabilitythatitwaswrittenmorethantwentyyearsago.Noticetheironyhere:justas
socialpsychologistswerestartingtorecognizehowcounterproductiveextrinsicmotivatorscanbe,thismessagewasbeginningtodisappearfrompublicationsinthe
fieldofmanagement.

Thedevotiontorewardandpunishmentpsychologyis,ifanything,evenmoreapparentwhenweputdownthejournalsofmanagementandtalktomanagers
themselves.ManydenizensofthecorporateworldstillseemtoidentifywiththebeliefsthatDouglasMcGregorreferredtocollectivelyasTheoryX:peoplebasically
don'tliketoworkandthereforeneedtobecontrolledandcoercedspecifically,byhavingmaterialrewardspromisedorwithheldifweexpectthemtoget
anythingdone.12Thisviewisconsistentwiththebehavioristdoctrinethatmotivationisafunctionofexternalreinforcements,ontheonehand,andwiththepracticeof
payingforperformance,ontheother.

Thus,TomPeterswasquitecorrectwhenhesummedupthecurrentwisdomasfollows:"Gettheincentivesrightandproductivitywillfollow.Ifwegivepeoplebig,
straightforwardmonetaryincentives...theproductivityproblemwillgoaway."13Inpointoffact,ifwehaveseenanything"goaway"asaconsequenceofrelyingon
incentives,ithasnotbeentheproductivityproblembutproductivity.Popbehaviorism,however,isnotofferedasahypothesistobetested.Itmorenearlyresembles
theologicaldogma,anditisconnectedtocapitalismitself:

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"Thefreeenterprisesystemoperatesonthepremisethatrewardsshoulddependonperformance,"asoneconsultantputit.14Tothisextent,criticismisviewedasan
assaultonfundamentalvalues.AfterIofferedacritiqueofincentiveplansatamanagementconferencenotlongago,onebusinessmanexclaimed,"Well,isn'tthat
communism?"

Idonotmeantoimplythattherehasbeennomovementinthetheoryorpracticeofmanagementoverthelastgeneration.Anumberofpeoplehavetalkedabout,and
insomecaseseventriedtoimplement,systemstopromoteteamwork,participativemanagement,morethoughtfulandresponsiveapproachestosupervision,andan
emphasisoncontinuousimprovement.Butitispreciselyhere,amongtherecommendationsforchange,thatwecanglimpsethehardinessofbehaviorism:toinstitute
andmaintaintheseveryreforms,itisoftensaid,wemustdependonrewards.

"Ifyouwantteamwork,youhavegottorecognizetheteam,"saystheinfluentialmanagementtheoristEdwardLawler.15Hismainpointisthatweshouldshiftrewards
fromindividualstogroups,buttheideaofmovingbeyondarelianceonrewardsaltogetherpromotingcooperationwithout,ineffect,bribingpeopletowork
togetherisevidentlyunimaginable.Meanwhile,theuseofcompetitiverewardsforqualitymanagement,suchastheBaldrigeAward,"reinforces,onemoretime,
extrinsicmotivationratherthanintrinsic,"asonecriticputsit.16

Thesameistrueregardingthepracticeofrewardingemployeeswhentheyacquirenewskillsorparticipateinprogramstoimprovetheorganization.Whatwebribe
peopletodomayhavechangedabittherelianceonbribesonbehavioristdoctrinehasnot.Dowewant"acontinuousefforttoimprove"?Thenpeoplemust
"getpaidmoreastheylearnmore,"saysoneproponentofTotalQualityManagement.17Someconsultantsevenarguethatinordertogetmanagerstouserewards
withtheiremployees,wemustdanglerewardsinfrontofthemanagersthemselves.18ThissuggestsalogofortheAmericanworkplace:alargedogholdingouta
biscuittoasmallerdogthatholdsoneouttoastillsmallerdog,andsoonuntilthedogsandbiscuitsvanishintoinsignificance.

IncentivesFail

Rewardsingeneraldonotenhance,andoftenimpede,performanceonmanydifferentkindsoftasks,especiallythosethatrequirecreativity.Thatwasthedear
consensusoftheevidencereviewedin

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chapter3.Anincentiveormeritpayplan,ofcourse,dependsontheuseofrewards.Isthereanyreasontobelievethatsuchanapplicationissomehowimmunetothe
forcesthatcauseotherextrinsicmotivatorstofail?

No.Extrinsicmotivationdoesn'tworkintheworkplace*anybetterthanitworksinanyothercontext.Backin1960,McGregortickedofftheconsequencesof
incentiveplans,notingthattheymayleadto
deliberaterestrictionofoutput,hiddenjigsandfixtures,hiddenproduction,fudgedrecords...antagonismtowardthosewhoadministertheplan,cynicismwithrespectto
management'sintegrityandfairness,indifferencetotheimportanceofcollaborationwithotherpartsoftheorganization(exceptforcollusiveeffortstodefeattheincentivesystem).
19

Someprofessionalswhooverseetheseprogramsareabletoseetheconsequencesforthemselves.Ataconferencepresentationentitled"HumanResourceUtilization"
inwhichIparticipated,oneofmycopanelists,anexecutiveatoneofthebigthreeautocompanies,describedtheresultsofaninformalsurveysheandhercolleagues
hadconductedtoseehowpeopleatvariouscompaniesregardedtheirincentiveprograms.Atbest,shesaid,theyreportedthattheirprogramsdidn'tdotoomuch
damage.20

ConsiderthecountriestypicallycitedascompetitorsoftheUnitedStates.JapanandGermany,totaketwoofthemostsuccessful,rarelyuseincentivesorother
behavioristtacticstoinducepeopletodoabetterjob.21Thisfactnotonlydebunkstheideathatitis"humannature"tobemotivatedbyextrinsicrewards,butalso
callsintoquestiontheusefulnessofsuchrewards,giventhatthesenationsappeartobedoingreasonablywell."Ifthesesuccessfulcountriesdonotneedthem,does
America?"asksTheEconomist.22

Butputasidetheanecdotalevidenceoffailureandtheexperienceofothercountries.Whatdoestheresearchsay?Apartfromoccasionalsurveysofhowsatisfied
managerssaytheyarewiththeirincentive
*Iamnotconcernedherewiththesortofincentivesthatareofferedtobusinessesasamatterofpublicpolicy,suchastaxbreaksthatareawardedforcontrollingpollutionor
creatingjobs.Acorporateentity,forbetterorworse,isaccountableonlyforthefinancialreturnitbringsitsinvestorsandthereforeispresumablyresponsivetofinancial
incentivesandpenalties.Thedebateamongeconomiststypicallycounterposesthisapproachtodirectregulation,whichraisesissuesquitedifferentfromthoseaddressedinthis
book.Infact,theuseoffinancialincentivestomanipulateaperson'sbehaviormaybeobjectionableandultimatelyineffectivepreciselybecauseitreducesthepsychologyof
humanmotivationtoabranchofeconomics.

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plans,23itisexceedinglydifficulttofindharddataonthequestionofwhethertheseprogramsdoanygood.(Theabsenceofempiricalsupport,ofcourse,prevents
almostnoonefromadoptingincentivesoreven,insomecases,fromclaimingthatsuchsupportdoesexist.)24AccordingtoresearcherG.DouglasJenkins,Jr.,in
fact,"theevidencethathasbeengeneratedtendstofocusontheeffectsofvariationsinincentiveconditions,andnotonwhetherperformancebasedpayperseraises
performancelevels."25

Inasearchforevidenceontheeffectofpayforperformanceprograms,onemayfirststumbleonaseriesofstudies,beginningintheearly1960s,thathavefounda
veryweakorevennegativerelationshipbetweenpayandorganizationalperformance,andespeciallybetweenexecutivepayandcorporateprofitabilitymeasuredover
aperiodoftime.26Whatisthesignificanceofthisfinding?Typically,theabsenceofsuchacorrelationistakentomeanthatpeoplearenotreallypaidonthebasisof
howwelltheydotheirjobs.Inotherwords,thecompensationsystemhasbeenpoorlyimplemented.

Butmostofthesedatamightjustaswellbeusedtosupportadifferentconclusion,onethatreversesthecausalarrow.Perhapswhattheyaretellingusisthatbetter
performancedoesnotfollowfromhigherpay.Inotherwords,theveryideaoftryingtorewardqualitymaybeafool'serrand.Tworesearchersexplicitlytriedto
establishwhetherreturntoshareholderswasanybetterforcorporationsthathadincentiveplansfortopexecutivesthanitwasforthosewithoutsuchplans.The
researcherswereunabletofindanydifference.27

Otherstudiestooprovidescantcomfortforthosewhofavorrewardsintheworkplace.In1986,Jenkinstrackeddowntwentyeightpreviouslypublishedexperiments
thatmeasuredtheimpactoffinancialincentives,someinthelaboratoryandsomeinthefield.Sixteenofthem(57percent)foundapositiveeffectonperformance.But
thisratiooverstatesthebenefitofincentivesforseveralreasons.First,theimprovementwasjudgedonthebasisofshorttermmeasures,andtherewasnoindication
thatitwouldhavecontinued.Second,thetasksinvolvedinthestudiesweremostlyclericalorphysicalwork,suchassimpleassemblyjobs,treeplanting,andcard
sorting.Third,andmosttelling,alloftheperformancemeasureswerequantitativeinnature:agoodjobconsistedofproducingmoreofsomethingordoingitfaster.
Onlyfiveofthestudieslookedatthequalityofperformance.Ofthefive,howmanyshowedapositiveeffectforincentives?None.28

Oneofthestudiesinthatsurvey,conductedbyEdwinA.Lockeinthelate1960s,foundthatpeoplewhowerepaidonapieceratebasis

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didnoteventurnoutanymoreworkthandidthosepaidonlyfortheirparticipation.*(Lockealsofoundthatworkerstendedtochooseeasiertasksasthepaymentfor
successincreased,afindingconsistentwiththeargumentthatrewardsdiscouragerisktaking[seepages6267].)30

ThestudiesthatJenkinsmissed,orthatappearedafterhisreviewwaspublished,containmorebadnews.Oneinterestingbitofresearchtookadvantageofanunusual
occurrenceinarealworkplace:thesuddeneliminationofanincentivesystemthathadlongbeenineffectforagroupofwelders.Ifafinancialincentivesupplies
motivation,itsabsenceshoulddrivedownproduction.Andthatisexactlywhathappenedatfirst.Fortunately,thisresearchercontinuedtrackingproductionovera
periodofmonths,thusprovidingthesortoflongtermdatararelycollectedinthisfield.Intheabsenceofincentives,thewelders'productionquicklybegantoriseand
eventuallyreachedalevelashighorhigherthanithadbeenbefore.31

Oneofthelargestreviewsofresearchlookingathowvariousinterventionprogramsaffectworkerproductivity,ametaanalysisofsome330comparisonsfromninety
eightstudies,wasconductedinthemid1980sbyRichardA.Guzzoandhiscolleagues.Therawnumbersseemedtosuggestapositiverelationshipbetweenfinancial
incentivesandproductivity,butbecauseofthehugevariationsfromonestudytoanother,statisticaltestsindicatedthattherewasnosignificanteffectoverall.Financial
incentiveswerealsovirtuallyunrelatedtothenumberofworkerswhowereabsentorwhoquitoveraperiodoftime.Bycontrast,trainingandgoalsettingprograms
hadafargreaterimpactonproductivitythandidanythinginvolvingpayment.32

Finally,considertheuseofmeritpayinthepublicsector.Themostcomprehensiveattempttoimplementsuchaprograminthefederalgovernment,resultingfromthe
CivilServiceReformActof1978,wasjudgedadisasterevenbythemanwhodirectedit.33Inwhatwasbilledasthefirstdirecttestoftheeffectsofperformance
contingentpayformanagers,ateamofresearchersattheUniversityofCaliforniaatIrvinelookedattheperformanceoftwentyofficesoftheSocialSecurity
Administrationovermorethanfouryears.Usingtheveryperfor
*Whytereportedthatpieceworksystemstypicallyfailbecauseworkers''setaquotaonwhatconstitutesafairday'sworkandrefusetogobeyondthisamountevenwhenitiswell
withintheirabilitytodoso."Thisisnot,hecontinued,afunctionofapoorlydesignedoradministeredincentivesystembutoftheunderlyingtheoryofmotivation.29

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mancemeasuresonwhichthemanagers'salaryincreaseshadbeenbased,theyfoundthat"theimplementationofmeritpayhadnosignificanteffectsonorganizational
performance."34

Thesamegroupofresearcherssurveyedmanagersatfivediversefederalagencies,tappingtheirattitudesaboutmeritpayatfourdifferenttimesandtrackingtheresults
oftheprogramasitwasimplemented.Fewofthemanagerssaidthatfinancialincentivesingeneralwouldmakethemworkharder.Mostthoughtitwasdifficultto
documentactualperformancedifferences.Andasthisspecificmeritpayplantookeffect,moreandmoreofthemconcludedthatitdidnotencouragethemtodotheir
jobswell.35

Oneotherincentivesysteminthepublicsectorhasbeeninvestigatedovertheyears:meritpayforteachers.Variousobjectionstothisideahavebeenoffered,starting
withthefactthatitisfundamentally"manipulativeandreflectiveofdistrust."36Butdoesitleadtobetterteaching?Disinterestedresearchersandevenconservative
policyanalystswhoareclearlyattractedtotheideahavefoundlittleornoevidencethatitdoes.Neitherobjectivemeasuresnorthetestimonyofteachersor
administratorsoffersanyreasontothinkthatthequalityofinstructionwillimproveasaresultofmeritpayoreventhataschooldistrictusingsuchaprogramwillbe
morelikelytoattractorretaingoodteachers.37

WhyIncentivesFail

Therearethreepossiblewaystomakesenseofallthisevidencethatpayingpeopleforperformancedoesnotgenerallyleadthemtodoabetterjob.Thefirstisto
assumethattheremustbeotherstudiesouttheresomewheredocumentingpositiveresultsfromsuchsystems.Ihavespentagooddealoftimelookingforsuch
findingswithoutsuccess,butIinvitereaderstosearchtheliteratureandletmeknowiftheydiscoveranyevidencethatlongtermimprovementsinthequalityofwork
reallydofollowfromtheuseofrewards.(Evenmoreimpressiveandimprobablewouldbedatashowingthatrewardsaremorelikelytoproducesuch
improvementsthanaresubstantivechangesinthewayworkersaretreated.Onerecentstudyappearedtoshowthatanincentiveplanthatwasprovidedtoanentire
organizationratherthantoindividualsactuallyproducedmeasurablebenefits,butitturnedoutthattheprogramalsoincludedincreasedemployeeinvolvementin
decisionmaking,afeaturemorelikelythanrewardstoaccountforanypositiveeffects.)38

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Thesecondpossiblereactiontothesestudiesistodismisstheconsistentfailureofincentivesasreflectingnothingmorethanproblemswiththeseparticularplans.
"Somedaywe'llfindagoodone"is,ofcourse,thedominantviewinAmericanbusiness,andtheconsequenceofholdingitistwofold:anincreasinguseofpayfor
performancesystems,andacontinuedinabilitytounderstandwhytheyneverseemtowork.*

Thethirdresponseistoconcludethatwhatiswrongwithincentivesystemsisnotthewayweareadministeringthembutthefactthattheyareincentivesystems.Totry
adifferentbonusplan,anotherreward,anewproposalfromthesameSkinnerianperspective,isaboutassensibleastreatingcirrhosisoftheliverbyswitchingfrom
vodkatogin.Thissectionandthenexttwomakethecasethatthesourceofthetroubleispopbehaviorismitself.(Chapter10willproposesuggestionsforhowwe
mightthinkaboutmotivationinadifferentwayandwhatpracticesfollowfromthatalternativeparadigm.)

Specifically,Iwanttoofferfourteenreasonstoaccountforthefailureofincentiveandmeritpayplans,beginningwiththeeasilyrepairedproblemsassociatedwith
particularprogramsandprogressingtoexplanationsthatchallengethevalueofanysuchplan,regardlessofhowskillfullyitisdesigned.Thelattersortofanalysis,
especiallywhenitinvolvesacloselookatthenatureofhumanmotivation,isfarmoredisconcertingandsubversiveandnotcoincidentally,appearsfarmorerarely
inthepublishedliterature.(SinceIamconcernedhereonlywithreasonsforthefailureofincentiveplans,Irefrainfrommakingmoralobjectionstothewaymoneyis
actuallydistributedwhentheseplansareputintopractice.)40

Let'sstartwithafewrelativelyminorproblems.Preciselybecausethesehavebeendescribedsooftenbyothersandbecausetheydealonlywithissuesof
implementationwecanlistthemquicklyandmoveon:

1.Lackofnecessity.Incentiveprograms,withalltheattendantrisks,aresometimesintroducedunnecessarilythatis,whenemployeesarealreadydoingafine
job.Solution:leavewellenoughalone.
*Wemightask,whileweareatit,whohasthegreatestincentivetodefendtheideaofincentives.Whowouldnaturallyprefertofiddlewiththeformulasusedforcompensation
ratherthanquestiontheverypremiseofpayingforperformance?Arguably,theansweristhethousandsofconsultantswhoselivelihoodswouldbejeopardizedifthatpremise
werechallenged.39

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2.Secrecy.Whennooneissupposedtoknowhowmuchanyoneelsemakes,peoplemayoverestimatewhatothersactuallyearnorassumethatinequitiesexisteven
whentheydon't.Thislowersmoraleandthrowstheorganizationintoturmoil.41Solution:stopkeepingsecrets.

3.Paydoesn'tmatchperformance.Foravarietyoforganizationalreasons,compensationoftendoesnotcorrespondtoperformanceratingsevenwhenthereishigh
confidenceintheseratings,andevenwhenithasbeendecidedthatthetwoshouldbecloselytied.Solution:dowhatyousayyou'regoingtodo.

4.Expense.Someincentiveplansaresaidtobetooexpensive.Solution:substitutenoncashrewards.42

Otherproblemswithincentivescanbeframedasdilemmas,suchthateitheroftwopossiblechoicesisundesirable.

5.Toobigversustoosmall.Ifbonuspaymentsaremodest,theymaynothavemuchofanimpact.Iftheyarelargeenoughtomakeanimpact,fewerpeoplewill
receivethem.43

6.Shorttermversuslongterm.Ifanincentiveisbasedonshorttermperformance,employeesmaymakedecisionscountertothelongterminterestsofthe
organization.44*Iftheincentiveisbasedonperformanceoveralongerperiodoftime,theconnectionbetweenbehaviorandreinforcementbecomesfuzzy(a
behaviorist'snightmare).

7.Objectiveversussubjective.Ifcompensationisbasedonobjectivefactors,thesystemmayberigidandunresponsivetothoseaspectsofperformancethatdefy
reductiontoafixedprotocol.Ifcompensationisbasedonsubjectivefactors,itbecomesdependentonthewhimsandbiasesoftherater.45

Thesolutiontothesethreedilemmasisfarfromobvious.Butletusassumeforthesakeoftheargumentthatwecouldsteeraflawlesscoursebetweeneachpairof
trapsthatthreatentosinkthesystem.Evenso,wefindourselvesfacingabatchofevenmoreseriousproblemswithincentives.

8."Performanceevaluationisanexerciseinfutility."46Aplantopayonthebasisofperformanceisonlyasgoodasthesystemfordeterminingthequalityof
thatperformance.Unfortunately,sucheval
*Forsomeyears,criticshavefaultedtopU.S.executivesforconcentratingonshorttermprofitand,asaresult,runningtheseorganizationsintotheground.Ironically,someof
thesesamecriticsfavorincentivesofvariouskinds,eventhoughrewards,bytheirverynature,aretheultimateshorttermfix.

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uationsaretypicallyfarlessaccuratethanwewouldliketobelieve.Itisnearlyimpossibletoquantifyperformanceformanykindsofwork,andinanycase,most
ratingsystemsareaccurateonlyattheextremesthatis,foridentifyingexceptionallygoodorbadperformance.47Thatmeansgradationsincompensationwillbe
madethatprobablydon'tcorrespondtomeaningfulgradationsinquality.

Aperformanceratingmayseemprecise,butitactuallymasksmanysubtledistinctionsinthewaysomeoneapproacheshisjobnumberssimplycannotdojusticeto
people'sdifferentstylesandstrengths.48Evenwhenwetrytoallowforamoreambitiousqualitativeappraisal,thatassessmentwilltellusasmuchabouttheappraiser
asabouttheappraisee.49Ittellsushowharshacriticsheis,howgoodajobsheexpectedtheemployeetodo,howwellthetwoofthemgetalong,andsometimes,
whatbasicvaluestheyshare(orevenwhethertheirbackgroundsaresimilar).50

Moreover,"anyindividual'sperformanceis,toaconsiderableextent,afunctionofhowheismanaged,"asMcGregorputit,sothemanagerisinpartevaluatingherself
withoutappearingtodoso.51Assessmentsofindividualsalsooverlooktheextenttowhichanyoneperson'sperformancegrowsoutofanexchangeofideasand
resourceswithcolleaguesandotherwisereflectstheindirectcontributionofthelargersystem.52

Finally,evenifperformanceappraisalswereadequatetogaugehowwellpeoplearedoing,theireffectsareusuallysodestructivethattheyshouldn'tbeusedanyway.
Notonlyisthefactofinterdependenceintheworkplaceignored,butpeoplearediscouragedfromcooperatinginthefuture.("WhyhelphimwhenI'mbeingjudged
onlyonmyownperformance?")AsMcGregorpointedout,performanceappraisalsalsoelicit"rationalization,defensiveness,inabilitytounderstand,[and]reactions
thatthesuperiorisbeingunfairorarbitrary"wheneverpeoplereceiveanevaluationthatisn'taspositiveaswhattheythinktheydeserve.53

ThelegendarystatisticalconsultantW.EdwardsDeming,withhischaracteristicgiftforunderstatement,hascalledthesystembywhichmeritisappraisedand
rewarded"themostpowerfulinhibitortoqualityandproductivityintheWesternworld."54Headdsthatit"nourishesshorttermperformance,annihilateslongterm
planning,buildsfear,demolishesteamwork,nourishesrivalryand...leavespeoplebitter."55Tothiswecanaddthatitissimplyunfairtotheextentthatemployees
areheldresponsibleforwhatare,inreality,systemicfactorsthatarebeyondtheircontrol.

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Money

9.''Payisnotamotivator."56Ifanemployeeisn'tespeciallyinterestedinaninkindincentive,thisisnotaseriousproblemastereosystemcanbesubstitutedfora
triptoHawaii.Butwhatifitturnsoutthatthedefaultreward,money,alsolacksthemotivationalpowermostofusattributetoit?

Thatmakingmoneyshouldn'tbethedrivingforceinourlivesisamessagethathasechoedthroughallculturesandinallages.Thatmoneyisn'tthedrivingforceinour
livesisanothermatter.EvenwhenamanofDeming'sstaturemakestheflatdeclarationthatmoneyisn'tamotivator,weareskepticaloratleastpuzzled.

Ofcourse,allofuswanttobepaid.Moneybuysthethingsweneedandthethingswewant.Moreover,thelesssomeoneispaidoratleast,thelesscontrolhehas
overhisownworkthemoreconcernedheislikelytobeaboutfinancialmatters.57Inthisrespect,moneyislikesex,asJamesBaldwinremarkedsomewhere:we
arepreoccupiedwithitmostlywhenitismissingfromourlives.Itcanbereadilyconceded,then,thateveryoneneedstoearnaliving,andthatthosewhohavetrouble
doingsoarethemostconcernedaboutmoney.58

Theproblemisthatfromsuchfactsquestionableconclusionsaredrawn.Forexample,itdoesn'tfollowthatmostofusthinkaboutourworkchieflyintermsofthe
extrinsicrewardsitbrings.Severalstudiesoverthelastfewdecadeshavefoundthatwhenpeopleareaskedtoguesswhatmatterstotheircoworkersorinthe
caseofmanagers,totheirsubordinatestheyassumemoneyisatthetopofthelist.Butputthequestiondirectly"Whatdoyoucareabout?"andtheresults
lookverydifferent.Towit:

Whensamplesofindustrialemployeesin1946and1986wereaskedwhattheylookedforinajob,theyranked"goodwages"fifthoutoftenpossiblefactors.Inthe
morerecentsurvey,"interestingwork"wasnumberone.Supervisors,however,assumedthatworkerscaredmostaboutmoney59andpresumablymade
managerialdecisionsonthebasisofthaterroneousbelief.

Inasurveyofmorethanfiftythousandutilitycompanyapplicantsoveraperiodofthirtyyears,paywasrankedsixthoutoftenjobfactors,wellbehindsuch
considerationsas"typeofwork."Butwhenaskedwhattheythoughtwasimportanttoothers,mostpeoplepickedpay.60

Severallargescalenationalsurveyshavefoundthatpeoplewhowereunhappywiththeirjobspointedtoreasonslikethelackof

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varietyorchallenge,conflictswithcoworkersortheboss,andtoomuchpressure.Salarysimplywasnotamajorissue.61

Concernwithintrinsicissuesintheworkplace,suchasthechancetolearnnewskills,useone'stalentsfully,ormakedecisions,isnotlimitedtoonlysomekindsof
people.Contrarytotheviewthatanexclusiveemphasisonextrinsicrewardsisappropriateforcertaincategoriesofworkers,researchhasshownthatallpeoplewho
workforaliving,regardlessoftypeofoccupationorlevelofeducation,are"powerfullyaffectedintheirassessmentofajobbythelevelofintrinsicrewardsitoffers..
..Extrinsicrewardsbecomeanimportantdeterminantofoveralljobsatisfactiononlyamongworkersforwhomintrinsicrewardsarerelativelyunavailable."62

Evenforsalespeople,whoaresometimesthoughttobesingularlymoneydriven,"increasedcompensationwastheleastcommonlycitedreason"forswitchingto
anothercompany,accordingtoapollconductedin1991.63

Thebroaderpointhereisthateconomistshaveitwrongiftheythinkofworkasa"disutility"somethingunpleasantwemustdoinordertobeabletobuywhatwe
need,merelyameanstoanend.64Workcanbeturnedintosomethingsowretchedthatwecometothinkofitthatway,butthisisanaberration.*Humansdonot
simplyworktolivebutalsolivetoworktogrowfood,makethings,solveproblems.Eveninahighlyindustrializedsocietywheretaskshavebeensplitinto
fragmentsandourtalentsoftenliefallowmostoftheday,mostpeoplesaytheyaresatisfiedwiththeirjobs.66What'smore,mostpeoplecontinuetoworkevenwhen
suddenlyfreedofanyfinancialneedtodoso.67Mostsurprisingofall,perhaps,isthefindingthatthemajorityofthemomentsofpure,unselfconsciouspleasurewe
experiencetakeplaceatwork.68

Tothispoint,Ihavearguedthatmoney'sroleinthecontextofworkislessprominentthanwehaveassumed.Whenwewidenourinquirytolookatthesignificanceof
moneyrelativetolifeitself,theresultsareevenmorestriking.AsthesociologistPhilipSlateronceremarked,"Theideathateverybodywantsmoneyispropaganda
cir
*Thosewhoinsistthatweworkonlytomakemoneynotonlyconfinetheiranalysistomindnumbing,deadendjobsbutalsotakeasagiventhatthesejobsmustalwaysremain
so.Peoplewillalwayscareaboutthemoney,thesecriticsseemtobesaying,soitispointlesstotrytoimprovethequalityofwhattheydoallday.This,ofcourse,isaselfserving
aswellasselffulfillingprophecy.Thebeliefthatnothingcanbedonetomakeworkmoreinterestingleadstomanagerialaction(or,moreprecisely,inaction)thatperpetuates
tediousjobsandafocusonmoney.65

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culatedbywealthaddictstomakethemselvesfeelbetterabouttheiraddiction."69

Again,thosewhodespairofbeingabletopaythebillsoftenfindtheirthoughtsreturningtofinancialmatters.Butnoticehowmanypeople,regardlessofhowtheyfeel
abouttheirjobs,orevenhowmuchtheyarepaid,areapttopourtheirsoulsintotasksthattheypursueintheirfreetime:makingmusic,fixingcars,decoratingrooms,
putteringinagarden,andofcourse,tendingtotheirchildren.Thisworkisoftenhardandtimeconsuming,anditisdonewithnothoughtofremuneration.Overall,the
pointisthatmoneyisn'tthepoint.70

Therearepeople,ofcourse,whoarerelativelywelloffandyetwhoselivesseemtobegearedprincipallytotheaccumulationofwealth.Understandingthenatureand
causesofthispreoccupationproperlyrequiresabookinitself,butafewpossibleexplanationsmightbereviewedhere.Peoplemayexpresssuchsentimentsbyforce
ofhabit,orbecausetheyhavebeenraisedtothinkone'snetworthiswhatmattersinlife,orinordertocompensateforearlierdaysofdeprivation.Others,recalling
thatoldtimereligion,maybelievethatwealthsignifiesdivineelectionasignthatonehas"madeit"inmorewaysthanone.Moneycanalsobepursuedbecauseit
signifiespowerorstatusorprovidesavagueexistentialreassurance:Ihave,thereforeIam.(Thislastinterpretationcomestomindwhenoneseesmencompulsively
jinglingthechangeintheirpockets.)

Frequently,though,thequestforeverhighersalariescanbeinterpretedasasymptomofadeeperlonging.Tolistentopeoplewhosteereveryconversationbackto
thesubjectofmoney,andwhospendtheirlivesgraspingformore,istospeculateonwhatneedstheyaretryingtofillwithmaterialsatisfactions.Thereisatendencyto
focusbydefaultonthesizeofone'spaycheckwhenworkisbereftofmoreimportantfeatures:deprivesomeoneofagenuinelyengagingandmeaningfultask,the
capacitytoexercisechoiceoverwhatonedoes,socialsupport,thechancetolearnandtodemonstrateone'scompetence,andthatpersonwilllikelyturnhisattention
towhatheearns.(Hemayevendismissasnaivethesuggestionthatworkcouldeverbeaboutmorethanmoney.)Thesameistrue,asanumberofpsychologistsand
socialcriticshaveargued,whenasenseofmeaningordeepconnectiontoothersisabsentmoregenerallyfromone'slife:aplumpbankaccountismadetosubstitute
forauthenticfulfillment.

Thatwearedealingwithasubstitutesatisfactionhereseemsclearfromthefactthatnosumeversuffices:suchpeoplealways"need"morethantheyarecurrently
makingorbuying.Addonemorepair

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ofshoes,anewelectronicgizmo,orahighersalarywithwhichtobuythem,anditisstillnotenough.Itisneverenough.71Questionedaboutthechoicetoputmoney
atthecenteroftheirlives,theseindividualsmayresponddefensively:"Hey,you'vegottaeat."(True,butyoudon'thavetogotoFrancetodoso.Thequestionwas
whythesewantshavetakenoverone'slifetheresponseattemptstojustifythembyrepackagingthemasneeds.)Itmaynotbesurprisingtolearnthatyoungadultsfor
whomfinancialsuccessisacentralgoalinlifearelikelytoshowevidenceof"moredepressionandmoreanxiety"aswellas''lowerglobal[psychological]functioning,
lowersocialproductivity,andmorebehaviorproblems"thanotherpeopledo.72

Money,then,isnotassignificantafactorinhowwelive,orevenhowwework,asiscommonlybelieved.Evenpeoplewhodoseemtobeobsessedwiththe
subjectthosewho,likeOscarWilde'scynic,knowthepriceofeverythingandthevalueofnothingmaybeconfessing,ineffect,theirneedforsomethingmore.
ButevenifIamwrongaboutallthis,evenifpeoplereallyareprincipallyconcernedwithwhattheyarebeingpaidandmoneyreallyisthefocalpointofourlivesand
ourwork,thereisstillnojustificationforbelievingthatmoneyismotivating.Specifically,wehavenogroundsforassumingthatpayingpeoplemorewillleadthemto
dobetterqualityworkoreven,overthelongrun,morework.

Inpart,thisistruebecauseindividualswhoarecommittedtoexcellenceandlikelytodothebestworkareparticularlyunlikelytorespondtofinancialincentives.As
oneinstructorattheHarvardBusinessSchoolhaspointedout,"thekindofpeoplewhomakegoodleadersarenotobsessedwithmoney."73Butthereisaneven
morefundamentalreasonforthelimitedeffectoffinancialincentives,anargumentmadesometimeagobyFrederickHerzberg.Herzberghadagreatdealtosayabout
workandmotivation,andsomeofhisclaimshavebeencriticizedovertheyears.Butonepointwassurelycorrectandvitallyimportant:justbecausetoolittlemoney
canirritateanddemotivatedoesnotmeanthatmoreandmoremoneywillbringaboutmoreandmoresatisfaction,muchlessmoremotivationtodoone'sbest.74If
yourtakehomepaywerecutinhalf,itisplausibletoassumethattheeffectonyourmoralemightbesodevastatingastoundermineyourperformanceyoumighteven
decidetoquit.*But
*Eventhisseeminglyobviouspropositionislesscutanddriedthanitappears.Someevidenceindicatesthatpeoplearemoreconcernedaboutwhethertheyarebeing
compensatedfairlythanabouthowmuchtheyaremakinginabsoluteterms.75Doestheamount

(footnotecontinuedonthenextpage)

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thisdoesn'tmeanthatifyourpayweredoubledyouwoulddoabetterjobthanyoudonow.

Consider,bywayofanalogy,theclaimthatcarrotsaregoodforyoureyes.Thisistrueonlyintheverylimitedsensethattheyprovidecarotene,whichyourbodyturns
intovitaminAacompletedeprivationofvitaminAwouldcausenightblindness.Butalmosteveryonehasimmensereservesofcarotenestoredintheliver,andeating
morecarrots,orotherwiseingestingvitaminAabovetheamountyouneed,doesn'timproveyourvisionatall.Soitisfora"carrot"likemoney:lessofitmayhurt,but
thatdoesn'tmeanmoreofitwillhelp.

Noneofthis,Ishouldemphasize,offersmanagersajustificationforbeingstingyinpayingtheiremployees.Everyonewantstobecompensatedadequatelyandfairly
thosewhodothemostmonotonousorgruelingworkwouldseem,infact,tohaveaparticularlycompellingclaimtobepaidwell.Buttoassumethatmoneyiswhat
drivespeopleistoadoptanimpoverishedunderstandingofhumanmotivation.76Sinceincentiveplansaregenerallypredicatedonjustsuchamodel,itshouldnotbe
surprisingthattheydonotsucceed.But"mythsdiehard.Itisquiteclearthatmoney'sreputationastheultimatemotivationisgoingtobealongtimeadying."Soone
writerputitin1963.77

TheFiveProblemswithRewards...atWork

Oncemoreweplaythegamecalled"evenif..."Assumethatallnineofthereasonsofferedabovetoaccountfortheinadequacyofincentiveprogramsare
correctable,basedonfaultythinking,orsupportedbyquestionableevidence.Suchprograms,Ibelieve,areneverthelessdoomedbecauseofthefundamentalflawsof
popbehaviorismitself.Tryingtomotivatepeoplebyextrinsicmeansisinherentlyalosingproposition,forthereasonsdiscussedatlengthinchapters4and5.Iwill
takeonlyafewpagestoreviewtheseargumentsandapplythem

(footnotecontinuedfromthepreviouspage)
seemappropriatetothekindofworkinvolved,thetrainingandexperienceonebringstothejob,whatothersdoingsimilarworkaremaking,andsoforth?Evenanappreciableloss
ofincomewillnotnecessarilyreducemotivation.Anumberoffactorscomeintoplay:Areyouleftwithenoughmoneytolive?Wastherealegitimaterationaleforthereduction?Is
everyoneintheorganization,includingthoseatthetop,sharinginthesacrifice?Howmuchofaroledidtheindividualplayinmakingthedecisiontotakeacutinpay?(Things
thataredonetousarealwaysmoredemotivatingthanthingswechoose.)

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totheworkplace,buttheystandasthemostdecisiveexplanationsofthefailureofprogramsthattierewardstoperformance.

10.Rewardspunish.Insomecircles,itisnolongernecessarytomakethecasethatpunishmentdestroysmotivation:thisfactisalreadyunderstood,andonecan
proceeddirectlytotheseldomnoticedpointthatrewardshavethesameeffect.ButthepeoplewhorunmanylargeAmericancorporationsarestillconvincedthat
coerciveandpunitivetacticsareuseful.Sadly,afewwordsonthistopic(beforeaddressingthequestionofrewards)maynotbesuperfluous.

Eventodayitisnotverydifficulttofindbusinessleaderswhobelievethatfearmotivatespeopletodogoodwork.''Ihopeeverybodyherecomestoworkscaredto
death"aboutthefateofthecompany,saidatopexecutiveatAT&T.78"Makingthebottom10percentuncomfortableisgoodbusiness,"declaredaseniorvice
presidentofpersonnelatIBM,whichrecentlyadoptedanevaluationsystemmandatingthatoneofeverytenemployeesmustreceiveapoorratingeveryyearandbe
giventhreemonthstoimproveorbefired.79Payforperformancesystems,inorderto"sendthepropersignalsforgoodperformance,''must"withholdsufficientpay"
whenpeople'sworkisdisappointing,accordingtoastandardtextoncompensation.80Somebehavioralpsychologistsdefendthepracticeofpunishingemployeeson
thegroundsthatithelpsto"clarifymanagement'sexpectationsofperformanceandpromotegoalsetting."81(Thisiscomparabletotheclaimthatthrowingemployees
outanofficewindowhelpstoclarifywhatfloortheyworkon.)Onewellknownbusinessschoolprofessorandconsultanton"organizationaleffectiveness"likesto
concludehislecturesbyquotingthebankrobberJohnDillinger:"Youcangetmorecooperationwithasmileandagunthanyoucanwithjustasmile."*

Itishardtoimagineanotherphilosophyofmanagementsoutterlyatvariancewitheverythingresearchandexperienceteachus.Iwillreservemostofmycomments
aboutpunishmentforchapter9,whichdealswithraisingchildren.Fornow,letmepointoutwhatpeopleonthereceivingendofthesticksurelyknow:punitive
strategies,suchasholdingoutthepossibilityofterminationordemotionforinadequateperformance,arecounterproductiveintheextremenottomention
unpleasant,disrespectful,andingeneral,anintrinsicallyoffensivewaytodealwithotherhumanbeings.

Tobeginwith,punishmenttypicallyleadsnottoimprovementbuttodefiance,defensiveness,andrage.Ratherthanrelyingonpersua
*By"cooperation,"ofcourse,hemeansobedience,notteamwork.

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sionorproblemsolving,thepunisherengagesinanakedexerciseinpowerassertion.Giventhechance,mostpeoplerespondinkindratherthanwithanewfound
determinationtodoabetterjob.Atbest,coercionelicitsonlyresentfulobedience,hardlyadesirablestateofmindoverthelonghaul.Anironicmottopostedinsome
officesandschoolsperfectlycapturestheillogicofthisretrogradeapproachtomanagement:THEBEATINGSWILLCONTINUEUNTILMORALEIMPROVES.

Themostcharitablethingwecansayabouttheuseofpunishmentandfearisthatitispsychologicallynaive.Threateningpeoplecanmakethemanxiousaboutthe
consequencesofdoingpoorly,butthefearoffailureiscompletelydifferentfromthedesiretosucceed.Theformerdistractspeoplefromthetaskathandinsteadof
reachingforexcellence,theyaremorelikelytoplayitsafeandprotectthemselves.This,toputitmildly,isnotwherequalitycomesfrom.AsHerzberglikedtosay,a
"KITA"which,hecoylyexplained,standsfor"kickinthepants"mayproducemovementbutnevermotivation.82

Evenexecutiveswhoknowthatpunitivemanagementisacontradictionintermsmayfailtorecognizejusthowsimilarrewardsaretopunishments,bothintheir
underlyingassumptionsaboutmotivationandintheirpracticalconsequences."Whyisit,"Herzbergwondered,"thatmanagerialaudiencesarequicktoseethatnegative
KITAisnotmotivation,whiletheyarealmostunanimousintheirjudgmentthatpositiveKITAismotivation?"83

AsIhavearguedinpreviouschapters,bothextrinsictacticsarecontrolling.Rewardsfeelpunitivebecausetheytooamounttoanefforttomanipulatepeople's
behavior.Moreover,employeesmayfindabonusorotherincentivedeliberatelywithheldorwithdrawnfromthem(asurgedbythecompensationmanualquoted
above),orelsetheymaysimplyfailtoobtainitdespitetheirbestefforts.Theeffectisnolessaversivethanandindeed,iseffectivelyidenticaltoapunishment.
Researchershavefoundexactlywhatonewouldexpectintermsofmotivationalimpactwhenpeoplereceiveaperformanceevaluationpoorerthantheythink
appropriate.84Similarly,thefailuretoreceiveananticipatedbonusisboundtohaveanadverseeffectonsubsequentperformance:"Theachievers[who]weredenied
themeritawardmayreactbyproducingat...evenlowerlevelsinthefuture."85Insum,rewardsystemsfailbecausetheiroveralleffectispunitive.

11.Rewardsrupturerelationships.Horizontalrelationships,suchasthoseamongemployeesofcomparablestatus,arecasualtiesofthescrambleforrewards.As
Demingandothershaveemphasized,

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incentiveprogramsreducethepossibilitythatpeoplewillcooperate.Andwhencooperationisabsent,soisquality."Wetalkaboutteamworkattrainingsessions,"one
bankexecutiveremarked,"andthenwedestroyitinthecompensationsystem."86

Thesurestwaytodestroyteamwork,andthereforeorganizationalexcellence,istomakerewardsscarcethatis,makepeoplecompete.Manycompaniescontinue
torankemployeesagainsteachother87thechairmanofoneofthelargestcorporationsintheworld,forexample,continuestoinsistthatthispracticepromotes
"rigor,"*despitethewidespreadconvictiononthepartofthepeoplewhoarerankedthatsuchsystemsactuallypromoteruin.

Likewise,competitiverecognitionprogramsandothercontestspersist,despiteevidenceoftheharmtheydo.Foreachpersonwhowins,therearemanyotherswho
carrywiththemtheawarenessofhavinglost,andwho"cometofeelthatregardlessoftheireffortstheywillremainoutsidethewinners'circle."88Themorethese
awardsarepublicized,throughtheuseofmemos,newsletters,andawardbanquets,themoredetrimentaltheirimpact.Furthermore,contests,rankings,and
competitionforalimitednumberofincentivescauseeachemployeetoseeeverycolleagueasanobstacletoherownsuccess,whichinturndiscouragescollaboration
anderodesthesocialsupportandsenseofbelongingnessthatmakeforsecureemployeesandaneffectiveorganization.89Infact,theseresultscanattendanyuseof
rewardsintroducingcompetitionintoanincentiveprogramjustmakesabadthingworse.

Verticalrelationshipstoo,suchasthosebetweensupervisorsandsubordinates,collapseundertheweightofarewardstructure.Ihavealreadymadethepointthat
whenthepersontowhomyoureportdecideshowmuchmoneyyouwillmake(orwhatothergoodieswill
*Inadditiontothedisadvantagesitshareswithothersortsofextrinsicmotivators,rankingemployeesagainsteachotherissenselessforotherreasons.Itpretendstooffer
precision,eventhoughtheevaluationsthatdetermineeachperson'srankareinherentlysubjectiveparticularlywhenpeoplewhodoverydifferentsortsofjobsaremeasuredon
thesamescale.(Doweseriouslythinkthattheperformanceofatypist,anaccountant,andachemistcanallbejudgedonasinglesetofcriteriasotheycanberankedagainsteach
other?)Buthereisthedecisiveobjection:relativeperformanceisultimatelyirrelevanttoanyorganizationalconcernsthatcount.Tobebluntaboutit,whocaresifsomeoneis
inthetop10percentofacompanythatisgoingdownthetoilet?Orforthatmatter,whatdifferencedoesitmakeifsomeoneisinthebottomtenthofacompanywhereeveryoneis
basicallydoingagoodjob?Whatmattersareabsolute,notrelative,criteria.Andifaforcedrankingsystemunderminesteamwork,thenitisnotmerelyirrelevanttoperformance
accordingtothemeasuresthatmatter,itmakesthingsworse.

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beawardedtoyou),youhaveatemptationtoconcealanyproblemsyoumightbehaving(seepages5758).Ratherthanaskingforhelp,whichisaprerequisitefor
optimalperformance,youwillbeapttospendyourenergiestryingtoflatterthatpersonandconvincehimthatyouhaveeverythingundercontrol.90Moreover,
accordingtoDeanTjosvold,aprofessorofbusinessadministration,youwillbelesslikelytochallengepoordecisionsandengageinthekindofconflictthatis
beneficialfortheorganizationifyouareconcernedaboutlosingoutonareward.Veryfewthingsareasdangerousasabunchofincentivedrivenindividualstryingto
playitsafe.91

12.Rewardsignorereasons.Thepointhereisremarkablysimple:inordertosolveproblemsintheworkplace,wemustknowwhatcausedthem.Areemployees
inadequatelypreparedforthedemandsoftheirjobs?Islongtermgrowthbeingsacrificedtomaximizeshorttermreturn?Areworkersunabletocollaborate
effectively,withtheresultthatonedivisionisduplicatingtheworkofanother?Istheorganizationrigidlyhierarchicalsothatthepeoplewhoknowwhatisneededare
intimidatedaboutmakingrecommendations,andfeelpowerlessandburnedoutaswell?Eachofthesesituationscallsforadifferentresponse.Butholdingouta
carrot"Dobetterworkandhere'swhatyou'llget"isapseudosolutionitfailstoaddresstheissuesthatareactuallyresponsibleforholdingbacktheorganization
andthepeoplewhoworkthere.92

Moregenerally,incentivesystemsarefrequentlyusedasasubstitutefor.givingworkerswhattheyneedtodoagoodjob.Treatingworkerswellwhich,asIwill
arguelater,meansprovidingusefulfeedbackandmeetingtheirneedsforselfdeterminationandsocialsupportistheessenceofgoodmanagement.Itestablishes
theconditionsunderwhichintrinsicinterestinworkcandevelop.Butmuchlesseffortisrequiredtodangleabonusinfrontofemployeesandwaitfortheresultsto
takecareofthemselves.

Indeed,thereisevidencethatpayforperformanceplanstendtodisplacecarefulmanagement:whererewardsystemsareemployed,itislesslikelythatproductive
strategieswillbeused.93(Thesamethingappearstobetruewhentokeneconomiesareusedininstitutions,whenrewardsforgoodgradesarepromisedbyparents,
andforthatmatter,wheneverpopbehaviorismisinevidence:insteadoftakingresponsibilitytohelpandcare,toteachskillsandsolveproblems,thepersonina
positionofpoweroften'holdsoutanincentiveandassumesthatthingswillsortthemselvesout.)94Acompensationsystemisnosubstituteforcarefulmanagement,just
asabehavioristapproach

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isnosubstituteforgettingtotherootofproblems,butitisoftenusedthatway.

13.Rewardsdiscouragerisktaking."Peoplewilldopreciselywhattheyareaskedtodoiftherewardissignificant,"enthusesoneproponentofpayfor
performanceprograms.95Andherewehaveidentifiedexactlywhatiswrongwithsuchprograms.Wheneverpeopleareledtothinkaboutwhattheywillgetfor
engaginginatask,theywilldoonlywhatisabsolutelynecessarytogetit.Thereislessinclinationtotakerisksorexplorepossibilities,whichhelpsexplainwhy
creativitydeclineswhenpeoplearedrivenbyrewards.Thus,asPhilipSlaterobserves,"gettingpeopletochasemoney...producesnothingexceptpeoplechasing
money.Usingmoneyasamotivatorleadstoaprogressivedegradationinthequalityofeverythingproduced."96

Excellencepullsinonedirectionencouragingemployeestothinkabouthowwelltheyaredoing(andwhattheywillearnasaresult)pullsinanother.Tellpeoplethat
theirincomewilldependontheirproductivity,orontheirperformancerating,andtheywillfocusonthenumbers."Employeesmaydowhatisnecessaryforscoring
higherontheevaluationformratherthanwhatisgenuinelyneededfordoingthejobcorrectly,"onepairofanalystshaspointedout.97Thisofteninvolvesmanipulating
thescheduleforcompletingone'stasks"gaming"inordertogetthereward.98Salespeoplemaydelayprocessinganorder,orconversely,promiseitsooner
thanitcanbedelivered,inordertoqualifyforanincentivebasedonsalesrecordedinagivenperiodoftime.Theymayalsowhileawaythehoursmonitoringthe
numbersthatdeterminehowmuchtheywillearn.99Andtheymayevenengageinpatentlyunethicalandillegalbehaviorasaresultofthepressuresgeneratedby
incentiveprograms.100

Inasense,playinggameswithnumbersorconvincingcustomerstobuywhattheydon'tneedconstitutesakindofrisktakingbehavior.Buttheriskswewantpeople
totakebeingwillingtoexplorenewpossibilitiesinaquesttoimprovequalityareminimizedbythepresenceofrewards.Anextrinsicorientation,forexample,
makespeoplelesslikelytochallengethemselves.Instead,theyareapttochoosetheeasiestpossibletasktodo,sincethismaximizesthechanceofgettingthereward
andgettingitquickly.

Whenemployeesparticipateinsettingperformancestandards,suchasinorganizationsusingthe"managementbyobjectives"techniquepopularizedbyPeterDrucker,
"theyhaveanincentivetosetgoalsatsafelevels...toassurehighratingsandrewards."101Buttheproblem

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hereisnotthatpeoplearenaturallylazyorthattheyhaveunwiselybeengivenavoiceindeterminingthestandardstobeused.(Infact,"employeeparticipationin
settinggoalshasbeenfoundtoleadtohighergoalsthanifgoalsareimposed.")102Rather,theproblemiswiththeuseofanincentivesystem:peoplesettheirsights
lowerbecausetheyhavebeenmadetothinkabouttherewardtheywillreceive.

14.Rewardsundermineinterest.Possiblythemostcompellingreasonthatincentivesystemsfailisthephenomenondescribedinchapter5:extrinsicmotivatorsnot
onlyarelesseffectivethanintrinsicmotivationbutactuallyreduceintrinsicmotivation.Themoreamanagergetsemployeestothinkaboutwhattheywillearnfordoing
theirjobswell,thelessinterestedtheywillbeinthosejobs.Thisisbothanundesirableconsequenceinitsownrightandanexplanationforthefindingthatrewards
lowerperformance.

Intheearly1970s,EdwardDecipublishedapaperinajournaloforganizationalbehaviorshowingthatrewardingpeopleforengaginginatasktendstoundermine
theirintrinsicmotivationtodoit.Becauseonlyafewotherstudiessubsequentlyappearedinsuchpublications,103someinthefieldmayhaveassumedthisfindingwas
afluke.But"theresearchhasconsistentlyshownthatanycontingentpaymentsystemtendstoundermineintrinsicmotivation,"104evenifmostofthatresearchhasbeen
publishedinperiodicalsrarelyreadbypeopleinterestedinmanagement.

Deciandhiscolleaguesbelieveextrinsicmotivatorshavethiseffectbecausetheyareperceivedascontrolling.Othersfavortheexplanationthat"Dothisandyou'llget
that"automaticallydevaluesthe"this":thatis,thetaskcomestobeperceivedasatediousprerequisiteforgettingagoody.McGregor,forexample,noticedthatthe
rewardsgiventoworkersaretypicallyintendedforusewhentheygethome,theresultofwhichisthat''workisperceivedasaformofpunishmentwhichisthepriceto
bepaidforvariouskindsofsatisfactionawayfromthejob."105

Whateverthereasonforthiseffect,though,theriskofanyincentiveorpayforperformancesystemisthatitwillmakepeoplelessinterestedintheirworkand
thereforelesslikelytoapproachitwithenthusiasmandacommitmenttoexcellence.Furthermore,themorecloselywetiecompensation(orotherrewards)to
performance,themoredamagewedo.(Onecouldhardlyaskforasharpercontrastbetweentwopositionsthanthatbetweenthisoneandthebehaviorists'claim
thatweshouldstriveforthemostdirectpossiblerelationbetweenpayandperformance.)Andthatdamage,incasethepointis

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notsufficientlyclear,isnotlimitedtotheperformanceofindividualworkers.AsthepoliticaleconomistRobertLaneconcluded,theultimateconsequenceofusing
rewardsofemphasizingextrinsicratherthanintrinsicfactorsintheworkplaceistoerode"notonlyworkenjoymentbutalsotheproductivityofmanufacturing
andcommercialenterprises."106

Onelastpoint,whichImadeearlierwithrespecttorewardsingeneral,applieswithspecialforcetotheworkplace:incentiveplansdonotrespondtotheextrinsic
orientationexhibitedbysomeworkerssomuchastheycreatethisfocusonfinancialfactors.Assurveyshavedocumented,supervisorsassumethatpeoplewhowork
forthemaremostlyinterestedinmoney.ThemanagementsystemofchoiceisthereforeSkinnerian,withpaymadecontingentonperformance.Sinceextrinsicfactors
eatawayatintrinsicmotivation,peoplebecomelessinterestedintheirworkasaresultandincreasinglylikelytorequireextrinsicincentivesbeforeputtingoutaneffort.
Thenthesupervisorspointtothatorientation,shaketheirheads,andsay,"Yousee?Ifyoudon'tofferthemareward,theywon'tdoanything."

Itisaclassicselffulfillingprophecy,anditdidnotescapetheattentionofcriticslikeMcGregor,Herzberg,andLevinson.107Inageneralsense,psychologistBarry
Schwartzconceded,behaviortheorymayseemtoprovideuswithausefulwayofdescribingwhatgoesoninAmericanworkplaces.Butandthisisthecritical
point"itdoesthisnotbecauseworkisanaturalexemplificationofbehaviortheoryprinciplesbutbecausebehaviortheoryprinciples...hadasignificanthandin
transformingworkintoanexemplificationofbehaviortheoryprinciples."108.

Behaviorismhasmadeasubstantialimpactonthewaywethinkaboutourworkandthewaywedoit.Butthespecificprogramsithaswrought,suchasincentive
plans,donotandcannotbringabouttheresultswewant.Theirfailureismultiplydetermined:manydifferentstudiesfindthatrewardssimplydonotgetpeopletodoa
betterjob,andmanydifferentfactorsexplainwhy.Someofthedataandrationalesupportingthisradicalcritiquehavebeenaroundfordecadessomehaveemerged
morerecently.Butbynowweoughttofacethetroublingfactthatmanipulatingbehaviorbyofferingreinforcementsmaybeasoundapproachfortrainingthefamilypet
butnotforbringingqualitytotheworkplace.

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8
LuresforLearning:
WhyBehaviorismDoesn'tWorkintheClassroom
[Unlike]ahundredyearsago...theapprovedviewtodayisthatanintrinsicinterestintheactivityregardlessofulteriorconsequencesisanenormouslysuperiormeansof
learning.
EdwardL.Thorndike,1935

Whentheyfirstgettoschool,theyareendlesslyfascinatedbytheworld.Theyarefilledwithdelightbytheirnewfoundabilitytoprinttheirownnamesinhuge,shaky
letters,tocounteverythinginsight,todecodethesignstheyseearoundthem.Theysitontheflooratstorytime,eyeswideandjawsslack,listeningraptlyasthe
teacherreads.Theycomehomebubblingwithnewfactsandnewconnectionsbetweenfacts."Youknowwhatwelearnedtoday?"theysay.

Bythetimethelastbellhasrung,thespellhasbeenbroken.Theireyeshavenarrowed.Theycomplainabouthomework.Theycounttheminutesuntiltheendofthe
period,thedaysleftbeforetheweekend,theweekstheymustendureuntilthenextvacation."Dowehavetoknowthis?"theyask.

Iampaintingwithbroadstrokeshere.Intruth,theprocessisalittledifferentforeachchilditmaytakeplaceinafewdaysorafewyearsor(inafewfortunatecases)
notatall.ItmayevenbeworsethanwhatIhavedescribed:studentsmaybeleftnotonlyregardinglearningasachorebutregardingthemselvesasunequaltothetask.
Inanycase,thereisnothingnaturalaboutthesechanges.Theycannotbewrittenoffasanarchetypallossofinnocence,aninevitabledevelopmentalprogression.
Rather,ifchildren'senthusiasmissmothered,itisadirectresultofsomethingthathappensinourschools.Nosinglefactorcancompletelyaccountforthisdismaying
transformation,butthereis

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onefeatureofAmericaneducationthatgoesalongwaytowardexplainingit:"Dothisandyou'llgetthat."

Tworecentstudiesofelementaryschoolteachingconfirmwhateveryonealreadyknows:rewardsareusedconstantlyinnearlyeveryclassroomtotrytomotivate
childrenandimprovetheirperformance.1 Theyareofferedstickersandstars,edibletreatsandextrarecess,gradesandawards.Newgoodiesaresubstitutedas
studentsgetolder,buttheSkinnerianformulafollowsthem.Oftentheyarerewardedforgettingrewards:agoodsetofgradesmeansaplaceonthehonorroll,
perhapsaspecialIDcard,abasketoffreebiesatlocalstores,andevencashfromparents.Onenewspaperarticledescribingsuchincentivesbegins,"Yourkidswon't
study?Don'tgroundthem,paythem."2 *

Whenrewardsdon'tsucceedatenhancingstudents'interestandachievement,weoffernewrewards.(Itisremarkablehowoften,inbothourpublicandprivate
lives,wereacttothefailureofagivenstrategybydoingitsomemore.)Whenthistooprovesineffective,weputtheblameonthestudentsthemselves,decidingthat
theymustlackabilityorarejusttoolazytomakeaneffort.Perhapswesighandreconcileourselvestotheideathat"itisnotrealistictoexpectstudentstodevelop
motivationtolearninclassrooms."3

Forthosewholookateducationfromapublicpolicyperspective,issuingreportsonAmericanschooling,servingontaskforces,orpublishingcolumns,thesolutionto
whateveriswrongwiththesysteminvariablytakestheformofsomecombinationofcarrotsandsticks:teachersoughttoberewardedorpunishedfortheir
performanceschoolsshouldbethreatenedwithlowerenrollmentiftheydonotsomehowwhipthemselvesintoshapeandsuccessfullycompeteforstudents.Free
marketconservatives,heapingscornonteachers'unionsforresistingsuchplans,arguethat"nobodychangeswithoutincentives."4 Buttheunions,oratleasttheirmost
visiblerepresentatives,disagreeonlyaboutspecificpolicies.Ontheunderlyingphilosophy,theyspeakthesamelanguage."Nosystemreallyworksunlessitoperates
withincentives,"declaresAmericanFederationofTeacherspresidentAlbertShanker.5 AndTheNewRepublicchimesin:"Peoplerespondtoincentives."6

Thissortofdoctrinalconsistencyisarareandextraordinarythingtobehold.PopbehaviorisminformsvirtuallyeveryaspectofAmericaneducationandalsoshapesthe
perspectiveofmostofitscritics.
*Noticethattheonlytwosolutionsthatcometomindherearepunishmentsandrewards,twoversionsofbehavioralmanipulation.

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Whensomuchofwhathappenstoourchildrenridesonasingletheory,it'sworthpausingtoaskwhetheritaccordswithwhatweknowofhowpeoplelearn.

TheMotivationtoLearn

Ifwestartfromscratch,settingasideeverythingwethinkweknowaboutgradesandothermotivationalinducements,threefactseventuallypresentthemselves.

Fact1:Youngchildrendon'tneedtoberewardedtolearn.Thechildrenwhoarriveatschooleveryweekdaymorningrepresentarangeofinterestsandabilities
andcircumstances.Somecomefromhomeswhereintellectualcuriosityisencouraged,somefromplaceswhereitisachallengejusttosurvive.Butthefactthat
childrenarenotequallyreceptivetowhattheteacherisdoingatanygivenmomentshouldnotdistractusfromrecognizingthatthedesiretolearnitselfisnatural.

MartinHoffman,aresearcherwhospecializesinthestudyofempathy,oncesaidthatparentsandteacherswhowanttohelpchildrenbecomesociallyresponsiveare
notworkingalone:theyhavean"allywithinthechild."7 Exactlythesamemaybesaidofadultsinterestedinfosteringintellectualdevelopment."Childrenaredisposed
totrytomakesenseoutoftheirenvironments,"8 andasnearlyeveryparentofapreschoolerorkindergartnerwillattest,theyplaywithwordsandnumbersandideas,
askingquestionsceaselessly,withaspurelyintrinsicamotivationascanbeimagined.Aschildrenprogressthroughelementaryschool,though,theirapproachto
learningbecomesincreasinglyextrinsic(seepage91),tothepointthatcarefulobserversfind"littleevidenceofstudentmotivationtolearninthetypical[American]
classroom."9

Fact2:Atanyage,rewardsarelesseffectivethanintrinsicmotivationforpromotingeffectivelearning.Thepointhereisquitesimple:justasadultswho
lovetheirworkwillinvariablydoabetterjobthanthosegoadedwithartificialincentives,sochildrenaremorelikelytobeoptimallearnersiftheyareinterestedinwhat
theyarelearning.

Severalstudieshavefoundapositivecorrelationbetweenintrinsicmotivationandacademicachievementforchildrenofdifferentages.Mostofthisworkhasbeen
correlational,whichmeansthatwecan'tnecessarilyassumethechild'smotivationcausesachievementtogoup

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ordownindeed,thereisreasontothinkthatachievementmayaffectmotivation,too.Still,atleastoneresearcherhasconcludedthereisacausalrelationship:
''reducedintrinsicmotivationproducesachievementdeficits."10

Whenwelookathowchildrenviewaparticularassignment,therelationshipisevenmoreimpressive.Onegroupofresearcherstriedtosortoutthefactorsthathelped
thirdandfourthgradersrememberwhattheyhadbeenreading.Theyfoundthathowinterestedthestudentswereinthepassagewasthirtytimesmoreimportantthan
how"readable"thepassagewas.11Basedontheevidencereviewedinchapter3,wewouldexpectintrinsicinteresttoplayanevenmoreprominentroleinthesortof
learningthatinvolvesconceptualandcreativethinking.

Theremaybesomedisagreementaboutwhyinterestedlearnersarelikelytobeeffectivelearners,12butthefactitselfishardtodispute.Astheepigraphtothischapter
indicates,evenThorndike,thegrandfatherofbehaviorism,acknowledgedit.Indeed,thefindinghardlyseemscontroversial:ifkidslikewhatthey'redoing,theydoit
betterwhocoulddisagreewiththat?Butthepointisactuallymoresubversiveoftheconventionaleducationalwisdomthanitmayappear.Forexample,manyteachers
andparentstalkaboutmotivationasifitwereasinglequality,somethingthatstudentshavetoagreaterorlesserdegree.TheresearchIhavejustmentionedisso
importantbecauseitshowsthatwhatmattersisnotjusthowmotivatedsomeoneisbutthesourceandnatureofthatmotivation.13Evencopiousamountsofextrinsic
motivationwantingtodowellinordertoobtainsomegoodymayactuallyinterferewithachievement.

Foranotherthing,anumberoftraditionalistsgrumblethatthetroublewithourschoolstodayisthatworkismadetoseemlikefun.14(Wouldthatthisweretrue!)Ifthe
pointhereisthatnoteverythingenjoyableisofeducationalvalue,itishardtodisagree.15Buttheevidenceclearlyrefutesthedour,puritanicalnotionthatanything
importantmustbeunpleasantorconversely,thatanythingchildrenareeagertodomustbeworthless.Whenstudentsareenthusiasticandmotivated,theymaynot
bejumpingforjoyallday,JereBrophypointsout,buttheywillbemorelikelytotakeseriouslythethingstheyarelearning,"findthemmeaningfulandworthwhile,and
trytogettheintendedbenefitfromthem."16

Once,whenIwasahighschoolteacherintheearly1980s,Igavearidetoafifteenyearoldgirlwhohadnoparticularinterestinanythingshewasbeingtaught.
Awkwardandtaciturn,shespokeonlyto

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askifIwouldturnonthecarradio.Shethenproceededtosingalongwitheverysongthatwasplayedforthedurationoftheride,displayingnotonlymoreenthusiasm
thanIhadthoughtpossiblebutalsoaratherremarkablememory.Relatingtheeventtomycolleagueslater,Ishookmyheadandsmiledcondescendinglyathowthis
girl,awashoutintheclassroom,hadsomehowmanagedtolearnTopFortylyricstoperfection.

OnlylaterdidIrealizethatthegirlhadsomethingtoteachmeaboutmotivationanditsrelationshiptoachievement.Ifweteachershadneverseenhersteeltrap
memoryinaction,orwitnessedthelookoftotalabsorptionIglimpsedinthecarthatday,thatwasnotnecessarilyjustareflectionofhermisplacedpriorities.Itmay
havesaidmoreaboutwhatwasgoingonintheclassesshesatthroughthecurriculumandthemotivationalstrategiesbeingused.NoonehadtopromiseheranA
forlearningallthosesongs,orthreatenherwithanFformessingup.Hermostimpressiveachievementdidnotrequirecarrotsandsticks.Itmayhaverequiredtheir
absence.

Forallourtalkaboutmotivation,Ithinkweoftenfailtorecognizeatruththatisstaringusintheface:ifeducatorsareabletocreatetheconditionsunderwhichchildren
canbecomeengagedwithacademictasks,theacquisitionofintellectualskillswillprobablyfollow.Wewantstudentstobecomerigorousthinkers,accomplished
readersandwritersandproblemsolverswhocanmakeconnectionsanddistinctionsbetweenideas.Butthemostreliableguidetoaprocessthatispromotingthese
thingsisnotgradesortestscores:itisthestudent'slevelofinterest.Educatorsandparentsoughttobefocusingtheirattentiononwhetherstudentsreadontheirown
andcomehomechatteringaboutwhattheylearnedthatday.Itistheoreticallypossibleforachildtobehighlyintrinsicallymotivatedandstillperformpoorly.Butthe
numberofsuchstudents,Iwarrant,willneverbegreat.

Nowconsidertheconverse:performingwell,jumpingthroughthehoops,doingallthehomework,studyingforthetests,makingthegrades,groomingthetranscript,
pleasingtheadultsandhatingeveryminuteofit.Thisprofilefitsmillionsofchildren.Theyarelearners,yes,butreluctant,otherdirectedlearnerswhohavebeen
trainedtoreadeverythingthatisassignedandnothingthatisnotassigned.Theyare,inMontaigne'sunsettlingphrase,"mulesladenwithbooks."17Morethanthree
decadesago,JeromeBrunerdescribedtheresultsofthispaintbynumberapproachtoachievement,focusingonverysuccessfulstudentswhoare"seekersafterthe
'rightwaytodoit'":

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Theircapacityfortransformingtheirlearningintoviablethoughtstructurestendstobelowerthan[thatof]childrenmerelyachievingatlevelspredictedbyintelligencetests....
Theydeveloproteabilitiesanddependuponbeingableto'giveback'whatisexpectedratherthantomakeitintosomethingthatrelatestotherestoftheircognitivelife.As
Maimonideswouldsay,theirlearningisnottheirown.18

ButnowImustconfessthatIhaveanotheragendaaswell.Idonotseeinterestmerelyasameanstotheendofachievement.Evenifitwerejustaseasytobea
successfullearnerwithoutintrinsicmotivation,Ibelievethatthedesiretowrestlewithideas,sampleliterature,andthinklikeascientistisalsovaluable.Ithinkwe
shouldwantchildrenwhowanttolearn,whonotonlyhavereadingskillsbutactuallyread.AsRichardRyanandacolleagueargue,itisnotenough"toconceiveofthe
centralgoalof12yearsofmandatoryschoolingasmerelyacognitiveoutcome."Instead,weshouldaimforchildrenwhoare"willingandevenenthusiasticabout
achievingsomethinginschool,curiousandexcitedbylearningtothepointofseekingoutopportunitiestofollowtheirinterestsbeyondtheboundariesofschool."19

Fewarelikelytoquarrelwithsuchagoal,yetmotivationasanend,notmerelyameans,seemstobemissingfrommostofthenationaldiscussionaboutwhatiswrong
withourschoolsandhowtofixthem.(Indeed,itisspokenoftoorarelyevenintermsofitscontributiontoachievement.)Toraisetheissueis,byimplication,toinquire
intotheverypurposeofaneducationadisconcertingprospect,perhaps,forthosewhoseobjectiveistoturnoutadequatelyskilledworkerswhocanincrease
corporateprofits.20If,likeJohnNicholls,weareputoffbytalkabout"investingineducation,"aphrasethat"seemstoexpressadesireforskillsthatwillpayrather
thanapassiontomakethingsofvalue"21if,likeCharlesSilberman,wethinkschool''shouldpreparepeoplenotjusttoearnalivingbuttolivealifeacreative,
humane,andsensitivelife,"22thenchildren'sattitudestowardlearningareatleastasimportantashowwelltheyperformatanygiventask.

ThegistofFact2,though,isthatevenifwhatmatterstousishowwellchildrenlearn,westillhavetofocusonintrinsicmotivationsinceitisfarmoreeffectivethan
rewardsatproducingexcellence.Thatinturnmeanswehavetobeconcernedwiththefactthatthiscriticalingredientbeginstoevaporateafterafewyearsof
schooling.Howdoesthishappen?GobacktoBruner'sdescriptionoftheunimaginativeoverachiever.Thatstyle,"inwhichthechildisseekingcuesastohowto
conformtowhatisexpectedofhim...startsinresponseto

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therewardsofparentalorteacherapproval,"heargues.23Andthisleadsusto...

Fact3:Rewardsforlearningundermineintrinsicmotivation.Itwouldbebadenoughifhighgrades,stickers,andotherSkinnerianinducementsjustweren'tvery
goodathelpingchildrenlearn.Thetragedyisthattheyalsovitiatethesortofmotivationthatdoeshelp.CaroleAmesandCarolDweck,twoofourmostpenetrating
thinkersonthesubjectofacademicmotivation,haveindependentlypointedoutthatwecannotexplainchildren'slackofinterestinlearningsimplybycitinglowability,
poorperformance,orlowselfesteem,althoughthesefactorsmayplaysomerole.24Thedecisiveissue,itturnsout,concernsstudents'goalswithrespecttolearning.
Ifteachersor,accordingtoonestudy,parents25emphasizethevalueofacademicaccomplishmentintermsoftherewardsitwillbring,students'interestinwhat
theyarelearningwillalmostcertainlydecline."Allrewardshavethesameeffect,"onewriterdeclares."Theydilutethepurejoythatcomesfromsuccessitself."26

BecauseIhavealreadylaidouttheargumentsandevidenceforthiseffectinchapter5,includinganumberofexamplesandstudiesrelevanttolearninginparticular,
thereisnoneedtodescribeagainhowextrinsicmotivatorsundermineintrinsicmotivation.Instead,Iwanttofocusontworeasonsforthiseffect,eachofwhichhas
beenthesubjectofconsiderableattentionbyeducationresearchers:theuseofcontrollingtechniquesintheclassroom,andtheemphasisonhowwellstudentsare
performing.Theworkonthesetopicsdoesn'talwaysmakeexplicitreferencetorewards,butbothframeworksareclearlyrelevanttothepracticeofgradingandthe
useofotherextrinsicmotivatorswithstudents.*

MakingStudentsLearn

Atopcorporateexecutive,accustomedtotheexerciseofpower,lamentednottoolongagoaboutthedeclineofeducationinthis
*Inwhatfollows,Iwillnotdiscussanadditionalreason(proposedinchapter5)forthedetrimentaleffectofrewardsonmotivationnamely,thedevaluingofanactivitythat
occurswhenitcomestobeseenasaprerequisiteforreceivingagoody.Thereiseveryreasontothinkthatthisexplanationappliestowhathappensintheclassroomanything
studentsaretoldtheyhavetodoinordertoberewardedmaycometobeseenforthatveryreasonassomethingtheywouldn'twanttodoifgivenachoice.I'munawareofany
empiricaltestsofthisparadigmintheclassroom,however,soIhavechosentofocusontwootheraccountswheremoreworkhasbeendone.

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country.Children,hedeclared,mustbe"madetounderstandtheimportanceoflearning."27Theapproachcapturedinthisshortphraseisemblematicofwhatis
wrongwithAmericanschooling.Theaggressiveattemptto"make"childrendothingsandevenmoreabsurd,to"make"themunderstandwhytheyshouldcare
aboutwhattheyhavebeenmadetodoisarecipeforfailure.If,toparaphraseafamouscriticalreport,anunfriendlyforeignpowerhadattemptedtoimposeon
Americaamediocreeducationalsystem,itcouldhavedevisednobetterplanthantoestablishmechanismsfortightlycontrollingwhatstudentsdoinschool.

Insayingthis,itmustimmediatelybenoted,Iamnotarguingthateducatorsoughttostopprovidingguidanceorinstruction,thatchildrenshouldbefreeofallstructures
sotheycanlearnentirelyontheirown.Inchapter11,Iwillsaymoreaboutwhatitmeanstoprovidestudentswithareasonabledegreeofautonomy.Fornowit
shouldbeenoughtopointoutthatwehaveaverylongwaytogobeforeweruntheriskofallowingtoomuchfreedom.Atpresent,saysWilliamGlasser,"coercive
teachersaretherule,nottheexception,inourschools....Wepressurestudentstolearnwhattheydonotwanttolearn,andthenpunishthemwithlowgradeswhen
theydonotlearnit."Theresult,headds,isthat"welosethemaslearners."28

Tocontrolstudentsistoforcethemtoaccommodatetoapreestablishedcurriculum.Itistotellthemnotonlywhattheyhavetolearnbuthowtheyhavetolearnitand
whatwillhappentothemiftheydon'torwhattheywillgetiftheydo.29Testsareusednotsomuchtoseewhatstudentsneedhelpwithbuttocompelthemtodo
theworkthathasbeenassigned.Rewards,ofcourse,areonlyoneingredientofthisbitterbouillabaisse,buttheconceptofcontrolhelpsusunderstandhowitisthat
rewardscontributetoturningeagerlearnersintoantsyclockwatchers.

Everyteacher,principal,andeducationaladministratorinthecountryoughttotakeamomenteachMondaymorningtoreadaloudthefollowingthreesentencesby
RichardRyanandJeromeStiller:
Themorewetrytomeasure,control,andpressurelearningfromwithout,themoreweobstructthetendenciesofstudentstobeactivelyinvolvedandtoparticipateintheirown
education.Notonlydoesthisresultinafailureofstudentstoabsorbthecognitiveagendaimpartedbyeducators,butitalsocreatesdeleteriousconsequencesfortheaffective
agendasofschools[thatis,howstudentsfeelaboutlearning]....Externallyimposedevaluations,goals,rewards,andpressuresseemtocreateastyleofteachingandlearning
thatisantitheticaltoquality

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learningoutcomesinschool,thatis,learningcharacterizedbydurability,depth,andintegration.30

Therearevalueslurkinginthisstatement,tobesureitisassumedthatadeep,lastingeducation,andevenanactiveroleforstudentsinit,isdesirable.ButRyanand
Stillerareprimarilysummarizingempiricalfindingshere,findingsthatarenotverywellknown.Whateverone'sfeelingsabouttheintrinsicmeritofcontrollingstrategies,
theyhavecertainpredictableconsequences,atleastwithinourculture,thatcannotbeignored.

Tellingstudentsexactlywhattheyhavetodo,orusingextrinsicincentivestogetthemtodoit,oftencontributestofeelingsofanxietyandevenhelplessness.31Some
children,insteadofrebellingagainstcoercion,simplyrelinquishtheirautonomy.Inonestudy,tenandelevenyearoldswhoreceivedcontrollingevaluationsoftheir
performanceweremorelikelytolettheexperimenterpickthenexttaskforthem,ascomparedtochildrenwhohadjustheardinformationalfeedback.32Highschool
students,accustomedtoahighlydirectivestyleofinstructionandsuddenlyaskedtothinkforthemselves,havebeenknowntoinsistthattheyhave''arighttobetold
whattodo."33Theseresults,besidesbeingtroublingintheirownright,haveominousimplicationsforlearning.Researchhasdemonstratedthatfeelingsofanxietyand
helplessnessareassociatedwithlowerqualityperformance.34Moreover,childrenwholackasenseofautonomyarelikelytopicktasksthatdon'toffermuch
challenge.35

Thenthereisthematterofintrinsicinterest.Controllingenvironmentshavebeenshownconsistentlytoreducepeople'sinterestinwhatevertheyaredoing,evenwhen
theyaredoingthingsthatwouldbehighlymotivatinginothercontexts.Onestudyofthirtyfiveelementaryschoolclassrooms,forexample,foundthatchildrenwhohad
controllingteachersdisplayedlowerselfesteemandintrinsicmotivationthandidthosewhoseteacherssupportedtheircapacitytomakechoices.36Anotherstudy
showedthatahighlycontrollingapproachusedwithonetaskreducedpeople'sinterestinasecond,entirelydifferenttask.Themotivationkillingfeaturesofcontrol,in
otherwords,canspillovertopoisonattitudesaboutnewactivities.37

Anextrinsicorientationis"associatedwithpooreroverallperformance"onacademictasks,accordingtoAnnBoggianoandMartyBarrett.Butwheredoesthat
orientationcomefrom?Wecannotsimplycallthisachild'snatural"learningstyle"orassumeshelacksmotivation.Inpart,someone'sapparentneedforrewardsand
punishmentsisareflectionofhowmuchshehasbeencontrolledbyrewards

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andpunishmentsinthepast."Frequentandconsistentuseofcontrollingstrategies...maywellfosterashiftfromanintrinsictoanextrinsicorientation."38

Inanautobiographicalessaypublishedin1946,AlbertEinsteinreflectedonhisdaysasastudentofphysicssomefiftyyearsearlier.Herecalledhisteacherswith
affectionbut,referringtoexams,said,"ThiscoercionhadsuchadeterringeffectthatafterIhadpassedthefinalexamination,Ifoundtheconsiderationofanyscientific
problemsdistastefultomeforanentireyear."39Inthesamevein,anassessmentofteachingandlearningatHarvardUniversityin1992,basedoninterviewswith570
undergraduates,concludedthatmanystudentsavoidedtakingscienceclassesnotbecauseoftheheavyworkloadbutbecauseofthecompetitionforgrades.40

Controllingstructurescandrivepeopleawayfromexploringvaluablesubjects.Whentheyareyounger,studentscanbeforcedtositthroughaclass,buttheycannot
beforcedtobeinterestedinit,ortodowell.Itstandstoreason,asIarguedabove,thatlowerintrinsicmotivationtranslatesintolowerachievement.Butsome
researchershavedemonstratedthisconnectiondirectly.Forexample,firstandsecondgraderspaintedlesscreativelywhentheyweregivencontrollinginstructions
abouthowtheyweretohandlethepaints.41Collegestudentswhoreceivedcontrollingfeedbackabouthowwelltheyweresolvingapuzzlethatis,commentsthat
comparedtheirperformancetohowtheyshouldbedoingdidn'tdoasgoodajobasthosewhojustreceivedstraightforwardinformationabouttheir
performance.42Andchildrenwerelesslikelytosucceedonarangeofmeasuresofclassroomachievementiftheirparentstendednottogivethemmuchopportunityto
makedecisionsandfeelasenseofselfdeterminationathome.43

Whatdoesallthismean?Theevidencestronglysuggeststhattighterstandards,additionaltesting,toughergrading,ormoreincentiveswilldomoreharmthangood.
Naturallywewanttomakesurethatstudentsarelearning,butsuchtacticsmakeitmoredifficultforthattohappen.Studentsarealreadyexcessivelycontrolled,which
helpsexplainwhysomanyarelosing(orhavelost)interestinwhattheyaredoing.Wecanalmostwatchthatinterestdrainawayeachtimeateacherinvokesabribe
("C'mon,Ellen,you'resoclosetogettinganAinhere")orathreat("Doyouwantazero,youngman?").*Thesame

*Whatisevenmoreappalling,manyteachersholdoutthepossibilityofmoreacademicworkasapunishment(orthepossibilityoflessworkasareward),44whichdriveshomethe
lessonthatlearningissomethingastudentshouldwanttoavoid.

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istrueofarangeofotherinstrumentsofcontrol,suchascallingonstudentseveniftheyhavenotraisedtheirhands.45

Sowhydon'tteachersstopdoingthesethings?Ithinkthereareseveralplausibleexplanations.First,someteacherscannotimaginehowelsetheycoulddotheirjobs,
particularlywhentheymustworkwithchildrenwhosebehaviorisdifficulttodealwithorforthatmatter,whentheysimplyhavetoomanychildreninoneroom.
Controllingacademicstrategies,inotherwords,canbearesponsetononacademicfeaturesoftheclassroom.

Second,ittakesmoretimetobringstudentsinontheprocessofmakingdecisions,andmanyteachersalreadyfeeltherearenotenoughhourstodowhathastobe
done.Third,asaformerteacherwhofoundhimselfrelyingongradesto"motivate"students,Icantestifythatcontrollingapproachescanalsobewieldedoutof
desperation:Ilackedtheskillsand,arguably,thecurriculumtohelpstudentsdevelopagenuineinterestinlearning.(Thecontrollingstrategiesultimatelyfailed,of
course.YoucanonlypromisesomanyA'sorthreatensomanyF'sbeforethereturnsbegintodiminish.Andwhenstudentsfinallyrespondtosomeonebrandishinga
gradebookbysaying"Idon'tcare,"theteacherisoutoftricks.Theeffectissimilartobeingtoldbyastorecashier,"I'msorry,butwedon'thonorU.S.currency
here.''Onecanonlystammer,"Butthat'sallI'vegot!")

Finally,teacherscontrolstudentswhentheythemselvesarepressuredtoperform.Thisisapointlostonpolicymakerswho,inthenameofaccountability,would
increasetheuseofrewardsandpunishmentstowhichteachersaresubjected.Notsurprisingly,teacherswhofeelthatadministratorsdon'tlistentotheirviews,and
whohavelittleinfluenceovertheeducationalprogram,areparticularlylikelytoreportfeelingsofpsychologicaldistress.46Butitappearsthatwhentheyfeelpowerless,
ormanipulatedbythelikesofmeritpay,47teachersarealsomorelikelytobecomeimpatientwithstudentsforwhoseperformancetheywillhavetoanswer.When
sixthgradersinoneexperimentwerepromisedrewardsforsuccessfullytutoringyoungerchildren,they"devaluedtheyoungerchildwhowasmakingerrors,"losing
patienceandbecominggenerallyunpleasant(ascomparedwithtutorswhowerenotworkingforareward).48Whenundergraduatesinanotherstudywereaskedto
teachpeoplehowtosolveapuzzle,thosewhoweregivencontrollinginstructionsthatemphasizedperformancestandardsbecamemoredemandingandcontrollingin
howtheytaught.49Inshort,
whenteachersfeelpressuredbysuperiorstheytendtobecomemorecontrollingwiththeirstudents....[Whenitis]emphasizedthatthey

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areresponsiblefortheirstudents'performinguptostandards...teacherstendto...givechildrenlesschoiceandlessopportunityforautonomouslearning.Thisbehavior,inturn,
islikelytohavedeleteriouseffectsonthechildren'sintrinsicmotivation.50

Theeffectsonthequalityoflearningarejustaspronounced.Researchersinoneexperimentgavefourthgradeteacherstwotaskstoteachtheirstudents.Somewere
toldthattheirjobwas"simplytohelpthestudentslearnhowtosolvetheproblems"otherswerewarnedthatitwastheir"responsibilitytomakesurethatstudents
performuptostandards"anddowellonatest.Theresult:childrentaughtbytheteacherswhofeltpressureddidnotlearnthetasksaswellasthosewhoseteachers
werenotunderthegun.51Anotherfascinatingstudy,meanwhile,foundthatthemereknowledgeamongstudentsthattheirteacherwas"extrinsicallyconstrained''
affectedtheirownmotivation.52Thedamagedonebyrewards,then,isnotlimitedtothepersonwhogetsthem.

Wecouldprobablycomeupwithotherreasonstoexplainwhyteachersandadministratorsuseextrinsicdevicesandothertechniquesofcontrol.Thekeypointisthat
theyarefinallyineffectiveand,infact,arelikelytoproduceaclusterofsymptomsthatmightbedescribedas"burnout"ifdisplayedbyanadult.Inchapter11,Iwill
discussmorepromisingapproachestotappingchildren'smotivationandhelpingthemtolearn.

TighterControl:TheCaseofSpecialEducation

Controllingtechniquesingeneral,andrewardsinparticular,aremostpervasivelyappliedtochildrenwithspecialneedsandchallengesandtothosewhosimply
carryalabelthatsetsthemapart.ThesechildrenaresubjectedtoarelentlessregimenofSkinnerianmanipulation,completewithelaboratecharts,pointsystems,and
reinforcementschedules.Eventeachersandclinicianswhowouldhesitatetousesuchmethodswithotherchildrenassumeitisjustifiedforthosewhoareclassifiedbya
distinguishingsetofinitials.

Considerthefateofstudentswhoaresaidtobe"learningdisabled,"acategorysoelasticthatvirtuallyallofuscouldbediagnosedthatwayinonesituationor
another.53Teachersreportthattheyactinamorecontrollingwaywithsuchchildrenthantheydowithotherstudents.54Theresultisthateventhoughlearning
disabledstudents

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werenolessintrinsicallymotivatedthantheirpeersintheearlygrades,55theycometobe"moredependentonexternalsourcesofevaluation"suchasgrades,
rewards,andteachers'judgments,"whereasregularstudents[feelmore]capableofmakingdecisionsontheirown."56

Achievementisonecasualtyofthisapproach.Evenonverysimpletasks,theuseofrewardshasbeenfoundsometimestotheresearchers'surprisetohavea
detrimentaleffectontheperformanceofchildrenlabeledlearningdisabledorhyperactive.57Likewise,anextrinsicorientation"maydecreaseperformanceinstudents
oflowerlevelsofintelligencebelowthatpredictedbytheirmentalagelevels."58

Childrenwithgreaterneedsandhandicapsarecontrolledevenmoretightly.Classesforthem"tendtobeheavilydominatedbyexternallycontrollingteachingpractices
andextrinsicmotivationalincentives."59Inasurveyofprogramsaroundthecountryforchildrenlabeledbehaviorallydisorderedoremotionallydisturbed,onegroupof
researchersrecentlyfoundan"emphasisonbehavioralmanagement,oftentotheexclusionofaconcernwithlearning."Moreover,behavioralmanagementinpractice
typicallymeantobedienceratherthanhelping"childrenbecomeselfdirectedandtoassumeresponsibilityfortheirbehavior."60Infact,onestudyshowedthatteachers
ofretardedchildrenweresointentonreinforcingcertain(adultspecified)behaviorsthatasaruletheytendedtoignorethechildren'schoicesandexpressionsof
preference.61

Injudgingthemeritsofprogramsgearedtostudentswithdisabilities,EdwardDeciandhiscolleaguescontendthatthecentralquestioniswhetherthey"promoteself
determinedfunctioning."Theiransweristhatbehaviormodificationformats,byfarthemostpervasiveapproach,haveexactlytheoppositeresult."Pressuringthemwith
rewards,tokens,deadlines,andprescriptionsiscountertosupportingautonomy,"theyargue.Evensubtlycontrollingenvironments"canbedetrimentaltoself
regulation"andlead,overtime,to"poorerachievementandadjustmentintheclassroom."62Themoretheyarecontrolled,themoretheycometoneedcontrolandthe
lesstheyhavethechancetotakeresponsibilityfortheirownlearningandbehavior.

Twowriterswhospecializeinworkwithseverelyhandicappedchildrenhaveobservedthatbehaviormanagementsystemsturnteachersintotechniciansandstudents
into"objectstobemanipulated,shaped,ormolded""passiveagentsofouractionsratherthancontributingmembersoftheeducationalprocess."Students'
spontaneousbehaviors,whichmaybemeaningfultothemand"important

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totheiroveralldevelopment,"areautomaticallyviewedasinterferingwiththebehavioralgoalsthathavebeenestablishedbyadults.

Whenthesetightlycontrolledbehavioralprogramsfail,theblameisplacedonthespecificreinforcementprotocolbeingusedorontheteacherwhoimplementsitoron
thechildneveronthepremisesofbehaviorismitself.Whentheseprogramssucceedinalteringchildren'sbehavior,itistypicallyattheexpenseofcreating
"instructionaldependency"andpreventingthemfromdeveloping"theabilitytochooseandtohavesomecontrolover[their]owndestiny[which]isoneofthemost
importantskillsthatcanbeimpartedtoseverelyhandicappedstudents,ortoanyoneelseforthatmatter."63

Specialeducationteachers,whohaveaverydifficultjobtodo,arebothunderpaidandunderappreciated.Mostclearlywantwhatisbestforthechildrentheywork
with.Unfortunately,theyaretrappedbyasystemthathasthem,ineffect,trainingthesechildrenasiftheywerepets.Inmanycases,theyortheeducatorswho
trainedthemfailtoappreciatethedifferencebetweenastructuredenvironmentandacontrollingone.Neverhavingbeenexposedtoapproachesthatareboth
morerespectfulandmoreeffectiveinthelongrun,64theymayhavetakenonfaiththatextrinsictechniquesarenecessaryforthestudentstheyworkwith,wheninfact
suchapproachesserveonlytocreateadependenceontheseverytechniques.

"How'mIDoin'?"

EvenbeforeIhadreadtheresearch,itwasquitedeartomeasateacher,andbeforethatasastudent,thatA'sandotherartificialincentivesforlearningarenoless
techniquesofcontrolthanharshermeasuresare.Eventuallyitalsobecameclearthatthisfacthelpedexplaintheirfailure.Butrewardsreducetheprospectsofeffective
learningforanotherreason,too:theyleadstudentstoconcentrateonthequestionthatstandsasthetitleofthissection.

TheworkofCaroleAmes,CarolS.Dweck,andJohnNichollsconvergesonasinglecrucialdistinctionconcerninghowtothinkaboutwhathappensinschools.
Variouslyframedas"masteryversusability,""learningversusperformance,"and"taskversusego,"thebasicpointisthatthereisanenormousdifferencebetween
gettingstudentstothinkaboutwhattheyaredoing,ontheonehand,andabouthowwelltheyaredoing(andthereforehowgoodtheyareat

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doingit),ontheother.Thelatterorientation,inwhichrewardstypicallyplayastarringrole,doesagreatdealofharm.

Studentswhoareencouragedtothinkaboutwhattheyaredoing,assumingitissomethingworthdoing,willlikelycometofindmeaningin
theprocessesinvolvedinlearningcontent,valuemasteryofthecontentitself,andexhibitprideincraftsmanship....Theirfocusisontheprocessesinvolvedinworkingwiththe
contentorperformingtheskill,andnotonthemselves,theirabilities,howtheirprogresswillbeperceivedbyothers,orissuesofsuccessorfailureorrewardorpunishment.65

Thisispreciselywhatwewanttopromotepartlybecauseastudentwhoiscaughtupinwhatheislearningismorelikelytobesuccessfulinlearningit.

Bycontrast,studentsledtothinkmostlyabouthowwelltheyaredoingorevenworse,howwelltheyaredoingcomparedtoeveryoneelseareless
likelytodowell.Thismayseemparadoxical,butthefactisthatstudentsoverlyconcernedabouttheirperformancecometoseelearningasameanstoanend,the
endbeingthegoodgradeorotherrewardtheywillreceive.Theystarttothinkthattheirperformance,especiallywhentheyfail,isduetoinnateintelligence(orits
absence):"Iscrewedup,thereforeI'mstupid."Thatinturnleadsthemtoassumethereisn'tmuchpointintryinghardernexttime,whichmeanstheyareunlikelyto
improve.Italsoleadsthemtotrytoavoiddifficulttaskssotheycanescapeanegativeevaluation.Afterall,tothinkaboutyourperformanceistothinklessaboutwhat
youaredoingthanabouthowyouappeartoothers.66

Fromthisdescriptionandtheresearchonwhichitisbased,Ithinkitispossibletoteaseouttwodistinctreasonsthataperformanceorientationhasunfortunate
consequences.First,someonewhoisattendingtohowwellheisdoinghashisselfconceptontheline.Hisimageofhimselfassmartorcompetentisendangeredby
theriskoffailingtomeetacertainstandardofperformance.Theattempttoprotectthatimageusuallycomesattheexpenseofadesiretotryone'sbest,whichcan
seemrisky.Ifyoudon'ttry,youcan'tfail.Second,themorethestudentisfocusedonhowwellhe'sdoing,thelessheisabsorbedinthetaskitself.Thatabsorption
facilitateslearning,soanythingthatunderminesitiseducationallydisruptive.

Thisisnottosaythatwhenanassignmenthasbeencompleteditsworthcannotbejudged.Ihavealreadydiscussedthevalueofinformationalfeedback.Thereisa
timetothinkaboutwhetherwhatone

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hasdoneisanygood,anditisusuallynecessarytotalkwithothersaboutthequalityofone'swork.Buttheextentandfrequencyoftheseevaluationscaneasilybe
overdoneforadultsintheworkplace,letaloneforchildrenintheclassroom.Theresearchisclear:gettingchildrentofocusontheirperformancecaninterferewiththeir
abilitytorememberthingsaboutthechallengingtaskstheyjustworkedon.67Itcanunderminetheirabilitytoapplyscientificprinciplestonewsituations.68Itcan
reducethequalityoftheirworkasmeasuredontestsofcreativity69andtheir''readinesstocontemplatediverseideas."70

Theresearcherswhoconductsuchstudiesgenerallyinduceaperformanceorientationbywhattheysayaboutthepurposeoftheexperimentorbytellingsubjectswhat
tothinkabout.Butwhathappenswhentheyusetraditionalclassroomtechniquesthatfocusstudents'attentionontheirperformancecommonpracticessuchas
givinggradesforworkorofferingremindersthatthey'llbetestedonwhatthey'redoing?Theansweristhattheeffectsareexactlythesame:comparedtostudentswho
areallowedtogetwrappedupinthetaskitself,thosethinkingaboutgradesortestsdon'tdoaswellonmeasuresofcreativethinkingorconceptuallearning.Even
whentheyonlyhavetolearnthingsbyrote,theyaremoreapttoforgetthematerialaweekorsolater.71

Iwillhavemoretosaylateraboutthedisadvantagesofgrades.Mypointforthetimebeingisthatstudentsdon'tlearnveryeffectivelywhenadultsholdoutthepromise
ofrewards,compareonechild'sperformancetoanother's(leadingthemtothinkintermsofwinningandlosingratherthanlearning),72orrelyonanyotherpractices
thatdrawtheirattentiontohowwelltheyaredoing.Moreover,thesestrategieschipawayatintrinsicmotivation.Whenyoutellstudentsthathowwelltheydoona
taskrevealshowcreativetheyare,73orwhenyougradethem,74theirinterestinwhattheyaredoingdeclines.

InoneintriguingexperimentconductedbyIsraeliresearcherRuthButler,somesixthgradestudentswereledtofocusonhowwelltheyperformedatacreativetask
(makingpicturesoutofapageofpreprintedcircles)whileotherswerejustencouragedtobeimaginative.Theneachstudentwastakentoaroomthatcontainedapile
ofpicturessupposedlydrawnbyotherchildreninresponsetothesameinstructions.Eachstudentalsofoundinformationdescribinghowtofigureouthisorher
"creativityscore"andcompareittothoseoftheothers.Sureenough,thechildrenwhowereallowedtobecomeimmersedinthetaskweremoreinterestedinwhat
theirpeershaddonethosewhoweretoldtothinkabouttheirperformancenowwantedto

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knowhowtheirpeershaddonerelativetothemselves.Thefamous"Wadjaget?"preoccupationofstudentscompulsivelycomparingtheirowngradesto
others'isnotafunctionofhumannaturebutoftheperformanceorientationthatsuffusesmostAmericanclassroomsandstifleschildren'sinterestinwhattheyare
learning.75

Gettingstudentstothinkabouthowtheyareperformingalsoincreasestheirfearoffailure.Tryingnottofailis,ofcourse,verydifferentfromtryingtosucceed.One's
effortsintheformercasearegearedatdoingdamagecontrol,minimizingrisks,gettingby.Inschool,"thegameisnottoacquireknowledgebuttodiscoverwhat
answertheteacherwants,andinwhatformshewantsit."76Surveysofelementaryschoolstudentsrevealthattheyhavelearnedtheyaresupposedtofinishthe
assignment,doitquickly,andifpossible,gettherightanswer.Muchmorerarelydoesachildthinkheissupposedtotrytounderstandwhatheisworkingon.77
Studentsoftensaythat"gettinggradesisthemostimportantthingaboutschool."78Andthemoreemphasisteachersandparentsplaceonperformance,themore
studentsaresetbackbyfailure.Bycontrast,thosewhoaretaskorientedtendtoberelativelyresilient.79

Nowtakethispatternonestepfurther:someonewhoisconcernedtominimizefailureisunlikelytochallengeherself.Notonlyrewards(seepage65)butanythingthat
makesstudentspreoccupiedwithhowwelltheyaredoingwillleadthemtochoosetheeasiestpossibletasks:thepointistodowell,nottolearn.Apartfromallthe
evidencedemonstratingthatthisistrue,80allwehavetodoiswanderontoacollegecampusandbeholdtheQuestforthePerfectGutthesearchfortheleast
demandingcourse.81Theruleofthumbisthemoreintensethefocusonperformance,thelesstheinterestinintellectualchallenge.

Theperformancefocusmakesthingsevenmoredifficultforchildrenwho,forwhateverreason,havestoppedtryinghardorwhoareespeciallyanxiousabouthowthey
willdo82afindingthatwillprobablynotseemsurprising.Lessobvious,butnolesstrue,isthefactthataperformanceorientationisalsobadnewsforhigh
achievers.InastudybyDweckandacolleague,thesestudentstoo"passeduptheopportunitytoincreasetheirskillsonataskthatentailedpublicmistakes"when
encouragedtothinkabouthowwelltheycoulddoit.83Similarly,Butlerhasfoundthatundersuchconditionsandparticularlywhengradesareemphasizedtop
studentsarerelativelyuninterestedinselfimprovementorinthequalityoftheworktheydo.84

Here,then,isanotherlensthroughwhichtolookatthoseploddingoverachieversofwhomBrunerspoke.Theywatchtheirgradepoint

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averageswiththeeyeofanemergencyroomtechnicianmonitoringapatient'sbloodpressure.Consequently,theyare"lesswillingtotakerisks."85Intheirfixationon
extrinsicrewards,theyoftendon'tfeelverygoodaboutthemselves:somepreliminaryresearchsuggeststhatthereisactuallyanegativerelationbetweenthegrades
studentsmakeinhighschoolandhowpositivetheyfeelaboutthemselvesandtheworldafewyearslater.86Oneeducatorconcernedaboutgiftedchildrenremarks
that"thosestudentswhoaremostexcitedbytheeducationalpossibilitiesbeforethemarethosewemaybehurtingmost...intheprocessofusingextrinsic
rewards.87

Someteacherswhorealizethishavemovedawayfromrewardsandastressonperformance.Butteachersoperatewithinsignificantconstraints:withtheirstudents'
standardizedtestscorespublishedinthenewspapersandscrutinizedasiftheywereameaningfulmeasureoflearning,teachersoftenfeelobligedtogetchildren
obsessivelyconcernedabouthowtheyaredoing.Thesepressuresonteachersmustbeeasedinorderforcounterproductivepracticesintheclassroomtostop.

Onegroupofeducationalcriticstellsus,"Kidsarefailingtolearnbecausewe'reafraidtoletthemknowwhentheygetsomethingwrongforfearofinjuringtheirself
esteem."Thetruthisthatkidsareconstantlyfearfulofgettingthingswrong,whichiswhytheydoaslittleastheycangetawaywith.Anothergroupofcriticstellsus,
"WeneedfewerpunishmentsandmorerewardskidsshouldbehelpedtostopfearingF'sandtostartthinkingit'srealistictogetA's."Thetruthisthattheproblemis
notjustpunishmentsbutalsorewards,notbadgradesbuttheemphasisongradingperse.Anythingthatgetschildrentothinkprimarilyabouttheirperformancewill
underminetheirinterestinlearning,theirdesiretobechallenged,andultimatelytheextentoftheirachievement.Smallwonderthatrewardshavepreciselythoseeffects.

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9
BribesforBehaving:
WhyBehaviorismDoesn'tHelpChildrenBecomeGoodPeople
Ifwewantchildrentobecomeabletoactwithpersonalconvictionaboutwhatisright...wemustreduceouradultpowerandavoidtheuseofrewardsandpunishmentsasmuchas
possible.
ConstanceKamii,1984

Bribesandthreatswork.IfIheldupapileofhundreddollarbillsandpromisedtohandthemoverifyoulearnedeverywordonthispagebyheart,youwould
probablystartcommittingthemtomemory.IfIheldaloadedguntoyourheadandtoldyouIwasgoingtopullthetriggerunlessyouimmediatelyrippedthispageout
ofthebookandateit,youwouldverylikelyfindtheseideasaloteasiertoswallow.Ifthepunishmentisaversiveenough,ortherewardappealingenough,thereisno
tellingwhatyou(orI)wouldagreetodo.

Thisisthereasonsomanyparentsandteachersinsistthatpunishmentsandrewardsareeffectiveatdealingwithchildren."Onemorewordandyou'regroundedforthe
week"canproducesilence."Ifyouputawayyourtoys,I'llgetyouthatNintendogameyouwant"cancleanuparoominahurry.Extrinsicmotivatorsarehardto
discard,notonlybecausemanypeoplehavenoideawhattodoinstead,butalsobecausetheygetthejobdone.

Twosimplequestions,however,casttheissueinaradicallydifferentlight.Inresponsetotheassertion"Rewards[orpunishments]work,"weneedtoask,first,Work
todowhat?andsecond,Atwhatcost?Thefirstquestionbyitselfisenoughtokeepusbusyforquiteawhile.

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ThePriceofObedience

Icanthinkofnobetteruseoffifteenminutesforanyofuswhoareparentsorteachersthanpausingtothinkaboutandeventolistonpaperthelongtermgoals
wehaveforourchildren.Whatwouldwelikethemtobeabletodo,towanttodo,tofeel,tobelikeintheyearstocome?Havingaskedpeopleindifferentplacesto
reflectonthesequestions,Ihavenoticedasubstantialoverlapamongtheideasgeneratedbydifferentgroups.Invariably,whatIhearisadesireforchildrentobeself
reliantandresponsiblebutalsosociallyskilledandcaring,capableofsurvivingandsucceedinginlifeyetwillingtoquestionandthinkinacreativeandcriticalmanner,
confidentandpossessedofanunshakablefaithintheirownworthwhilestillbeingopentocriticismandnewideas.Somepeopleemphasizeoneitemmorethan
another,andsomeproposeamendmentstothislist,butfewofthesecoreobjectivesstrikeanyoneasoutrageouslycontroversial.

Thenextpartoftheexercise,whichtakeslongerthanfifteenminutes,istosystematicallyreconsiderwhatwedowithchildren,ourdaytodaypractices,inlightof
theselongtermgoals.Theunsettlingnewsisthatrewardsandpunishmentsareworthlessatbest,anddestructiveatworst,forhelpingchildrendevelopsuchvaluesand
skills.Whatrewardsandpunishmentsdoproduceistemporarycompliance.Theybuyusobedience.Ifthat'swhatwemeanwhenwesaythey"work,"thenyes,they
workwonders.

Butifweareultimatelyconcernedwiththekindofpeopleourchildrenwillbecome,therearenoshortcuts.Goodvalueshavetobegrownfromtheinsideout.Praise
andprivilegesandpunishmentscanchangebehavior(forawhile),buttheycannotchangethepersonwhoengagesinthebehavioratleast,notinthewaywewant.
Nobehavioralmanipulationeverhelpedachilddevelopacommitmenttobecomingacaringandresponsibleperson.Norewardfordoingsomethingweapproveof
evergaveachildareasonforcontinuingtoactthatwaywhentherewasnolongeranyrewardtobegainedfordoingso.

Considertheissueofresponsibility.Agreatmanyadultswhocomplainthatchildrendon'tact"responsibly"reallymeanthattheydon'tdoexactlywhatthey'retold.*
Glassernoticedthisalongtimeago:
*Thesametrickisplayedwiththewordrespect,whichisoftenusedtodenotesimpleobediencethechildwhothinksforherselfandaskschallengingquestionsiscalled
disrespectfulalongwithotherepithetsthatsayasmuchaboutthespeakerasabouttheindividualbeingdescribed.

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"Weteachthoughtlessconformitytoschoolrulesandcalltheconformingchild'responsible.'"1 Ifthisisthesortofresponsibilitywewishtopromote,thenaceaseless
applicationofpunishmentsorrewardswouldseemthemostefficientwaypossiblytheonlywaytogoaboutit.Butifbyresponsibilitywemeanthecapacityto
actcarefullyandthoughtfully,tomakeethicaljudgmentsandbehaveinaccordancewiththem,then,aseducatorConstanceKamii'scommentattheheadofthis
chaptersuggests,extrinsicmotivatorstakeusinthewrongdirection.

RichardRyanhasdistinguishedsharplybetween"helpingachilddevelopcertainvalues,suchasasenseofresponsibility,andgettingataskdone,suchastakingout
thegarbage.Gettingthetaskdoneistheeasypart,"headds.2 Behaviormodificationprogramscanaccomplishthat,buttheyactually"forestallratherthanpromote
selfdetermination,"whichisaprerequisiteforthesenseofresponsibilityinwhichweareultimatelyinterested.3 Putitthisway:achildwhocompliesinthehopeof
gettingarewardoravoidingapunishmentisnot,aswesometimessay,"behavinghimself."Itwouldbemoreaccuratetosaytherewardorpunishmentisbehavinghim.

Sowhydowerelyonextrinsicmotivatorswithourchildren?Forstarters,wetendtofallbackonwhateverwillproducecompliance.Itismoreconvenientforusto
getthegarbagetakenout,togetachildintobedatnight(oroutthedoorinthemorning),toheadoffanimminenttantrumorsquabblebetweensiblingsinthegrocery
storeregardlessofhowourtacticsfordoingthismayaffectthechild'slongtermdevelopment.Timeconstraintsareveryreal,ofcourse,andourownemotional
needs,orevenconvenience,alsocountforsomething.Butweneedtobeawareofthecostsofthesequickfixes:ratherthanrationalizingthemasbeinginthechild's
bestinterest,weoughttofacethefactthatbehavioralmanipulationisultimatelydetrimental.Letusbehonestwhenwerewardorpunishbyaskingourselvesforwhom
wearedoingit(themorus?)andforwhat(thedevelopmentofgoodvaluesormereobedience?).

Thatsecondquestionforcesustoexaminejusthowcommittedwereallyaretothedevelopmentofpositivevaluesandallthoseotherlongtermgoalswemaylistina
reflectivemoment.Whennewparentsgratefullyexclaimtofriendsandrelatives,"He'ssuchagoodbaby!"theymeanthattheirinfantsleepsalot,doesn'tcry
excessively,andisn'tmuchtrouble.Buthowmanyparentshaveinmindasimilardefinitionofgoodwhentheydescribeanolderchild(orwhenateacherdescribesa
class)thatway?Allparentshavehadmomentsof

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wishingthattheirchildrenwouldsimplyobeywithoutmakingafuss.Themoredeepseatedthatwishbecomes,themoreadesireforachildwhoisn'tanytrouble
overridesothergoals,themorelikelyoneistoresorttopunishmentsorrewards.

Anotherreasonwetaketheextrinsicrouteisthatwehavecometothinkthatdoingsomethingaboutaproblemmeansdoingsomethingtochildren.Somepeople,
includingmanythoughtful,educatedparents,seemtodreaminblackandwhite.Theycanseeonlytwoalternatives:punishordonothing.Wecrackdownorweletit
slideweareauthoritarianorpermissive.Sometimeseachparentisassignedtooneposition:''Myhusbandisthedisciplinarianinthefamily:heyellsatthekidsand
sendsthemtotheirroomsIlet'emgetawaywithmurder."

Thinkingseriouslyaboutraisingchildrenorteachingthem,forthatmatter4 beginswithachallengetothisfalsedichotomy.Someresearchershavepointedout
thatweneednotchoosebetweenbeingpunitiveorpermissiveitisalsopossibletosetlimitsandexertfirmcontrolwhilebeingwarm,caring,andresponsive.5 Others
haveobservedthatweneednotchoosebetweendoingsomethingpunitivetochildrenversusdoingnothingwecanexpandtheideaofdoingsomethingtoinclude
providingrewards.Thesereformulationsareimprovements,butverylimitedones.Ideally,weneedtothinkaboutalternativesthatmovepasttheveryideaofextrinsic
controlorbehavioralmanipulation.Inchapter12,Iwillpresentsomeideasonhowtodothat.

Whileteachers'obligationsaresomewhatdifferentfromthoseofparents,6 thesocialandmoralgoalstheyholdforchildrenaresubstantiallythesame.Yetthesegoals
areunderminedbythe"hiddencurriculum"offeredinclassroomstowit,"Dowhattheteachersays,liveuptoteacherexpectationsforproperbehavior,keepbusy,
keepquietanddon'tmovetoomuch,sticktotheschedule."7

Wheredotheseprioritiescomefrom?First,teachersthemselvesareoftenjudgedonthebasisofwhethertheirstudentssitquietlyandobey.8 Second,teachersmay
takeforgrantedthattheonlywaytwoorthreedozenpeoplecanlearninthesameroomisifonepersonexertsabsolutecontrol.Third,unilateralpowercanbe
pleasing(anditsabsencedisconcerting)tosometeachers.Onecollegeinstructorofmyacquaintancerecalledthreateningtopunishstudentsforcomingtoclasslate,
whereuponshereportedfeelingthatshewasnow"backincontrolagain."Thiswomanwassimplymorehonestwithherselfthanaremanyotherteachersandparents
whodonotacknowledgethat

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theoverridingconcernistostayincharge.Theimplicitmodelisthatofazerosumgame:"IfI'mnotincontrol,thestudenthasbeatme."Thepointisnottosolve
problemsandlearntogetherbuttowinapowerstruggle.

Whateverthecause,thehiddencurriculumdictatesthatteachersdonotspendtheirtimehelpingchildrentobecomecaringandresponsible,butonmaintaining
"discipline.""Mostdisciplineschemes,euphemisticallyknownasclassroommanagementtechniques,reekofmanipulation,"onewriterhasremarked.9 Specifically,
mostarebasedonanadmixtureofexactlytwoingredients:punishmentsandrewards.Again,relyingonextrinsicmotivatorsmakesperfectsensewhenourlongterm
goalsareeclipsedbyshorttermobjectivessuchasbringingorderandcontroltotheclassroom.

Someeducatorsthinkwecan,orevenmust,getchildrentobequietandcompliantfirstthenwecanpromotemoreambitiousvalues.Thisisapactwiththedevil,and
itdoesn'tworkanybetterthanthetacticIhavecalled"baitandswitch,"inwhichextrinsicmotivatorsareusedtoinducestudentstolearninthehopethatthesedevices
cansimplybefadedoutonceintrinsicinterestdevelops.10Iftheclassroomisestablishedfromthestartasaplacewherechildrensimplyobeyratherthanhelptomake
meaningfuldecisions,itisverydifficulttoabandonautocracylater.Indeed,educatorsmayclaimthatcontrolisonlyatemporarynecessity,butcurrentpractice
suggeststhatitisrarelyrelinquished:
Farfromhelpingstudentstodevelopintomature,selfreliant,selfmotivatedindividuals,schoolsseemtodoeverythingtheycantokeepyoungstersinastateofchronic,almost
infantile,dependency.Thepervasiveatmosphereofdistrust,togetherwithrulescoveringthemostminuteaspectsofexistence,teachstudentseverydaythattheyarenotpeople
ofworth,andcertainlynotindividualscapableofregulatingtheirownbehavior.11

Studentsgetthemessageaboutwhatadultswant.Whenfourthgradersinavarietyofclassrooms(representingarangeofteachingstylesandsocioeconomic
backgrounds)wereaskedwhattheirteachersmostwantedthemtodo,theydidn'tsay,"Askthoughtfulquestions"or"Makeresponsibledecisions"or''Helpothers."
Theysaid,"Bequiet,don'tfoolaround,andgetourworkdoneontime."12Similarly,ininterviewswithsecondandsixthgradersthatprobedtheirbeliefsaboutwhatit
meansto"behavewell,"themostcommonsingleanswerhadtodowithkeepingquiet.13

Insomeclassrooms,thesemessagesaccompany(andcomplement)

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acurriculumofrotelearninginothers,theyaccompany(andclashwith)amoreambitiousapproachtoacademics.14Butonewayoranother,millionsofchildren
learntoshutupanddowhatthey'retold.Thislessonistypicallyenforcedbyclassroommanagementprogramsthatareundisguisedexercisesinextrinsiccontrol.The
mostpopularofthese,knownasAssertiveDiscipline,amountstoacombinationofbribesandthreatstoenforcerulesthattheteacheralonedevises.Childrenare
rewardedformindlessobediencethenamesofstudentswhofailtoobeyarewrittenontheblackboardforalltoseequestionsorobjectionsaredismissedas
irrelevant.Allproblemsintheclassroomareattributedtothestudents,andpunishmentsimposedonthemaresaidtoresultfromtheir"choices."

Evenjudgedbyrelativelynarrowcriteria,theevidencesuggeststhatAssertiveDisciplineisineffective.15Butifitdidsucceedinkeepingorderintheclassroom,this
program,likeallcarrotandsticktechniquesusedatschoolorathome,failstohelpchildrenbecomereflective,compassionatepeople.Asoneresearchersummedup
theevidence,"Childrendonotlearntobemoralbylearningtoobeyrulesthatothersmakeforthem....Thelessonsofbehavioralapproachestodisciplineareoften
preciselycontrarytowhatwewishchildrentolearn."16

PunishingChildren

Howdowepunishchildren?Letuscounttheways.Weincarceratethem:childrenaresenttotheirrooms,teenagersare"grounded"andforbiddentoleavethehouse,
studentsaresentencedto"detention,"andallmaybeforciblyisolatedthrough"timeout"procedures.17Weusephysicalviolenceonthem:corporalpunishmentin
publicschoolsisstillpermittedinmoststates(thoughlongsinceabandonedbymostoftheworld'sdevelopednations)18andspankingisstillapproved(andused)by
theoverwhelmingmajorityofAmericanparents.19Wehumiliatechildrenbyyellingatorcriticizingtheminpublic.Wewithdraworwithholdprivileges,denythemfood
orcompanionship,deliberatelyignorethem,20preventthemfromdoingthingstheyenjoy.Atschool,wesubjectthemtoF'sandzeroes,additionalassignments,
playgroundcitations,tripstotheprincipal'soffice,andsuspensionsallofwhichmaybethreatenedinadvanceorexplicitlydescribedonahierarchicallistof
"consequences,''theapprovedeuphemismforpunishment.

Hereisanotherexercisethatteachersandparentsoftenfindvalu

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able,whichIinviteyoutodonow.Closeyoureyes(whenyoufinishthisparagraph),returntoyourchildhood,andthinkofatimewhenyouwereaccusedofdoing
somethingbad.Recalltheallegedmisbehaviorasspecificallyasyoucan,aswellaswhattheadultinquestiondidorsaidtoyouandhowitmadeyoufeel.

WhatconstantlyimpressesmewhenIaskpeopletoremembersuchincidentsishowvividtherecollectionsareasiftheeventhadhappenedlastweekinsteadof
manyyearsago.Sometalesareshockinginthecrueltyinflictedonchildren.Somearestoriesofabriefbutharshrebuke,arefusaltobelievethechild'saccount,a
minorhumiliationthattheadulthadprobablyforgottenafewdayslaterbutthechildcarriedforever.Someofthesechildrenneveragaintrustedorrespectedthat
authorityfiguresomerefusedtoparticipateinclassforaverylongtimesomestillcarrywiththemasmolderingresentmentfedbyfantasiesofrevenge.Ihaveheard
peoplesaytheyweremorecompliantforawhileaftertheincidentinquestionIhaveneverheardanyonesaythatapunitiveresponsehelpedmakehimorherabetter
person.Theonlypeoplewhotellofbeingpositivelyaffectedarethosewhosestoriesconcernaparentorteacherwhodidn'tpunish,whorespondedinsteadwith
unexpectedgentlenessandunderstanding.

Thisisreallyanexerciseinperspectivetakingimaginingthepointofviewofsomeoneelseexceptthatheretheotherpersonisoneselfasachild.Oncewecan
recapturethatperspective,itiseasiertoputourselvesintheplaceofthechildrenweraiseorteachtoday.Theideahereistoimagineonaregularbasishowour
reactionstotheirbehaviormayaffectthemmoredeeplythanwerealize,howtoday'scarelessexerciseofpoweronourpartmaybecometomorrow'sbittermemory
forthem.

Considerthelongtermeffectsofpunishment.Skinnerarguedthatwhenwepunishsomeoneweteachonlywhatheisnotsupposedtodoandofferinsufficient
guidanceonwhatheshoulddoinstead.*Butthiscriticismonlyscratchesthesurface.Punishmentdoesn'teventeachwhatnottodo,muchlessthereasonnottodoit:
whatitreallyteachesisthedesiretoavoidpunishment.Theemphasisisontheconsequenceoftheaction(totheactor),nottheactionitself.Wesay,"Don'tletme
catchyoudoingthatagain!"andthechildsilentlyresponds,"Okaynexttimeyouwon'tcatchme."

Punishingchildrendoesteachsomelastinglessons,though.Take

*Forthatmatter,asotherbehavioristshavepointedout,"itisequallytruethatreinforcementproceduresdonotteachwhichparticularresponsesshouldnotoccur."21

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theuseofviolencetodisciplinechildren.Regardlessofwhatwearetryingtogetacrossbyspanking,paddling,orslappingthem,themessagesthatactuallycome
througharethese:''Violenceisanacceptablewayofexpressinganger"and"Ifyouarepowerfulenoughyoucangetawaywithhurtingsomeone."Fordecades,
researchershaveconsistentlyfoundthatchildrensubjectedtophysicalpunishmenttendtobemoreaggressivethantheirpeers,andwilllikelygrowuptouseviolence
ontheirownchildren.Theseeffectsarenotconfinedtovictimsofwhatislegallyclassifiedasabuse:even"acceptable"levelsofphysicalpunishmentmayperpetuate
aggressionandunhappiness.22

Soattachedaresomeparentstophysicalpunishmentthattheypersistinusingitwhentheirchildrenhurtsomeoneelse.Manyofushaveseenthissortofthingon
displayinpublicplaces:"Wedon't[slap]hit[slap]people[slap]!"Inonepoll,apluralityofparents(41percent)chosephysicalpunishmentasthepreferredwayof
dealingwithachildwhoisaggressive,23apparentlybelievingthatthebestwaytoteachthathurtingiswrongisbyhurting.Itwouldbeacomicaljuxtapositionifit
weren'tsotragic.

Butitisnotonlyphysicalpunishmentthatprovesineffectiveinthelongrun,makeschildrenmoreaggressive,andleadstootherundesirableconsequences.All
punishment,bywhichImeananyrelianceonpowertomakesomethingunpleasanthappentoachildasawayoftryingtoalterthatchild'sbehavior,teachesthatwhen
youarebiggerorstrongerthansomeoneelse,youcanusethatadvantagetoforcethepersontodowhatyouwant.

Punishmentalsoprovokesresistanceandresentment,whichachildmaytakeoutonotherpeople,suchaspeers.Itleadschildrentofeelworseaboutthemselvessince
theyoftenassumetheymustbebadifsomeonekeepsdoingsuchbadthingstothem.Anditspoilstherelationshipbetweenthechildandtheadult:aparentorteacher
whoreliesonpunishmentbecomes,intheeyesofthechild,aruleenforcer,someonewhomaycauseunpleasantthingstohappeninshort,someonetobeavoided.
Totheextentthathelpingchildrendevelopgoodvaluesdependsonestablishingacaringrelationshipwiththem,theuseofpunishmentmakesthatmuchlesslikelyto
happen.AsThomasGordononcecommented,"Themoreyouusepowertotrytocontrolpeople,thelessrealinfluenceyou'llhaveontheirlives."24

Theresearchliteratureleavesnodoubtthatpunishmentiscounterproductive.Studiesovermorethanhalfacenturyshowthatwhenadultsusedisciplinaryapproaches
variouslydescribedas"highlycontrolling,""powerassertive,"orjustplainpunitive,childrenbecome

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moredisruptive,aggressive,andhostile.Achildwhoispunishedbyhisparentsismorelikelythanotherchildrentobreakruleswhenheisawayfromhome.25One
earlyandinfluentialstudythatinvolvedextensiveinterviewswithhundredsofmothersofkindergartenagechildrendiscoveredthat"punishmentofspecificactsnot
infrequentlyhadjusttheeffectthemotherwanted,"withtheresultthatmanyofthesemothers"thoughttheywereabletogetgoodresultsfrompunishment."Thelong
termresults,however,wereanothermatter:
Theunhappyeffectsofpunishmenthaverunlikeadismalthreadthroughourfindings.Motherswhopunishedtoiletaccidentsseverelyendedupwithbedwettingchildren.
Motherwhopunisheddependencytogetridofithadmoredependentchildrenthanmotherswhodidnotpunish.Motherswhopunishedaggressivebehaviorseverelyhadmore
aggressivechildrenthanmotherswhopunishedlightly.Theyalsohadmoredependentchildren....Ourevaluationofpunishmentisthatitisineffectualoverthelongtermasa
techniqueforeliminatingthekindofbehaviortowardwhichitisdirected.26

Someyearslater,Kamii,drawingfromPiaget'swork,arguedthatpunishmentleadstothreepossibleoutcomes:"calculationofrisks"(whichmeanschildrenspendtheir
timefiguringoutwhethertheycangetawaywithsomething),"blindconformity"(whichfailstoteachresponsibledecisionmaking),or"revolt."27

Therootofpunishmentiscoercion.Thisisapparentwhenthepunishmentisparticularlybrutal,butitisnolesstrueinothercases.Even"aseeminglybenignandkindly
formofcontrol,tobendratherthanbreakachild'swill...[is]unlikelytocreateagenuinesenseofautonomyinthechild,orasenseofchoiceandresponsibility,"
observesPhilipGreven."Thechildstill[has]toaccepttheparent'swillasthechild'sown."28Piagetputthispointmoresuccinctly:"punishment...rendersautonomyof
conscienceimpossible."29

Despiteallthis,punishmentiscertainlythedominantformofdisciplineinthiscountry,anddiscipline,inturn,iswhatweseemtothinkchildrenneed.Askedtopick"the
mainfaultofparentsinraisingchildrennowadays,"morerespondentsinaGalluppoll(37percent)chose"nodiscipline"thananyotherresponse.(Bycontrast,only6
or7percentthoughtthemajorproblemwasthatchildrenare"nottreatedaspersons"oraretreatedwitha"lackofunderstanding.'')30Whenchildrenaskforan
explanationofwhatwehavetoldthemtodo,wecommonlyfallbackon"BecauseIsaidso!"Thisansweristemptingwhenwehaverunoutofpatience,butreallyitis
noansweratall.Itsays,ineffect,''Idon'thaveagoodreasonformakingyoudo

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thisorIdon'tcareenoughtoexplainthereasontoyoubutyouhavetodoitanywaybecauseI'mmorepowerfulthanyouare."*Nowonderchilddevelopment
specialistRhetaDeVriesobserves,"Somepeoplehavetoovercomeromantictendenciesinthinkingaboutyoungchildren.Butmostpeoplehavetoovercome
tendenciestoauthoritarianrelationswithchildren."31

Whenachildisbulliedintoactingthewaywedemand,hewilloftenresist.Butthisisnotbecauseheis"hardtohandle"morelikelyitisbecausehehasbeentreated
asathingtobehandled.Researchershavefoundthatthemorewerestrictchildren'schoicesthemorecontrollingandheavyhandedwearethelesslikelythey
willcomply.32Authoritarianparentingandteachingthereforegenerallyfailevenontheirownterms:forgetaboutsuchambitiousgoalsashelpingkidsbecome
responsible,decentpeoplethisapproachultimatelydoesn'tevensucceedatgettingthemtodowhatwetellthem.Andwhenitfails,manyadultsinvoketheneedfor
evenstricterdisciplineandpunishthemsomemore.

TheConsequencesof"Consequences"

AnumberofpsychologistsandeducatorsinfluencedbytheworkofRudolfDreikurs33denouncepunishmentasharshandineffectiveandsuggestinsteadthatchildren
bemadetosuffer"consequences"especiallythosedescribedas"logical"or''natural"fortheiractions.Somepartisansofthisviewconcedethatitisnotalways
easyinpracticetodistinguishbetweenpunishmentandconsequences.34Afterall,thetwo''arealikein[saying]...'Whenyoudothis,thenthiswillhappen.'"35

Butothersinsistthattheyreflectqualitativelydifferentprescriptionsfordealingwithchildren.Aconsequenceis,byDreikurs'sdefinition,relatedtothemisbehavioritis
alsosupposedtobereasonable(thatis,notexcessive)andrespectfullyapplied.Herearesomeexamplesofconsequencesrecommendedbyproponentsoftheidea:

Achildwhotipsherchairbackinclassmuststandupfortherestoftheperiod.

Foodistakenawayfromchildrenwhopersistinnotwashingupbeforedinner.
*SomeparentsevenfinditfunnytodisplaythisphilosophyonTshirtsandbumperstickersintheformofthesloganBecauseI'mtheMommy,that'sWhy.Thisisaboutas
amusingasanyotherexpressionofatotalitariansensibility.

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Anyonewhorepeatedlytapsapencilistoldthatthepencilwillbetakenawayunlessthetappingstops.

Studentswhodon'tfinishtheirworkbeforerecesshavetostayinclasstocompleteit.("Ifteachersareconcernedaboutchildrennotgettingenoughexercise,they
mightrequirethatthestudentdotwentyfivejumpingjacks....ThisisnotpunishmentaslongastheThreeRsforLogicalConsequencesareremembered.")

Achildwhoforgetstobringheraprontohomeeconomicsclassispreventedfromcooking.

Studentswhocommitvariousinfractionsarenotpermittedtogoonfieldtrips,areforcedtoeatintheclassroomratherthanthecafeteria,arerequiredtositinthe
principal'soffice,ormust"writeformehowyouintendtostopbreakingthisrule."36

Ifwedefinepunishmentasaninterventionthatforcessomeonetodosomethingshe'drathernotdo(orpreventsherfromdoingsomethingshewantstodo)asaway
oftryingtochangeherbehavior,thenitishardtoseehowthesearenotpunishments.37Moreimportant,itishardtoseehowachildcouldexperiencethemas
anythingotherthanpunitive,eveniftheyarelessabusivethanotherthingsthatmighthavebeendonetoher.WhatDreikursandhisfollowersareofferingusisjustLite
Punishment.

Ifthesewritersdon'tseeitthisway,itmaybebecausetheyoverstatethesignificanceofwhetherwhatwedotoachildisrelatedtowhatthechilddid.Thefactofthe
matteristhatforcingachildwhomisbehavesatdinnertogowithoutfoodisnotallthatdifferentfromforcinghertomissafavoritetelevisionshowthefirstpunishment
istechnicallymoredirectlyrelatedtotheoriginalact(whichmaybesatisfyingtotheadult),butthatdoesn'tmakeitanylessapunishment.*Similarly,announcing
matteroffactlywhatwewilldotoachildwhofailstocomplyisnolessathreatthanyellingthesamepieceofinformation.

Ifachildtipsherchairbacktoofar,shewillfallover.Thatisa"naturalconsequence"andthefactthatitqualifiesforthatlabeloffersnoargumentforlettingit
happencaringadultsgooutoftheir
*ThesourceofthedisproportionateemphasisaccordedtothisrelationshipmaybeafunctionofDreikurs'sbeliefthat"childrenretaliate[whentheyarepunished]becausethey
seenorelationshipbetweenthepunishmentandthecrime."38Ifthisassumptioniswrong,andIthinkitis,thenthedistinctionbetweenpunishmentandconsequencesmeltsaway
andweareleftneedinganalternativetobothofthem.Abetteraccountofthechild'sangeranddesiretoretaliateisthattheyarerootedintheadult'suseofpower,which
"frustratesnotonlytheactbutalsothechild'sneedforautonomy."39

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waytopreventmanysuchconsequencesfromoccurring.If,bycontrast,achildwhotipsherchairbackisforcedtostandupfortherestoftheperiod,thatisa
punishment.Ifitseems"logical"toateacher,thismayjustbeafunctionoftheteacher'sinabilitytoimagineotherwaysofdealingwiththeproblem(assumingitreallyis
aproblem).Thelessinevitabletheresponsecomestoseem,thelesstheteacherisinclinedtojustifyitaslogical.Andthemoreawarehebecomesofthelongterm
effectsofpunishment,whateverwechoosetocallit,thelessheisinclinedtoseeitasdesirable.

Someteachersandparentsseemtothinkthatconsequencesareacceptableaslongaschildrenhavebeenclearlywarnedaboutwhatwillhappeniftheymisbehave.
Thesewarningsallowadultstopridethemselvesontheirfairnessandtoshrugoffcomplaintssinceadequatenoticewasgivenbeforethepunishmentwas
imposed:"Hey,Iwarnedyouwhatwouldhappen,didn'tI?"

Butwhatisactuallypromotedbythisarrangement?Alistofspecificrulesandconsequencesestablishesaconfrontationaltonethemessageisnotthatmembersofa
communitywillworktogetherandtrytohelpsomeonewhostumbles,butthatanyonewhoviolatesapreestablishededictisintrouble.Adultsaredefinedprincipally
asenforcers,obligedtoprovethattheyfollowthroughontheirthreats.Childrenareencouragedtofocusinalegalisticwayonexactlywhatbehavioriscoveredby
eachrule,howtherulewillbeapplied,whatcircumstancesmaycreateexceptions,andsoforth.40Somewillbetemptedtotestthelimitstoseewhattheycanget
awaywith.Andaswithanyotherpunitivearrangement,childrenlearnmoreabouttheuseofcoercionthanabouthoworwhytoactresponsibly.41

Somepeoplemaintainthatchildrenaretaughtausefullessonbybeingmadetosufferunpleasantconsequenceswhentheydosomethingwrong.*Afterall,whenan
adultiscaughtrobbingabank,thereareconsequencestobepaid.Childrenhadbetterlearnthatnowsotheydon'tthinkthey'llbeabletogetawaywithanythingthey
wanttodoinlife.

Thefirstproblemwiththisargumentisthatitassumesthechildwillderivetheintendedlessonfromapunishment.Supposeatenyearold
*Iamassuminghereforthesakeoftheargumentthatthebehaviorwouldindeedbeidentifiedaswrongbymostobservers,eventhoughmanychildrenarepunishedfordoing
thingsthatoffendonlytheadultinquestion.Onecharacteristicofanapproachrootedinpoweristhatanythingthecontrollerdeems"bad"or"inappropriate"canelicitapunitive
response.Thereasonablenessofthedemandisneverquestioned,onlyhowtoimplementit.

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tauntsheryoungerbrotherandmakeshimcry.Ifherparentsforcehertospendtheeveninginherroom,shewillprobablynotdevotethattimetoreflectiononthe
connectionbetweencrueltyandunpleasantconsequences.Morelikelyshewillspendtheeveningfeelingvictimized,42growingincreasinglyangryatherparents(and
feelinglesslikelytotalkwiththemabouttheunderlyingfeelingsofjealousythatledtotheincident),resentingherbrother,andperhapsresolvingtobemoreclever
whensheplotsherrevenge.

Thesecondproblemwithwhatmightbecalledthe"bankrobberargument"isthatwewantchildrennottodounethical,hurtfulthingsbecausetheyknowthesethings
arewrongandbecausetheycanimaginehowsuchactionswillaffectotherpeople.Punishmentdoesn'tcontributeatalltothedevelopmentofsuchconcernsitteaches
thatiftheyarecaughtdoingsomethingforbidden,theywillhavetosuffertheconsequences.Thereasonnottobeabullyisthatsomeonemaypunchyoubackthe
reasonnottorobabankisthatyoumaygotojail.Theemphasisisonwhatwillhappentothem.Thisrepresentsthelowestlevelofmoralreasoning,oneassociated
withveryyoungchildren,yetitisthepunishingadultwhoseemstobethinkinginthesetermshere.

Onceagainwehavetoaskwhatourultimategoalsare.Dowewantonlytocontrolshorttermbehaviors,ordowewanttohelpchildrenbecomeresponsible
decisionmakers?Tochoosethelatteristosaythatmotivesmatter:wecareaboutnotonlywhatchildrendo,butwhytheydoit.Themoreweattendtotheseissues,
thelesslikelywewillbetodefendanapproachthatsays"Ifyoudosomethingbad,here'swhatI'lldotoyou."Teachingchildrentothinkabouttheconsequences(to
themselves)ofdoingsomethingwrongdoesnothingtonurturealastingcommitmenttogoodvalues.Infact,itunderminesthatenterprise.

Thisisnotanacademicargument.Practicallyspeaking,gettingchildrentofocusonwhatwillhappeniftheyarecaughtmisbehavingissimplynotaneffectivewayto
preventmisbehavior.Thisiswhypunishmenttypicallybackfires,astheevidencecitedearliersuggests.Peoplewhorobbanksassumetheywon'tgetcaught,which
meanstherewillbenoconsequencesfortheiraction,whichmeanstheyhaveagreenlighttogoaheadandrob.

Indeed,ifanauditoriumwerefilledwithbankrobbers,wifebatterers,andassortedotherfelons,wewouldlikelyfindthatvirtuallyallofthemwerepunishedas
children.43Whetherthepunishmentswerecalled"consequences"isirrelevant:whatmattersisthatthesepeople

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weretrainedtofocusnotonwhattheyweredoingandwhetheritwasright,butonwhatwouldhappentothemifsomeonemorepowerfuldidn'tlikewhattheydid.
Thus,ifitisarguedthatpunishmentsandrewardsareappropriateforchildrenbecauseadultsactinresponsetotheseinducements,ouranswerisyes,somedo.But
aretheythesortofadultswewantourchildrentobecome?

"AndIfYou'reGood..."

Countlessparents,includingsomewhodeliberatelytrytoavoidusingpunishment,havegottenintothehabitofbuyingtheirchildren'sgoodbehaviorwithmoneyand
treats.44Teacherstoouseprivilegesandgoodgrades,partiesandmoviestogetindividualstudentsorwholeclassestoact"appropriately."Bothathomeandat
school,praiseisfrequentlyusedtomanipulatechildren'sbehavior.Typicallythegoalofrewardersisnodifferentfromwhatpunishershaveinmind:"Dowhatyou're
told."

Butsometimesrewardsareusedinthehopeofpromotingundeniablyworthyqualities,suchasgenerosityandconcernforothers.SomeschoolsinupstateNewYork,
forexample,trytoinducesuchvaluesbypostingthephotosofhelpfulchildreninhallwaysorawardingthemcouponsforfreemerchandise45GoodCitizenship
awardsarecommonacrossthecountry.

Unfortunately,evenwhentheintentistosupportmeaningful,longtermgoalsratherthansimplecompliance,rewardsarenomoreusefulthanpunishments.EarlierI
arguedthatnotechniquethatreliesoncontrol,nogimmickthatmanipulatesbehavior,canhelpachildgrowintoagoodperson.NowIwanttostressthedisconcerting
pointmadeinpreviouschapters:positiveincentivesfitthatdescriptionjustassurelyasdonegativeincentives.

Manyteachersandparentswouldlikechildrentobeconcernedaboutotherpeople'swelfare,tobesensitivetosomeoneelse'sdistressandtotakestepstotryto
relieveit.Theevidence,however,showsthatanyonewhoisrewardedforactsofgenerositywillbelesslikelytothinkofhimselfasacaringoraltruisticpersonhewill
attributehisbehaviortotherewardinstead."Extrinsicincentivescan,byunderminingselfperceivedaltruism,decreaseintrinsicmotivationtohelpothers,"onegroupof
researchersconcludedonthebasisofseveralstudies."Aperson'skindness,itseems,cannotbebought."46ThelessonachildtakesawayfromSkinneriantacticsis
thatthepointof

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beingagoodpersonistogetrewards.Itfollowsthatwhentherewardsstopcoming,thecaringbehaviormaystoptoo:
Childrenwhocometobelievethattheirprosocialbehaviorreflectsvaluesordispositionsinthemselveshaveinternalstructuresthatcangeneratebehavioracrosssettingsand
withoutexternalpressures.Bycontrast,childrenwhoviewtheirprosocialconductascompliancewithexternalauthoritywillactprosociallyonlywhentheybelieveexternal
pressuresarepresent.47

Theymay,forexample,cometoactinaccordancewithTomLehrer'sdrollrevisionoftheBoyScouts'motto:"Becarefulnottodo/Yourgooddeedwhenthere'sno
onewatchingyou."

Sureenough,theavailableresearchindicatesthatchildrenwhoseparentsbelieveinusingrewardstomotivatethemarelesscooperativeandgenerousthan
theirpeers.Onestudyfoundthatgradeschoolchildrenwhosemothersreliedontangiblerewardswerelesslikelythanotherchildrentocareandshareathomeand
werealsolesslikelytobehelpfulinalaboratoryexperiment.48Anotherstudyfoundthatfouryearoldswhowerefrequentlypraisedforprosocialactswerelesslikely
overtimetoengageinthemthanchildrenwhodidnotreceiveverbalreinforcement.49

Theproblem,aswehaveseeninothercontexts,isnotwiththeitemthatisofferedtochildrenasareward.Thereisnothingwrongwithtakingone'schildrenoutfor
pizzaasatreatorthrowingapopcornpartyforone'sclass.Thereissomethingwrong,however,withmakingthesethingscontingentoncertainkindsofbehavior:"Do
thisandyou'llgetthat."Theproblemarisesforthereasonsoutlinedinchapters4and5,whichI'dliketorevisitonelasttime,focusingontheirapplicationtothe
questionofchildren'sactionsandvalues.*

First,rewardspunish.Itisnolesscontrollingtooffergoodiesforadesiredbehaviorthantothreatensanctionsforitsabsence(orforthepresenceofanundesired
behavior).Acontrollingparadigmdoesnothelpchildrentoactresponsibly.AsKamiihaswritten,"Rewardsdonotmakechildrenanymoreautonomousthan
punishment....[Thechildmotivatedbyrewardsis]governedbyothersjustasmuchasthechildwhois'good'onlytoavoidbeingpunished."50What'smore,thefact
thatrewardscanbewithheldorwithdrawnforfailuretoactinaspecifiedmannermakesthewholeexperienceseempuni
*Thefourthreasonofferedinchapter4toexplainthefailureofrewards,theirtendencytounderminerisktaking,ismorerelevanttocreativeperformancethantobehaviorand
values.

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tive.Mostofthereasoningandevidencereviewedinthischapterabouttheharmsofpunishmentapplytorewardsaswell.

Second,rewardsrupturerelationships.Theyopenupanenormouschasmbetweentheparentandchild,nowdefinedastherewarderandtherewarded.Childrenwho
trytopleaseusbydoingwhatwerequiresoastoobtainwhatwearedanglinginfrontofthemarelesslikelytoaskforhelpinthinkingthroughproblems,ortodo
anythingelsethatmightjeopardizetheirchancesofgettingwhatweareoffering.Thereisasignificantdifferencebetweendevelopingacaringallianceofopennessand
trustwithchildrenandofferingrewardstoelicitcertainbehaviors.Theformerprovidesthefoundationforhelpingchildrenreachthoselongtermgoalsidentifiedearlier.
Thelattermakesthislesslikely.

Third,rewardsignorereasons.Whyarechildrenactingselfishlyordisrespectfullyoraggressively?Thereisnoendtothepossibleexplanationsforagivenproblem.
Andthereisnobeginningtosolvingthatproblemuntilwehaveinvestigatedthoseexplanations.Itcanbeawfullyhardforparentstoresistbribingorthreatening,but
eitherisawayofmanipulatingbehaviorwithoutlookingintowhatisreallygoingon.Nowonderbothfailtobringaboutmeaningfulchange.

Finally,rewardsreducethechild'sdesiretoactinaparticularway.Thisphenomenonisnotlimitedtoachild'smotivationtolearnitextendstobehavioralissues,as
theresearchongenerositymakespainfullyclear.Wheneversomeonehasbeenledtothinkofherselfasdoingsomethinginordertoreceiveareward,regardlessof
whetherthatsomethingismultiplyingnumbers,makingthebed,orhelpingapersonindistress,thetaskbeingrewardedcomestoseemlessappealinginitsownright.

Someactssimplyaren'tintrinsicallyinterestingbutareneverthelessvaluableandimportant,suchasvariousobligationsonehastoothersinacommunity.Evenhere,
rewardingachildfordoingthesethings(orpunishinghimfornotdoingthem)reducesthechancethathewillcometoacceptresponsibility,because,byvirtueofbeing
mechanismsofcontrol,rewardsmakethechildfeellessresponsible,period.Theultimateresultisthatextrinsicmotivatorsnotonlyfailtopromotebutactually
underminethecommitmenttogoodvaluesweferventlywantchildrentoacquire.

Parentsandteacherswoulddowelltothinkaboutvariousstylesofdiscipline,management,orsocializationintermsofwhatquestionschildrenareencouragedtoask
ineachinstance.Astrategythatreliesonpunishmentorconsequencespromptsachildtowonder,"WhatamIsupposedtodo,andwhatwillhappentomeifIdon't
doit?"A

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strategybasedonrewardsleadsthechildtoask,"WhatamIsupposedtodo,andwhatwillIgetfordoingit?"

Thefirstthingthatstrikesusaboutthesetwoquestionsisthattheyareatbottomnotverydifferentfromeachother.Thesecondthingwerealizeisthatneitheronegets
achildanywhereclosetotheissueswithwhichweareultimatelyconcerned.Whatweareafter,Ithink,ischildrenwhoaskthemselves,"WhatkindofpersondoI
wanttobe?"oreven"whatkindofclassroom[orschool,orfamily,orcommunity]dowewanttohave?"Approachesthatencouragechildrentoposethese
importantquestionswillbereviewedinchapter12.Fornow,mypointisthatachildhaslittlecausetothinkinsuchtermsifheorsheisraisedonadietofpop
behaviorism.

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PARTTHREE
BEYONDREWARDS

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Introduction
Evenbeforewritingthisbook,Ihavecriticizedtheuseofrewardsmanytimesinprintandinperson,sometimesinafewsummarysentencesandsometimesattedious
length.Peoplehavereactedinavarietyofways,asyoumightimagine,butthemostcommonresponseisneithertoendorsenortochallengetheargumentsand
evidenceIhaveoffered.Itistoutterthreewords:"What'syouralternative?"

Thequestionwouldseemtobeperfectlyreasonable,andyetIhavefounditfrustratinganddifficulttoanswerforseveralreasons.Firstofall,thealternativetorewards
dependsonwhetherwearetalkingaboutraisingchildren,teachingstudents,ormanagingemployees.

Second,howweoughttoaddressaprobleminanyoftheseareasdependsonwhatcausedtheproblem.Whatismostalluringaboutpopbehaviorismisitspromiseof
oneanswertoallquestions.Itisafalsepromise,though,whichhelpsexplainwhyrewardsdon'tworkinthelongrun.Forpeopleaccustomedtoabitesizesolution
("Dothisandyou'llgetthat"),myapologeticexplanationthattheresimplyisn'tone"alternative"torewardspromptsknowingsmirksthatseemtosay,''Uhhuh.I
thoughtso.Comebackandtalktomeaboutwhat'swrongwith[incentiveplans/grades/stickers/praise]whenyou'rereadytotellmewhattoputintheirplace."Of
course,noanswertoallthecomplexmotivationalissueswefindourselvesfacingisbotheasyandeffective.Thetemptationisthereforestrongtopickonethatisjust
easy.

ThelastandmostimportantreasonformydiscomfiturewhenIamaskedforanalternativetorewardsisthefactthatdiscussionsaboutalternativesgenerallyassume
thereisagreementontheobjective.IfIweretotellyouthatroadconstructionwillmakeitdifficultforyoutogettoworktomorrow,youmightaskmetosuggestan
alternativerouteandIwouldcheerfullygiveyouone("Insteadofturningleftatthegasstation,gostraightandcontinuepastthebank...").That'sbecauseneitherofus
questionswhereyouaretryingtogo.

Butwhenwetalkaboutrewards,thegoalisverymuchatissue.Ifwhatyouwantistogetachild,astudent,oraworkertodowhatyousay,thentheanswertothe
question"What'sthealternativetorewards?"isthatthereprobablyisnoalternative(withthepossible

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exceptionofpunishment).Toinduceshorttermcompliance,behavioralmanipulationisthebestwe'vegot.

If,however,yourgoalistotapyouremployees'intrinsicinterestindoingqualitywork,ortoencourageyourstudentstobecomelifelong,selfdirectedlearners,orto
helpyourchildgrowintoacaring,responsible,decentperson,thenitmakesnosensetoask''What'sthealternativetorewards?"becauserewardsnevermovedus
onemillimetertowardthoseobjectives.Infact,rewardsactivelyinterferewithourattemptstoreachthem.

Thegoalsforparents,teachers,andmanagersthatIhavejustdescribedarethegoalsthatinterestmeand,Ihope,you.Butsincedanglinggoodiesinfrontof
peopledoesn'thelpustoattainthesegoals,weshouldn'tfindourselvesinthepositionofhavingtobeconvincedtotradeinrewardsforsomethingnew.Weare,in
effect,startingfromscratch.Sowhatcanhelpusreachtheseambitiousgoals?Here,finally,isameaningfulquestion.Myattemptatanansweriscontainedinthethree
chaptersthatfollow.

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10
ThankGodIt'sMonday:
TheRootsofMotivationintheWorkplace
Ahighwagewillnoteliciteffectiveworkfromthosewhofeelthemselvesoutcastsandslaves,noralowwageprecludeitfromthosewhofeelthemselvesanintegralpartofa
communityoffreemen.Thustheimprovementofthiselementofthesupplyoflabourisaninfinitelymorecomplexandarduoustaskthanifitdependeduponwagealone.
D.H.Robertson,1921

Youcan'talwaysjudgeabookbyitscover,butyoucansometimesfeeljustifiedindiscardingoneonthebasisofitstitle.Anythingcalled"HowtoMotivateYour
WorkForce,""MakingPeopleProductive,"orsomethingofthesortcansafelybepassedoverbecausetheenterpriseitdescribesiswhollymisconceived.''Strictly
speaking,"saidDouglasMcGregor,"theanswertothequestionmanagerssooftenaskofbehavioralscientists'Howdoyoumotivatepeople?'is,'Youdon't.'''1

Ofcourse,itispossibletogetpeopletodosomething.Thatiswhatrewards,punishments,andotherinstrumentsofcontrolareallabout.Butthedesiretodo
something,muchlesstodoitwell,simplycannotbeimposedinthissense,itisamistaketotalkaboutmotivatingotherpeople.Allwecandoissetupcertain
conditionsthatwillmaximizetheprobabilityoftheirdevelopinganinterestinwhattheyaredoingandremovetheconditionsthatfunctionasconstraints.2 Thischapter
offersaverybriefreviewofthoseconditions,asummary

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ofwhatresearchandexperiencesuggestareusefulwaysofprovidinganenvironmentconducivetomotivationintheworkplace.

StepOne:AbolishIncentives

Tochallengethepayforperformanceapproachistoinvitethequestion,Well,then,howshouldpeoplebepaid?Whatmustbestressedimmediatelyisthatthis
question,whileareasonableonetopose,isnotnearlyasimportantasmostmanagersseemtothink.Althoughsomealternativeplanforcompensationwillhavetobe
devised,nothingwecomeupwithisgoingtohelppeoplebecomemotivated.

W.EdwardsDemingdistillshalfacentury'sworthofexperienceobservingandadvisingorganizationsasfollows:"Payisnotamotivator."FrederickHerzbergamends
thisdeclarationbyremindingusthatmoneycanneverthelessbeademotivator.Thismeansthatcompensationsystemsoftenactasbarrierstoachievingproductivity,
quality,andintrinsicmotivation,buttheydonottheycannothelpusreachthesegoals.Theimplicationisthatbooksemphasizingtheimportanceofpaying
people"correctly"distractusfromtheissuesthatreallymatter,andconsultantspeddlingelaboratecompensationschemesaresellingabillofgoods.

HerearethebasicprinciplesIwouldproposetothoseresponsibleforsettingpolicy:Paypeoplegenerouslyandequitably.Doyourbesttomakesuretheydon'tfeel
exploited.Thendoeverythinginyourpowertohelpthemputmoneyoutoftheirminds.Theproblemwithfinancialincentivesisnotthatpeopleareofferedtoo
muchmoneyearningaheftysalaryisnotincompatiblewithdoinggoodwork.Rather,theproblemisthatmoneyismadetoosalient.Itispushedintopeople'sfaces.
Moreover,itisofferedcontingentlythatis,accordingtotheprinciple"Dothisandyou'llgetthat."3 Toendthispracticeistotakethefirststepbutonlythefirst
steptowardfixingwhatiswrongwithorganizations.

Letmebeautobiographicalforamoment.EachtimeIaddressabusinessaudienceabouttheharmsofrewards,thereisalwaysonemanwho,aftersittingthroughthe
talkwithhisarmsfoldedandaderisivelookonhisface,rouseshimselftochallengemeasfollows:"Iguessyouwon'tbeacceptinganymoneyforthislecture,then,
huh?"ThisreactiontellsmethatIhaven'tbeensuccessfulinexplainingtherelationshipofmoneytomotivation.Itrytofindanotherwaytosaythatthetroubleisnot
withmoneypersebutwiththe

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waypeoplearemadetothinkaboutmoneyandthewayitisusedtocontrolthem.

Whensomeonecontactsmeaboutgivingalectureorwritinganarticle,Iaskhowmuchmoneyisinvolvedandoftennegotiateforthemaximumamountthatseemsto
befairandthattheorganizationcanaffordtopay.Then,assumingwehavecometoanagreement,Idomybestnottothinkaboutthemoneyagain.IdothisbecauseI
feartheconsequencesofconstruingwhatIamdoingintermsofwhatIambeingpaid:eventuallyImightfindmyselfthinking,"AispayingmetwiceasmuchasB,so
I'dbetterdotwiceasgoodajobforA."IfIeverreachthatpoint,myintegritywillbegone,andmyintrinsicmotivationwillhavefledalongwithit.

WhatIattempttodo,inotherwords,isdecouplethetaskfromthecompensation.SinceIamselfemployed,thisislargelyamatterofhowIthinkaboutmy
workwhatIattendto,andwhen,andhow.Butforpeoplewhodonotworkforthemselves,itisimperativethattheactofdecouplingbefacilitatedbythe
organization.Thisisdonemostlybyavoidingcertainpracticesspecifically,anythingthatencouragespeopletobecomepreoccupiedwithwhattheywillgetforwhat
theyaredoing.

Otherthanwellandfairly,howshouldpeoplebepaid?Differentorganizationshaveexperimentedwithdifferentarrangements.Themostambitioustrytocompensate
employeesonthebasisofneed,orelsetheypayeveryoneequally.Alessdrasticapproachistotakeintoaccountsuchfactorsashowlonganindividualhasbeenwith
theorganization,whatspecialtrainingandskillsshehas,andhowtimeconsumingorcomplexherjobis.Ifthecompanyhashadaprofitableyear,Iseenoreason
thosegainsshouldnotbedistributedtotheemployeesafterall,theirworkiswhatproducedtheprofit.4 Theserecommendationsaccord,moreorless,withthoseof
Deming5 and,asIunderstandit,withthepracticeofmostcompaniesinJapanandelsewhere.6 SomemajorU.S.corporationsaminority,tobesureare
beginningtomoveinthisdirectionbecauseofDeming'sinfluenceorbecauseofagradualrealizationthatpayforperformanceisaninherentlyflawedconcept.7

StepTwo:ReevaluateEvaluation

Afterabolishingmeritpay,weneedtotakeahardlookatitsfirstcousin,theperformanceappraisal.Thisistypicallyastressfulannual

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ritualinwhichemployeesareranked,rated,orotherwisejudgedatraditionthatshouldhavebeenretiredlongagoinlightofhowmisleadingitsresultsareandhow
predictablyitgeneratesresentmentandimpedescooperation.

Sowhatdowedoinstead?Ratherthanjustshoppingforanewtechnique,wemightbeginbyaskingwhypeoplearebeingevaluated.Sooftenthechangesin
procedureweimplementhavenolastingimpactbecauseweneverpausetoreflectonourgoalsandmotives.Inthiscase,somecriticshavesuggestedthatthe
performanceevaluationpersistsbecauseitis"averyeffectivetoolforcontrollingemployees...[that]shouldnotbeconfused...withmotivationofemployees."8
Othersarguethatitsappealconsistsinallowingsuperiorstoshifttheresponsibilityforsolvingproblemstotheirsubordinates.9 Whatevertheaccuracyofthese
charges,performanceevaluationsaremostcommonlydefendedonthegroundsthattheyareneededto

1.determinehowmucheachemployeeispaidorwhowillreceivevariousawardsandincentives

2.makeemployeesperformbetterforfearofreceivinganegativeevaluationorinthehopeofgettingapositiveone

3.sortemployeesonthebasisofhowgoodajobtheyaredoingsoweknowwhomtopromoteor

4.providefeedback,discussproblems,andidentifyneedsinordertohelpeachemployeedoabetterjob.

Ihavealreadyarguedatsomelengththatthefirstandsecondjustificationsmakenosense,sincepayforperformanceplansaswellasacarrotandstickapproachto
motivationarecounterproductive.10Thethirdmotiveraisesahostofcomplexquestions,andIwillcontentmyselfherewithjusttwoparagraphsonthesubject.

Inthinkingaboutpromotion,wetakeforgrantedthatanorganizationmustbeshapedlikeapyramid,withmanypeopleclamoringforaveryfewdesirableand
lucrativejobsatthetop,asifthisarrangementhadbeendecreedbyGod.Infact,bothhowmanysuchpositionsareavailableandhowmanypeoplewantthemarethe
resultofinstitutionaldecisions.Wecreateaclimateinwhichemployeesaremadetofeellikefailuresiftheyarenotupwardlymobile,11andwearrangethemajorityof
jobssothatthosewhoholdthemaregivenverylittlemoneyandresponsibility.Werethesethingstochange,thecompetitivescrambleforpromotionsmightbeeased
andwewouldbeobligedtorethinkthewholeissueofwhodoeswhatinanorganization.

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Evenwithinthestandardhierarchicalarrangement,theuseofperformanceappraisalstodecideonpromotionsisbasedonthreedubiousassumptions:first,that
someone'sachievementinhiscurrentjobisareliablepredictorofhowsuccessfulhewillbeinanother,verydifferent,position*second,thathowmuchsomeonehas
achievedisamoreimportantconsiderationindecidingwhetherandhowhisresponsibilitieswillchangethanwhatsortofworkheprefersandfindsintrinsically
motivatingandthird,totheextentthatperformancedoesmatter,thatitisbestjudgedbytheevaluationofasuperiorratherthanbyone'speersoroneself.

Clearly,muchmorecouldbesaidaboutevaluatingpeopleinordertosortthemlikesomanypotatoes.Likethefirsttwojustificationsforappraisals,usingthemto
calculatepayandto"motivate"employees,basingpromotionsonperformanceevaluationsisbasicallyawayofdoingthingstopeople.Consider,bycontrast,the
fourthrationale,whichisthatevaluationsareusefulasawayofhelpingemployeesdobetterwork.Thisseemsaltogetherlegitimate,inpartbecauseitoffersthe
possibilityofworkingwithpeople.Ifouroverridingconcernreallyistofosterimprovement,thenthecontoursofaprogramforevaluationbegintotakeshape:

Itisatwowayconversation,anopportunitytotradeideasandaskquestions,notaseriesofjudgmentsaboutonepersonpronouncedbyanother.Ineffective
schools,forexample,evaluationsofteachersexist"tofindreasonsforthestrengthsandweaknessestheyidentify,andtheytreatteachersasequalsinexploring
solutions."12

Itisacontinuousprocessratherthananannualorquarterlyevent.

Itneverinvolvesanysortofrelativerankingorcompetition.

Mostimportant,itisutterlydivorcedfromdecisionsaboutcompensation.Providingfeedbackthatemployeescanusetodoabetterjob**oughtnevertobe
confusedorcombinedwithcontrollingthem
*Itispossiblethatperformanceappraisalsareusedasthebasisforpromotionnotbecausewethinktheygiveusinformationaboutwhowilldowellinanewjobbutinorderto
rewardsomeoneforhowwellsheperformedintheoldone.Apartfromalltheotherweaknessesofbehavioristthinking,thissetspeopleupforfailureaftertheyhavebeen
promoted.
**Anumberofwritershavejustifiedconventionalperformanceappraisals,includingthosetiedtorewards,onthegroundsthattheyservetocommunicateexpectationstoemployees
andtoofferusefulfeedbackaboutperformance.Ifthesereallyareourgoals,weneedtothinkabouthowtocreatethemostpositivecontextforprovidingthisinformation.Peopleare
leastlikelytobereceptivetofeedbackwhentheyarefearfulofbeingjudged,whentheyareforcedtocompeteagainstothers,andwhenextrinsicmotivatorsareinvolved.

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byoffering(orwithholding)rewards."Usingperformanceappraisalofanykindasabasisforrewardisaflatoutcatastrophicmistake,"saysconsultantPeterScholtes.
13Backinthe1960s,HerbertMeyersoundedthesamewarning,pointingoutthatitis"foolishtohaveamanagerservingintheselfconflictingroleasacounselor

(helpingsomeoneimproveperformance)when,atthesametime,heorsheispresidingasajudgeoverthesameemployee'ssalary...."14Andfromyetathird
source:
Bylinkingcompensationtoperformanceappraisal...theexchangebetweensuperiorandsubordinateisthennotaboutperformancebutratheraboutpay,anditisonlylikelyto
producedemotivators....[Adiscussionabout]progressandperformancewithouttheprospectthatsuchareviewmustresultinapenaltyoranawardtotheemployee[means
that]thecommunicationismorelikelytostayopenandhonest.15

Thisrecommendationdoesnotamountmerelytosayingthatsupervisorsshouldrefrainfromtalkingaboutmoneyduringanevaluationitmeansthattheentireprocess
ofprovidingfeedback,assessingprogress,andmakingplansoughttobecompletelyseparatefromsalarydeterminations.Ifsuchsessionsaretobeproductive,there
mustbenorewardorpunishmenthanginginthebalance.Thefactisthatnomatterhowsensitivelyconductedandconstructiveanevaluationmaybe,itbecomesa
counterproductiveforceifhowmuchpeoplearepaiddependsonwhatissaidthere.

StepThree:CreatetheConditionsforAuthenticMotivation

AlanS.Blinder,aPrincetonUniversityeconomist,recentlyeditedaresearchanthologyentitledPayingforProductivity:ALookattheEvidence.Hesummarized
itsfindingsasfollows:"Changingthewayworkersaretreatedmayboostproductivitymorethanchangingthewaytheyarepaid."16Thismakessensebecause
treatingworkersdecentlyallowsthemtobecomemotivated,andmotivationinturnboostsproductivity.17Ifmotivationandproductivityareinshortsupplyinour
workplaces,thismayjusthavesomethingtodowiththewayworkersaretreatedthere.

Whenemployeesareaskedtodescribetheconditionstheyneed,orwhenreflectiveandexperiencedmanagersareaskedtodescribethe

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conditionstheytrytocreate,avarietyofsuggestionsareoffered.Butthereissubstantialoverlapintheideas,aconsensusthatpeopleinmanagerialpositionsoughtto
dothesethings:

Watch:Don'tputemployeesundersurveillancelookforproblemsthatneedtobesolvedandhelppeoplesolvethem.

Listen:Attendseriouslyandrespectfullytotheconcernsofworkersandtrytoimaginehowvarioussituationslookfromtheirpointsofview.

Talk:Provideplentyofinformationalfeedback.Peopleneedachancetoreflectonwhattheyaredoingright,tolearnwhatneedsimprovement,andtodiscusshowto
change.

Think:Ifone'scurrentmanagerialstyleconsistsofusingextrinsicmotivators,controllingpeople'sbehaviors,orsimplyexhortingthemtoworkhardandbecome
motivated,*itisworththinkingcarefullyaboutthelongtermimpactofthesestrategies.Itisalsoworthaskingwheretheycomefrom.Apreferenceforusingpowerin
one'srelationshipswithothers,orareactiontobeingcontrolledbyone'sownsuperiors,raisesissuesthatdemandattention.

Mostofall,amanagercommittedtomakingsurethatpeopleareableandwillingtodotheirbestneedstoattendtothreefundamentalfactors.Thesecanbe
abbreviatedasthe"threeC's"ofmotivationtowit,thecollaborationthatdefinesthecontextofwork,thecontentofthetasks,andtheextenttowhichpeople
havesomechoiceaboutwhattheydoandhowtheydoit.Theremainderofthischapterexploresthesethreeideasinthefollowingchapters,Iwillarguethatthesame
modelisalsoausefulwayofthinkingaboutwhathappensatschoolandathome.

Collaboration

Bynow,enoughhasbeenwrittenaboutteamworkthatitisprobablyunnecessarytoconstructanelaboratedefenseoftheimportanceofhelpingemployeeswork
together.18Onmosttasks,especiallythosethatinvolvesomedegreeofcomplexityandrequiresomedegreeofingenuity,peopleareabletodoabetterjobinwell
functioninggroups
*Thisissometimesdonebyhiring"motivationalspeakers"tocomelecturetoone'semployees.Atbest,theresultisatemporarysenseofbeingreenergized,muchliketheeffect
ofeatingadoughnut.Whenthesugarhighwearsoff,verylittleofvalueisleftinthesystem.

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thantheycanontheirown.Theyarealsomorelikelytobeexcitedabouttheirwork.Botheffectsareduetotheexchangeoftalentandresourcesthatoccursasa
resultofcooperationandalsototheemotionalsustenanceprovidedbysocialsupport.Peoplewilltypicallybemoreenthusiasticwheretheyfeelasenseof
belongingandseethemselvesaspartofacommunitythantheywillinaworkplaceinwhicheachpersonislefttohisowndevices.

AnyonewhojudgedthestatusofU.S.corporationsonthebasisoftheirrhetoricwouldassumethatcooperationwasanintegralfeatureofAmericanbusiness.The
truthisthatit'smucheasiertofindpeoplesayingalltherightthingsabouttheimportanceofteamworkthantofindagenuinecommitmenttothepractice.Some
executivesconfinetheireffortstoissuing"Let'sallpulltogether"memos.*Somecompaniesactuallydoassignpeopletoteams,butwithoutprovidingthetraining
neededtomaketeamworkwork.(Theinevitablefailurecanthenbeblamedonhowuncooperativetheindividualsinquestionare,orhowitisjust"natural"towantto
workalone.)Sometimesemployeesaregiventhechancetocooperatewithintheirdivisionordepartment,butnothingisdonetoestablishthecrossfunctional
connectionsrequiredforcoordinationamongdepartments.Finally,somemanagersunderminethevalueofcooperationbysimultaneouslyperpetuatingcompetition,
eitherbyexplicitlysettingoneteamagainstanotherorbyusingcompensationsystemsthathavethesameeffect.Asusual,McGregor'sobservationsareincisive:
Mostsocalledmanagerialteamsarenotteamsatall,butcollectionsofindividualrelationshipswiththebossinwhicheachindividualisvyingwitheveryotherforpower,prestige,
recognition,andpersonalautonomy.Undersuchconditionsunityofpurposeisamyth....[However,]thelimitsonhumancollaborationintheorganizationalsettingarenotlimits
ofhumannaturebutofmanagement'singenuityindiscoveringhowtorealizethepotentialrepresentedbyitshumanresources.19

Ofcourse,simplyputtingpeopleingroupsdoesnotensurethatcooperationwilltakeplace.Considerableeffortandorganizationalcommitmentarerequiredtomake
thathappen.Instead,though,manymanagerssimplyfallbackontheusualgimmickforgettingpeopletodothings:bribery.Apartfromeverythingelsethatiswrong
with
*Evenworseisthetendencytotalkaboutbeinga"teamplayer"aphrasethatseemstosuggestacommitmenttocooperationbutactually,oncloserinspection,isaptto
constituteademandforsimpleobedienceandconformity.

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rewards,theyareineffectiveatdevelopingandsustainingsuccessfulcollaboration.Asoneprofessorofbusinessadministrationcomments,"Payshouldnotbeanactive
ingredientinpromotingteamworkandmotivatingperformance....Tellingpeopleyouaregoingtochangethecompensationsystemralliesthemaroundcompensation
whenwhatyouwantthemtodoisrallyaroundmakingteamswork."20

Content

Evenataworkplacewiththemostenlightenedmanagementpracticesimaginable,includinganemphasisoncooperation,employeeswillnotbemotivatedifwhatthey
aredoingalldayholdsnointerestforthem."Idleness,indifferenceandirresponsibilityarehealthyresponsestoabsurdwork,"saidHerzberg.21Elsewhereheissued
thischallengetoexecutives:"Ifyouwantpeoplemotivatedtodoagoodjob,givethemagoodjobtodo."20Theseacidaphorismspointthewaytomakinga
revolutionaryimprovementinpeople'sworklives.

Whatisagoodjob?Letusstartbyaiminghigh:atitsbest,itoffersachancetoengageinmeaningfulwork.Thesenseofdoingsomethingthatmattersisnotthesame
asafeelingofintrinsicmotivation.Itisn'tjustthattheprocessofworkingprovidesenjoyment,butthattheproductbeingmade(ortheserviceprovided)seems
worthwhileandevenimportant,perhapsbecauseitmakesacontributiontoalargercommunity.MihalyCsikszentmihalyi,whohasspentmuchofhiscareerdescribing
thepurepleasureof"flow"experiences,pointsoutthatbeyondsuchenjoyment"onemuststillask,'Whataretheconsequencesofthisparticularactivity?'"23The
questionisnotjust"Arewehavingfunyet?''but''Arewemakingadifference?"

Ifalljobsthatdidnotmeetthisstandardwereeliminated,anawfullotofpeoplewouldbethrownoutofwork.Iofferitasalongrangeconsideration,astarbywhich
tonavigateaswethinkabouttheultimatevalueofouractivity.Themeaningfulnessofjobshasobviousmoralimplications,butitultimatelypertainstothequestionof
motivationaswell:mostpeoplewhohavethechancetoengageinworktheythinkofasimportantareprofoundlycommittedtowhattheydo.

Evenifwesetthiscriteriontooneside,thecentralpointremains:forpeopletocareabouttheirwork,itisnecessarytoattendtowhatthatworkconsistsofthe
content,notmerelythecontext,ofajob.Motivationistypicallyhighestwhenthejoboffersanopportunitytolearnnewskills,toexperiencesomevariationintasks,
andtoacquire

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anddemonstratecompetence.Differentpeople,itgoeswithoutsaying,preferdifferentlevelsofchallengeandadifferentbalancebetweenpredictabilityandnovelty.
Butthebasicpointsareessentiallyuniversal.Again,Herzbergputitwell:
Managersdonotmotivateemployeesbygivingthemhigherwages,morebenefits,ornewstatussymbols.Rather,employeesaremotivatedbytheirowninherentneedtosucceed
atachallengingtask.Themanager'sjob,then,isnottomotivatepeopletogetthemtoachieveinstead,themanagershouldprovideopportunitiesforpeopletoachievesothey
willbecomemotivated.24

Howcansuchopportunitiesbeprovided?Thepossibilitiesrangefrommakingrelativelyminoradjustmentsinagivenorganization,atoneendofthecontinuum,to
workingforanoverhaulofoureconomicsystem,ontheother.Theeasiestchangeforamanageris,wheneverpossible,toletpeopleworkatthejobsthattheyare
mostlikelytofindinteresting.Thatmeanshiringpeople(andreassigningthem)notonlyonthebasisofwhattheirrsumssaytheyaremostqualifiedtodobutalsoon
thebasisofwhattheyliketodo.Itmeansgivingemployeesachancetosampleavarietyofjobsinanorganizationuntilagoodfitisfound,andallowingthemto
transferperiodicallyinordertokeepthingsinteresting.AsmanagementtheoristsRichardHackmanandGregOldhamhavenoticed,"Whenpeoplearewellmatched
withtheirjobs,itrarelyisnecessarytoforce,coerce,bribe,ortrickthemintoworkinghardandtryingtoperformthejobwell.Instead,theytrytodowellbecauseitis
rewardingandsatisfyingtodoso."25

Amoredifficult,butalsomoremeaningful,stepistorestructurejobssotheybecomemoreinterestingtomorepeople.(Fewemployees,afterall,wanttobematched
totedious,unchallengingassignments.)"Workmotivationoftencanbeenhancedbyincreasingthelevelsofresponsibility,meaningfulness,andfeedbackthatarebuilt
intojobs,"HackmanandOldhamargue.Theirformulafordoingsoincludesmakingsurethateachworkerhassomeknowledgeoftheresultsofwhatsheisdoing,
experiencesresponsibilityfortheseresults,andseestheworkasvaluable(atleastinthesenseofofferingthechancetouseavarietyofskills).Makingsuchchangesin
thecontentofworkiscritical,theyargue,because"motivationatworkmayactuallyhavemoretodowithhowtasksaredesignedandmanagedthanwiththepersonal
dispositionsofthepeoplewhodothem"aviewpointthatclashesdirectlywiththetendencytoblameindividualswhensomethinggoeswrong.26

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Butthesechanges,welcomeastheymightbe,stillleaveuswithjobsthatseembytheirverynaturetobedevoidofinterest.Whatcanbedoneaboutinherentlyboring
work?Oneanswer,offeredimplicitlybysomesocialreformers,istotakethecontentofthesejobsasagivenandinsistthatpeoplewhodothemgetpaidmore.This
seemstomeunsatisfactory.Ourconcernthatpeoplereceiveadequatecompensationmustnotdistractusfromthequestionofhowtheirdaytodayqualityoflifecan
beimproved.Thiscallsforattentiontojobcontent,whichagaincanbetackledontwolevelschangingworkdesigninordertominimizemonotonyandeffecting
largescalesocialtransformation.

Themoderateresponseistodealwithjobsmoreorlessastheyareandtrytomakethemmorepalatable.Inchapter5,IreviewedDeci'sthreeprongedstrategyfor
doingso,whichincludesacknowledgingfranklythatthetaskmaynotbefun,offeringameaningfulrationalefordoingitanyway(intermsofitsindirecteffects,for
example),*andgivingpeopleasmuchchoiceaspossibleabouthowtheyperformthetask(seepage90andalsoCsikszentmihalyi'sthoughtsonthesubjectonpage
304note78).Anotherresearchpsychologist,CarolSansone,hasdescribedhowpeople"regulatetheirmotivationtoperformnecessaryactivitiesovertime,"artificially
enhancingthelevelofdifficultytokeepthingsinteresting,addingvarietyhowevertheycan,andattendingtoincidentaltaskinformation.27(Here,ofcourse,theburden
isonthepersondoingthejobtomakeitseemmoreappealingratherthanonthesupervisortomakeitmoreappealinginreality.)

Onesociologist,studyingagroupofgarbagecollectorsinSanFrancisco,discoveredthatmostofthemwerequitesatisfiedwiththeirworkbecauseofthewayit
andthecompanywasorganized.Relationshipsamongthemenwerehighlighted,tasksandrouteswere"variedenoughtobreakthemonotonyofthework's
routine,"andthecompanywassetupasacooperative,meaningthateachworkerownedashareofthebusinessandfelta"prideofownership."Clearly,itis
prematuretoassumethatcertaincategoriesofworkareinherentlydistastefulandwillbepursuedonlyforextrinsicreasons.28
*Comparetheuseofexplanation,anappealtoreason,withanapproachthatappealstopower,suchascontrollingpeoplebytheuseofincentivesorthreats.Thecontrastrecallsa
pointmadebydevelopmentalpsychologists(reviewedinchapter12)totheeffectthatthepurposeofrequestscanbeexplainedtochildreninsteadofrelyingontheassertionof
powertogetthemtoobey.

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Theradicalresponsetothisproblemistoquestionthenecessityofmakingpeopledowretchedworkinthefirstplace.Itwouldseemthatsometasksthatareeven
moredisagreeablethangarbagecollectionsimplycannotbeavoided.Butwhatinterestsmearetheunpleasantjobsthatdonothavetobedoneinorderforsocietyto
function,thosewhoseexistencereflectsthepremiseofoureconomicsystemthatifsomethingsells,ithasvaluebydefinitionandshouldbeproduced.Should
conveniencefoodsorluxuryappliancesbemadeavailableifthehumancostsofpreparingorassemblingthemaresevere?Ouranswermaybeyes,butthequestion
needstobeasked.Iftheissueisrarelyaddressed,itispartlybecausemanypeopleareforcedtochoosebetweenworkingatsuchjobsandnotworkingatalla
choiceframednotby"life"butbyoureconomicsystem.Thesepeopleareexpectedtobegratefulthatanyemploymentisavailable,regardlessofthepsychicand
physicaltollofdoingsuchwork.

Whatitcomesdowntoisthis:wewhobenefitfromsomeoneelse'smindnumbinglaborwewhodefrostourfrozendinnerswithouteverconsideringwhatlifeislike
forthoseinvisibleotherswhospendeightgrueling,repetitivehoursadaypreparingthemarequicktosaysuchworkmustbedone.Fromoneperspective,this
reflectsanotherfacetofthesharpdivisionbetweenthehavesandthehavenotsthelatterareleftwiththeworkthatlacksinterest.Fromanotherperspective,itcould
besaidthatwhatwecollectivelygainasconsumersweloseasproducers:ourshelvesarefullofgoods,whileourlivesareemptyofmeaningfulwork.29

Thecentralpoint,though,isthatinanyresponsiblediscussionofintrinsicmotivation,andespeciallyoftheroleplayedbythecontentoftasks,wemustremind
ourselvesofthesocialcontext.Ifworkistobeimproved,itmustfirstbemadebearableforthosewhoendureinjuriesofbody,mind,andspiritforourconvenience.

Choice

Wearemostlikelytobecomeenthusiasticaboutwhatwearedoingandallelsebeingequal,todoitwellwhenwearefreetomakedecisionsaboutthewaywe
carryoutatask.Thelossofautonomyentailedbytheuseofrewardsorpunishmentshelpsexplainwhytheysapourmotivation.Butmanagersmustdomorethan
avoidthesetacticstheyneedtotakeaffirmativestepstomakesureemployeeshaverealchoicesabouthowtheydotheirjobs.

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Todescribemuchofwhatiswrongwithourworkplacesistoenumeratetheeffectsofrestrictingpeople'ssenseofselfdetermination.Thissituationismoreegregious
thelowerweareinthehierarchy.Byandlarge,thosewhodotheleastinterestingworkandreceivetheleastcompensationarethosewhoshould,ataminimum,have
theconsolationofbeingabletomakedecisionsabouthowtheycarryouttheirassignments.Instead,theyarethemostcarefullycontrolled.

Regardlessoftheorganizationallevel,though,thedifferencebetweensuccessandfailure,enthusiasmandapathy,evenhealthandsickness,canoftenbetracedback
tothisissue:

Whydosomanyemployeesbecomeburnedoutandbitter?Burnoutisnotafunctionofhowmuchworktheyhavetodosomuchashowcontrolledandpowerless
theyfeel.30

Whatkindofjobisassociatedwithhighlevelsofpsychologicalstressandcoronaryheartdisease?Notthe"'successoriented,'managerialorprofessional
occupations(whereTypeAandhighincomesaremostprevalent)"butthosewhere"individualshaveinsufficientcontrolovertheirworksituation."31

Whichcharacteristicofanorganizationismostlikelytokillcreativity?Notinadequatepayortightdeadlines,but"alackoffreedomindecidingwhattodoorhowto
accomplishthetask,lackofsenseofcontroloverone'sownworkandideas."32

Whydopeoplesooftenmutterandgroanwhenachangeinpolicyisannounced?Notbecauseitisachangebutbecauseitisannouncedthatis,imposedon
them.(Thisdistinctionforcesustoreconsiderassumptionsabouttheallegedconservatismof"humannature."AsPeterScholteshasobserved,"Peopledon'tresist
changetheyresistbeingchanged.")33

Whatmakesworkerslookfororinventreasonstostayhomefromwork?Oneanswersuggestsitselfwhenwenoticemuchlowerratesofabsenteeismin
workplaceswhereemployeesareabletoparticipateinmakingsubstantivedecisions.34

Whichmiddlemanagersaremostlikelytoactinanautocraticfashiontowardthosebelowtheminthehierarchy?Verylikelythosewhoarerestrictedandcontrolled
themselves.35

Peoplearemostmotivatedwhentheyareabletoparticipateinmakingdecisionsaboutorganizationalgoals(and,ofcourse,aregiventhenecessaryinformationand
resourcestodoso).Evenwhenthosegoalsaredeterminedbyothers,itiscriticalthatemployeesbeabletodecidehowbesttoreachthem,thattheyhearfroma
supervisor,"Here'swhereweneedtogetyoudecidehowwegetthere."Forexample,

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jobholderscanbegivendiscretioninsettingschedules,determiningworkmethods,anddecidingwhenandhowtocheckonthequalityoftheworkproduced.Employeescan
maketheirowndecisionsaboutwhentostartandstopwork,whentotakebreaks,andhowtoassignpriorities.Theycanbeencouragedtoseeksolutionstoproblemsontheir
own,Consultingwithotherorganizationmembersasnecessary,ratherthancallingimmediatelyforthesupervisorwhenproblemsarise.36

Togiveemployeesthechancetomakedecisionsisnottomanagebyinaction.Likeparentswhocannotseeanalternativetoharsh,punitivecontrolontheonehand
andtotalpermissivenessontheother,someorganizationaltheoristsassumethatsupervisorsareeithermakingallthedecisionsorelsedoingnothing.Thetruthofthe
matteristhatcreatingstructuresthatsupportworkerautonomyisitselfachallengingjob.37

Whenmanagersbecomeawareofaproblem,eitheronearisingwithintheorganizationoranexternalchallengetoit,theirfirstimpulseshouldbetobringevery
employeeintotheprocessofworkingoutasolution.AsMcGregorsays,nothing"canjustifyexcludingtheindividualfrom...activeandresponsibleparticipation...
indecisionsaffectinghiscareer."38Thatcommitmentextendstodevisingwaysofcopingwithhardtimesandsearchingforalternativestolayingpeopleoff.39

Theimportanceofchoicehasadirectbearingonthesortsofchangesdescribedthroughoutthischapter.Itinformsthedecisiontoeliminateincentives,sincerewards
andpunishmentsaremethodsofcontrol.Itguidesourattempttoreconfigureperformanceappraisals.40Itisanintegralpartofanyefforttochangethecontentof
jobs.41Anditmustaccompanytheuseofcooperation,sinceteamswillnotfunctioneffectivelyiftheyaredeniedanyrealauthorityoverwhattheydoandhowtheydo
it.42

Butitwouldbemorethanalittleironicifwesimplyimposedsuchchangesonworkersbyfiat.Theprincipleofselfdeterminationthatliesbehindthecontentand
motiveofthesereformsmustalsoinformthemethodofimplementingthem.Ifwetrytoforceanewidea,evenaverygoodidea,downpeople'sthroats,theywill
coughitbackup.Besidesbeingmorerespectfulandconsistent,workingcollaborativelywithemployeescanalsobejustifiedonpurelypragmaticterms.

Whenimplementedasasystematicprogram,increasedchoicesometimesgoesbythenameof"participativemanagement."43Anumberofcasestudiessuggestthat
whensuchplansareadoptedby

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companies,bothintheUnitedStates44andinothercountries,suchasJapanandSweden,45theyaresuccessfulbyseveralmeasures.Atarecentconferenceinwhich
economistsreportedonresearchpertainingtoprofitsharingprograms,themoststrikingand"totallyunexpected"findingtoemergefromthevariouspresentationswas
thatworkerparticipationbothenhancesthesuccessofsuchprogramsand"alsohasbeneficialeffectsofitsown."46Andareviewoffortysevenstudiesthatquantified
theextenttowhichparticipationindecisionmakingaffectedproductivityorjobsatisfactionfoundapositiveeffectonboth,regardlessofthekindofworkpeopledid.
Theeffectwasstrongerinrealworldresearchthaninlaboratorysimulationstudies.47

Thisisnottosaythateveryparticipativemanagementprogrameverattemptedhasbeensuccessful.Butwheresuchplanshavefailed,ithastypicallybeenbecause
therewasn'tenoughparticipation:toofewemployeeswereincluded,theprogramdidn'tlastlongenoughtodoanygood,thedecisionsworkerswerepermittedto
makewererelativelyinconsequential,ortherecommendationsmadebyemployeeswereessentiallyignoredbyuppermanagement.48

SuchlimitationsonemployeeparticipationprogramsmaywellbetheruleratherthantheexceptioninU.S.corporations.Onelargesurveyfoundthatsuchsystems
wereinplaceatabouthalfoftheorganizationspolled,butthemedianproportionofemployeesactuallyinvolvedintheseprogramswaslessthan15percent.Evenif
theywerenotformallyexcluded,mostworkersstayedawaybecausetheywere"skepticaloftherealimportanceoftheprogramtotheorganization."49

Issuchskepticismjustified?WilliamFooteWhyterecallsthedayswhenitfirstbecamefashionabletotalkofhumanizingtheworkplace.Quiteafewmanagerswere
willingtolistentoinformationandideasthatmightgivethemsomenewgimmicks.Thequestionthattheyfrequentlyaskedrevealedthenatureoftheirinterest:"Howcanwemake
theworkersfeelthattheyareparticipating?"Wesoughttoexplainthat,inthelongrun,workerswouldnotfeelthattheywereparticipatingunlesstheyhadsomerealimpactupon
decisionsimportanttomanagementaswellastoworkers.Thisgenerallyendedtheconversations.50

Tryingtocreateasubjectivesenseofcontrol,ortoavoidtheappearanceofmanipulation,amountstoanefforttodeceive,nottomakerealchangeofthekindthat
helpspeoplebecomeexcitedabouttheirjobs.Besidesbeingunethical,itultimatelydoesn'twork:peoplefigureoutprettyquicklywhentheyarebeingmanipulated.51

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Evenmanagerswhoaresincereaboutprovidinggenuinechoicetoemployeesmayhandicapsuchprogramsbyhangingontothepremisesandpracticesof
behaviorism.Thisresidualcommitmentmanifestsitselfintwoways:offeringemployeesthechancetomakedecisionsasarewardfordoingsomethingelse,and
offeringsomeotherinducementfortakingpartinaparticipativemanagementprogram.52Untilthetheoryofmotivationadvances,thenewmanagementtechniques
cannottakehold.

Takingchoiceseriouslyalsorequiresustoquestionthehierarchicalnatureoforganizations."Socalledparticipativeprogramsthatmerelymakeemployeesfeelgood
butdon'tactuallychangethepowerrelationshipsintheworkplaceprobablyhavenotactuallyincreasedtheamountoftheemployees'responsibility."53Toputthis
anotherway,givingpeopleresponsibilityfor,andcontrolof,theirownworkistantamounttointroducingdemocracytotheworkplace,anddemocracyinanyarenais
profoundlythreateningtothosewhoexertundemocraticcontrol.54Tothisextent,itmakesperfectsensethatexecutiveswouldtypicallyimplementparticipative
managementprogramsinahalfhearted,temporary,orpartialfashion,ifatall.

Americanslovetotalkaboutdemocracy.Evenintheeconomicrealm,whereitisconspicuouslyabsent,fewrepudiatetheconceptexplicitly.Instead,thepreferred
justificationfordeprivingpeopleofcontrolovertheirworkistoargue(withoutevidence)thatanorganizationcannotberunefficientlywithouttopdown
managementortoclaimthatmostworkersdon'treallywanttomakedecisions.Thelatterissometimessaidtobethereasonthatparticipativemanagementplans
oftenfail:themajorityofemployeeswouldrathertakeorders.55

Showmeanemployeewhohastodowhatsheistold,whohaslearnedtodistrustsmilingassurancesthattheboss'sdoorisalwaysopenforsomeonewitha
suggestionorcomplaint,whoseintrinsicmotivationhasevaporatedinthefaceofaregimenofrewardsandpunishments,andIwillshowyouanemployeewhomay
wellshrugoffaninvitationtoparticipateinabrandnew,memodrivenWorkerInvolvementProgram.Tosaythatsuchworkersareuninterestedinhavingasayover
whattheydoalldayis,toputitgently,acontrivedconclusion.Whenmanagementearnstheirtrust,whenitprovidesthetimeandresourcesnecessarytomake
informeddecisions,theyaregenerallyonlytoohappytotakestepstomanagethemselvesandbegintotakecontroloftheirlives.

Totalkaboutpeopletakingcontroloftheirlives,though,raiseslargerquestionsaboutourultimategoals.Areweprincipallycon

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cernedtoincreasethereturnoninvestmentfortheownersofacompanyortoprovideabetterqualityoflife,includingmeaningfultasks,asenseofempowerment,and
healthy,supportiverelationships,foreveryonewhoworksthere?Obviouslythelattergoalsareconsistentwithindeed,arepowerfulcontributorstobetter
performance.Butatsomepointwemayhavetodecidewhatmattersmost.Anynumberofmanagersandconsultantshavemadeitclearthat,intheirview,the
psychologicalwellbeingandmotivationofthevastmajorityofpeoplewhogotoworkinthemorningareimportantonlyinsofarastheycontributetohigher
productivityfortheorganization.*Mostresearchon"workersatisfaction,"forexample,isconductedonlybecauseof,andonlyintermsof,itsstatusasacontributorto
performance.

Suchquestions,ofcourse,inviteafreshexaminationnotonlyofthepracticesatsomecompaniesbutofthefoundationsonwhichoureconomicsystemrests.Theman
whoreactedtoacriticismofincentiveplansbyblurtingout"Well,isn'tthatcommunism?"undoubtedlysensedthatsomethingdeeperthanmeritpayisatissuehere.In
theUnitedStates,toassociatesomethingwithcommunismorsocialismisgenerallyjustawayofdiscreditingitthetermsareepithetswithemotionalresonancerather
thanreferencestoalternativesystems.Nevertheless,toopenaninvestigationintothepracticesassociatedwithbehaviorismistofindourselvesgrapplingwiththemuch
broaderissueofdemocracy.Andifwearecommittedtothelatter,wemayfindourselvescallingintoquestionourmostfundamental(andleastexamined)institutions.
*Iwouldincludeinthiscategorytherelativelydaringthinkerswhourgemanagerstoabolishincentiveplans,stopthinkingaboutmarketshare,andemphasizeteamwork,but
whoseobjectiveissimplytoimprovecustomersatisfactionand,ultimately,profits.Suchreformerscalltomindthesportscoachesandconsultantswhourgeathletestofocuson
excellenceratherthanvictoryinordertowin.

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11
HookedonLearning:
TheRootsofMotivationintheClassroom
Ifthereisnotaninherentattractingpowerinthematerial,then...theteacherwilleitherattempttosurroundthematerialwithforeignattractiveness,makingabidorofferinga
bribeforattentionby"makingthelessoninteresting"orelsewillresortto...lowmarks,threatsofnonpromotion,stayingafterschool....Buttheattentionthusgained...always
remainsdependentuponsomethingexternal....True,reflectiveattention,ontheotherhand,alwaysinvolvesjudging,reasoning,deliberationitmeansthatthechildhasa
questionofhisownandisactivelyengagedinseekingandselectingrelevantmaterialwithwhichtoanswerit.
JohnDewey,1915

Thereareprofounddifferencesbetweenmanagingemployeesandteachingchildren,betweenbringingqualitytotheworkplaceandtotheclassroom.1 Butthereare
alsostrikingparallels,notonlybecauseoftheSkinnerianframeworktheycurrentlyshare,butalsowithrespecttoprescriptionsformeaningfulchange.ThestepsI
outlinehereformovingbeyondbehaviorismresemblethoseofferedinthepreviouschapterthethreecomponentsofmotivationcollaboration,content,and
choicewillseemparticularlyfamiliar.

Onespecificsimilaritybetweenworkandschoolisthatthesamemisconceivedquestionisregularlyposedinbothplaces.DouglasMcGregorremindedusthat"How
doyoumotivatepeople?"isnotwhatmanagersshouldbeasking.Norshouldeducators:childrendonotneedtobemotivated.Fromthebeginningtheyarehungryto

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makesenseoftheirworld.Givenanenvironmentinwhichtheydon'tfeelcontrolledandinwhichtheyareencouragedtothinkaboutwhattheyaredoing(ratherthan
howwelltheyaredoingit),studentsofanyagewillgenerallyexhibitanabundanceofmotivationandahealthyappetiteforchallenge.

''HowdoIgetthesekidsmotivated?''isaquestionthatnotonlymisreadsthenatureofmotivationbutalsooperateswithinaparadigmofcontrol,theverythingthatis
deathtomotivation."Ineverusetheexpression'motivateachild,'"saysRaymondWlodkowski,whospecializesinthetopic."Thattakesawaytheirchoice.Allwecan
doisinfluencehowtheymotivatethemselves."2

Butinfluencethemwecanandmust.Thejobofeducatorsisneithertomakestudentsmotivatednortositpassivelyitistosetuptheconditionsthatmakelearning
possible.Thechallenge,astwopsychologistsputit,isnottowait"untilanindividualisinterested...[buttooffer]astimulatingenvironmentthatcanbeperceivedby
studentsas[presenting]vividandvaluedoptionswhichcanleadtosuccessfullearningandperformance."3 Thischaptersketchessomeofthefeaturesofsuchan
environment.

RemovetheRewards

Lettherebenomisunderstanding:ifateacherstopsusingextrinsicmotivatorstomorrow,dumpsthestickersandstarsandcertificatesinthegarbagecanandputsthe
gradebookaway,studentsarenotgoingtoleapoutoftheirseatscheering,"Hooray!Nowwecanbeintrinsicallymotivated!"

Thereareatleastthreereasonstheywillnotdoso.First,theywerenotconsultedaboutthechange.Ateacherwhomakesunilateraldecisions,regardlessoftheir
merit,isineffectsayingthattheclassroomdoesnotbelongtothestudentsbutonlytohertheirpreferencesdonotmatter.Peopledonotusuallycheerwhenthingsare
donetothem.Thatiswhyteacherscontemplatinganewwayofdoingthingsoughttobringthechildreninontheprocessinthiscase,byopeningupadiscussion
withthem(atalevelappropriatetotheirage)aboutwhypeoplelearnandwhatimpactrewardsreallyhave.

Second,abandoningbehavioristtacticsbynomeansguaranteesthatreallearningwilltakeplace.Thestructuresthatthwartmotivationmustberemoved,butitisalso
necessarytoestablishtheconditionsthatfacilitatemotivation,tocreatetherightcurriculumandthe

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rightschoolclimate.Thesecondhalfofthischapterisconcernedwiththisprocess.

Finally,ifstudentshavespentyearsbeingtoldthatthereasontoreadandwriteandthinkisbecauseofthegoodiestheywillgetfordoingso,andifthegoodies
themselvesareappealingtothem,theymayresistthesuddenwithdrawalofrewards.Withoutpressingthemetaphortoofar,itmightbesaidthatstudentscanbecome
addictedtoA'sandotherincentives,unwillingtocompleteassignmentswithoutthemandalsodependentonthemfortheirveryidentity.

Thesignsofsuchdependencearequestionssuchas"Dowehavetoknowthis?"or"Isthisgoingtobeonthetest?"Everyeducatoroughttorecognizethesequestions
forwhattheyare:distresscalls.Thestudentwhooffersthemissaying,"Myloveoflearninghasbeenkickedoutofmebywellmeaningpeoplewhousedbribesor
threatstogetmetodoschoolwork.NowallIwanttoknowiswhetherIhavetodoitandwhatyou'llgivemeifIdo.''

Theteacherwhohearsthismessagemaynothavecausedtheextrinsicorientationitbespeaks.Hemayalsobelimitedinhisabilitytodealwiththeproblem.Butat
leastheshouldunderstandthatitisaproblem.Thefactthatstudentshavecometoseethemselvesaslearninginordertogetrewardsmeansthatthetransitionbackto
intrinsicinterestcanbeaslowandarduousjourney.Butthemoredifficultitistoweanstudentsoffgoldstarsandcandybars,themoreurgentitistodoso.The
teacher'sdistresscallwhichcansometimessoundmoresmugthandistressedistheinsistencethatstudentswon'tbothertolearnanythingthatisn'tgoingtobe
graded.Itwouldbeabsurdtorespondtothisbysaying,"Oh,then,byallmeanskeepfeedingthemextrinsicmotivators."Theonlysensiblereplyis"Ifthey'rethat
fargone,wehaven'tgotaminutetowasteintryingtoundothedamagethatrewardshavedone!"

NeedWeGrade?

Forteachersandparentswhoareconvincedbytheevidencethatrewardsforlearningarecounterproductive,itisdifficultenoughtodiscardthestickersandstars,
edibletreats,andotherincentivesthathavebeendangledinfrontofstudentsforsolong.Gettingridofgrades,however,presentsachallengeofadifferentorderof
magnitude.Eveniftheyhadthepowertodoso,manypeoplearelikelytobemorereluctantaboutgivingupsomethingsointegraltoouredu

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cationalsystemthatitishardtoimaginelifewithoutit.Thatveryreluctancesuggeststhatweneedtochallengeourselveswithhardquestionsaboutthenecessityand
valueofgradingchildren.

Tobeginwith,wemightaskwhygradesaregiven.Theanswersthataretypicallyofferedmirrorthereasonscitedfortheuseofperformanceappraisalsinthe
workplace.Gradesarejustifiedasfollows:

1.Theymakestudentsperformbetterforfearofreceivingabadgradeorinthehopeofgettingagoodone.

2.Theysortstudentsonthebasisoftheirperformance,whichisusefulforcollegeadmissionandjobplacement.

3.Theyprovidefeedbacktostudentsabouthowgoodajobtheyaredoingandwheretheyneedimprovement.

Let'staketheseinorder.Ihavespentthelast200pagesarguingthatthefirstrationaleisfatallyflawed.Thecarrotandstickapproachingeneralisunsuccessful
gradesinparticularundermineintrinsicmotivationandlearning,whichonlyservestoincreaseourrelianceonthem.Thesignificanceoftheseeffectsisunderscoredby
thefactthat,inpractice,gradesareroutinelyusednotmerelytoevaluatebutalsotomotivate.Infact,theyarepowerfuldemotivatorsregardlessofthereasongivenfor
theiruse.

Gradesdoserveapurposeofsorts:they"enableadministratorstorateandsortchildren,tocategorizethemsorigidlythattheycanrarelyescape."4 Mostofthe
criticismonehearsofthisprocessislimitedtohowwellwearedividingstudentsup,whetherwearecorrectlydumpingtherightonesintotherightpiles.Somepeople
contendthatthemajorproblemwithourhighschoolsandcollegesisthattheydon'tkeepenoughstudentsofftheExcellentpile.(Thesecriticsdon'tputitquitethis
way,ofcoursetheytalkabout"gradeinflation.")Othersarguethatthecategoriesaretoorigid,thecriteriatoosubjective,thetestsonwhichgradesarebasedtoo
superficial.Thus,itisalleged,gradesdonotprovidemuchusefulinformationtobusinesseshiringworkersorcollegesadmittingstudentsonthatbasis.5

Ithinkthelattercriticismisonthemark.Studiesshowthatanyparticularteachermaywellgivetwodifferentgradestoasinglepieceofworksubmittedattwo
differenttimesthevariationisnaturallyevengreaterwhentheworkisevaluatedbymorethanoneteacher.6 Whatgradesofferisspuriousprecision,asubjectiverating
masqueradingasanobjectiveassessment.Onewriterwrylyproposedthat"agradecanberegardedonlyasaninadequatereportofaninaccurate

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judgmentbyabiasedandvariablejudgeoftheextenttowhichastudenthasattainedanundefinedlevelofmasteryofanunknownproportionofanindefiniteamount
ofmaterial."7

Butthiscriticismofgradingisfartootame.Thetroubleisnotthatwearesortingstudentsbadlyaproblemthatlogicallyshouldbeaddressedbytryingtodoit
better.Thetroubleisthatwespendsomuchtimesortingthematall.Incertaincircumstances,itmaymakesensetoascertaintheskilllevelofeachstudentinorderto
facilitateteachingorplacement.Butasarulethegoalofsortingissimplynotcommensuratewiththegoalofhelpingstudentslearn."Facultiesseemnottoknowthat
theirchiefinstructionalroleistopromotelearningandnottoserveaspersonnelselectionagentsforsociety,"asonegroupofcriticsputit.8 Inahighlystratified
societyonecomposed,inturn,ofhighlyhierarchicalorganizationssomepeopleundoubtedlyfinditconvenienttohavestudentsarrivehavingalreadybeen
stampedPRIME,CHOICE,SELECT,orSTANDARD.Butifthesortingprocessmakesitmoredifficulttoeducate,thenweneedtomakeupourmindsaboutthe
centralpurposeofourschools.

Thethirdjustificationforgradesisthattheyletstudentsknowhowtheyaredoing.Indeed,studentsarecurrentlyledtorelyongradesforinformationabouttheirability
andcompetence,andthatrelianceincreasesastheygetolder.9

Thereisnothingobjectionableaboutwantingtogetasense,atleastperiodically,ofhowthingsaregoing.Infact,informationalfeedbackisanimportantpartofthe
educationalprocess.Butifourgoalisreallytoprovidesuchfeedback,ratherthanjusttorationalizethepracticeofgivinggradesforotherreasons,thenreducing
someone'sworktoaletterornumberisunnecessaryandnotterriblyhelpful.AB+atthetopofapapertellsastudentnothingaboutwhatwasimpressiveaboutthe
paperorhowitcouldbeimproved.Asubstantivecommentthatdoesoffersuchinformation,meanwhile,gainsnothingfromtheadditionoftheB+.Infact,onestudy
suggeststhatthedestructiveimpactofgradesisnotmitigatedbytheadditionofacomment10theimplicationisthatcommentsshouldreplaceratherthansupplement
grades.

Ifstudentswanttoknowwheretheystand,then,gradesdonotprovidethemwithusableinformation.Butagainweneedtodigevendeeperinassessingwhatiswrong
withthestatusquo.Theproblemisnotjustthatgradesdon'tsayenoughaboutpeople'sperformanceit'sthattheprocessofgradingfixestheirattentionontheir
performance.Teachersconcernedwithhelpingstudentslearn,asIarguedinchapter8,willtrytofreethemfromapreoccupationwithhowwelltheyare

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doing.Ataminimum,suchteacherswillnotintensifythatpreoccupationbytakingstudents'academictemperatureeverydayorevenworse,tellingthemhowthey
rankrelativetooneanother.

Gradesareoftenbasedontests,andtestsaresometimesjustifiedasawayforteacherstoknowhowwelltheirstudentsaredoing.11WhileI'mnotpreparedtourge
theabolitionofalltests,Idothinkthatthereareusuallyotherways,lesspunitiveandmoreinformative,tomeetthisgoal.(Mypremisehereisthatthereasonwewant
toknowhowwellstudentsaredoingistohelpthemlearnmoreeffectivelyinthefuturetheonlylegitimatepurposeforevaluation.)Assumingthatclassesarekeptat
areasonablesize,acompetentteacherhasaprettygoodsenseofhoweachstudentisdoing.Anyonewhorequiresaformaltesttoknowwhatisgoingonmayneed
toreconsidertheapproachtoinstructionbeingusedandwhetherheorsheistalkingtoomuchandlisteningtoolittle.12Indeed,aseriesofinterviewswithfiftyteachers
identifiedasbeingsuperlativeattheircraftturnedupastrikinglyconsistentlackofemphasisontesting,ifnotadeliberatedecisiontominimizethepractice.13

Inparticular,aclassroomthatfeelssafetostudentsisoneinwhichtheyarefreetoadmitwhentheydon'tunderstandsomethingandareabletoaskforhelp.Ironically,
gradesandtests,punishmentsandrewards,aretheenemiesofsafetytheythereforereducetheprobabilitythatstudentswillspeakupandthattrulyproductive
evaluationcantakeplace.*

Tosummarize,gradescannotbejustifiedonthegroundsthattheymotivatestudents,becausetheyactuallyunderminethesortofmotivationthatleadstoexcellence.
Usingthemtosortstudentsundercutsoureffortstoeducate.Andtotheextentwewanttoofferstudentsfeedbackabouttheirperformanceagoalthatdemandsa
certainamountofcautionlesttheirinvolvementinthetaskitselfbesacrificedtherearebetterwaystodothisthanbygivinggrades.

TheStraightAStudent:ACautionaryTale

Theadvantagescitedtojustifygradingstudentsdonotseemterriblycompellingoncloseinspection.Butthedisadvantagesonlybecome
*Actually,somestudentsthemostselfconfidentwillspeakupingradeorientedclassrooms,buttheywillspeakuptoimpresstheteacherandimprovetheirstanding.This
hasnothingtodowithspeakinguptotryoutnewideasaboutwhichtheymayfeeltentative,toaskaquestioninordertolearn,ortoletteachersknowwhentheyarestruggling.14

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morepronouncedthemorefamiliaroneiswiththeresearch15andthemoreexperienceonehasinrealclassrooms.Inchapter8Icitedevidenceshowingthatstudents
whoaremotivatedbygradesorotherrewardstypicallydon'tlearnaswell,thinkasdeeply,careasmuchaboutwhatthey'redoing,orchoosetochallengethemselves
tothesameextentasstudentswhoarenotgradeoriented.

Butthedamagedoesn'tstopthere.Gradesdilutethepleasurethatastudentexperiencesonsuccessfullycompletingatask.16Theyencouragecheating17andstrainthe
relationshipbetweenteacherandstudent.18Theyreduceastudent'ssenseofcontroloverhisownfateandcaninduceablindconformitytoothers'wishes
sometimestothepointthatstudentsarealienatedfromtheirownpreferencesanddon'tevenknowwhotheyare.19Again,noticethatitisnotonlythosepunishedby
F'sbutalsothoserewardedbyA'swhobearthecostofgrades.

AfewyearsagoIhadtheopportunitytoaddresstheentirestudentbodyandfacultyofoneofthecountry'smosteliteprepschools.Ispoke,bycoincidence,during
thecruelestweekinApril,whentheseniorswerereceivingtheircollegeacceptancesandrejections.Italkedtothemaboutthedesperateracetheywerejoining.
Already,Iknew,theyhadlearnedtoputasidebooksthatappealedtothemsotheycouldprepareforthecollegeboards.Theywerejoiningclubsthatheldnointerest
forthembecausetheythoughttheirmembershipwouldlookgoodontranscripts.TheywerefindingtheirfriendshipsstrainedbythestruggleforscarceslotsintheIvy
League.

Thistheyknew.Whatsomeofthemfailedtorealizewasthatnoneofthisendswhentheyfinallygettocollege.Itstartsalloveragain:theywillscanthecataloguefor
coursesthatpromiseeasyA's,signupfornewextracurricularstoroundouttheirrsums,andreactwithgratituderatherthanoutragewhenprofessorstellthem
exactlywhattheyneedtoknowforexamssotheycanignoreeverythingelse.Theywilldefinethemselvesaspremed,prelaw,prebusinesstheprefixpreindicating
thateverythingtheyaredoingnowisirrelevantexceptinsofarasitcontributestowhattheywillbedoinglater.

Nordoesthismodeofexistenceendatcollegegraduation.Thehorizonnevercomesanycloser.Nowtheymuststruggleforthenextsetofrewardssotheycansnag
thebestresidencies,thechoicestclerkships,thefasttrackpositionsinthecorporateworld.Thencomethemostprestigiousappointments,partnerships,vice
presidencies,andsoon,workingharder,nosestuckintothefuture,evermorefrantic.Andthen,wellintomiddleage,theywillwakeupsuddenlyin

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themiddleofthenightandwonderwhathappenedtotheirlives.(Ifthefeelingpersists,thegraduateofagoodmedicalschoolwillwriteoutaprescriptionforthem.)

Tobesure,afateevenmoredismalprobablyawaitsthosewhomuststruggletokeeptheirheadsabovewaterfinanciallyaswellaspsychologically.Butatreadmill
appearsunderanystudent'sfeetwhenthefirstgradeappearsonsomethingshehasdone.Thistreadmillproducesmotionwithoutmovementforthosewhostrugglefor
rewardsaswellasforthosewhostruggletoavoidpunishments:eitherway,itisaracethatcannotbewon.

AllofthesethingsIsaidtothisprepschoolaudience,sweatingprofuselybynowandsounding,Ibegantofear,likeanevangelist.ButIfeltIalsoneededtooffera
messagefortheteachersandparentspresent.IfyouknowfromexperiencewhatIamtalkingabout,Isaid,thenyourjobistotellthesestudentswhatyouknowand
helpthemunderstandtheterriblecostsofthispursuitnottopropelthemalongfaster.Theyneedfromyouasenseofperspectiveaboutwhatistakingovertheir
livesfarmorethantheyneedanothertipabouthowtoburnishacollegeapplicationoranotherreminderabouttheimportanceofafinalexam.

Wheredochildrenlearntobegradegrubbers?Fromthis:"You'dbetterlistenup,folks,becausethisisgoingtobeonthetest."Andfromthis:"ABminus?What
happened,Deborah?"Andfromthis:"ItakeprideinthefactthatI'mahardgrader.You'regoingtohavetoworkinhere."Thefactisthat
facultymembershaveitwithintheirpowertoreducethisperniciousanddistortingaspectofeducationalpracticethatoftenseemstoworkagainstlearning.Iffacultywouldrelax
theiremphasisongrades,thismightservenottolowerstandardsbuttoencourageanorientationtowardlearning20

Butteachershavenotcreatedthissensibilitysinglehandedly.Ihaveseenstudentsdesperatetogetintothemostselectiveuniversitiessincebeforetheywereborn.I
havefollowedthaturgencybacktoitssource.IhavewatchedentirechildhoodsturnedintoonecontinuousattempttoprepareforHarvard(aprocessIeventually
cametocall"PreparationH").Ihavemetparentswhodidallthiswiththebestofintentionsandalsoparentswhoserealobjectivewastoderivevicariouspleasure
fromthesuccessesoftheirchildren,totrumptheirfriendswhenthetalkturnedtowhosekidshadmadegood.Inbothcases,Ihaveseenthedesiccatedlivesthat
result.

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WhenIhadfinallyfinishedspeaking,Ilookedoutintotheaudienceandsawawelldressedboyofaboutsixteensignalingmefromthebalcony."You'retellingusnot
tojustgetinaraceforthetraditionalrewards,"hesaid."Butwhatelseisthere?"

Ittakesalottorendermespeechless,butIstoodonthatstageclutchingmymicrophoneforafewmomentsandjuststared.Thiswasprobablythemostdepressing
questionIhaveeverbeenasked.Here,Iguessed,wasateenagerwhowasenviablysuccessfulbyconventionalstandards,headedforevengreaterglories,andthere
wasalargeholewherehissoulshouldhavebeen.Itwasnotaquestiontobeanswered(althoughIfumbledmywaythrougharesponse)somuchasanindictmentof
grades,oftheendlessquestforrewards,oftheresultingattenuationofvalues,thatwasfarmorescathingthananyargumentIcouldhaveoffered.

FromDegradingtoDeGrading

Whensomethingiswrongwiththepresentsystem,youmoveontwotracksatonce.Youdowhatyoucanwithintheconfinesofthecurrentstructure,tryingto
minimizeitsharm.Youalsoworkwithotherstotrytochangethatstructure,consciousthatnothingdramaticmayhappenforaverylongtime.Ifwemoveexclusively
onthelattertrack,suchasbymobilizingpeopletodismantlegradingsystems,wemaynotbedoingenoughtoprotectourstudents,ourchildren,fromthedestructive
effectsofthegradesandotherrewardswithwhichtheyaregoingtobecontrolledinthemeantime.Butandthispointcanbemoredifficulttorecognizeifwe
simplyreconcileourselvestothestatusquoandspendallourtimegettingourchildrentoaccommodatethemselvestoitandplaythegame,thennothingwillchange
andtheywillhavetodothesamewiththeirchildren.Assomeoneoncesaid,realismcorruptsabsoluterealismcorruptsabsolutely.

Ifthereisnoreasontogradestudents,studentsshouldnotbegraded.Butuntilwecanmakethegradesdisappear(atleastfromourownschools),wecantakesmall
and,yes,realisticstepsintherightdirection.Hereisthewaytodothat,reducedtoitsessence:teachersandparentswhocareaboutlearningneedtodo
everythingintheirpowertohelpstudentsforgetthatgradesexist.

Followingthisadvicerequiresarevolutioninthewaywethinkaboutschoolanddealwithstudents.Wewillhavetoreconsiderwhatlearningisabout,whereitcomes
from,andwhetherweareserious

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aboutpromotingit.Butthechangesitrequires,andthepracticaldifficultiesitmaycreate,needtobeweighedagainstthecurrentemphasisongrades,which,however
comfortablyfamiliar,hasbeendocumentedtobedestructive.(Sometimesinevaluatingaproposalforchange,weweighitsrisksandflawsasifthealternative,theway
thingsareatpresent,wereflawless.)

Howeverradicalareitsimplications,thisisadvicewecanputintoeffectimmediately.Forparents,itmeansfirstofallthinkingcarefullyaboutone'smotivesforpushing
childrentogetbettergrades.Afterreadingtheevidenceandweighingthearguments,itmakessenseforparentstoconsiderputtingasidegradesandscoresas
indicatorsofsuccessandtolookinsteadatthechild'sinterestinlearning.Thisistheprimarycriterionbywhichschools(andourownactions)shouldbejudged.

Concretely,Iwouldsuggestthatparentsstopaskingwhatachildgotonapaperandstopmakingafussoverreportcards.Thisdoesn'tmeanwedon'tcare:itmeans
wecareenoughaboutlearningtostopdoingwhatgetsinitsway.Itmeanswecareenoughaboutourchildrentothinkaboutthesubtlerimplicationsofwhatweare
doingtothem.ThesocialpsychologistMortonDeutscharguesthatwhenafatheroffershisdaughtertendollarsifshegetsanAonamathtest,this
communicatesavarietyofpossiblemessagestothegirl...aboutherownmotivation(forexample,"IamnotstronglymotivatedbymyowndesirestodowellinmathIneed
externalincentives"),aboutmath("Itisnotthesortofsubjectthatpeoplelikemewouldfindinterestingtostudy"),aboutherfather("It'simportanttohimthatIgetagoodgrade
doeshecareaboutwhatisimportanttome?"),andsoon.Further,theincentivewilltendtofocusattentiononthepotentialreward(thetendollars)andthemostpleasant,direct,
andassuredmeansofobtainingit.Thus,attentionwillbefocusedongettingtheAratherthanonstudyingandlearningmaththismayleadtocheatingortospecialmethodsof
studyorientedtowardtestperformanceratherthanacquisitionofenduringknowledge.21

Ingeneral,parentsmightreplaceconversationaboutgradeswithothersortsofquestions:"Whatdidyoudoinschooltodaythatwasreallyfun?""Didyouhearorread
somethingthatsurprisedyou?""Whatdoesitfeellikewhenyoufinallysolveatoughmathproblem?""WhydoyouthinktheCivilWarstarted?"Keepinmind,though,
thatwhatwesay(ordon'tsay)isn'tenough:ifgoodgradesstillfilluswithdelight,andbadgradeswithdespairorrage,ourreactionswillgiveusaway.

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Forteachers,theefforttominimizethesalienceofgradesismorechallenging.Herearesevensuggestions:

1.Evenifyoumustcomeupwithagradeattheendoftheterm,limitthenumberofassignmentsforwhichyougivealetterornumbergrade,orbetteryet,
stopthepracticealtogether.Offersubstantivecommentsinstead,inwritingorinperson.Makesuretheeffectofabolishinggradesisn'ttocreatesuspenseabout
whatstudentsaregoingtogetontheirreportcards,whichwoulddefeatthewholepurpose.Somestudentswillexperience,especiallyatfirst,asenseofexistential
vertigo:asteadysupplyofgradeshasdefinedthem,andnowtheirbearingsaregone.Offertodiscussprivatelywithanysuchstudentthegradeheorshewould
probablyreceiveifreportcardswerehandedoutthatday.Withluckandskill,therequestsforsuchinformationwilldecreaseasstudentsgetinvolvedinwhatisbeing
taught.

2.Ifyoufeelyoumustnotonlycommentoncertainassignmentsbutalsogivethemamark,atleastlimitthenumberofgradations.Forexample,switchfrom
A/B/C/D/Ftocheckplus/check/checkminus.Or...

3.Reducethenumberofpossiblegradestotwo:AandIncomplete.ThetheoryhereisthatanyworkthatdoesnotmeritanAisn'tfinishedyet.Anyone
concernedabouteducationalexcellenceshouldadoptthissuggestionenthusiasticallybecauseitspremiseisthatstudentsshouldbedoingtheirverybest.Ithasthe
additionaladvantageofneutralizingtheeffectofgrades.Mostsignificant,itrestoresproperpriorities:helpingstudentsimprovebecomesmoreimportantthanevaluating
themlearningtakesprecedenceoversorting.22

4.Nevergradestudentswhiletheyarestilllearningsomethingevenmoreimportant,donotrewardthemfortheirperformanceatthatpoint.23Popquizzes
andthelikesmothertheprocessofcomingtounderstand.Theydonotgivestudents"timetobetentative."24Ifyou'renotsurewhetherstudentsfeelreadytoshow
youwhattheyknow,thereisaneasywaytofindout:askthem.

5.Nevergradeforeffort.Gradesbytheirverynaturemakestudentslessinclinedtochallengethemselves(seechapter8).Theresult,aschoolfullofstudents
indifferenttowhattheyarebeingaskedtolearn,sometimespromptseducatorstorespondwiththeverystrategythathelpedcausetheproblemspecifically,by
gradingchildren'seffortinanattempttocoercethemtotry

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harder.Thefatalparadox,though,isthatwhilecoercioncansometimeselicitresentfulobedience,itcannevercreatedesire.Alowgradeforeffortismorelikelytobe
readas''You'reafailureevenattrying."Ontheotherhand,ahighgradeforeffortcombinedwithalowgradeforachievementsays"You'rejusttoodumbto
succeed."Mostofall,rewardingorpunishingthechild'seffortconvenientlyallowseducatorstoignorethepossibilitythatthecurriculumorlearningenvironmentmay
justhave.somethingtodowithhisorherlackofenthusiasm.

6.Nevergradeonacurve.Undernocircumstancesshouldthenumberofgoodgradesbeartificiallylimitedsothatonestudent'ssuccessmakesanother'slesslikely.
"Itisnotasymbolofrigortohavegradesfallintoa'normal'distributionrather,itisasymboloffailurefailuretoteachwell,failuretotestwell,andfailuretohave
anyinfluenceatallontheintellectuallivesofstudents."25

7.Bringstudentsinontheevaluationprocesstothefullestpossibleextent.Thisdoesn'tmeanhavingthemmarktheirownquizzeswhileyoureadoffthecorrect
answers.Itmeansworkingwiththemtodeterminethecriteriabywhichtheirlearningcanbeassessed,andthenhavingthemdoasmuchoftheactualassessmentasis
practical.Thisachievesseveralthingsatonce:itmakesgradingfeellesspunitive,givesstudentsmorecontrolovertheirowneducation,andprovidesanimportant
learningexperienceinitself.Studentscanderiveenormousintellectualbenefitsfromthinkingaboutwhatmakesastoryinteresting,amathematicalproofelegant,oran
argumentconvincing.MarkLepperandacolleaguehavenotedthattoaconsiderableextentone's"perceptionofcompetenceatanactivitywilldepend[on]...
whetheronehastosucceedbyhisorherownstandardsorbysomeoneelse's."26

Justasstudentsshouldbebroughtinontheevaluationprocess,soshouldtheybeincludedinadiscussionaboutallthesechanges.Therationaleformovingawayfrom
gradesshouldbeexplained,andstudents'suggestionsforwhattodoinsteadandhowtomanagethetransitionalperiodshouldbesolicited.

Finally,afewwordsforschooladministrators.Askingteacherstoreducethesalienceofgradesbychangingtheirdailyclassroompracticesisastopgapmeasure.
Ideally,endoftermgradescanandshouldbedispensedwithaswell,Moreover,whenteachersarelefttodeemphasizegradesontheirown,andonlyafewattempt
todoso,

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studentsmaybeleftwiththemessagethatthenongradedsubjectorclassislessimportantthanotherswheretheyarestillmarked.Aswithmostotherkindsof
educationalreform,changemustbemadeataschoolwide(ifnotdistrictwide)level.

Theabolitionofgradesmayupsetsomeparents,butonereasonsomanyseemobsessedwiththeirchildren'sgradesandtestscoresisthatthismaybetheironly
windowintowhathappensatschool.Ifyouwantthemtoaccept,muchlessactivelysupport,themoveawayfromgrades,theseparentsmustbeofferedalternative
sourcesofinformationabouthowtheirchildrenarefaring.Plentyofelementaryschoolsfunctionwithoutanygrades,atleastuntilchildrenaretenoreleven.Oneway
toimplementsuchachangeistophaseoutlettergradesonegradelevelatatime,startingwiththeyoungestclasses.

Itismoreambitious,butbynomeansimpossible,tofreehighschoolstudents(andteachers)fromtheburdenofgrades.*Probablythemajorimpedimenttodoingso
isthefearofspoilingstudents'chancesofgettingintocollege.Contrarytopopularbelief,however,admissionsofficersatthebestuniversitiesarenoteightyyearold
fuddyduddies,peeringovertheirspectaclesandmutteringabout''highlyirregular"applications.Oftenthepeoplechargedwithmakingthesedecisionsarejustafew
yearsoutofcollegethemselvesand,aftermakingtheirwaythroughapileofinterchangeableapplicationsfrom3.8GPA,studentcouncilvicepresident,musically
accomplishedhopefulsfromhighpoweredtraditionalsuburbanhighschools,theyaredesperateforsomethingunconventional.Giventhatthemostselectivecolleges
havebeenknowntoaccepthomeschooledchildrenwhohaveneversetfootinaclassroom,itisdifficulttobelievethatqualifiedapplicantswouldberejectedif,
insteadoftheusualtranscript,theirschoolssentalongseveralthoughtfulqualitativeassessmentsfromsomeofthestudents'teachers,togetherwithaformletter
explaininghowtheschoolpreferstostresslearningratherthansorting,triestocultivateintrinsicmotivationratherthanaperformanceorientation,andisconsequently
confidentthatitsgraduatesareexquisitelypreparedfortherigorsofcollegelife.Indeed,admissionsofficersfortwoofthecountry'smostprestigiousuniversities
confirmthattheydoreceive,andseriouslyconsider,applicationsthatcontainnogrades.27
*Evenshortofabolishinggradesaltogether,themostegregiousrelatedpractices,suchasusingthemtorankstudentsagainsteachother,cancertainlybeeliminated.

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LearningasDiscovery

Oneofthereasonsextrinsicmotivatorssuchasgradesaresodestructiveofinterestandachievementisthattheyfocusstudents'attentionontheirperformance.Ifwe
don'tdothingstostudentsthatcompelthemtothinkconstantlyabouthowwelltheyaredoing,wehavetakenthefirststeptowardhelpingthemlearn.Totakethenext
step,weneedtothinkaboutinstructionintermsofaffirmativelyhelpingthembecomeengagedwithtasks.

Theavailableresearchshowsthatencouragingchildrentobecomefullyinvolvedwithwhatthey'reworkingonandtostopworryingabouttheirperformance
contributesto"amotivationalpatternlikelytopromotelongtermandhighqualityinvolvementinlearning."28Thisstrategydoeswondersforstudentswhoareanxious
aboutschoolworkorwhohavestoppedtrying.29Butitalsoseemstohelpthosewhoarehighachievers:asurveyofstudentsattendinganacademicallyadvancedhigh
schoolfoundthatthemoretheydescribedaclassasoneinwhichtheteacheremphasizedunderstanding,improvement,tryingnewthings,andriskingmistakes(as
opposedtoemphasizinggradesandcompetition),themoretheylikedtheclass,themorelearningstrategiestheyreportedusing,andthemoretheypreferred
challengingtasks.30

Brunerlikestotalkabouttheteacher'sroleashelpingstudentsapproachwhattheyaredoingwithamindto"discoveringsomethingratherthan'learningabout'it."The
benefitofthat,hecontinues,isthat"thechildisnowinapositiontoexperiencesuccessandfailurenotasrewardandpunishment,butasinformation."Thisisacritical
distinction.Feedbackindicatingthatastudent"isontherighttrack...[or]thewrongone"iswhatproducesimprovement,andteachersneedtomakesurestudents
getplentyofit.Butthecapacitytoseesuccessandfailureasfeedbackisevenmoreimportant,andthatrequiresteachers(andparents)tostressthetaskitself,notthe
performance.31

Howdowetapchildren'smotivationandcreatethatsenseofdiscovery?Severalwritershaveaddressedthetopicatlength,andtheirworkshouldbeconsultedfora
moredetaileddiscussion.32Inthemeantime,herearefivesuggestions:

Allowforactivelearning.Notonlysmallchildrenbutalsoadultsgenerallylearnmosteffectivelywhentheycanseeandtouchanddo,notjustsitatadeskand
listen.Active,handsonactivitiesare

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notjustbreaksbetweenthereallessonsdonecorrectly,thesearethereallessons.

Givethereasonforanassignment.Ifataskisn'theuristicallyvaluable,itprobablyshouldn'tbeassigned.(Unhappily,teachersdon'talwaysgettomakethat
judgment.)Ifataskisvaluable,itsvalueshouldbeexplainedtothosebeingaskedtodoit.Onestudyfoundthat"amajorreasonforthestudents'lowqualityof
engagementinassignmentswasteacherfailuretocallattentiontotheirpurposesandmeanings."33Ifweexpectchildrentowanttolearnsomething,wehavetogive
themaclueastowhytheyshouldbemotivated.Besides,itisasimplematterofrespecttooffersuchexplanations.

Elicittheircuriosity.Peoplearenaturallycuriousaboutthingswhoseoutcometheycan'tguessor,oncetheoutcomeisknown,aboutthingsthatdidn'tturnoutas
expected.34Adultswhoreadstoriestoyoungchildrenoftenhaveanintuitiveunderstandingofthisprinciple:theystopinthemiddleandask,"Whatdoyouthinkis
goingtohappennext?"or"Whydoyouthinkshedidthat?"Thisistheheartofintrinsicmotivation,andtheskillfulexploitationofthisfactpullsolderstudentstoointo
tasks.Whywouldacharacterinastorywhoseemssonormalnotbeabletorememberwhenhismotherdied?Howcansomethingthatseemssomuchlikewaterstay
attemperaturesthislowwithoutfreezing?Whatdoyouthinkhappenedwhenthesepeoplerefusedtobackdownbutalsorefusedtouseviolence?

Setanexample.Ateacheroughttoletchildrenhearhertalkaboutwhatshefindsenjoyableaboutteachingandletthemseeherreadingorengaginginother
intellectualpursuitsforpleasure.(Parentstoocansetanexamplebyhowtheydescribetheirownwork.KidswhohearMornorDadgroaningabouthavingtoget
backtothegrindonMondaylearnsomethingaboutmotivation.)35Teacherscanalsosetanexamplebyadmittingwhentheydon'tknowsomething,bydemonstrating
tenacityinthefaceoffailure,36byquestioningtheconventionalwisdom,andbyshowinghowtheymakesenseofapieceofwritingthatishardtounderstand.

Welcomemistakes.MISTAKESAREOURFRIENDS,announcesasignseenonsomeclassroomwalls.Experiencedteacherswatchandlistencloselyforwhen
studentsgetthingswrong.Theydon'tbecomedefensive,becausetheyknowmistakesdon'tnecessarilyreflectpoorteaching.Theydon'tbecomeangry,becausethey
knowmistakesdon'tnecessarilyreflectsloppinessorlaziness.(Iftheydo,thechallengeistofigureoutwhyastudentisbeingsloppyorlazyandworktogetherto
solvetheproblem.)Mistakesofferinformation

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abouthowastudentthinks.Correctingthemquicklyandefficientlydoesn'tdomuchtofacilitatethelearningprocess.37Moreimportant,studentswhoareafraidof
makingmistakesareunlikelytoaskforhelpwhentheyneedit,unlikelytofeelsafeenoughtotakeintellectualrisks,andunlikelytobeintrinsicallymotivated.

TheThreeC'sAgain

OneofthemostdisquietingthingsaboutAmericaneducationistheemphasisplacedonbeingquiet.Ifweattendtoallthatisnotbeingsaidbystudents,werealizethat
theabsenceofchildren'svoicesoccursbydesignandislaboriouslyenforced.Talkingiscalled"misbehaving,"anindicationoflackofselfcontrolorselfdiscipline,
exceptunderhighlycircumscribedcircumstances,suchaswhenapupilisrecognizedbytheteacherforthepurposeofgivingashortanswertoafactualquestion.38
Mostofthetimestudentsaresupposedtositquietlyandlisten.Teacherswhodepartfromthisnormbylettingthemtalkmorefreelyaresaidtohavelostcontrolof
theirclassrooms(amarvelouslyrevealingphrase).

Likemostfeaturesofourschools,thedemandforsilenceissuesfromatheoryoflearningthatislargelyinvisible,despitethescopeofitsinfluence.Thattheoryseesthe
teacher(orbook)asarepositoryofinformationthatispoured,alittlebitatatime,intotheemptyvesselknownasthestudent.Thestudent'sjobistopassivelyretain
thisinformationandnowandthen,toregurgitatesomeofitoncommandsowecanbesureenoughofitgotin.Tofacilitatetheprocessweemployrewardsfor
success,punishmentsforfailure,andanelaboratescoringsystemtokeeptrackofthetransfer.Glasserputitwell:
Teachersarerequiredtostuffstudentswithfragmentsofmeasurableknowledgeasifthestudentshadnoneedsalmostasiftheywerethings.Educationisdefinedashow
manyfragmentsofinformationthese"studentthings"canretainlongenoughtobemeasuredonstandardizedachievementtests.39

Itisallofapiece,reallythesortofcurriculumthatlendsitselftobeingpouredorstuffedintostudents'heads,thefactthatstudentsthemselveshaveverylittletosay
abouttheprocess,thedisciplinerequiredtokeepthemsilentandseparate,theviewoflearningasatransmissionofinformation,andtheviewofchildren(and
ultimately

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allorganisms)asinertobjectsthatmustbemotivatedtolearnfromtheoutsidewiththeuseofreinforcementsandthreats.40

Attheriskofsoundingmelodramatic,Ibelievewewillneverknowwhatrealeducationisuntilwehaveshakenoffthissterile,discreditedmodel.Todoso,tohelp
studentslearn,wehavetodomorethanavoidusingrewards.Thefoundationofanalternativeapproachcanbedescribed,onceagain,intermsofthethreeC'sof
motivationintroducedinthepreviouschapter.

Collaboration:LearningTogether

Americanschoolsoffertwobasicmodesofinstruction.Inthefirst,childrenaresetagainsteachother,competingforartificiallyscarcegradesandprizes,strugglingto
bethefirstwiththerightanswer.Thesubliminallessonisthateveryoneelseshouldberegardedaspotentialobstaclestoone'sownsuccess.Inthesecond,childrenare
seatedatseparatedesks,taughttoignoreeveryoneelse,remindednottotalk,toldthattheteacherwantstosee"whatyoucando,notwhatyourneighborcando,"
givensolitaryseatworkassignmentsfollowedbysolitaryhomeworkassignmentsfollowedbysolitarytests.Thesubliminallessonis"howtobealoneinacrowd."41

Thisistheextentofmostteachers'repertoires:pitstudentsagainsteachotherorprythemapartfromeachother.Theonlyproblemwiththesearrangementsisthat
neitherisparticularlyconducivetolearning.AsthinkerssuchasPiagetandDeweyhaveexplained,learningatitsbestisaresultofsharinginformationandideas,
challengingsomeoneelse'sinterpretationandhavingtorethinkyourown,workingonproblemsinaclimateofsocialsupport.(Notethatallthesethingsusuallyrequire
talking.)Understandingandintellectualgrowtharederivednotonlyfromtherelationshipbetweenstudentandteacher,orbetweenstudentandtext,butalsofromthe
relationshipbetweenonestudentandanother.

Oneofthemostexcitingdevelopmentsinmoderneducationgoesbythenameofcooperative(orcollaborative)learningandhaschildrenworkinginpairsorsmall
groups.Animpressivecollectionofstudieshasshownthatparticipationinwellfunctioningcooperativegroupsleadsstudentstofeelmorepositiveaboutthemselves,
abouteachother,andaboutthesubjectthey'restudying.Studentsalsolearnmoreeffectivelyonavarietyofmeasureswhentheycanlearnwitheachotherinsteadof
againsteachotherorapartfromeachother.Cooperativelearningworkswithkindergartnersandgraduatestu

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dents,withstudentswhostruggletounderstandandstudentswhopickthingsupinstantlyitworksformathandscience,languageskillsandsocialstudies,fineartsand
foreignlanguages.42

Thisisnottheplaceforanexegesisoftheresearchoncooperativelearning,forexplainingwhythepracticeworksandunderwhatconditionsandhowtoimplementit,
orfordescribingthedifferentversionsofclassroomteamworkandhowtheydiffer.Mypurposehereismostlyjusttoaffirmthatanyonethinkingaboutlearningand
motivation,anyoneinterestedineducationalreform,mustattendtotherelationshipsamongstudentsintheclassroomandconsidertheimportanceofcollaboration.43

Theopportunitytocollaborateoughttobethedefaultconditionintheclassroomthearrangementthatisusedmostofthedayexceptwhenthereisgoodreasonto
dothingsanotherway.(Onoccasion,forexample,teacherswillwanttomakesometimeforindividualizedstudy.)Clusteredaroundtablesratherthanseatedat
separatedesks,studentsshouldbehelpedtogetinthehabitofturningtoeachothertocheckoutanideaoransweraquestion.

DavidandRogerJohnson,twoofthecountry'sleadingproponentsofcooperativelearning,haveofferedadelicioussuggestionforturningcustomarypracticeonits
head:principalsmightwanderthroughthehallsoftheirschools,listeningateachclassroomdoor.Whenevertheyhearnothing,theyoughttomakeapointofaskingthe
teacher,"Whyisn'tanylearninggoingoninhere?"Indeed,aclassroomwherecollaborationistakenseriouslyisaplacewhereavisitorhastroublefindingtheteacher
(sinceheisusuallywanderingaroundtheroom,servingasaresourceforteams,ratherthanstationedbehindadesk)andalsohastroubleheatinghim(sincehisvoice
rarelyrisesaboveandoverpowersthevoicesofstudents).

Theevidenceofrealclassroomexperienceconvergeswiththeevidenceofrigorousresearchtosupporttheuseofcooperativelearning.However,asvitalasitisto
breakoutofthetraditionalindividualisticandcompetitiveframeworks,Ihavecometobelievethatitisevenmoreimportanttomovepastthebehavioristmodelof
instruction.Ifwedotheformerwithoutthelatter,weremainshackledtothesametheoriesoflearningandmotivationcurrentlyineffectandalsocommittedtomost
ofthesamepractices.Thesingleexceptionisthatwearenowbribinggroupsratherthanindividualstolearn.Inparticular,theuseofcertificates,grades,andother
extrinsicmotivatorstoinducechildrentoworktogetherhastheeffectoftakingawaywithonehand(forallthereasonsdescribedinthisbook)whatwehavejustgiven
withtheother(bylettingchildrenworktogether).44Fortu

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nately,Ibelieveanincreasingnumberofpeoplewithinthecooperativelearningmovementarecomingtorecognizethis.

Content:ThingsWorthKnowing

Evenanelementaryschoolstudentcouldtellyouthathowmuchworkpeopledo,orhowlongtheydoit,islessimportantthanwhattheyaredoing.("Itisnotenough
tobebusythequestionis,whatarewebusyabout?"ishowThoreauputit.)45Thispoint,however,seemstobelostoncriticswhothinkthemostimportantwayto
improveoureducationalsystemistoincreasethelengthoftheschoolyear(ortheschoolday)ortopileonmorehomework.Whattheyfailtograsp,whatatenyear
oldmighttellthem,isthattheireffortswouldbebetterspenttryingtoimprovethecontentofthecurriculumthatfillsthosehoursandnotebooks.

Rightnow,agooddealofwhatstudentsarerequiredtodoinschoolis,tobeblunt,notworthdoing.Thetaskstheyareassignedinvolveverylittlecreativethought
andverymuchrotelearning.Thesetaskshavenoapparentconnectiontochildren'slivesandinterests.Infact,thereisnoapparentconnectionbetweenanytwo
sentencesonaworksheet,betweenanytwotasks,betweenanytwocourses.*AsMarkLepperandacolleaguehaveobserved,
Informationispresentedinanabstractform,dissociatedfromthecontextsinwhichitmightbeofobvious,everydayusetochildren.Topicsarepresentedwhentheschedulecalls
forthem,notwhenparticularchildrenareespeciallyinterestedor"ready"tolearnaboutthem.46

Inaword,learningisdecontextualized.Webreakideasdownintotinypiecesthatbearnorelationtothewhole.Wegivestudentsabrickofinformation,followedby
anotherbrick,followedbyanotherbrick,followedbyanotherbrick,untiltheyaregraduated,atwhichpointweassumetheyhaveahouse.Whattheyhaveisapileof
bricks,andtheydon'thaveitforlong.

Studentsareinstructedtofillinthemissinglettersorwordsonaconcatenationofsentences,toworkonemultiplicationproblemafteranother,tolearnthechief
exportsofPeru,tomemorizethedifference
*TheAmericanhighschoolschedule,inwhichstudentsspendfortyorfiftyminutesonasubjectbeforethebellrings(atwhichpointtheysalivateandmoveon),isaremnantofa
centuryoldmodelusedwithfactoryworkers.Ithaslittleuseontheassemblylinetoday,yetwestillseemtothinkthatteachingandlearningcantakeplaceinsuchasystem.

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betweenametaphorandasimile,toreadchapter11andanswertheevennumberedquestionsthatfollow,tokeepbusyuntilthebellsetsthemfree.Afterschoolthey
musttrudgetothelibrarytocopydownsomefactsfromtheencyclopediaaboutDickensorthedivisionoflabororthedigestivesystem,factsthatwillberecopied
moreneatlyandhandedinasareport.Theresultofsuchrequirementsisnot,contrarytoclaimsoftraditionalists,intellectualrigoritisclosertorigormorris.Welose
childrenaslearnersbecausetheyareturnedoffbythewholeprocess.Eventhebeststudentsdowhattheyhavetodoonlybecausetheyhavetodoitandthenthey
putitoutoftheirminds.

Whydoschoolscoercechildrentolearnthingsofsuchlittlevalue?Settingasidethefactthatthereisroomfordisagreementaboutwhatisvaluable,Ithinkthereare
severalreasons:

Forgenerations,studentshavebeendrilleduntiltheirmindswenttosleepitiseasiesttokeepdoingwhathasalwaysbeendone.Itiseasieryettoavoideven
questioningitsvalue.

Interestinglessonsoftentakemoreworktoprepareandtoteach]47"Readchapter3"requiresonlythatateacherreadchapter3.Multiplechoicetestscanbe
gradedquickly.

Acurriculumgearedtotheneedsoflearnersrequiresoftheteacheranenormousamountofflexibility,ahightoleranceforunpredictability,andawillingnesstogive
upabsolutecontroloftheclassroom.Controliseasiertomaintainwhenteachingbecomesasimpletransferofdisconnectedfactsandskills.Indeed,"manyteachers..
.maintaindisciplinebythewaystheypresentcoursecontent."48

Thecurrentcurriculumlendsitselfnicelytostandardizedtestingandsortingofstudents.Insteadoffiguringoutwhatisworthteachingandthendevisingan
appropriatemeansofassessment,westartwiththeimperativetoevaluate.

Whatevertheexplanation,itisinthecontextofanunappealing,ifnotintellectuallybankrupt,curriculumthatwewonderwhyourstudentsarenotmotivated,whythey
dropoutofschool,whytheyunderachieve.Webecomeangrywhentheydaydreamorcreatedistractionstoamusethemselves*orfailtofinishtheirworkon(our)
*Oneofmyepiphaniesasateachercamewiththerealizationthatstudents'disruptiveactswerelessasignofmalicethanofasimpledesiretomakethetimepassfaster.No
strategyforclassroommanagementcanhopetobeeffectiveinthelongtermifitignoresthefactthatmisbehavioroftenreflectsstudents'lackofinterestinmuchofwhatweare
teaching.Theycan'tgetout,sotheyactout.Ironically,theverystrategythatisintendedtokeepatightergripontheclassroomisoftenresponsibleforbehaviorproblems.The
connectionbetweenthetwo,however,isnotalwaysobvious.49

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schedule.Wewavethegradebookoutofdesperation,writechildren'snamesontheblackboardtowarnthem,sendthemtostudyhall.Inshort,weplacethe
responsibilitysquarelyonthechildreninsteadofonacurriculumthatfewmembersofourspecieswouldfindintrinsicallymotivating.AsBrophyandKherputit,"Many
ofthetasksthatstudentsareaskedtodoseempointlessorunnecessarilyboring,sothatinthesecases,findingbettertasksisamoresensibleresponsetolow
motivationthanattemptingtostimulateinterestinsuchtasks."50Whenateachercomplainsthatstudentsare"offtask"afavoritebitofeducationaljargonthe
behavioristwillleaptotherescuewithaprogramtogetthemback"on"again.Themorereasonableresponsetothiscomplaintistoask,What'sthetask?51

Notsurprisingly,thiswayofframingtheproblemmeetswithconsiderableresistanceonthepartofmanyeducators.MorethanonceIhavebeenhuffilyinformedthat
lifeisn'talwaysinteresting,andkidshadbetterlearntodealwiththisfact.Theimplicationhereseemstobethatthecentralpurposeofschoolisnottogetchildren
excitedaboutlearningbuttogetthemacclimatedtodoingmindnumbingchores.Thusisthedesiretocontrolchildren,ortheunwillingnesstocreateaworthwhile
curriculum,rationalizedasbeinginthebestinterestsofstudents.

Anotherresponsetotheseideasistoturnthemintoacaricature,thebettertowavethemaway."Letkidsdoonlywhattheyfindinteresting?Whydon'twejustlet
themreadcomicbooksinsteadofliterature?"Wecanrespondtothisbyaffirmingthatanengaging,relevantcurriculumisnotonethatiswatereddowntowinover
students.Readingliteratureisaterrificideatheproblemisthattoomanychildrenareforcedtomaketheirwaythroughworkbooksinstead.Educationalexcellence
comesfrommotivation,and"thegoalstowardwhichactivities[are]directedmusthavesomemeaningforstudentsinorderforthemtofindthechallengeofreaching
thatgoalintrinsicallymotivating."52

Doesthismeanweabandonbasicskills?No.Itmeansthattheseskillsarenestedinreallifeconcerns.Thelearner'sinterestisthefocalpoint.Childrenarecurious
abouthowfasttheyaregrowing:hereisthecontextforalessononadditionordecimals.Theywanttowriteastoryabouthowaspaceshipcarriesthemaway:hereis
whereweintroducethebasicsofpunctuationthey'llneed.TheyasktohearabouttheVietnamWar:hereisourreferencepointforbringinginearlierhistoricalevents.
Contrastthisapproachwithhavingtoconvertasetoftwentydecimalsintofractions,answerthequestions

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aboutsemicolonsinthetextbook,listentoalectureonsomethingcalledtheProgressiveEra.

Whenthingsaretaughtinisolation,theyarehardertounderstandandhardertocareabout.Thus,ourquestionisnotmerely,What'sthetask?but,Howdoesthetask
connecttotheworldthatthestudentsactuallyinhabit?AsDeweyputit,''thenumber12isuninterestingwhenitisabare,externalfact,"butthesolutionisnot"tooffer
achildabribe"tomanipulatenakednumbers.Rather,wetakeourcuefromthefactthatanumberalready
hasinterest...whenitpresentsitselfasaninstrumentofcarryingintoeffectsomedawningenergyordesiremakingabox,measuringone'sheight,etc....Themistake,once
more,consistsinoverlookingtheactivitiesinwhichthechildisalreadyengaged,orinassumingthattheyaresotrivialorsoirrelevantthattheyhavenosignificancefor
education.53

Thepremiseofthisentirediscussionisthatchildrenarepeoplewhohavelivesandinterestsoutsideofschool,whowalkintotheclassroomwiththeirown
perspectives,pointsofview,waysofmakingsenseofthingsandformulatingmeaning.Whatweteachandhowweteachmusttakeaccountoftheserealities.Thisis
thebasisforaschoolofthoughtknownas"constructivism,"derivedlargelyfromtheworkofDeweyandPiaget,whichstandsincrisprelieftothepremisesof
behaviorism.Itholdsthat
peoplelearnbyactivelyconstructingknowledge,weighingnewinformationagainsttheirpreviousunderstanding,thinkingaboutandworkingthroughdiscrepancies(ontheirown
andwithothers),andcomingtoanewunderstanding.Inaclassroomfaithfultoconstructivistviews,studentsareaffordednumerousopportunitiestoexplorephenomenaorideas,
conjecture,sharehypotheseswithothers,andrevisetheiroriginalthinking.Suchaclassroomdifferssharplyfromoneinwhichtheteacherlecturesexclusively,explainsthe"right
way"tosolveaproblemwithoutallowingstudentstomakesomesenseoftheirown,ordeniestheimportanceofstudents'ownexperiencesorpriorknowledge.54

Thisapproachprovidestheframeworkforthegrowingmovementtoteachchildrentoreadbystartingthemoutwiththingsworthreading,aswellasforhandson
mathematicslessonsandothercurricularinnovationsthatarebilledas"learnercentered."55Itstandsbehindtheinjunctionthattheteachershouldbe"theguideonthe
side,notthesageonthestage."

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Evenapartfromthatradicalreconstructionoftheteacher'srole,therearefeaturesofeducationalcontentthatshouldbeconsideredbyanyoneconcernedabout
whetherlearningtakesplaceinaclassroom.Foronething,weneedtothinkaboutthedifficultylevelofwhatchildrenareassigned.Atleastonesocialscientisthas
builtacareerontheobservationthatpeopledotheirbestwhenthetaskstheyareworkingonareneithersoeasyastobeboringnorsodifficultastocauseanxiety
andfeelingsofhelplessness.

Thepointshouldbeselfevident,butapparentlyitisn't.Someteachers,wantingtohelpstudentsfeelgoodaboutthemselves,givethemeasyassignmentsandplentyof
positivereinforcementonsuccessfulcompletion.Thestrategyfailstocreateadesireformorechallengingwork.56Otherteachers,scornfulof''dumbingdown"the
curriculum,pridethemselvesongivingstudentsassignmentsthatarewaybeyondtheirreach.Thisisagoodwayofmakingstudentsfeelstupid.Somethinginthe
middlemakesalotmoresense.Infact,studentsnotonlyreactwelltomoderatechallengebutactuallyseekitout:experimentalworkhasshownthatchildren
"appearedtobeintrinsicallymotivatedtoengageinthosetaskswhichwerewithintheirreachbutdevelopmentallyjustbeyondtheircurrentlevel."57

Intrinsicmotivationalsoflourisheswhenstudentsarenotalwaysdoingthesamething.Moreover,avarietyofkindsoftasks,eachrequiringdifferentskills,hasan
additionaladvantage:ithelpstoreducetheglaringdisparitiesinstatusintheclassroom.If,bycontrast,allassignmentsdemandverbalfluency,childrenmaycometo
lookdownontheirpeerswholackthisoneparticularfacility.58

Taskscanbevariednotonlyfromonedaytothenextbutalsofromonestudent(orteam)tothenextatanygiventime.Givestudents"severalalternativeassignments
fromwhichtheycanchoose,"andcompetitionintheclassroomwilllikelydecline.Afterall,ifnoteveryoneintheroomisdoingthesamething,thesocialcomparison
thatcandegenerateintocompetitionislesslikelytooccur.59

Whenthesetwosuggestionsarecombinedthatis,whenteachersuseavarietyofassignmentsthatoffertherightamountofchallengestudentsaregiventhe
opportunitytofeelasenseofaccomplishment.Thatfeelingofhavingworkedatsomethingandmasteredit,ofbeingcompetent,isanessentialingredientofsuccessful
learning.And,asoneresearchernotes,"classroomsthatprovideavarietyofconcreteactivitiesformanyabilitylevelsdonotneedrewardstickersorpraiseto
encouragelearning."60

Finally,learningtaskscansometimesbeembellishedandembeddedinacontextthatheightenstheirappeal.Manyeducatorsarecon

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cernedabout"sugarcoating"activitiesajustifiableconcerninsomecases,sincetheseeffortsmaylackintellectualnourishment.Butcarefullydesignedprograms,
suchasfantasycontextsincomputerbasedlearning,havebeenshowntoleadto"increasedlearningandretentionofthematerial,greatergeneralizationofthatlearning,
heightenedsubsequentinterestinthesubjectmatter,enhancedconfidenceinthelearner,andimprovementsintheactualprocessoflearning."61Aslongasthese
effortsdonotdistractusfromthemoreimportanttaskofmakingsuretheprimarysubjectmatterismeaningfulandconnectedtochildren'sreallifeexperiences,62they
canplayaroleinenhancingthemotivationtolearn.

Choice:AutonomyintheClassroom

Everyteacherwhoistoldwhatmaterialtocover,whentocoverit,andhowtoevaluatechildren'sperformanceisateacherwhoknowsthatenthusiasmforone'swork
quicklyevaporatesinthefaceofcontrol.Noteveryteacher,however,realizesthatexactlythesameistrueofstudents:deprivechildrenofselfdeterminationandyou
deprivethemofmotivation.Iflearningisamatteroffollowingorders,studentssimplywillnottaketoitinthewaytheywouldiftheyhadsomesayaboutwhatthey
weredoing.

Therationaleforgivingchildrenchoiceisthreefold.First,itisintrinsicallydesirablebecauseitisamorerespectfulwayofdealingwithothers.Second,itoffersbenefits
forteachers.Theirjobbecomesagooddealmoreinterestingwhenitinvolvescollaboratingwithstudentstodecidewhatisgoingtohappen.Asonefifthgradeteacher
inupstateNewYorksays,
I'vebeenteachingformorethan30years,andIwouldhavebeenburnedoutlongagobutforthefactthatIinvolvemykidsindesigningthecurriculum.I'llsaytothem,"What's
themostexcitingwaywecouldstudythisnextunit?"Ifwedecidetheirfirstsuggestionisn'tfeasible,I'llsay,"Okay,what'sthenextmostexcitingwaywecouldstudythis?"They
alwayscomeupwithgoodproposals,they'remotivatedbecauseI'musingtheirideas,andIneverdotheunitinthesamewaytwice.63

Teachersalsobenefitinotherwaysfromallowingstudentstobeactiveparticipantsintheirlearning.Onegroupofresearchersnotesthatinthissituation,theteacheris
"freedfromthechoreofconstantlymonitoringandsupervisingthechildren'sactivityand[is]ableto

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giveherfullattentionto...interactingwiththechildren"astheywork.64

Thethirdreasontomakesurethatstudentshavesomesayoverwhattheydoalldaythereasonthatwillbemyprimaryfocushereisthatitworksbetter:

WhensecondgradersinPittsburghweregivensomechoiceabouttheirlearning,includingthechancetodecidewhichtaskstheywouldworkonatanygiventime,
theytendedto"completemorelearningtasksinlesstime."65

WhenhighschoolseniorsinMinneapolisworkedonchemistryproblemswithoutclearcutdirectionsthatis,withtheopportunitytodecideforthemselveshowto
findsolutionsthey"consistentlyproducedbetterwriteupsofexperiments"andrememberedthematerialbetterthanthosewhohadbeentoldexactlywhattodo.
Theyputinmoretimethantheyhadto,spending"extralaboratoryperiodscheckingresultsthatcouldhavebeenacceptedwithoutextrawork."Someofthestudents
initiallyresistedhavingtomakedecisionsabouthowtoproceed,butthesegrumblerslater''tookgreatprideinbeingabletocarrythroughanexperimentontheir
own."66

WhenpreschoolagechildreninMassachusettswereallowedtoselectthematerialstheyusedformakingacollage,theirworkwasjudgedmorecreativethanthe
workofchildrenwhousedexactlythesamematerialsbutdidnotgettochoosethem.67

WhencollegestudentsinNewYorkhadthechancetodecidewhichofseveralpuzzlestheywantedtoworkon,andhowtoallottheirtimetoeachofthem,they
werealotmoreinterestedinworkingonsuchpuzzleslaterthanwerestudentswhoweretoldwhattodo.68

Whenteachersofinnercityblackchildrenweretrainedinaprogramdesignedtopromoteasenseofselfdetermination,thechildrenintheseclassesmissedless
schoolandscoredbetteronanationaltestofbasicskillsthanthoseinconventionalclassrooms.69

Fourth,fifth,andsixthgradestudentswhofelttheyweregivenpersonalresponsibilityfortheirstudieshad"significantlyhigherselfesteemandperceivedacademic
competence"thanchildrenwhofeltcontrolledintheirclassrooms.70

Whensecondgraderswhospenttheyearinaconstructivistmathclassroom,onewheretextbooksandrewardswerediscardedinfavorofanemphasison
"intellectualautonomy"thatis,wherechildren,workingingroups,tookanactiveroleinfiguringouttheirownsolutionstoproblemsandwerefreetomovearound
theclassroomontheirowninitiativetogetthematerialstheyneededtheydeveloped

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moresophisticatedhigherlevelreasoningskillswithoutfallingbehindonbasicconceptualtasks.71

Theevidencegoesonandon.Atleastonestudyhasfoundthatchildrengivenmore"opportunitytoparticipateindecisionsaboutschoolwork"scorehigheron
standardizedtests.72Theyaremorelikelythanthosedeprivedofautonomytocontinueworkingevenonrelativelyuninterestingtasks.73Theyareapttoselect
assignmentsoftheidealdifficultylevelsotheywillbeproperlychallenged(assumingtherearenorewardsinvolved).74Thereisnoquestionaboutit:choiceworks.

Thedifferentversionsofchoicerepresentedinthesestudiesremindusthatthereismorethanonewaytoputtheideaintoeffect.Somearemoremodestinscopethan
others,butallinvolvesubstantivedecisionsaboutlearning.Iamnottalkinghereaboutperfunctorymatterssuchaslettingolderstudentschoosewhichofthreeessay
questionstheywilladdressintheirfinalpapersIamtalkingaboutgivingstudentsofallagesconsiderablediscretionaboutthingsthatmatterintheclassroom.75

Everydayoughttoincludeatleastoneblockoftimeinwhichchildrencandecidewhattodo:getaheadstartonhomework,writeintheirjournals,workonart
projects,orreadlibrarybooks.Creativewritingassignmentsofferplentyofopportunityfordecisionstobemadebythewritersthemselves.Thesameistrueof
selectingstoriesnotonlyforindividualreadingbutwhentheclassreadstogether.("Herearefivebooksthatthesupplystorehasinstock,"afourthgradeteacher
maysaytotheclass."Whydon'tyouflipthroughthemduringyourfreetimethisweekandwe'lldecidetogetheronFridaywhichonewe'llreadnext.")Inexpressing
anideaorrespondingtoalesson,childrensometimescanbeallowedtodecidewhatmediumorgenretheywillusewhethertheywanttowriteapoem,anessay,
oraplay,makeacollage,apainting,orasculpture.Mathematicslessonscanbeguidedbyquantitativeissuesofinteresttostudents.Infact,theentireconstructivist
traditiondescribedinthelastsectionispredicatedontheideaofstudentautonomy.Thesamecanbesaidaboutsome(butbynomeansall)versionsofcooperative
learning.76

Noticethatineachoftheseexamplestheteacheroffersguidelinesorbroadparameterswithinwhichchildrencanchoose.Itisnotnecessaryforateachertoturnover
allpedagogicalresponsibilitiestostudentsinorderforthemtobeinvolvedintheireducationnor,asDeweypointedout,isitdesirableforteacherstodoso.77
Differentteacherswillfindadifferentbalancebetweentellingstudentswhatto

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do(orlimitingtheirchoices)andlettingthemdecidethiswilldependontheageofthestudents,constraintsplacedontheteacher,*andtheteacher'sneedforcontrol,
amongotherfactors.

Inanycase,theteacherwillneedtohelpstudentslearntheskillswithwhichtheycanmakethebestuseoftheirfreedom."Opportunitiestodevelopselfmanagement
andselfregulatorystrategiesmustaccompanytheassignmentofresponsibility,"saysCaroleAmes.78Wewanttoavoidsituationsinwhichateacherletschildren
decidewhattodoandhowtodoit,discoversthatthechildrenareunabletoplanamajorprojectoveraperiodoftime,andrevertstoacontrollingapproach.
Ihaveheardteachersgiveitupafterasingleattempt,saying,"Childrencannotbehaveresponsibly,"thenremoveallfurtheropportunityforstudentstopracticeandgrowintheir
responsiblebehavior.Ihavealsoheardteacherssay,"Childrencannotthinkforthemselves,"andproceedthereaftertodochildren'sthinkingforthem.Butthesesameteachers
wouldneversay,"Thesechildrencannotreadbythemselves,"andthereafterremoveanyopportunityforthemtolearntoread.79

Onelastpoint:theideaofchoiceappearstomanyofusasadichotomousaffair"EitheryoumakeitorIdo"eitherstudentsgettodecidesomething,orit's
determinedbytheteacher.Thisperspectiveoverlooksvariouspossibilities,allofwhichshouldhaveaplaceinaneducator'srepertoire.Sometimesadecisionabout
whattoread,say,orhowtospendtimeismadebyeachstudentindividuallysometimesitismadebyeachcooperativelearninggroupsometimesitismadebythe
wholeclass.Moreover,theresponsibilitytochoosedoesnothavetobethoughtofasturnedovertostudentsorkeptbytheteacher:somechoicescanbenegotiated
together.Theemphasishereisonsharedresponsibilityfordecidingwhatgetslearnedandhowthelearningtakesplace.Thatnegotiationcanbecomealessonin
itselfanopportunitytomakearguments,solveproblems,anticipateconsequences,andtakeotherpeople'sneedsintoaccountaswellasapowerfulcontribution
tomotivation.

<><><><><><><><><><><><>

*Ifteachersarecompelledtoteachacertainlesson,theymightopenupadiscussionwithstudents,askingthemtotrytofigureoutwhysomeonethoughtthesubjectwas
importantenoughtoberequiredandthenworkingwiththemtodeviseaconnectiontotheirrealworldconcernsandinterests.

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Childrenstartoutenthusiasticandskillfullearners.Helpingthemtostaythatwaythroughschoolispartlyamatterofwhatwegivethemtolearn.Inthesectionon
content,Iarguedthatboringassignmentsoughttobescrutinizedandthosethatcannotbejustifiedshouldbediscarded.Unliketediousjobs,atleastsomeofwhich
havetobedone,thereisnoreasonthatanyoneshouldhavetodosomethingthatdoesn'tcontributetoameaningfuleducation.

Still,noteverythingwethinkchildrenoughttolearnishighlymotivatinginitself.Iwanttomakeclearthatthesuggestionsofferedinthischapterdonotpresumethat
everylessonplanwillhookchildrenonitsown.Thus,whenstudentsdosuccessfullylearnmaterialthatisnotimmediatelyappealingtothem,80itisworthattendingto
thefactorsthathelpthathappen.

Iofferamodestexamplefrommyowndaysasastudent.WhenIwasinhighschool,Imemorizedeveryelementontheperiodictable,fromactiniumtozirconium.
Thisisnotaninherentlyinterestingthingtodo,sothecircumstancesinwhichIdiditmayberelevanthere.First,thedecisiontolearnthemwasmyownnoonetold
meIhadtoorrewardedmewhenIsucceeded.Second,Iropedacoupleoffriendsintodoingitwithmeapartfromthehelppeoplecanoffereachothertofacilitate
learning,mosttasksaresimplymorepleasantwithsocialsupport.Third,thechallengebecamelesstedious(andtobefrank,lessdifficult)becausewhatweactuallydid
wasmemorizeasong:thesatiristTomLehrerhadalreadysetthenamesoftheelementstomusic.This.madethetaskseemratherlikeagame.I'mnotsurewhichof
thesefactorswasthemostdecisive,butIdoknowthatacoupleofdecadeslaterIcanstillrecitetheentireperiodictable.Bycontrast,allIrememberfromanentire
yearofadvancedplacementEuropeanhistoryisthephrase"warmwaterports."

Nooneoughttoberequiredtomemorizetheelementsorforthatmatter,thestatecapitals.Butthereareaspectsoflearningthatrequirehardwork,anditishere
thattalentedteachersreallyshine.Theyarrangeforstudentstobepartofacommunityoflearnerswhohelpeachotherdotheirbest.Theyembedthetaskina
questionorcontexttowhichstudentsresonate,andtheyhelpmaketheconnectionstothequestionsclear.Theygivestudentschoiceabouthowtheywillapproacha
taskandareasonablerationaleforwhattheyarebeingaskedtodo.

And,tobringthisdiscussionbackfullcircle,skilledteachersremoveobstaclestointerest,suchasrewards.Forcriticsofoureducationalsystemwhodespairthatwe
canevergetpastbehavioralmanipula

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tion,Iclosewithafewhopefulfindings.Inchapter7,Inotedthatwhilemanyemployeeshavebeenbatteredwithextrinsicmotivatorstothepointofbecoming
dependentonthem,mostpeoplestillsaytheyaremoreconcernedaboutdoinginterestingworkthanabouthowmuchmoney(andhowmanyrewards)theycan
collect.Thesamethingmaybetrueofstudents.Whenabout350highschoolerswereaskedabouttheirobjectives,"reachingapersonalgoal"wasrankednumber
one,whereasextrinsicrewards,suchasbeingpubliclyrecognizedforanachievement,wereseenasmuchlessimportant."Winningacontest,"inparticular,showedup
attheverybottomofthelist.Inastrikingparalleltothedataonemployeegoals,teacherswhowereaskedwhatmotivatedstudentsincorrectlyassumedthatextrinsic
motivatorsweremoreimportanttostudentsthantheyactuallywere.81

Asforteachers'beliefsaboutlearning,thereisobviouslyawiderangeofassumptionsandpracticestobefound.Itisimpossibletowishawaythepervasivenessof
SkinneriantechniquesinAmericanschools.Butarecentnationalsurveyofelementaryschoolteachersfoundfairlywidespreadunderstandingthatrewardsarenot
particularlyeffectiveatgettingorkeepingstudentsmotivated.Suchstrategiesasawardingspecialprivilegestothosewhodowellorpubliclycomparingchildren's
achievementwereseenaslesssuccessfulthangivingstudentsmorechoiceabouthowtolearnorlettingthemworktogether.82Thefactthatextrinsictacticsare
frequentlyuseddespitethisknowledgemayreflectpressuretoraisestandardizedtestscoresortokeepcontroloftheclass.Ifteachersunderstandthatrewardsare
nothelpfulforpromotingmotivationtolearn,perhapsthisisnottheoverridinggoalofeducators.Ifso,thenarenewedcalltoemphasizetheimportanceofmotivation
iswhatweneed.Wecangetchildrenhookedonlearningifthatisreallywhatwearedeterminedtodo.

QuestionsforReview

1.Compareandcontrastperformanceappraisalsandreportcards.

2.Whatarethethreereasonsthatabolishingrewardswillnotcausestudentstocheer,"Hooray!Nowwecanbeintrinsicallymotivated!"?Canyouthinkofafourth?

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3.Theauthor'sargumentthatmuchofourcurriculumisintellectually"bankrupt"appearsinChapter11.Doyouthinkthisisacoincidence?

4.WhatarethechiefexportsofPeru?Extracredit:Whatdoyouthinktheauthorwouldsayaboutextracredit?

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12
GoodKidsWithoutGoodies
Thebestwayoutisalwaysthrough.
RobertFrost,"AServanttoServants"

Aslongaspeoplehavechildrentoraiseanddoubtsabouthowtoraisethem,therewillbeotherpeoplewhomaketheirlivingbyofferingadvice.Thedisagreement
amongtheseadvisersaboutwhatparentsshoulddoissomewhatdisconcerting.Evenmoredisturbing,though,aresomeofthepointswheretheirapproachesoverlap.

Thegreatmajorityofbooksandseminarsonbringingupchildrensharethreefeatures,allofwhicharegenerallytakenforgranted.First,moretalkisdevotedto
eliminatingunwantedbehaviorsthantopromotingpositivevaluesandskillssecond,stepbystepplansareprovidedforparentstoimplementandthird,copioususe
ismadeofpunishments("consequences")and/orrewards("positivereinforcements").Thesesamecharacteristicsdescribemostprogramsintendedtohelpteachers
withthenonacademicaspectsofschoollife.

Eachofthesethreefeaturesisconnectedtotheothertwo.Someonewhochoosestofocusonstoppingbadbehaviorsisapttopreferaprogramthatdescribesexactly
whattodoandsay,andconversely,someonewhowantstofollowarecipeisapttothinkintermsofdaybydaychallengesratherthanlongtermvalues.Both
orientations,meanwhile,seemconsistentwithtacticsthatemphasizeextrinsiccontrol.

Thischapter,whichdoesnotpresumetoofferanythinglikeacomprehensiveguidetoraisingchildren,takesadifferenttackonallthreeissues.Thereisnothingwrong
withtryingtodealwithtroublesomebehavior,andsomeofwhatfollowsaddressesthismatterdirectly.Butanapproachthatfocusesoncopingwithproblemsdoes
littletohelpchildrengrowintogoodpeople,andmayactuallyinter

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ferewiththatgoal.Ontheotherhand,ifweareeffectiveinpromotingpositivevaluesandskills,wemayreducethenumberofproblemsrequiringinterventionona
dailybasis.Toconcentrateonthosevaluesandskillsmaybeawayoffeedingtwobirdsfromonefeeder,sotospeak.*

Thesecondcharacteristicofmosthowtoparentguides,theirrecipeapproach,isevenmoredifficulttodefend.Anyonewhopurportstotellaparentorteacher
exactlywhattosayanddotochildreninarangeofsituationsissellingamodernversionofsnakeoil.Whileitisappealingtoimaginewecansimplymemorizesome
magicwordstoinsertinto(ordeletefrom)oursentences,therighttonetouse,andthecorrectwaytorespondtoresistance,thetruthisthatitisimpossibletoreduce
theawesomecomplexityofhumaninteractiontoafewscientificsoundingformulas.Suchanapproachcannotpossiblybeeffectiveatreachinganybutthemost
superficialobjectives.Besides,presentingasetofeasytofollow,foolproofinstructionsisdisrespectfultoparentsinthesamewaythatthetechniquesbeingpeddled
areoftendisrespectfultochildren.

Parentingguidesalsosharearelianceonpunishmentsandrewards,andIwanttobeginbyurgingthatwedispensewiththesetacticsoratleastdrasticallyreducetheir
use.Thereasontodosohasalreadybeenpresentedatsomelengthinthisbook,whichmeanswemightnowmoveontoreframingthewaywethinkaboutour
relationshipswithchildren.

BeyondControl

Therecomesapointinachild'ssecondyearwhenababywhoiscarriedaroundandfedandputtosleepwhobasicallyhasthingsdonetoitbecomesaperson
withapointofview.Quitealothasbeenwrittenaboutatoddler'squestforautonomy,abouttheformationofidentityandtheexerciseofwill.Muchoftheadvice
offeredtoparents,however,amountstoaseriesofnewandclevererstrategiesfordoingthingstoachildwhonowmayloudlyresistrequests.Iproposethatthis
periodbeseeninsteadasanopportunitytoshiftfromdoingthingstoaninfanttodoingthingswithachild.

Tomakesenseofthisdistinction,weneedtothinkabouttherulesandrestrictionsplacedonchildren.Thereisnothinginherentlyobjec
*Ipreferthisexpressiontothemorefamiliaronethatdepictstwobirdsbeingstonedtodeath.

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tionableabout''structures"or"limits"thatspeaktosuchmattersaswhentheyshouldgotobed,whattheyshouldeat,whichitemsarenottobeplayedwith,and
wheretheymustnotgo.Whetheranygivenlimitisreasonable,however,isanothermatter.Thatissomethingthatcanbedeterminedbyconsideringsuchquestionsas
thepurposeofthelimit,howconfiningitis,andwhocameupwithit.

Combiningthesethreecriteria,wemightsaythatlimitsandstructurescanbeendorsedmostreadilywhenthepurposeisdefensible(forexample,protectingachild
frominjuringhimself),theirrestrictivenessisminimized(forexample,preventingaccesstocertaincabinetsratherthanforcingatoddlertostayinonesmallspace),and
thechildhascontributedtothearrangementtothefullestpossibleextent(forexample,inhelpingcomeupwithaplanforgettinghomeworkdone).

Itisalsoimportanttolookathowlimitsandstructuresaremaintained.Thisraisestheideaofcontrol,awordthatgenerallyimpliestheuseofcoercionorpressureto
imposeone'swillonachild.EdwardDeciandRichardRyanhavedistinguishedanenvironmentforchildrenthatisstructuredorlimitedfromonethatiscontrolling.
Theirobjectionistothelatter.1 Eventhemostardentopponentofcontrolwouldhesitatetoruleoutallsuchinterventions,particularlywithyoungchildren.Sometimes
itisnecessarytoinsist,toputone'sfootdown.Still,itseemsreasonabletoproposethatparentsandteacherstrytousetheleastintrusiveorcoercivestrategy
necessarytoachieveareasonableend.Don'tmoveachildroughlyifyoucanmovehergentlydon'tmovehergentlyifyoucantellhertomovedon'ttellherifyoucan
askher.

Ifwepayattentiontothedegreeofcontrolusedbyaparentwhoistryingtogetachildtodosomething,wecanusuallypredictquiteabitabouthowthatchildwillact
inothersituations.Researcherskeepfindingthataheavyhandedapproachisnotonlylesseffectivebutalsomorelikelytobeassociatedwithdisruptiveand
aggressivebehaviorpatternswhenthechildisawayfromhome.Inanearlyexperiment,MartinHoffmannoticedthatanevenbetterwaytopredictthosebehavior
patternswastokeepwatchingtoseehowparentsreactediftheirchildrendidn'tdowhattheyweretold.Theoutcomeswereworsewhenaparenthollered,hit,
threatened,punished,orotherwiseturneduptheheatinanefforttoregaintheupperhandafterinitialnoncompliance.2

Ifmanyofusactthisway,itisnotonlybecauseweloseourtempers,butalsobecauseitmayseemtoustheonlyalternative.Weconvinceourselvesthatwearenot
justimposingourwillbutteachingthechild

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whathappenswhenhemisbehaves,andthatthiswillpreventfuturemisbehavior.Moreover,weseeourselvesasadministeringanelementalsortofjustice:having
brokenarule,thechildmustnowbepunished.

Inchapter9Iarguedthatthefirstrationaleisfatallyflawedpunishmentteachesabouttheuseofpower,notabouthoworwhytobehaveproperly.Thesecond
rationale,reflectingasitdoesavalueaboutwhatshouldbedone,cannotbedisprovedbyevidence.Butitmakessensetoprobethisbelieftoseewhatitrestson.My
impressionisthatthecommitmenttopunishingchildrentypicallyreflectsafearthatthefailuretorespondthiswaywillmeanthatthey"gotawaywithsomething."

Ifwedigstillfurther,wefindthatthisperceptionupsetsusfortworeasons.First,itimpliesthatthechildhas"won."Ourauthorityhasbeenchallenged,andthemore
weconstruearelationshipasabattleforpower,themorewildlywewilllashouttopreservethatpower.Second,weareconcernedthechildwillcomeawaythinking
hecanrepeatwhateveritwashedid.Thisconcern,inturn,betraysaparticularassumptionaboutchildren'smotives,namelythatachildisinclinedtodowhathecan
getawaywithandwillkeepdoingituntilforciblyrestrained.Ultimately,ourneedtopunish(ordreadofnotpunishing)ispredicatedonatacittheoryofhumannature.

Eachofthesebeliefsandmotivesthatunderliethepracticeofpunishmentcanbehelduptothelightforinspection.Dowereallywanttopursueanadversarial
relationshipwithachild?Ifnot,thenitmakesnosensetochooseourresponsewithaneyetopreventinghimfromwinningacontestforpower,becausethereisno
contestforpower.Likewise,weneedtoaskwhywebelievechildren"naturally"revelinnasty,selfish,antisocialbehavioranddesistonlybecausetheyfearwhatwill
happentothem.Theevidencesaysotherwise.3

Inmyview,therearetwofundamentallydifferentwaysonecanrespondtoachildwhodoessomethingwrong.Oneistoimposeapunitiveconsequence.Anotheristo
seethesituationasa"teachablemoment,"anopportunitytoeducateortosolveaproblemtogether.Theresponsehereisnot"You'vemisbehavednowhere'swhat
I'mgoingtodotoyou"but''Somethinghasgonewrongwhatcanwedoaboutit?"

Thelatterrepresentsadifferentwayofseeingasmuchasadifferentwayofreacting,andthereareplentyofreasonstofavorthisperspective.Usingpowertomake
unpleasantthingshappentosomeoneisanintrinsicallyobjectionablewayofinteractingwithpeople,especially

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children.Ifthereisanywaytoavoidthis,itseemsvirtuallyselfevidentthatweshoulddoso.Moreover,workingtogethertosolveproblemsoffersavoteof
confidence,astatementoftrust,toachild.Itsays,''Ibelievethatwhenyouunderstandthemoralissuesinvolved,andwhenyouhavethenecessaryskills,youwillact
responsibly."Thisbeliefsetsintomotionwhatwemightcallan"auspicious"circle:themorewetrust,themorelikelyachildistoliveuptothattrust.

Butdoesthisworkintherealworld?Actually,themoreaptquestionis,Doespunishmentworkintherealworld?Experienceandresearchteachusthattroublesome
behaviorincreaseswhenchildrenarepunished,thatunderlyingproblemsaren'tsolved,thatdubiousvaluesaremodeled.Almostanythingwouldrepresentan
improvementoverthis.Anatmosphereofrespectratherthancoercion,acommitmenttoworkwithchildrenondevelopingthecapacitytobehavewell,awillingnessto
figureoutwhathasgonewrongandtofixittogethertheseadduptoanapproachthatisnotonlynicerbutfarmorelikelytoproducelastingresults.

Sure,repliestheskeptic.Thisorientationisfineinitially,orforminorinfractions.Butwhataboutrepeatedorveryseriouswrongdoing?Don'twehavetoimposea
punishment(or"consequence")atsomepoint?*Letusrespondtothisquestionfirstbyexposingitspremise,whichisthatadultshaven'treallytakenaction(orgotten
serious)untiltheyhavecausedsomethingunpleasanttohappentoachild.Thisassumptionreflectsawidespreadtendency,describedearlier,tothinkindualisticterms:
eitherwepunishorletitgo.(Theproblemsolvingapproachrecommendedherewouldthusbeconstruedasafancyversionoflettingitgo.)Anotherbeliefthatmay
implicitlyinformthisperspectiveisthatuntilachildhassuffered,nothingmeaningfulhastakenplace.Nopain,nogain.

Thefactofthematteristhateverythingweknowaboutthefutilityofpunishmentdoesn'tstopbeingtruejustbecausethechild'sbehaviorisespeciallydisturbingorhas
continuedovertime.Punishingachildforatrulydestructiveactisnomoresensiblethanpunishingherforatrifleonecouldargueitmakesevenlesssensebecausethe
stakesarehigher.Bycontrast,tryingtogettotheheartoftheproblemandwork
*Teacherswhotakethispositionsometimesadoptautilitarianstandardthatsays,ineffect,"I'vegotalotofchildrentoworryabout,anditmaybeworthpunishingorremovinga
difficultchildsothateveryoneelsecanbenefit."Oneproblemwiththislineofreasoningisthattheexampleofpowerandcoercionsetbypunishmentalsoaffectstheverypeople
whoaresupposedtobenefitfromitthatis,thestudentswhowatchateacherdealwithaproblembyrelyingoncontrollingstrategies.

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itoutisameaningfulresponseevenifinfact,partlybecauseitisnotpainfulorhumiliating.

Thetemptationtopunishgrowsastheactpersists,notbecausepunishmentbecomesinherentlymoresensiblebutbecausewebecomemoredesperate.Thisiswhat
mightbecalledtheblueinthefacesyndromeasin"I'vetalkedandtalkedtothekidandnothinghaschanged."Apartfromthefactthatapunitivestrategyiseven
lesslikelytowork(except,ofcourse,tosecuretemporary,resentfulobedience),thisposturemakesaboutasmuchsenseassaying,"I'vetypedandtypedandIstill
haven'tproducedagoodbookclearly,typingdoesn'twork."Whenoneapproachtosolvingproblemstogetherdoesn'tproduceresults,itmakessensetomodifythe
approach,nottoabandontheideaofsolvingproblemsinfavorofusingthreatsandcoercion.

Itwouldbeanexaggerationtosaythatevenasingleapplicationofthelatterisanunredeemabletragedy.TheoccasionalmildlypunitiveresponseorSkinnerian
incentivethatwedeliverwhenwecan'tthinkofanythingelsetodoisnotgoingtopermanentlyruptureachild'semotionalhealthatleast,notiftheenvironmentis
generallywarm,loving,andrespectful.Butitisvitalthatwekeepinmindthedesirabilityofavoidingpunishmentandrewardwheneverwecan.Thereisadifference
betweenforgivingourselvesanoccasionalblunderandrefusingtoadmitthatcertainapproachesareblunders.

Doesn'tittakeenormousreservoirsofpatienceandselfrestrainttoworkthroughaproblem(repeatedly,insomecases)ratherthanfallingbackonextrinsicshort
cuts?Isn'titunrealistictoexpectparentsandteacherstodothis?Theanswersareyestothefirstquestionandnotothesecond.Whenweputdownthebookand
returntotheexigenciesofeverydaylife,wheretimeandpatiencearelimited,wherechildrensometimesseemtopresentuswithasteadystreamofrepetitivedemands
andeveninfuriatingprovocations,theresearchandanalysisconcerningpunishmentcanseemimpossiblyremote.Theurgetopunishandyellandevenhitortorely
onthetacticofcontrolbyseduction(thatis,rewards)canbedifficulttoresist.Everyparentknowsthis,anditmakesnosensetoholdoutastandardforourown
behaviorthatcanneverbereached.

Allthesame,weoughtnotandneednotdispensewithstandardsandgoals.Norshouldweunderestimatewhatwearecapableofdoing.Ittakestimetodevelop
confidenceinachild'scapacitytofunctionintheabsenceofbribesorthreats.Moretothepoint,ittakestimetodevelopconfidenceinourownabilitytomanage
withoutthem.Afriendofminesaidtomenotlongago,"ThereasonInever

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spankedmysecondkidissimple:Igotbetteratbeingamom."Anothermotherofmyacquaintanceonceconfessed,"Itellmydaughter'Here'swhatI'llgiveyouifyou
cleanyourroom'becauseIdon'thavetheskillstoreachheranyotherway."

Theseparentsareviewingtheirownbehaviorinamannerthatstrikesmeasenormouslypromisingandconstructive.Eventhoughtheyhaveusedpunishmentand
reward,theydon'tjustdismisscriticismofthesetechniquesas"unrealistic."(Perhapstheyrealizethatallfundamentalchangeseemsimpracticalatfirst.)Theydon't
insistdefensivelythatchildrenwillrespondtonothingexceptextrinsicmanipulation(aninsistencethatusuallymeansit'stheparentswhoknownothingelse).Rather,
thesemothersareabletoseethemselvesaslearners,aspeopleintheprocessofgettingbetteratwhattheydo.Theymayneedtimeandassistancetoshakefreeofold
habitsandgiveupthequickfixesofpopbehaviorism,buttheyknowintuitivelythatthisistherightdirectioninwhichtomove.

SolvingProblems:ReturnoftheThreeC's

ThealternativetousingcontrolwithchildrencanbeusefullydescribedintermsoftheissuesIhavereferredtoasthe"threeC's":content,collaboration,andchoice.In
thissection,Iwillbrieflydiscusstheroleplayedbyeachinourresponsestoproblematicbehaviorlater,Iwillreturntosomeofthesethemesinconsideringthelong
termenterpriseofhelpingchildrengrowintogoodpeople.

Content.

Whenpeopleatworkdoapoorjob,itisnecessarytolookatwhattheyarebeingaskedtodothatis,thenatureofthework.Whenstudentsfailtolearn,thefirst
questiontoaskiswhattheyareexpectedtolearnandwhetheritisworthlearning.Likewise,whenweareconcernedthatachilddoesnotcomplywitharequest,we
mustbeginbyconsideringthenatureofthatrequest.

Thisperspectivecanbehighlythreateningtopeoplewhosepremiseisthatothersshouldsimplydowhattheyaretold.Theirpreferredquestionis"HowcanImake
them?"aquestionwhoseanswerisinvariablycouchedinbehavioristicterms.Parentsmayfeelthiswayevenmoreacutelythanmanagersorteachersdobecausein
nootherarenadowetakeforgrantedsoasymmetricalarelationshipasthatbetweenparentandchild.Somemanagerswillhaveanotherlookatjobdesignwhen
problemsdevelopatworksometeacherswilltrytoimprovethecurriculumwhentheirstudentsdon'tsuccessfullycom

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pleteassignments.Butfewparentsreacttoachild'sdisobediencebywonderingwhethertheyshouldrethinkwhatitwastheytoldthechildtodo.Iftheyseekadvice,
itistypicallyonlytofigureouthowtochangethechild'sbehavior.

Thesuggestionthatparents(and,withregardtoclassroommanagementissues,teachers)oughttoquestionhowreasonabletheirdemandsareisnotaterribly
sophisticatedpoint.Itdoesnotseemtocallforextensivesupportbyargumentorevidence.Oneeitherregardsitasanideawithobviousvalidity,howeverchallenging
itmaybetoputintopractice,ordismissesthewholediscussionasinconsistentwithone'sbasicbeliefsaboutraisingchildren.Mypurposehereisnottoconvincethose
whothinkaparenthastherighttoexpectunquestioningobediencetoanycommand,buttoremindeveryoneelsethatdealingwithachild'smisbehaviorstartswith
askingseriousquestionsaboutourexpectationsanddemands.

Onecanengageinthatquestioninginaverygeneralway:Arewesettinguprules"thatconflictwithbasicneeds,drivesortendencies[that]will,necessarily,create
conflict"suchasregularlytryingtopreventchildrenfrommakingnoise,movingaround,orexpressingemotion?4 Areweaskingthemtoreactinawaythatdoesn't
makesensegiventheircapacitiesataparticularstageofdevelopment,suchasdemandingthattheythinkaboutthelongrangeconsequencesoftheirbehaviorbefore
theyareabletodoso?

Onecanalsoquestionspecificrequestsintermsoftheirnecessityanddesirability.Wesaythatathreeyearoldcannotplaywithaknifethechildisunhappywiththe
restrictionwethinkaboutitsomemorebutdecidethatitreallyistoodangerous(andweexplainthattoher).Wetellasixyearoldtostopplayingwithanicecubeat
thedinnertablethechildisunhappywiththerestrictionwethinkaboutitsomemoreanddecidethatthereisreallynoharmindoingso.(Reconsideringone'soriginal
prohibitionis,ofcourse,completelydifferentfromrelentingoutofexhaustion:"Oh,allright,goahead.")

Somerulesandrequestsareobviouslyjustifiedsomeareobviouslycruelandunnecessary.Mostfallsomewhereinbetween,requiringustoweigh,say,achild'sdesire
toexplorehisenvironmentwiththepossibilitythathewillhurthimself,orthepleasurehetakesinboisterousplaywiththerightsofthosearoundhim.Goodparentingis
notdefinedbywhichdecisiononemakesineachinstancesomuchasbythewillingnesstothinkaboutthesedecisionsasopposedtothetendencytosayno
habituallyandtodemandmindlessobediencetomindlessrestrictions.

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Collaboration.

Theprocessofmakingdecisionsaboutwhatchildrenoughttodo,andwhattheycanreasonablybeexpectedtodo,isnotsomethingtheparentdoesalone.Theolder
thechild,themoresheshouldbebroughtintotheprocess:weexplaintoher,listentoher,consultwithher,planwithher.Thebestwaytocharacterizethealternative
topunishmentandrewardsisas"mutualproblemsolving,"theheartofwhichiscollaboration.

Explanationisthemostlimitedversionofcollaboration,anditistheveryleastweoweachild.Evenwhenthechildistooyoungtoparticipateindeciding,orwhenwe
havedeterminedthataruleissimplynonnegotiable,simpledecencyrequiresustoreplace"BecauseIsaidso"(anappealtopower)with"Here'swhy..."(anappeal
toreason).Suchanapproachisalsomorelikelytobeeffective:researchbacksupthecommonsensepreceptthatachildismorelikelytorespondpositivelytoa
requestwhenarationaleforithasbeenprovided.5

Althoughexplanationsobviouslyshouldbefittedtothechild'sabilitytounderstand,theformtheytakewillvarydependingonthesituation.Sometimestheywill
resemblewhatMartinHoffmancalls"induction,"inwhichthechildisledtoseehowheractionsaffectotherpeople.6 Sometimestheywillbechargedwithemotion:
reasonneednotexcludepassion,suchaswhenaparentisexplainingwhywedonotpunchpeople.(Thetrickistomakesurethatthepassiondoesnotovershadow
themessageitself.)Theexplanationshouldalwaysbepartofaconversationinwhichthechild'sreactioniswelcomed,notaspeechtowhichthechildmustsilently
listen.

Ideally,however,collaborationwillnotbelimitedtoanadult'sexplainingtoachildwhythelatterhasto(orcannot)dosomething.Itisinsteadaprocessofmakinga
decisiontogether.Inthecaseofwhatisusuallyreferredtoasadisciplinarymatter,thefirststageistotalkaboutwhethertheactinquestionreallyisaproblem,andif
so,why.Typicallyparentsmakethisdeterminationontheirownandannouncethatthechild'sbehaviormustchange.Thechild,however,maynotunderstandwhyit
shouldchangeotherthanbecauseapowerfulperson,withrewardsandpunishmentsathiscommand,decreesit.(Suchchangesarethereforeusuallysuperficialand
temporary.)

Isitreallywrongforchildrentokeeptheirroomsmessy?Musttheystopgrabbingtoysthatbelongtofriends?Dostudentsintheclassroomreallyhavetoraisetheir
handsbeforespeaking?Sometimestheparentorteacherhasmadeuphermindabouttheanswer,inwhich

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casetheobjectiveis,throughconversation,tohelpthechildunderstandthereason.Sometimestoorarely,Ibelieveadultsarewillingtoarriveatamutual
understandingwithchildrenofwhatconstitutesinappropriatebehavior.*

Ineithercase,thinkingoutloudtogetheraboutwhatiswrong(andwhy)isintegraltothepromotionofchildren'smoraldevelopment."Whensignificantdiscipline
problemsdooccur,"saysJohnNicholls,"theycanbetransformedintointellectualchallengesthatmakeeverychildalegislatoramoralphilosopher.Insteadof
exercisesinthecontrolofbehavior,thereareadventuresinethics."7

Assumingthatachild'sbehaviorhasbeenclearlyidentifiedasproblematic,thenexttaskistofigureoutitssource,particularlyifthisisnotthefirsttimeithasoccurred.
AsIhaveargued,rewardsandpunishmentaredeficientpartlybecausetheyattempttocontrolbehaviorwithoutregardtoitscause.Differentschoolsofthoughtwill
tendtoidentifydifferentreasonsforbehavior,emphasizing,forexample,thechild'sneedforattention,theexamplethathasbeensetforhim(hemaybeaggressivewith
hisfriendbecausehisparentisaggressivewithhim),thenetworkofrelationshipsinthefamilyorclassroom,andsoon.Theoriesaside,differentcircumstanceswilllend
differentmeaningstothesamesortofbehavior.

Sohowdoweascertainthecause?Theobviousansweristoaskthechild.Oftentheparentdoesn'tstoptodothis,eitherbecauseitisassumedthereasonforthe
behaviorisclearorbecausethequestionisn'tseenasimportant.Sometimesthequestionisposed,butinaharsh,threateningtone("Whyareyoulategettingreadyfor
schoolagain?Huh?Why?Answerme!"),sothechildunderstandsfullwellthatheisnotreallybeingaskedtospeculateaboutpossiblereasonsheisbeingaskedto
drophishead,lookpenitent,mumblesomething,andhopetoavoidpunishment.

Youngerchildrencannotalwaysidentifyandverbalizetheirmotives.Fiveyearoldsdonotpausereflectivelyandsay,"Well,Daddy,IguessIsluggedZachary
becauseI'mdisplacingmyemotionalturmoilcausedbyhearingyouandMommyyellateachothersomuch."Theyaremorelikelytoshrugandmutter,"I
dunno."(Olderchildren,too,maydothis,butthechanceofelicitingamoremeaningfulresponseis
*Manyadultshaveadoptedthestrategyoftriallawyersduringcrossexamination,whichisnevertoaskaquestiontowhichtheydonotalreadyknowtheanswer.Thisapproach
helpsthemtomaintainasenseofpower,avoidanyfeelingofvulnerability,andheadoffrealcollaboration.

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enhancedbycreatinganonpunitive,collaborativeatmospheresochildrenfeelsafetalkingaboutwhattheydoknow.)Whenthechildcannotbeforthcoming,parents
andteachershavetobecomedetectives,lookingforcluesastopossiblecausesandtryingouthypothesestentativelyintheprocessofworkingoutasolution.

Thenextstepistocomeupwithaplantogether:"Howdoyouthinkwecansolvethisproblem?""Whatdoyouthinkweshoulddonow?"Somepeoplefavordrawing
upformalcontractstocodifytheagreement,butwhetheraplanisputintowritingisnotnearlysoimportantashowtheagreementwasreached:jointlyorbytheadult
alone?freelyorunderduress?basedonsomeunderstandingabouttheact'smoralstatusorasawayofavoidingapunishment(orobtainingareward)?Onegoodway
tofigureoutwhetheracontractwillbehelpfulistoaskthechild.Sometimesareasonablefollowuptoadestructiveactionistotrytorestore,replace,repair,clean
up,orapologize,asthesituationmaydictate."Whenchildrenarenotafraidofbeingpunished,theyarewillingtocomeforwardandmakerestitution."8

Finally,itisoftenusefultoarrangetocheckbacklatertoseewhethertheproblemgotsolved,howtheplanworked,whetheradditionalorentirelynewstrategiesmay
beneededorperhapsjusttoallowthechildtofeelproudofherselffortheresolution.Suchdiscussionsalsolettheparticipantsreflectontheprocessanddecide
whetheritseemedfairandconstructive.Thisisespeciallyimportantwhenstudentsmeetasaclasstosolveaproblem.

Choice.

Adiscussionofcollaborativeproblemsolvingshadesintotheissueofchoiceorautonomyforchildren.Whenadultsareunsureaboutwhysomethinghappenedor
whatshouldbedoneaboutit,theslogantokeepinmindis"Bringthekid(s)inonit."Themoreachildfeelspartoftheprocess,themorehispointofviewissolicited
andtakenseriously,thefewerproblemstherewillbetodealwith.

LaterinthischapterIwilldealwiththeissueofautonomyinsomedetail,notasatechniqueforrespondingtomisbehaviorbutasafundamentalcomponentofraising
orteachingchildrenandhelpingthemdeveloppositivevaluesandskills.TheonlypointIwanttomakeforthetimebeingisthatweneedtobewaryofhowthe
conceptofchoicehasbeendistortedbysomepeoplewhoofferadviceondiscipline.Parentsandteachersaresometimesencouragedtoimposepunitive
"consequences"onachildwhileverballyattributingthepunishmenttothechild'sownchoiceforexample,sayingtoachildwhoplaystennisinthehouse,"Isee
you'vechosentospendtheeveningin

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yourroom."Theappealofthistacticisnomystery:itappearstorelievetheadultofresponsibilityforwhatheisabouttodotothechild.Butitisafundamentally
dishonestattribution.Thechildmayhavechosentoplaywithhertoyindoorswhenshewastoldnotto,*butshecertainlydidn'tchoosetobeconfinedtoher
bedroomitwasherfatherwhodidthattoher.Totheinjuryofpunishmentisaddedtheinsultofakindofmindgamewherebyrealityisredefinedandthechildistold,
ineffect,thatsheaskedtobepunished.Thisgimmickusesthewordchoiceasabludgeonratherthangivingchildrenwhattheyneed,whichistheopportunityto
participateinmakingrealdecisionsaboutwhathappenstothem.9

CaringKids

Respondingto,orevenpreventing,irresponsiblebehaviorisnotenough.Wewanttoemphasizethepositive,tohelpachildactresponsiblyanddevelopprosocial
valuesoverthelongrun.Buthow?Theeliminationofrewardsandpunishmentsmaybenecessaryforthatpurpose,butclearlyitisnotsufficient.Fortunately,afair
amountofresearchexiststhataddressesthismoreambitiousagenda.Thereare,ofcourse,nosurefireinstructionstofollow,buttherearesomegeneralguidelines
worthreviewing.

Caring.

Childrenaremorelikelytogrowintocaringpeopleiftheyknowtheythemselvesarecaredabout.Awarm,nurturingenvironmentisthesinequanonofpositive
development.(Italsoturnsouttobeusefulforthemorelimitedgoalofgettingchildrentodowhatweask.)10Ifchildrenfeelsafe,theycantakerisks,askquestions,
makemistakes,learntotrust,sharetheirfeelings,andgrow.11Iftheyaretakenseriously,theycanrespectothers.**Iftheiremotionalneedsaremet,theyhavethe
luxuryofbeingabletomeetotherpeople'sneeds.12Deprivedofthesethings,however,theymayspendtheirlivesdoingpsychologicaldamagecontrol.Theirown
needsmayechosoloudlyin
*Eventhisassumptionneedstobequestioned,sincethechildmaylackthecapacityforrationaldecisionmakingorimpulsecontrolthatisimplicitinsuggestingshemadea
choice.Ifso,thechildneedshelpindevelopingthesefaculties,notpunishmentaccompaniedbyblame.
**Adiscouragingproportionofadultswhodemandthatchildrentreatthemwithrespectorcomplainloudlyabouthowkidstodayfailtodosothinknothingofbehavingtoward
theirchildrenwithanutterlackofrespect.

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theirearsthattheywillbeunabletohear,muchlessrespondto,thecriesofothers.

Inordertobeacaringperson,aparentorteachermustfirstbeaperson.Manyofusareinclinedinsteadtohidebehindthemannerismsofaconstantlycompetent,
smoothlycontrolling,crisplyauthoritativeParentorTeacher.Todosoistoplayarole,andevenifthescriptcallsfornurturance,thisisnotthesameasbeingfully
humaninfrontofachild.Aperson(asopposedtoaparentorteacherfigure)sometimesgetsflusteredordistractedortired,saysthingswithoutthinkingandlater
regretsthem,askschildrenfortheiropinions,maintainsinterestsoutsideofparentingorteachinganddoesn'tminddiscussingthem.Also,apersonavoidsdistancing
maneuverssuchasreferringtohimorherselfinthethirdperson(asin"Mr.Kohnhasaspecialsurpriseforyoutoday,boysandgirls").

Forthemostpart,thepositionthatcaretakersshouldbecaringisnotparticularlycontroversial.However,vestigesofanopposingpointofviewfromanothererastill
turnupfromtimetotime.Onestillhears,forexample,theoldchestnutthatcryinginfantsmustnotbepickedupandcomfortedtoooftenlesttheybecomespoiled,a
viewthatisconsistentwithpopbehaviorisminitspredictionthatresponsivenesswilljustreinforcethebaby'scrying.13(Itisalsoaviewvigorouslyrejectedbyvirtually
everyonewhoisknowledgeableaboutinfantdevelopment.)14

Amongeducators,meanwhile,thereisstillsomecredencegiventothesloganthatateachermustnotletdownherguardandsmileatherstudentsuntilafterChristmas.
(Onehopeswhoevercameupwiththatbitofadviceisnolongerinapositionwhereheorshecancontinuedoingharmtochildren.)Otherteachersdefensivelyinsist
thattheyare"notheretobeliked,"whichisusuallyarationalizationfortheirinabilityorunwillingnesstoexpresscarefortheirstudents.Theavailableresearch"clearly
demonstratesthatniceteachersarehighlyeffective...[andrefutes]themyththatstudentslearnmorefromcold,stern,distantteachers."15

Modeling.

Evenbeforechildrenaresteadyontheirfeet,andevenaftertheyadoptaposeofimpermeableindifference,theyarelearninghowtobeapersonbywatchingthekind
ofpeopleweare.Almosteveryoneknowsthatadultsteachbyexample.Whatisoftenforgottenisthatwedosoconstantly,whetherwemeantoornot.Wemay,for
example,dosomethinginfrontofachildwithamindtomodelingaparticularattitudeorbehavior,buttheunsettlingtruthisthatthechildwasalsolearningfromhow
weactedtenminutesearlier,whenweweren'tthinkingaboutwhatweweredoing.

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Ifchildrenseeuswalkpastpeopleindistress,theylearnthatotherpeople'spainisn'tourconcern.Iftheyhearustalkabouttheworldin''UsversusThem"terms,they
learnthatpeoplefromdifferentbackgroundsdon'thavetobetreatedthesameaspeoplewhoarelikeus.Iftheyaresubjecttopowerbased,controllingformsof
discipline,theylearnthatthisishowyouacttowardpeoplewhoareweakerthanyou.Butiftheygrowuparoundloveandfairnessandrespectandcompassion,these
arethelessonstheylearninstead.Indeed,studiesshowthatchildrenaremorelikelytoactgenerouslywhentheyseeanadultactthatway,andtheyaremorelikelyto
growintoconcerned,helpfuladultsthemselveswhentheirparentsshowtheway.16

Wemodelwhenwelistenrespectfully,whenwetrytohelppeoplewedon'tknow,andwhenweadmitourmistakes.Outsideofprovidinglove,fewthingswecando
withchildrenareasimportant,orasdifficult,asapologizingtothemforsomethingweregrethavingdone.Adultswhotakethisideaonestepfurtherandtellchildren,
"IfIeversaysomethingtoyouthatembarrassesyouorhurtsyourfeelings(whichImaydosometimesbecauseI'mnotperfect),pleaseletmeknow"aresettingan
exampleofcourageaswellasconcern.

Bycaringforchildrenwedemonstratebyforceofexampletheimportanceofcaring(inadditiontosimplyprovidingsomethingtheyneed).However,thisimpulsehas
tobebalancedagainstthedesiretoletthemhelpthemselvesanddiscovertheircompetenceatsolvingproblemsontheirown.Equallyimportant,butmoreoften
overlooked,rushingintohelpmayprecludetheirgettingassistancefromfriendsorsiblingsorclassmates.Wewanttomodelhelping,butwedon'twanttoteach,in
effect,thatthereisnoneedtocometotheaidofapeerbecauseanadultwilltakecareofeverything.

Explaining.

"Showandtell"ismorethananelementaryschoolactivity.Thetwoconcepts,modelingandexplaining,arenaturalcounterparts.Toleaveouttheformeristoignorea
bitofcommonsensewisdomthatissupportedbyresearch:actionsreallydospeaklouderthanwords.Toleaveoutthelatteristodeprivechildrenofachancetothink
andtalkabouttheimportanceofwhattheyhaveseensoastomorefullyincorporateitintotheirrepertoires.

Ihavearguedthatsolvingproblemsrequiresustotalkwithchildren,toofferexplanationsandinterpretations.Butthisisnotjustastrategyfordealingwithtroubleitis
partofhow,daybyday,achildcomestobeamoralperson.Researchershavefoundthatpeoplewhoseparentstendedtoreasonwiththemwhentheywerechildren,
ratherthanpunishthemorotherwisedemandsimpleobedience,weremorelikelytoactaltruistically(inonestudy)andtobecomeinvolved

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insocialserviceactivitiesandpoliticalactivism(inanother).17Theuseofinductioninplaceofpowerbasedtacticsbymiddleclassmotherswasfoundinother
researchtobe''consistentlyassociatedwithadvancedmoraldevelopment"onthepartoftheirchildren.18Oneexperimentevensuggestedthatexplanationscanreduce
aggression.19

Ofcourse,beyondacommitmenttotalkingwithchildren,whatwechoosetoexplain,andhowwedoso,areterriblyimportant.Explanationsshouldnotbelimitedto
pointingouttheeffectsofnegativebehaviors:justaschildrenshouldbehelpedtounderstandwhyhittingisbad,sotheymustbeencouragedtothinkaboutwhyhelping
isgood,beyondbeingtoldthatitis.Moreover,thereasonofferedshouldnotsimplyinvokeselfinterestbutcalltheirattentiontohowotherpeoplefeelwhentheyare
helped.20

Sometimeswewillwanttodiscusswithchildrenwhatitmeanstoactresponsiblyandcompassionatelynotlecturetothemsotheireyesglazeoverbutexplore
togetherhowonemightdealwithdifficultsituations.Whatcanwedowhenweseeahomelesspersoninthestreet,forexample,orabigkidpickingonasmallkid,or
someoneweknowintears?Howdoweactaroundafriendwhosegrandmotherhasjustdied?Whatdowedowhensomeonetriestohelpusandwedon'twantthe
help?Ifadultsoftenseemcluelessinsuchcircumstances,thismayreflecthowlittleopportunitytheyhavehadtotalkovertheseissues.

Attributingpositivemotives.

Itisworthattendingnotonlytowhatwesayanddobuttowhatwebelieveabout"humannature,"aboutchildren,aboutthisparticularchild,andaboutwhythis
particularchilddidwhathedidthisafternoon.Assumingtheworstineachcasecanbecomeaselffulfillingprophecy.Considertheviewthatmoralitybasicallyhasto
beforceddownthethroatsofunwillingchildren,thatsocializationamountstotamingwildimpulses,thatselfishnessandaggressionaremorenaturalthancooperation
andcaring.Parentswhotakethispositionarelikelytobeauthoritarianinthewaytheydealwiththeirchildren,21andsotoo,wecanassume,areteachers.Controlling,
punitivetactics,inturn,produceexactlythesortofantisocialbehaviorthatisexpected,confirmingtheviewthatsuchtacticsareneeded.

Conversely,thebeliefthatchildrenareactuallyquiteanxioustopleaseadults,thattheymaysimplylacktheskillstogetwhattheyneed,thattheywillgenerallyrespond
positivelytoacaringenvironmentthiscancreateaverydifferentreality.Andsoitisforourassumptionsaboutspecificchildrenandwhytheydowhattheydo.

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Attributingtoachildthebestpossiblemotivethatisconsistentwiththefacts22maysetinmotionanotherofthose"auspicious"circles.Wehelpchildrendevelopgood
valuesbyassumingwheneverpossiblethattheyarealreadymotivatedbythesevalues,ratherthanbyexplaininganambiguousactionintermsofasinisterdesireto
makeourlivesmiserable.

Offeringopportunitiestocare.

Peoplelearnbydoing,andadultswhowantchildrentolearnaboutcaringwillprovideanarrayofopportunitiesforthemtoexperiencethepracticefirsthand:caringfor
pets,lookingoutforyoungersiblings,tutoringotherchildren,workingwithclassmatestomakedecisionsandsolveproblems,andsoon.23Thestorymaybe
apocryphal,butitissaidthatthecoatswornbyChinesechildrensomeyearsagobuttonedupthebacksoastorequireeachchildtoturntoanotherforhelpingetting
dressed.Thisisjustthesortofopportunityweshouldbeprovidingforchildrentobalanceourotherwiserelentlesscampaigntomakethemselfsufficient.
Independenceisuseful,butcaringattitudesandbehaviorsshrivelupinaculturewhereeachpersonisresponsibleonlyforhimself.

Collaboration,previouslyframedassomethingthathappensbetweenanadultandachild,musttakeplaceonaregularbasisamongchildrentoo,particularlyatschool.
Learningandplayingshouldroutinelybesetupsoastopromotecooperationandinterdependence.Forexample,elementaryschoolactivitiesinwhichchildrenwrite
ordrawsomethingaboutthemselvescanbemodifiedsothateachchildwritesaboutordrawssomeoneelse'sexperiencesandideas.Similarly,eachstudent(ofany
age)oughttohaveapermanentpartnerwhoisresponsibleformakingsureshehastheassignmentsincaseofabsence.Ifweareseriousaboutraisingchildrentobe
caringpeople,wemustmoveawayfromenvironmentsthatrequirethemtodefeateachotherinordertobesuccessfuloratbest,toignoreeachotherand
establishstructureswheretheycometotakeresponsibilityforoneanotherinstead.24

Emphasizingperspectivetaking.

Allofuswantchildrentogrowuptobehelpfulandcaring.ButIthinkwewantevenmorethanthat.First,wewantthemnotmerelytodogoodthingsinorderto
obtainrewardsoravoidpunishments(evenofthepsychologicalvariety),butbecausetheyseethemselvesashelpful,caringpeople.Itisacceptable,evendesirable,to
takepleasurefromhelpingandtofeeldistressedbyotherpeople'spain,butwehopethatourchildrensometimeswillreachouttoothersjustbecausethoseothers
needthehelp,without

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anythoughtofpersonalgain.(Thisisareasonabledefinitionofaltruism,anditdefinessome,butnotall,prosocialacts.)

Second,wewantchildren'sactionstocomefromtheheadaswellasfromthehearttheyshoulddevelopbotharationalunderstandingofethicalprinciplesandan
emotionalconnectiontootherpeople.Manyprogramsofmoraldevelopmentemphasizeoneofthesetotheexclusionoftheother.

Finally,wewantchildrentodevelopwhatErvinStaubhascalleda"prosocialorientation"25ageneralizedinclinationtocare,share,andhelpacrossdifferent
situationsandwithdifferentpeople,includingthosetheydon'tknow,don'tlike,anddon'tlooklike.Lendingahandtoaclosefriendisonethinggoingoutofone's
wayforastrangerissomethingelse.

Allthreeofthesegoalscanbemetbypromotingthepracticeoftryingtoimaginethewayotherpeoplethink,feel,andlookattheworld.Thisiswhatpsychologistscall
"perspectivetaking."Itisfirstcousintothepracticeoffeelingourwayintosomeoneelse'semotionallife,whichiscalled"empathy."Whenchildrenareencouragedand
helpedtoengageinthesepractices,theyarewellonthewaytobecomingcaringpeople.26

Thefailuretoadoptotherpeople'spointsofview,totakeanimaginativeleapoutofoneself,isonewaytoaccountformuchofthebehaviorwefindtroublesome,from
litteringtomurder.(Kafkaoncereferredtowaras"amonstrousfailureofimagination.")Perspectivetakinghelpsusatoncetoseeothersasfundamentallysimilarto
ourselvesdespitesuperficialdifferences(inthatweshareacommonhumanity)andasimportantlydifferentfromourselvesdespiteapparentsimilarities.Childrenfirst
cometoseethattheymustn'ttreatpeopleinawaytheythemselveswouldn'twanttobetreated.Butthen,wehope,theybecomeevenmoresophisticatedandrealize
thatGeorgeBernardShawwasrightwhenhecautionedusnotto"dountoothersasyouwouldhavethemdountoyou[because]theymayhavedifferenttastes"to
saynothingofdifferentneeds,backgrounds,andworldviews.

Inshort,perspectivetakingisafocalpointforraisingorteachingchildrentobeethicalandcompassionate.Whileempathyisprobablyanaturalcapacityforalmostall
ofus,27perspectivetakingneedstobe,andcanbe,taught.Forexample,wecan:

Modelit:Wesetapowerfulexampleif,afterencounteringsomeonerude,wesaytoachildsomethinglike,"Boy,Iguessthatmanmusthavehadaprettybadday
toyellatuslikethat,huh?"Ifwe

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reacttounpleasantnessbytryingtounderstand,weshowchildrenthattherearealternativestoanger.Moretothepoint,wegetthemaccustomedtotryingtolookata
situationfromsomeoneelse'spointofviewandtryingtofigureoutwherethatpointofviewcamefrom.

Useittosolveproblems:Teacherswhofindthattwostudentsareperpetuallycriticizingorfightingwitheachothermightsitthemdowntogetherandaskeachto
interviewtheother,tolearnasmuchaspossibleaboutthatperson'sinterestsandbeliefsandbackground.Suchinformationhelpsturnsomeonefromanobjectintoa
subject,tomaketheperson'shumanitycomealive.That,inturn,makesitnearlyimpossibletoactcruellytowardhimorher.

Usethearts:Thestoriesassignedbyateacherorsuggestedbyaparentcanbechosenspecificallyfortheiremphasisondifferent(andsometimesconflicting)points
ofview.Perspectivetaking,moreover,canprovideawayofexploringvirtuallyanybookormovie:childrencanbeaskedtodescribeeventsastheymightappearto
anothercharacter,rewriteanepisodetohighlightanotherpointofview,engageinroleplaying,orotherwiseimaginethingsfromadifferentdirection.

Teachitdirectly:Variousactivitieshavebeendesignedtohelpchildrennoticeandattendtoothers'feelingsandpointsofview,28andmoreexercisesofthiskind
canbedevisedforthatpurposebyteachersandparents.

TheRoleoftheSchools

Agrowingnumberofobservers,insurveyingthemoralstateofoursociety,areconcludingthatprofessionaleducatorshavearoletoplayalongsideparentsin
contributingtochildren'smoral,social,andbehavioraldevelopment.Tosomeextentthisisbecausemanychildrensimplyarenotexposedtopositivevaluesathome,
anditfallstotheschoolstotakeuptheburden.Tosomeextentitisbecauseeducatorsalreadyplayaroleinteachingvalueswhethertheymeantoornot:every
elementofclassroomlifeisunavoidablysaturatedinvalues.Onewayoranother,ateacher'sresponsibility(andopportunity)istohelpchildrenbecomenotonlygood
learnersbutgoodpeople.29

Theprocessofdoingsocannotbereducedtosimplyteachingasetofsocialskillstoeachstudent.Itisnotamatterofwhattheteacherdoesfor(or,better,with)this
childandthatonebutratherhowa

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caringclassroomandschoolcommunitycanbecreatedtoserveasthecontextinwhichchildrenacquirepositiveattitudesandskills.Prosocialvaluesarelearnedina
community,andpartofwhatislearnedisthevalueofcommunity.

Myownthinkingonthisquestionhasbeenshapedbyoneparticulareducationalprogramthatwasdesignedintheearly1980stohelpelementaryschoolagechildren
becomemorecaringandresponsible.ThestaffoftheChildDevelopmentProject(CDP),basedinOakland,California,hasdesigned(andcontinuestorefine)a
programtothisendandhasrigorouslymonitoreditsimpact.Itspremise,whichIshare,isthatifchildrenaretointernalizeprosocialvalues,theymustbehelpedto
becomepartofacaringcommunity,whichtheCDPdefinesas
acommunitywherecareandtrustareemphasizedaboverestrictionsandthreats,whereunityandpride(ofaccomplishmentandinpurpose)replacewinningandlosing,andwhere
eachpersonisasked,helped,andinspiredtoliveuptosuchidealsandvaluesaskindness,fairness,andresponsibility.[Such]aclassroomcommunityseekstomeeteach
student'sneedtofeelcompetent,connectedtoothers,andautonomous....Studentsarenotonlyexposedtobasichumanvalues,theyalsohavemanyopportunitiestothink
about,discuss,andactonthosevalues,whilegainingexperiencesthatpromoteempathyandunderstandingofothers.30

Tocallthisatallorderunderstatesthecase.ButitisonethatcanbefilledpartlybydoingwhatIhavealreadydescribed:caring,modeling,explaining,andsoon.The
CDP,alongwithotherresearchersandeducators,hasaddedtothesegerundsanumberofprogrammaticcomponentsthatreallydoseemtowork.Amongthemarea
versionofcooperativelearninguncontaminatedbygradesorotherextrinsicmotivators,anapproachtodisciplinarymattersverymuchlikewhatIhavebeencalling
mutualproblemsolving,andalsothefollowing:

Classmeetings.Studentsofanyageneedtohavetimesetasidetositdowntogetherandmakedecisions,sharenews,reviewwhathashappenedduringthe
precedingday(orweekoryear),planevents,andsolveproblems.Theprocessofdoingsocantaketimeandpatience,buttheprocessisthepointanideadifficult
forsomeefficiencymindedteachersandstudentstograsp.Fromsuchsessions,facilitatedbyateacherwhomustdecideateachmomentwhethertositbackorstep
in,studentscometobelievetheirdecisionsmatter.Theyfeelasiftheybelongtoacommunity,andtheycometoknow

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whatittakestomakeacommunityfunction.Theydevelopacommitmenttothevaluestheyhavehelpedtodefine.Andtheylearntheskillsoflistening,takingother
people'sperspectives,thinkingthroughaproblem,andresolvingconflicts.31Fewcontrastsareasstrikingasthatbetweenstudentsparticipatinginsuchmeetings,
takingresponsibilityfordecidinghowtheywanttheirclassroomtobe,andstudentssittinginrows,beingbribedorthreatenedtoconformtotheteacher'srules.

Unitybuildingactivities.Theideahereistolearnabouteachotherasindividualsandslowlycometofeelpartofan"us."Theclassmaydecideonaclassnameor
logotheymayworktogetheronaclassplay,mural,quilt,song,newspaper,orbook.Theymaypublishaclassdirectory,posttheirphotosonthebulletinboard,and
worktogetheronserviceprojectsorotheractivitiesaroundtheschoolandoutsideofschool.

Schoolwideprograms.Twoclassesrepresentingdifferentagelevelscanbepairedinordertoextendtheideasofunityandcommunityandprovideforregular
crossageinteraction,somethingconspicuouslyabsentfrommostAmericanschools.Whenanolderchildlooksoutforandworkswithayounger"buddy,"theonehas
anopportunitytolearncaringbypracticingit,andtheotherfeelscaredaboutandhascaringmodeledby,ofallthings,someonewhoisn'tevenagrownup.Other
activitiescaninvolvethewholeschool,includingsomethinglikeatownmeeting.Alternatively,crosssectionsoftheschool,withafewchildrenfromeachgradelevel
andstaffmembers(includingcustodiansandsecretaries)maymeettogetheronaregularbasis.

Prosocialliterature.Hereisasplendidexampleoffeedingtwobirdsfromonefeeder:thestoriesfromwhichchildrenlearnlanguageskillsfromspellingto
symbolismcanbechosennotonlyfortheirusefulnessinthisrespectbutalsoforthewaytheyillustrateimportantvalues(suchaskindness,fairness,tolerance,andso
forth),elicitempathy,andgeneratediscussionaboutissuesrelevanttochildren'sownreallifeconcerns.Thekeypointhereisthat,aswithmodeling,thestories
teacherschoosearealwaysteachingvalueseveniftheyarenotusedforthatpurposeandevenifthelessonmaynotbenoticedbyteacherorstudent.(Childrenmay
belearning,forexample,thatmalessolveproblemswhilefemaleslookon,thatviolenceiseffective,orthatpeopleusuallydoimportantthingsontheirownratherthan
collaboratively.)

Eachoftheseschoolbasedprogramshasaroletoplayinhelpingchildrendeveloppositivevalues,justaseachoftheapproachesde

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scribedintheprecedingsectionofferssomethingthatparentsandteachersalikecanuseinsupportofthesamegoal.Butthereisoneissue,onewayofframingthe
alternativetorewardsandpunishments,thatmusttakeprecedence.Thatissue,choice,wasraisedbrieflyinthecontextofdealingwithbehavioralproblems.Wereturn
toitnowtoexploreitsessentialcontributiontochildren'slongtermdevelopment.

TheChancetoChoose

Manydifferentfieldsofresearchhaveconvergedonthefindingthatitisdesirableforpeopletoexperienceasenseofcontrolovertheirlives.InthelasttwochaptersI
triedtoshowthatthisisakeyvariableinpredictingpeople'sinterestin,andsuccessat,workandschool.Butthebenefitsreachintoeverycornerofhumanexistence,
startingwithourphysicalhealthandsurvival.

"Themostsignificantfactorinanindividual'sabilitytoremainingoodhealthmaybeasenseofcontrolovertheeventsoflife,"onepsychologisthasremarked.32
Indeed,researchhasfoundthatpeoplewhorarelybecomeilldespitehavingtodealwithconsiderablestresstendtobethosewhofeelmorecontroloverwhat
happenstothem.33Inawellknownexperiment,nursinghomeresidentswhowereabletomakedecisionsabouttheirenvironmentnotonlybecamehappierandmore
activebutwerealsomorelikelytobealiveayearandahalflaterthanwereotherresidents.34Andwhenpatientswhorequiremedicationforpain(eitherjustafter
surgeryoronanongoingbasis)areabletochoosewhentoadministeritthemselves,theytypicallyneedsmallerdoses,experiencefewersideeffects,reportbeingless
anxious,and(inthecaseofpostsurgicalpatients)mayevenrecovermorequicklythanthosewhoaregiventhemedicationbysomeoneelse.35

Thepsychologicalbenefitsofcontrolare,ifanything,evenmorepronounced.Ouremotionaladjustmentisbetterovertimeifweexperienceasenseofself
determinationbycontrast,fewthingsleadmorereliablytodepressionandotherformsofpsychologicaldistressthanafeelingofhelplessness.36Whereasrewardsare
notablyineffectiveatmaintainingbehaviorchange(seechapter3),wearelikelytopersistatdoingconstructivethings,suchasexercising,quittingsmoking,orfighting
cavities,whenwehavesomechoiceaboutthespecificsofsuchprograms.37Laboratoryexperimentshavealsoshownthatwearebetterabletotolerateunpleasant
sensationslikenoise,cold,orelectricshockwhenweknowwehavethepowertoendthem.38

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Childrenarenoexceptiontotheserules,thestudiesshow.Yearoldinfantshadfunwithanoisymechanicaltoywhentheycouldmakeitstartitwaslessinteresting,
andsometimesevenfrightening,iftheyhadnocontroloveritsaction.39Elementaryschoolstudentshadhigherselfesteemandagreaterfeelingofacademic
competencewhentheirteachersbolsteredtheirsenseofselfdeterminationintheclassroom.40

Morerelevanttoourconcernshereistheimportanceofautonomyinfosteringchildren'ssocialandmoralgrowth.Oneisrepeatedlystruckbytheabsurdspectacleof
adultswhotalkpassionatelyabouttheneedforkidstobecome"selfdisciplined"andto"takeresponsibilityfortheirownbehavior"allthewhileorderingchildren
around.Thetruthisthatifwewantchildrentotakeresponsibilityfortheirownbehavior,wemustfirstgivethemresponsibility,andplentyofit.Thewayachildlearns
howtomakedecisionsisbymakingdecisions,notbyfollowingdirections.AsKamiihaswritten,
Wecannotexpectchildrentoacceptreadymadevaluesandtruthsallthewaythroughschool,andthensuddenlymakechoicesinadulthood.Likewise,wecannotexpectthemto
bemanipulatedwithrewardandpunishmentinschool,andtohavethecourageofaMartinLutherKinginadulthood.41

Infact,anemphasisonfollowingdirections,respectingauthority(regardlessofwhetherthatrespecthasbeenearned),andobeyingtherules(regardlessofwhether
theyarereasonable)teachesadisturbinglesson.StanleyMilgram'sfamousexperiment,inwhichordinarypeoplegavewhattheythoughtwereterriblypainfulshocksto
haplessstrangersmerelybecausetheyweretoldtodoso,isnotjustacommentabout"society."Itisacautionarytaleaboutcertainwaysofbringingupchildren.The
pointisthatanemphasisonobedience"isnotonlynotenoughitmaybedangerous."42

Moralityandcouragearenottheonlyvaluesatissuehere.Totalkabouttheimportanceofchoiceisalsototalkaboutdemocracy.Atpresent,asShelleyBerman,a
formerpresidentofEducatorsforSocialResponsibility,hasdrilynoted,"Weteachreading,writing,andmathby[havingstudentsdo]them,butweteachdemocracy
bylecture."43Atbest,wehavechildrenvoteforoneproposal,orstudentcouncilcandidate,overanother.WilliamGlasserhassaid,"Childrenwhoattendaschoolin
Whichtheyareaskedtotakesomeresponsibilityforthecurriculumandrulesdiscoverdemocracy."44Thatconceptinitsfullestsensegoeswellbeyond(andideally
mayevenexclude)voting:45itinvolvestalkingandlistening,lookingforalternativesandtryingto

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reachconsensus,solvingproblemstogetherandmakingmeaningfulchoices.Itisavitallessonforchildrenifwehopetopreparethemtoparticipateinademocratic
cultureortoworktowardtransformingacultureintoademocracy.

DegreesofFreedom

Inlightoftheimportanceofchoice,itmaybeusefultoreturnoncemoretothequestionofwhatourobjectivesreallyareasparentsorteachers.TothispointIhave
distinguishedonlybetweenshorttermcomplianceandlongtermpromotionofvalues.Whenwelookmoreclosely,though,wefindasomewhatmorecomplicated
arrayofalternatives.

Thefirst,andleastambitious,goalistogetchildrentodowhattheyaretold.Evenhere,lettingchildrenmakesomedecisionsincreasesthelikelihoodofcompliance
witharequest:atwoyearoldismorelikelytositdownforlunchifshegetstochoosewhichcerealtoeatandthebowloutofwhichshewilleatit.(Ofcourse,
rewardsandpunishmentstoocangetchildrentocomplyforthetimebeing.)

Beyondcomplianceisthedesiretoinducechildrentokeepfollowingourrulesevenwhenthereisnoimmediaterewardtobeobtainedorpunishmenttobeavoided
thatis,togetthemto"internalize"theserules.Hereitisevenmoreimportanttoprovidechildrenwithopportunitiestomakedecisions.Afterall,ifexplainingthereason
foraruleincreasestheprobabilitythatachildwillfollowit,invitinghimtohelpdevisetheruleandfigureouthowtoimplementitislikelytobeevenmoreeffective.
Nowhefeelssomecommitmenttotherule.(Thisiswhythemostimportantquestiontoaskteacherswhoseclassroomwallfeaturesalistofrulesforbehavioris,Who
madethemup?Theteacheraloneortheclassasawhole?)

Manypeoplewhowriteaboutchilddevelopmentandeducationstopatthispoint,contentingthemselveswiththeobservationthatitisbetterforchildrentointernalizea
rulethantoobeyonlyinthefaceofexternalcontrol.ButRyanandDecihavemadewhatIthinkisacriticallyimportantdistinctionbetweentwoversionsof
internalization.Inone,whichtheycall"introjection"(borrowingfrompsychoanalytictheory),childrenswallowtherulewhole.Itisinsidethembutessentially
unprocessed.Unhappily,itispossibletofeelcontrolledfromtheinsideaswellasfromtheoutsidepeoplesometimes"pressurethemselvesinmuchthesamewaythat
theycanbepressuredbyexternalevents."46

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Internalizationbyitselfeventhekindidentifiedasintrojectionsatisfiessomeonewhosechiefconcernistogetachildtodosomethingwithouttheadult'shaving
tostandaroundproddinghimwithbribesandthreats.Likeawinduptoy,achildwhohasintrojectedaparticularvaluewillstayinmotionafterthecontrollerhasleft
thescene.Nowonderthosewhodirectandprofitfromaparticulareconomicsystemprefer''aselfcontrollednotjustcontrolledworkforce."47Andno
wondertheconceptofinternalization,sofarfromrepresentingaclearalternativetobehaviorism,isimplicitlyembracedbySkinner:
Lettheindividualbefreetoadjusthimselftomorerewardingfeaturesoftheworldabouthim.Intheend,lethisteachersandcounselors"witheraway,"liketheMarxiststate.Inot
onlyagreewiththisasausefulideal,Ihaveconstructed[inWaldenTwo]afancifulworldtodemonstrateitsadvantages.48

RyanandDeciarguepersuasivelythatweshouldaimhigherthanthis.Tosaywewantchildrentointernalizeavalueisnotenoughbecausefrequentlythatprocess
takestheformofintrojection.Thealternativetheypropose,integration,involveshelpingachildmakethevalueherown,understanditsrationale,andexperiencea
senseofselfdeterminationinactinginaccordancewithit.Theobjectivehereisadeeperexperienceofchoice,oneunderstoodnotjustasaselectionofOptionA
overOptionBbutassomething"anchoredinthesenseofafuller,moreintegratedfunctioning."49Adultscanhelpchildrenreachthisgoalbysupportingtheir
autonomy,givingthemchancestosolvetheirownproblems(bothaloneandwiththeirpeers),invitingthemtoparticipateinmakingmeaningfuldecisions,andengaging
themindiscussionaboutalloftheabove.50

Evenintegration,however,isnotthelastwordonthesubject.Ultimately,Ithink,wewantchildrennotonlytobedeeplycommittedtoourvaluesandrulesbuttobe
capableofmakingtheirowndecisionsaboutwhichvaluesandrulestoembrace.Heretoothebestpreparationformakingdecisionsispracticeatmakingdecisions.
Butweadultswillalsohavetothinkintermsofhelpingchildrenacquirethesocial,ethical,andcognitiveskillsnecessaryforreflectionaboutwhichendsareworth
pursuingandhowbesttopursuethem.51Moreover,wewillhavetotrustchildrenatsomepoint,resistingthetemptationtojudgeoureffortsonthebasisofhow
closelythevalueschildrenchoosecorrespondtoourown.This,ofcourse,isafarcryfromtryingtoimplantapieceofourselvesinachildsoheorshe"voluntarily"
makesallthesamedecisionswewouldmake.

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Autonomyisnotsimplyonevalueamongmanythatchildrenshouldacquire,norisitsimplyonetechniqueforhelpingthemgrowintogoodpeople.Inthefinalanalysis,
noneofthevirtues,includinggenerosityandcaring,canbesuccessfullypromotedintheabsenceofchoice.Ajarringreminderofthatfactwasprovidedbythe
followingdeclarationmadebyamanwhosenameis(orshouldbe)familiartomostofus:herecalledbeing''taughtthatmyhighestdutywastohelpthoseinneed"but
addedthathelearnedthislessoninthecontextoftheimportanceof"obey[ing]promptlythewishesandcommandsofmyparents,teachers,andpriests,andindeedof
alladults....Whatevertheysaidwasalwaysright."

ThemanwhosaidthiswasRudolfHss,theinfamouscommandantofAuschwitz.52Prosocialvaluesareimportant,butiftheenvironmentinwhichtheyaretaught
emphasizesobedienceratherthanautonomy,allmaybelost.

BarrierstoChoice

Ifweareseriousaboutthevalueofselfdetermination,thenanumberofissueshavetobereframedinlightofthiscommitment.Forexample,itisatruismthatchildren
needandsecretlywantlimits,thatweareactuallydoingthemaservicebyimposingrestrictionsregardlessofhowtheymaycomplainaboutthem.Whileitistruethat
rulesandstructureshavetheirplace,"thecriticalquestion,"asThomasGordonhasremarked,"isnotwhetherlimitsandrulesareneededinfamiliesandschools,but
ratherwhosetsthem:theadultsaloneortheadultsandkidstogether?"53Fortheparentorteachertounilaterallydevisestructuresandimposethemonachild
becomesprogressivelymoreobjectionabletheolderthechildis.

Consideranotherexample:somepeopleinsistthattwoparentsmustalwayspresentaunitedfrontbytakingthesamepositioninfrontofachild.True,twowildly
differentapproachestoparentinginthesamefamilywillleadtoproblems,butthereissomethingrigidandinauthenticabouttryingtodenythatMomandDaddon't
alwaysseethingsthesameway.Moretothepoint,ifthechildisdeprivedofanyopportunitytodecidewhathappenstoher,theparents'unityamountstoanalliance
ofthemagainsther.54Again,choiceisthedecisiveissue.

"Achildmusthaveavoiceindeterminingwhatgoesintohisstomach,whathewears,whathedoeswithhisfreetimeandwhathe

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isanswerableforinhisclass,"writesNancySamalin,anadviseronparentingissues.55Buthowmuchofavoice?Atwhatage,andonwhatissues,shouldchildrenbe
decidingthingsforthemselves(orinconcertwithanadult)?Theansweristhatnopreciseformulacanbespecifiedinadvance.Strugglingtofigureouttherightbalance
daybydayisamajorpartofaparent'sjobdescription.

Adultsneedtocheckachild'scapacitytomakedecisions,tomakesurehehastherequisiteskills.Buttheyalsomustbepreparedforproblematicresponsesfrom
childrenwhoarenotusedtoexercisingchoice.Theseresponsesaremostcommonwhenateacherprovidestheopportunitytomakedecisionstostudentswhoare
accustomedtobeingcontrolled.First,childrenmaysimplyresist,indignantlycontendingthatquestionsaboutcurriculumandrulesarenottheirresponsibility.This
attemptto"escapefromfreedom,"asErichFrommhasputit,offerstheteacheraninvitationtotalkaboutwhoseclassroomitis,whatitfeelsliketobeordered
around,andsomeoftheotherthemesdiscussedinthischapter.

Second,childrenmaybeskepticalabouttheofferandtesttheadultbymakingobviouslyinappropriatesuggestionstoseeifshereassertsherauthorityandconfirms
theirsuspicionsthattheofferwasn'tmadeingoodfaith.Whiletheremaybesomeproposalsthatsimplycannotbeputintoeffect,theteacherwilloftenhavetogo
alongwithdecisionsheknowsaren'tsensible,suggestingthattheclasstrythemoutforawhileandthenreconvenetoassesswhethertheyseemtobeworking.

Third,childrenmaysaywhattheyassumetheadultwantstohear(orwhattheyhaveheardotheradultssay).Forexample,askedtoproposesomeguidelinesforclass
behavior,athirdgradermayrecite,"Weshouldkeepourhandstoourselves."Thiscanhappenbecausechildrenareanxioustopleaseus,orbecausetheydon'tfully
trustthattheteacherwantstohearwhattheyhavetosay,orbecausenoonehashelpedthemtothinkthroughthedecisionmakingprocess.56Itistemptingforthe
teachertoacceptthechild'sofferinggratefully,figuringthatshehasletchildrenchooseandgottentheruleshewantsthebestofbothworlds.Unfortunately,an
echoisnotachoice.Sheneedstostoptheprocessatthispointandtalkwiththechildrenaboutthedifferencebetween"sayingwhatyouthinksomebodywantsto
hear"and''sayingsomethingevenwhenyou'renotsurehowsomebodyisgoingtoreact,"emphasizingthatthelatteriswhatsheislookingforhere.

Someofthesesameresponsesmayturnupathome,too,particularlyifaparentswitchesfromanautocratictoamoredemocratic

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style.*Butchildren'sresistanceisnottheonlyproblemthatadultsneedtoconsider.Evenmorefundamentalisthequestionoftheirowncapacitytorelinquishcontrol.
Somemaybeunpreparedforthetransformationoftheadult/childrelationshipthatisentailedbylettingthechildmakechoices,andtheymayreactbysnatchingaway
thedecisionmakingpowerjustgiventothechildonthegroundsthatheorshehasfailedtomakethe"right"decision(thatis,theonetheyprefer).Thisnotonlyfailsto
supportchildren'sautonomybutcanalsogenerateconsiderableresentment.

Otheradults,meanwhile,granttochildrentherighttomakechoicesthatareseverelyconstrainedorevenillusoryfromthebeginning.Ihaveheardanumberofparents
andteachersproudlyannouncetheirwillingnesstoturnovertochildrentheopportunitytodecidethingswheretheadultdoesn'tmuchcarewhattheoutcomeis.This,
ofcourse,leavestheadultcomfortablyincontrolandconstitutesonlythefirststepinpromotingautonomy.Farmoremeaningfulisthewillingnesstoletchildrenmake
decisionsaboutthethingsthatmatter,wherewedocarewhattheycomeupwithbutarewillingtogiveuppoweranyway.Asoneeducatorsays,"Muchofthecontrol
weexerciseasteachers"and,wemightadd,asparents"belongsproperlytothechildrenanditisfearthatkeepsusfromgivingittothem."58

Finally,andmostinsidiously,thereisthepracticeoflettingchildrenthinktheyaremakingadecisionwhentheyhavenorealpowertodoso.(Thistactichasalready
beendiscussedinthecontextofmanipulationbyemployerstocreateapurelysubjectivesenseofcontrolamongworkersseepage195.)Irecentlyheardawell
knownnationaladvocateforchildrenandeducationreminisceaboutherexperiencesasateacher.Recallingastudentwhoconstantlyandarticulatelychallengedher
authority,shecommentedwithasmile,"Ihadtobeabetternegotiatorthanshewas."Thisremarksuggeststhatwhathadtakenplacewasnotnegotiationatallbut
manipulation.Afterall,anadulthastobeonhertoestobecleverenoughtodisguisewhatisreallygoingon.

Someparentstakeprideinlettingtheirchildrenthinktheyaremakingadecisionwhenthegameisactuallyrigged.The"engineeringofconsent,"asithasbeencalled,
seemstoofferautonomywhileproviding"theassuranceoforderandconformityamostseductive

*Happily,thereissomereasontothinkthat,overtheyears,moreparentsinourculturehavecometovalueautonomyasopposedtoobedience57andthereforemaybelesslikely
touseanautocraticstyleofparenting.

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combination.Yetitsappearanceanditsmeansshouldbeunderstoodforwhattheyreallyare:amethodofsecuringandsolidifyingtheinterestsofthoseinpower."59
ThisdescriptionbyeducatorJamesBeanemighthavebeeninspiredbythebehaviorofpoliticians,butitisnolessapplicabletotheprovinceofparents.Ifwewant
childrentolearnhowtochoose,theymusthavetheopportunitytomakerealchoices.

FreedomfromRewards

Notlongago,ahighschoolSpanishteacherinWisconsintoldmeastoryaboutaproblemthatdevelopedinoneofherclasses.Inanefforttopromotesocialskillsas
wellasacademicexcellence,shehadpairedupherstudentsforthetermsotheycouldhelpeachotherlearn.Onegirlwhohadanimpressivefacilitywiththelanguage
beggedtobereassignedtosomeoneelsesinceherpartnerwashavingtroublekeepingup.Theteacherdeniedthegirl'srequestbuteventuallydecidedtodosomething
moredrastic:shestoppedgivinggradestoherstudents.

Attheendoftheterm,whenitwastimetoswitchpartners,thehighachievinggirlsurprisedtheteacherbyaskingifshecouldcontinuetoworkwiththesamestudent.
Freedfromthepressureofgrades,shehadcometoenjoyhelpinghimandwatchinghisprogress.Herinclinationtocarewasnolongersmotheredbythepresenceof
extrinsicmotivatorsthesehadledhertolookonherpeersmostlyintermsofhowtheywouldaffectherchancesofgettinganA.

Themoralofthisstory,Ithink,isthatifwewantchildrentoactinacaringfashionorforthatmatter,tobecomepartofacommunity,tolearntotakeresponsibility
andmakechoicesweareobligedtosetupthestructuresthatwillfacilitatemovementinthisdirectionandalsotoremovethebarriers.Rewardsandpunishments
activelyinterferewithwhatwearetryingtodoathomeandatschool.Theydefeatourbesteffortstopromotepositivevalues,andtheyunderminethestrategies
describedthroughoutthischapter(andthetwoprecedingchapters).

Themostcompellingcaseforabandoningextrinsiccontrolismadeeverydaybyparentsandteacherswhohavedoneso.They(andtheirchildren)arelivingproofthat
itisnotonlyrealistictostopbribingchildrentobehavebutinfinitelypreferable.Forexample,teacherswhohavemovedtowardcreatingacaringcommunityinthe
classroom,aplacewherechildrenworktogethertomakedecisions,some

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timessaytheywouldquitratherthangobacktoaprogramofbehaviormodificationandruleenforcement.

Irealizethatpeoplewhouserewardsasamatterofcoursemayfindtheevidencereviewedinthisbookdeeplydisturbing.Infact,Ihopetheydo."DoesthismeanI'm
abadteacher(orparent)?"isaquestionthatmayreasonablycrossthemindofanyonewhohasreliedfaithfullyonbehavioristicassumptionsandpractices.Myanswer
isthatanyonewillingtochallengehimorherselfwiththatconcerntherebydemonstratesexactlythecourageandflexibilitythatchildrenneedtobearound.(Itis
temptingtorespondinstead,"Idon'tcarewhatyourstudiessay:rewardswork,andthat'sthat.")Thecapacitytocallintoquestionone'slongstandingwaysofthinking
andacting,toreconsideranapproachsoingrainedastobesecondnature,belongsatthetopofanylistofwhatmakesagoodparentorteacher.AndSkinnerian
dogmabelongsatthetopofanylistofwhatneedscarefulreexamination.Thebadnewsisthatwehavepaidanenormouspriceforhavingaccepteditforsolong.The
goodnewsisthatwecandobetter.

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AFTERWORD

Thebookyouhavejustfinishedreading,1 originallypublishedin1993,wasprobablythefirstoneinhistoryfromwhichexcerptsappearedsimultaneouslyinParents
magazineandtheHarvardBusinessReview.2 Thatfactseemstoconfirmitsleastcontroversialargument,whichisthatrewardsarewidelyusedonpeopleofallages
inoursociety.

Themorecontroversialargument,ofcourse,isthatdoingsodoesn'tmakesense.Sincethebook'spublication,I'vebeentryingtodevisebetterwaysofsynthesizing
theargumentsandexplainingthedata.Forexample,I'veoftenbeencalledupontoexplainwhyrewardsaresopopulariftheevidenceabouttheireffectsissoclearly
negative.Thereareseveralpossibleanswers,3 butonetowhichIkeepreturningisabasicerrorinthinkingaboutmotivation.AlthoughIscarcelybrushedupagainst
thispointinthebook,4 I'vecometofindithelpfulforclarifyingthewholeargument.Itcomesdowntothis:withoutreallythinkingaboutit,mostofusassumethereisa
thingcalled"motivation"asingleentityofwhichsomeonecanhavealotoralittle.One'slevelofmotivationcangouporitcangodown.Weofferpeoplerewards
fordoingwhatwewantbecausewefigurethiswillmakethemmoremotivatedtodoit.

Thisstrategymightverywellmakesenseiftheunderlyingmodelofmotivationwereaccurate.Unfortunately,itisn't.Theimplicitpremiseofthewords"intrinsic"and
"extrinsic"isthattherearequalitativelydifferentkindsofmotivation,andthekindmattersmorethantheamount.Evenlargequantitiesofthewrongkind(namely,
extrinsic)donotbodewellforthegoalsthatmatter.Thus,Iliketotellteachersthattheyshouldn'tcarehowmotivatedtheirstudentsare,justasmanagersshouldn't
carehowmotivatedtheiremployeesare.Whatmattersisnothowmotivatedsomeoneis,buthowsomeoneismotivated.

Inshort,themistakenbeliefthatmotivationcomesinonlyoneflavorhelpstoexplainwhyrewardsremainpopulardespitealltheharm

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theydo.Butthisdescriptionofarelativelysimpleerroralsooffersacontextinwhichtounderstandalltheevidencedescribedinchapter5:onceyourecognizethe
importanceofdistinguishingbetweenintrinsicandextrinsicmotivation,you'reabletomakesenseofthefactthatmoreofthelattercanmeanlessoftheformer.

Asuggestive,ifunscientific,replicationofalltheresearchonthisquestiontookplaceonOprahafewyearsago.IhadbeenaguestontheprograminJanuary1996to
talkaboutthesubjectofgenerositywhypeoplehelpthoseinneed,howtoraiseacaringchild,andsoforth.(AproducerhadsomehowcomeacrossabookI'd
writtenonthesubjectofaltruism,abookthathassolddozensofcopiesovertheyears.)5 Duringmysevenminutesoftelevisedpontification,Imentionedthatiffor
somereasonwewishedtoraisechildrenwhodon'tcareaboutanyoneotherthanthemselves,wecouldachievethatgoalbypraisingorrewardingthemwheneverwe
caughtthembeinggenerous(seepp.102,17374).ThisparadoxsurprisedandintriguedMs.WinfreysomuchsothatthesameproducercalledinOctobertoask
mebackontheprogramtotalkmoreabouttheeffectsofrewards.

Thistime,however,shehadsomethingmoreelaborateinmind.Theplanwastostageandvideotapeanexperimentsimilartosomeofthosedescribedinthisbook.
ThevideotapewouldbebroadcastandIwouldbeaskedtoexplainwhathadhappened."That,"Isaidtotheproducer,"isagreatidea!""This,"Isaidtomyself,
''cannotendwell."(WhatdopeoplewhoworkonaTVshowknowaboutreplicatingamethodologicallyrigorousexperimentalprotocol?)Butfortunatelythestaffhad
donetheirhomeworkandwereabletoborrowatechniquethatEdDeciattheUniversityofRochesterhadpioneeredtwentyfiveyearsearlier(seepp.6970).

Twentychildrenwereinvitedintoanofficebuildingoneatatimeandweregreetedbysomeonewhopretendedsheworkedforatoycompany.Eachchildwasinvited
tohelpevaluatesomenewpuzzles.Halfthekidswerepromisedarewardoffivedollarsforeachpuzzletheytested.Aftertheplayingandevaluatingweredone,each
childwasleftaloneintheroomforafewminutesandsecretlyvideotaped.Itturnedoutthateveryoneofthetenkidswhohadparticipatedintheevaluationwithout
anymentionofpaymentwentbacktoplayingwithoneofthepuzzleswhentheformaltestingperiodwasoverandnoonewasaround.Butofthetenkidswhohad
beenrewardedforparticipating,ninedidnottouchapuzzleagain.

Boy,wasIrelieved.But,likeanyonewhohasreadchapter5,Ican'tsayIwassurprised.Scoresofstudies(thatnevermadeittotelevision)

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havefoundessentiallythesamething:assoonaspeopleareofferedanincentivefordoingsomething,theytendtoloseinterestinthatactivity.Whetheryoufiguredthat
outforyourself,readaboutitintheJournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,orsawitonOprah,itmakesyouthinkaboutalltheintrinsicmotivationthat's
beingkilledatthisverymoment.

Needlesstosay,thecounterproductiveeffectsofrewardsaren'tlimitedtokidsdoingpuzzles.Between1993and1999,articlesinnewspapersandjournalshave
raisedallsortsofquestionsaboutappliedbehaviorism.Ithasbeensuggestedthatofferingrewardsforinformationleadingtothearrestofacriminalrarelyprovestobe
veryeffective,6 thatprizesforscientificaccomplishment(liketheNobel)mayactuallygetinthewayofdoinggoodscience,7 andthatincentivestopromotehealthier
lifestyles(byexercising,loweringone'sbloodpressure,quittingsmoking,andsoon)seldomworkverywell,especiallyoverthelonghaul.8 Moreover,researchers
haveraisedfurtherconcernsabouttheeffectsofpraise.9

OnethingI'velearnedoverthesesixyearsisthat,regardlessofhowmuchevidencemaysupportthepropositionthatrewardsarecounterproductive,somepeopleare
justnotreadytoconsiderthispossibility.Forexample,theadaptationofchapter7thatappearedintheHarvardBusinessReviewgenerateddozensofletterstheir
tonerangedfromhighlycritical(atoneendofthespectrum)allthewaytodownrightnasty(attheother).Furthermore,whenIlookedattheseletterscarefully,I
noticedthatthemosthostileresponsescamefromconsultingfirmsthatpeddleincentiveprogramstocorporations.ItoccurredtomethatifIhadwrittenabiting
criticismoftheparticularrewardschemestheseoutfitsweredesigningandofferedmyownversionintheirplace,thereactionwouldprobablyhavebeenfarmilder.
Whatcontinuestoinfuriatemanybusinesspeopleistheargumentthatrewardsbytheirverynatureareproblematic.

Evenoutsidethecorporateworld,peoplewhoarethemostthreatenedbytheargumentsinthisbooksometimesannouncetriumphantlythatbecauseImakemyliving
bywritingandspeaking,itstandstoreasonthatImustbeextrinsicallymotivatedandthereforeahypocrite.IfIhadanickelforeverytimeI'veheardthisaccusation,I
wouldbewell,Iwouldn'tbemoremotivated,ofcourse,butIwouldhaveanawfullotofnickels.Remarkably,peopleIhavenevermetfeelnohesitationabout
attributingtomeacertainmotivationalorientationorsetofvalues.10Attheveryleast,thisaccusationreflectsaconfusionbetweenmakingmoneyandbeingdrivenby
money,similarto

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theconfusionbetweenpayingemployeesandtryingtousepayasareward(addressedonpp.18283).

AnotherresponseI'veencounteredquiteoftenisthechargethatanycriticismofrewardsinaparticularsetting(forexample,gradesinschool)ismisguidedbecause
"ourwholesocietyisrunonrewardsandpunishments."Thisargumentfranklypuzzlesme.Ifthepointisthatit'snotgoingtobeeasytouprootasinglemanifestationof
somethingthatisverywidespread,Iagree.Buthowdoesthepervasivenessofapracticeconstituteadefenseofit?Ifthere'sgoodreasontoopposesomething,then
evidenceabouthowdeeplyentrencheditiswouldjustseemtounderscoretheimportanceoftryingtobringaboutchange.

NoonehasreactedtothisbookwithmoreragethanthedevotedadherentsofSkinnerianpsychology,theacademicsandconsultantswholivebytheveryprecepts
thatI'vecalledintoquestionor,moreaccurately,thatalltheresearchI'vedescribedhascalledintoquestion.OnoneoftheirInternetdiscussionforums,afrantic
appealforassistanceappearedafewyearsago,shortlybeforeIwasscheduledtogiveaspeechinSaltLakeCity.Theheadingread:"Help!AlfieKohniscomingto
Utah!"Thewriteraskedfor(andreceived)ideasforhowtoattackme11andminimizetheimpactofdatathatmightleadpeopleintheaudiencetoquestiontheOne
TrueWayofbehavioralanalysisandreinforcementcontingencies.

Understandably,behavioristsweredelightedwhenoneoftheirownannouncedthatresearchshowedrewardsactuallydon'treducepeople'sinterestinwhatthey're
doing.ForherdoctoraldissertationattheUniversityofAlberta,JudyCameronreviewednearlyahundredstudiesand,usingastatisticaltechniquecalledmeta
analysis,combinedthemintoonelargedatapool.Sheconcludedthatmostkindsofrewardsweren'tharmful12and(alongwithherthesisadviser,W.DavidPierce)
publishedherresultsin1994.13TwoyearslatershejoinedRobertEisenberger,whohaslongbelievedthatrewardscanincreasecreativity,14tosummarizetheir
respectiveworkintheAmericanPsychologist.15

Now,justasitmightnotbesurprisingtolearnthatbehavioristscanfigureoutawaytoconstruetheevidenceinordertoexoneraterewards,youmightnotbe
surprisedtolearnthatacriticofbehaviorism(likeme,forexample)wouldtakeissuewithsuchaclaim.Ithinkit'simportanttolingeronthesearticlesforamoment,if
onlybecausethey'vereceivedquiteabitofattentionamongresearchersandhavebeenenthusiastically,evenexultantly,promotedbyfansofincentivesandbehavior
managementprograms.

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TherealityisthatCameron'sassertionthatrewardsarebasicallyinnocuousdependsondrawingconclusionsselectivelyfromtherelevantresearch,omittingother
studies,andblurringimportantdistinctions.Forexample,herownreviewofthedataconfirmsthatwhenpeopleexpecttogetatangiblerewardforcompletingatask,
theydoindeedtendtospendlesstimeonthattasklaterthandopeoplewhowereneverpromisedareward.Butsheisatpainstodownplaythisfinding,preferring
insteadtoemphasizethatrewardsseemnottobeharmfulundercertainconditions,suchaswhenpeoplearen'texpectingtoreceivethem(whichisn'tterribly
surprising).16

Cameronalsoarguesthatnegativeeffectsarelimitedtotangiblerewards,whereastheverbalkindaregenerallyhelpful.Butthewayshearrivesatthatconclusionisby
(a)lumpingtogetherstudiesthatdefinepraiseinverydifferentways,17(b)failingtoincludestudiesthatfoundnegativeeffectsofpraise,18and(c)distortingsomeof
thestudiesthatshedoesinclude.Forexample,shepointstoanexperimentbyRuthButlerasprovingthat"extrinsicverbalreward"producesextremelypositive
effects.Butanyonewhotakesthetroubletolookupthatstudywillfindthatitactuallydistinguishedbetween"comments"and"praise,"findingimpressiveresultsfrom
theformerbutdiscoveringthatthelatter''didnotevenmaintaininitialinterestatitsbaselinelevel."19

There'salotmoretobesaidabouttheflawsofthispieceofwork,20butthemostdecisiveresponsecomesintheformofanewmetaanalysis,whichwasspecifically
undertakentocorrecttheerrorsinCameron'sdesign.21Iwishthatithadbeenpublishedintimetoincludeintheoriginaleditionofthisbookbecauseitisbyfarthe
mostcomprehensive,statisticallyprecisereviewofthedataontheeffectofrewardsonintrinsicmotivation.Usingacarefulsetofcriteriaforwhichstudiestoinclude,22
Deci,RichardKoestner,andRichardRyananalyzed128experimentsandfoundthattangiblerewardshadasignificantnegativeeffectonintrinsicmotivationan
effectthat"showedupwithparticipantsrangingfrompreschooltocollege,withinterestingactivitiesrangingfromwordgamestoconstructionpuzzles,23andwith
rewardsrangingfromdollarbillstomarshmallows."24

Contrarytoclaimsbybehaviorists,moreover,thisreviewoftheresearchshowedthat"byfarthemostdetrimentaltype"ofrewardistheonegiven"asadirectfunction
ofpeople'sperformance."Thefamiliararrangementinwhichyougetsomethingdesirableonlyifsomeoneelsedecidesyou'vedoneagoodjobisthesurestwayto
makepeoplelessinterestedinwhatthey'redoing,accordingtothedata.Another

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interestingfindingtocomeoutofthisnewmetaanalysisisthatwhileverbalrewardsseemedtoenhanceintrinsicmotivationinstudieswherethesubjectswerecollege
students,theydidn'thaveapositiveeffectonchildrentheverypeopleonwhompraiseislavishedmostoftenintherealworld.

Theotherstudies,articles,andeventsfromthehalfdozenyearsfollowingthisbook'spublicationarerelevantspecificallytotheareasofbusiness,education,and
parenting,respectively.TheremainderofthisAfterwordconsiderseachofthesetopicsinturn.

BusinessUpdate

InAmericanbusiness,twofactsaboutrewardsystemscontinuetobetrue:they'restillwidelyusedandthey'restillnotveryeffective.Considertheresultsofasurvey
conductedbyaconsultingfirminlate1998,asdescribedintheNewYorkTimes:
Employeeincentiveplans...arespreadingtocoverworkersonlowerrungsoftheorganizationalladder.Butthatdoesn'tnecessarilymeanthattheplansareworking.Thesurvey
of159companies,morethanathirdofthemintheFortune500,foundthat72percentnowhavevariablepayplans,upfrom47percentin1990....Butonly22percentofthe
companiessurveyedsaidtheirplanshadhelpedthemachievealloftheirbusinessobjectives28percentsaidtheirplanshadachievednoneofthem.25

(Eventhesenumbersprobablyoverstatethesuccessofincentiveprogramsbecauseitistypicallythe"managerswithavestedinterestinthesuccessofaplan[who]are
evaluatingitsresults"inthesesurveys.26Moreover,whateverbenefitsreallydooccuraremoreshorttermthanlongterm,andmoreaboutquantitythanqualityof
work.)

Anecdotalevidenceofdisenchantmentwithrewardschemeshasbeenaccumulatingoverthelastfewyears,atleastjudgingbywhatappearsinbusinessmagazines:

InAugust1993,thecoverofTrainingmagazine(noantibehavioristbroadsheet,youmaybesure)depictedamoldy,festeringcarrotbeingextendedonafancy
pillow.Theleadarticlewastitled"WhyNoOneLikesYourIncentiveProgram."

Halfayearlater,SalesandMarketingManagementmagazine,tacklingperhapsthemostdeeplyentrenchedversionofrewardsintheworkplace,rananarticle
called"TheCaseAgainstCommissions."

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Severalmonthsafterthat,Inc.magazinefollowedsuitwithaheartfeltessay,''IncentivePayIsn'tGoodforYourCompany,"writtenbythepresidentofa
manufacturingfirminLouisville.Theauthordescribedhowabonusplanhadbroughtaboutsomepositiveresultsforafewmonths,afterwhich"productivitybeganto
drop."Soon,thecompanywasmarkedby"adivisivenessthatwasn'ttherebefore,"asemployees"weresobusyfightingoverwhowasgoingtopayforwhatthatthey
couldn'tmakedecisionsthatweregoodforthecustomersorthecompanyasawhole."

Thatsamemonth,acolumnistfortheAmericanLawyerraisedconcernsabouttheuseofperformanceincentivesinlawfirms,notingthattheyrepresented"an
excusetoabdicateresponsibilityforcoaching,counseling,andassistinganexcusenottomanage."Payforperformance,heargued,ispredicatedontheassumption
thatproblemsare"theresponsibilityoftheindividual,notthefirm."

Nottobeleftout,CFO27magazineweighedinwith"TheMythofIncentivePay"inJuly1995.ThisarticlebeganbydescribinghowDuPonthadcanceledan
incentiveprogram"partlyinresponsetoplummetingemployeemorale."ATexasconsultantremarkedthat,inhisexperience,"veryfew"peoplewhoworkin
companiesusingrewardsystems"saythey'reworkingwell.''28

Ihaven'tattemptedanythinglikeanexhaustivesurveyofthebusinesspressoverthelastfewyearsforallIknow,manyotherarticleshaveraisedsimilarconcerns.But
managersdon'tevenneedtoreadthetestimonyofotherstorealizethatincentiveplanstendnottolastverylongbeforethey'rereplaced.Thequestion,then,isthis:
Howmanytimesmustsuchprogramsbejunkedbeforewerealizethattheproblemisnotgoingtobesolvedwithanewversionofthesamething?Atwhatpointdoes
itbegintodawnonusthatthetroublerestswiththewholeconceptofturningcompensationintoareward?

Theanswertothatquestiondependsinpartonthemotivesofthemanagerswhoinitiatedtheprogram.Insomecases,tyingpaytoperformancewasn'treallyintended
to"motivate"employeesorenhancethequalityofwork.Itwasmeantonlytocutpayrollcostsbyputtingmoreofpeople'ssalariesatrisk.Evenbythismodest
criterion,however,andevenputtingasidetheotherproblemstheycreate,incentivesmaybedifficulttojustify.In1995,aconsultantsentmeananalysisofwhathe
called"theexpenseincurredforthesolepurposeofthecareandfeedingoftheincentivesystem"atacellulartelephonecompany.Hehadcalculatedthatsalespeople
andmanagerswerespendingfully20percentoftheirtimeinactivitiesrelatedtothecommissionsystem

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itself,andthislosttimewascostingthecompanymillionsofdollarsayear.Hiscalculationsdidn'tevenincludeanumberofhiddencosts:stress,turnover,fraud,and
actionsonthepartofsalespeoplethatamountedto"gamingthesystem"thatis,figuringouthowtomaximizetheirowncommissionsdespitethelongtermdamage
donetotheorganization.

ThatrewardsystemsarecostlyandharmfulwasalessonlearnedsomeyearsagobyMarshallIndustries,ahugeelectroniccomponentsdistributorinsouthern
California.Longlockedintoapopbehavioristsensibility,thetopexecutivesfinallyrealizedthatthequestiontheyshouldbeaskingwasnot"Howshouldwereward
ouremployees?"but"Howcanwestoprewardingouremployeesandstarttreatingthemwithrespect?"Itwastheveryexistenceofsalescommissionsandother
incentivesthatwaspreventingthecompanyfrommovingforward.Onlywhenthislightbulbclickedondidthingsbegintochange.Afterafullyearoflistening,
reflecting,and"losingsleep,"CEORobRodinandhiscolleaguesfirstgotridofallcontestsandotherpracticesthatsetemployeesagainstoneanother.Thenthey
eliminatedmanagementincentives.Finally,theytookthemostcourageousstepreplacingsalescommissionsandeverythingelsesmackingofpayforperformance
withabasesalary.29Asaresult,turnoverdroppedbyanastonishing80percent,moralesoared,salespeoplebegancoordinatingtheireffortsmoreeffectively,and
sales,alongwithprofitability,grewdramatically.In1992,whenMarshallbegan"deincentivizing,"itsannualsaleswere$575million.WhenIcheckedinsevenyears
later,theyhadtripled.Frankly,Rodinremarked,ifthecompanyhadcontinuedtousecommissionsandincentives,''I'mnotsurewe'dstillbeinthegametoday."30

MarshallIndustries,likeothercompaniesintheprocessofphasingoutrewardsystems,wasgreatlyinfluencedbytheworkofW.EdwardsDeming,whodiedjust
afterthisbookwaspublished.Indeed,ithasbeenmyexperiencethatthemorefamiliarabusinesspersoniswithDeming'swritings,themorereceptiveheorsheis
likelytobetotheargumentsandevidenceIpresent.Conversely,thosewhoknownothingabouttheQualitymovementareapttoreactwithconfusionwhenthe
conceptofpayforperformanceiscalledintoquestion.InterestinDeming'sideashasrecededsomewhatsincehisdeath,sadtosay,butIstillmeetmanagersand
consultantswhohaveabsorbedhismessageabouttheneedtoimprovethe"system"inaworkplace,andtheytellmetheywouldnevergobacktoblamingand
manipulatingtheindividualswhoarecaughtinthatsystem.Alongtheselines,Irecommend

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TheLeader'sHandbook(1998)byPeterScholtes,whichincludesthemostincisiveindictmentofperformanceappraisals(thatis,theritualisticratingofemployees)
thatithaseverbeenmypleasuretoread.31

Thosewhothirstforharddataaboutincentivesarelikelytoremainunsatisfied.Tothebestofmyknowledge,whatIwroteonpage126remainstruesixyearslater:
notasinglecontrolledstudyhaseverfoundthattheuseofrewardsproducesalongtermimprovementinthequalityofwork.Infact,experimentalsimulations
continuetosuggestthattheoppositeistrue.Psychologistshavediscovered,forexample,thatsupervisorstendedtoprovidelessinformationalfeedbacktoemployees
andwere"morecontrollingintheirstyleofsupervisionwhentheirjobincludedadministeringrewards."32

Inanotherstudy,directlyrelatedtotheselffulfillingprophecydiscussedonpage141,supervisorsweretoldthatsomeonewhoseworktheywereoverseeingeither
enjoyedthetaskorwasdoingitjustforthemoney.Eventhoughthesemessagesweregeneratedrandomlyandborenorelationtotheindividual'sactualattitudes,the
supervisorswhobelievedtheywereinchargeofsomeonewhowasextrinsicallymotivatedrespondedbybecomingmorecontrolling.Asaresult,theemployeedidin
factenduplessinterestedinthetask,confirmingtheexpectationabouthowone"hasto"treatsuchemployees.Conversely,thebeliefthataworkerwasn'tjust
interestedingettingarewardledsupervisorstocreatethekindofworkenvironmentwheretheemployeedidcometoenjoytheworkmore.33

AnEnglishresearcher,meanwhile,decidedonaboldstrategy:heexaminedtheexperienceofpeoplewhoareonthereceivingendofrewardprograms.Insteadof
askingthemanagerswhodanglegoodiesinfrontoftheirsubordinatesabouttheeffectsofdoingso,heactuallythoughttoaskthedanglees.34Theresearchersurveyed
morethan1,200workersatthreeverydifferentorganizationsthatusedincentiveplansandarrivedatthefollowingconclusion:"Theoverallpictureisoneofa
predominantlynegativeimpactofPRP[performancerelatedpay]onemployeemotivationacrossallorganisationsandbetweenhighandlowperformers.These
findingswouldtendtosupportagrowingviewthatPRPoftendoesmoretodemotivatethemajorityofaverageperformingemployeesanddoeslittletoenhancethe
motivationofthetopfivepercent(whoarelikelytoperformwellinanycase)."35Shortlyafterthisstudywasreleased,a"damninginternalreport"foundthat''asystem
linkingpaytoperformancefor68,000staffattheInlandRevenue"theBritishequivalentoftheIRS"isuniversallyregardedbyemployeesasdemotivating."36

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Thereleaseofsuchreports,alongwiththepublicationofstudiesandmagazinearticlessuchasthoseI'vedescribed,is,ofcourse,noguaranteethatrewardplanswill
bedropped.Indeed,booksarestillbeingpublishedthatvergeonselfparody,bookswithtitleslike1,001WaystoRewardEmployees.(Presumablythepublisher
rejectedalternativetitlessuchas1,001WaystoKeepTreatingEmployeesLikePets.)BusinessanalystsstillreactwithgratitudewhenIBM,havingthrown135,000
peopleoutofwork,decidednottogiveitsremainingemployeesaraisebuttoincreasetheuseofmeritpay.Oneconsultantenthused,"Afterdeliveringthestickforso
long,it'snicetoseethemusingthecarrot"37thepremisebeingthatmanipulationbycarrotandmanipulationbystickexhaustthepossibilities.Anditisstillthecase
thatanyevidenceofthefailureofincentivesystems(suchasthesurveymentionedatthebeginningofthissection)isfollowedbyastalelistofsuggestionsforcreatinga
"successfulincentivepayplan":makesuregoalsareclear,strategiesarestraightforward,employeesaregiven"ascorecard"tohelpthemfollowalong,etc.,etc.38
Deming'soddlymonotonicbullfrogvoiceechoesinmyears:''Willtheyneverlearn?"

Yetanothersurveywasreleasedafewyearsago,similartothosedescribedonpages13031,demonstratingthatmoneymatterslesstomostpeoplethanthequality
oftheworkenvironment.Askedtonamethemostimportantreasonsfordecidingtotakeajob,respondentsrankedwagesorsalarysixteenthonalistoftwenty
wellbehind"opencommunication,""stimulatingwork,"and"controloverworkcontent."39Nevertheless,managerscontinuetobelievenotonlythatmoneymatters
mostbutthatitwill"motivate"people.

Thelatterideaisespeciallypopularamongconsultantswhodesigncompensationsystems.Bymakingpaycontingentontherightthingsintherightway,theybelieve
theycancausepeopletodoabetterjob.Inreality,however,compensationspecialistsmightbecomparedtotheengineerschargedwithmaintaininganoffice
building'sheatingandcoolingsystems:iftheydotheirjobpoorly,iftheairistoohotorcoldordry,thenpeoplecan'tdotheirbestwork.Butnomatterhowwellthey
dotheirjob,thebestthatcanbeexpectedisthatpeopleforgetabouttheclimatealtogetherandthinkabouthowtoimproveandreallyenjoywhattheydo.No
onehiresaheatingspecialistto"motivate"employeesitisequallyludicroustoexpectthatofacompensationspecialist.

Again,thepeoplemostlikelytounderstandthisfactarenotthosewhoimposeincentiveplansbutthoseonwhomtheseplansareim

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posed.OnceIgaveaspeechatanoilcompanythatshallremainnameless.(Itcouldhavebeenanyoilcompanywhosenameisspelledwithtwox's.)Giventhe
widespreaduseofrating,ranking,andrewardsatthiscompanyandmyintentiontodenouncethesepracticesIbrieflyconsideredhiringabodyguardtoensure
mysafedeparturefromtheauditorium.Tomysurprise,theaudienceofmiddlelevelmanagersgreetedmymessagewithenthusiasmandevenreliefheadswere
noddingallovertheroom.Theyreadilyunderstoodthatrewards"Dothisandyou'llgetthat"arefundamentallyinstrumentsofcontrol.40Theyareeffective
meansbywhichpeopleatthetopoforganizationscanmaintaintheirpoweroverthosedownbelow.Whethertopexecutivesunderstandthisconsciouslyornot,they
are(atleastinmyexperience)farlesslikelytobereceptivetoargumentsanddatathatchallengecarrotandstickpsychology.Theresistanceincreasesasyoumove
upthehierarchy.

Afteranotherlecture,Ireceivedanevaluationform*onwhichsomeonehadwritten,"Excellentpresentation"butadded,"You'vetakenthewhipoutofmyhand.Now
howdoIgetthehorsetorunfastaroundthetrack?"ThisiswhatIwasgettingatonpages17980insuggestingthatweneedtoreflectonlongtermgoalsbefore
demandingtohearthe''alternative"torewards.Tobesure,noteveryexecutivewouldexplicitlycasthisorhergoalsinthesametermsasthatconferenceparticipant.
Buttotheextentthatimprovementisconstruedinquantitativeratherthanqualitativetermsandemployeesareessentiallyregardedasbeastsofburden,wecanexpect
bonuses,meritpay,salescommissions,incentiveplans,andotherpayforperformancesystemstobewithusforalongtime.Ontheotherhand,totheextentthatwe
arereadytorethinktheunderlyingpremises,rewardsmaywellgothewayofthebuggywhip.

SchoolUpdate

Whenmyphoneringsthesedays,Ibracemyselfforanothercallfromadistraughtparent,someoneinsearchofsympathyoradvicebecausehisorherchildisbeing
subjectedtosomesortofelaboraterewardsys
*There'snothinglikearguingagainstthedemeaning,destructivepracticeofreducingemployeestonumbers("Congratulations!You'reafour!")onlytohaveconference
participantsreceiveevaluationformsonwhichtheyareexpectedtoratemyspeechonthesamescale.

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teminschool.Onefather,forexample,toldmethathisson'sfirstgradeteacherratesthechildren'sbehavioreverydayonafourpointscale.Theboyexplainedtohim
howthesystemworks:a1,thelowestpossiblerating,isveryrarea2isessentiallyapunishmentforanyactionfrownedonbytheteacheranda3signifiesgeneral
compliance."Whatabouta4?"askedthefather."Well,"repliedtheboy,seemingawedbythemerementionofthisnumber,"togeta4,you'dhavetobeastatue!"

Evenaveryyoungchildrealizesthatbehaviormanagementsystemsarenotintendedtofostercuriosityorcreativityorcompassiontheyareprimarilydesignedtoelicit
mindlessobedience,thelogicalconclusionevidentlybeingastudentwhoresemblesaninanimateobject.Moreover,thereiseveryindicationthatthesetacticscontinue
tobewidespread:onerecentstudyofnearly500elementaryteachersacrosstheUnitedStatesfoundthatthreeoutoffourgaveoutpointsorawardsfor"good"
behavior.41Ihavebeenaccumulatingpublishedevidencethatconfirmsthis:achirpyarticleinateacher'smagazinesuggesting"monthlymotivatorswhenyoucatch
yourstudentsbeinggood"alargebookmarklistingonehundredwaystopraisekidsaclumpofclippingsfromnewspapers,eachdescribing(usuallyuncritically)a
newrewardprograminstitutedinlocalschoolsandsoon.Ireceivemanyoftheseitemsfromthoughtfulcorrespondentswhoareonthelookoutforwaystoraisemy
bloodpressure.

Evenwhenrewardsaren'tusedtocontrolbehavior,theyremainpopularforgettingcompliancewithacademicdemands.Themostobviousexampleisgrades.Tothe
researchdescribedearlierinthisbookwecannowaddaseriesofstudiesconductedbyEricAndermanandhiscolleagues.They'vefoundthatwhenteachers
emphasizetheimportanceofgettinggoodgradesorhightestscores,studentscometo"valuereadingless"42andarealsomorelikelytocheat.43Furthermore,high
schoolstudentswhotendtothinkaboutcurrenteventsintermsofwhatthey'llneedtoknowforagradearelessknowledgeablethantheirpeers,evenaftertaking
othervariablesintoaccount44anotherindicationthatthequalityoflearningsufferswhenstudentsarethinkingaboutgettingA's.

Asifgradesweren'tdoingenoughdamage,tensofthousandsofschoolsnowusecorporatesponsoredreadingincentives.AtleastasdisturbingasPizzaHut's"Book
It!"45issomethingcalledAcceleratedReader.Here,aschoolpurchases(fromanenormouslyprofitablecorporationcalledAdvantageLearningSystems,Inc.)a
packagedprograminwhichstudentsmustchoosetheirreadingfromalimitedlistoftitles,thentakeafactbasedcomputerizedquizoneachbookinorder

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toearnpointsandprizes.Manyeducatorswhospendscarcefundsonthisprogramsimply(andunderstandably)wishtoencouragereading.Butwhatmattersmore
thanthefactthatchildrenreadiswhytheyreadandhowtheyread.Withincentivebasedprograms,theanswerto"why"is"togetrewards,"andthis,asthedata
makepainfullyclear,isoftenattheexpenseofinterestinreadingitself.Theanswerto"how,"meanwhile,atleastwithAcceleratedReader,is"superficially'':they're
skimmingforfactstheywillneedforthequiz,whichisaltogetherdifferentfromthesortofthoughtfulengagementwe'dliketoseekidscometoadoptwhentheyopen
abook.46

In1997,JeffMcQuillanatCaliforniaStateUniversitypublishedareviewoftheavailableresearchontheeffectsofreadingincentives.Hefoundthatthefew
investigationsthatdidturnuppositiveeffectstendedtorelyonselfselectedsamplesofstudents,whichmakesitdifficulttodrawconclusionsaboutwhatactuallyledto
theresults.Typically,thestudiesalsofailedtocomparethesestudentstootherswhowerenotinsuchprograms,muchlesstootherswhowereinprogramsthatdidn't
involverewards.(Forexample,otherresearchhasshownthattimesetasideforfree,voluntaryreadinginschooliseffectiveatpromotingbothskillsandinterest.)
McQuillanconcludedthatnoneoftheavailablestudies"showedanyclearlypositiveeffectonreadingcomprehension,vocabulary,orreadinghabitsthatcouldbe
attributedsolelytotheuseofrewardsandincentives,andinonecasethepractice[ofofferingrewards]mayhaveledtoadecline."Herecommendedthatschools
spendmoneyonbooksratherthanonpackagedprogramsthatofferextrinsicinducementsforreading.47

Readingincentivesandgradesarepervasiveinthiscountry,ofcourse,butoverthelastfewyearsithasbecomeincreasinglycleartomethatthestudentsmostlikelyto
bemanipulatedwithrewardsandpunishmentsarechildrenofcolor,particularlythosefromlowincomeareas.Behavioralcontrolisrampantinschoolsthatserve
mostlypoorAfricanAmericanandLatinopopulations.Giventhedetrimentaleffectsofthesetacticswithrespecttointellectual,social,andmoraldevelopment,this
suggeststhatwearelookingatonemorepieceofevidencethatthesekidsgettheworstkindofteaching.Buttheymayalsobesubjecttosuchcontrolasamatterof
publicpolicy.Earlier,48ImentionedaWisconsinprogramknownasLearnfarethatcutswelfarebenefitstofamilieswhoseteenagersskipschool,aprogram
subsequentlyimitatedbymorethantwodozenotherstates.Nowitseemsthedataarein:stateauditorsfoundtheprogram"isdoinglittletoboostattendancerates"
andhashad"nosignificantimpactongraduationrates."49

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Ofcourse,theconventionalthinkingamongsomebehavioristsisthatsticksshouldsimplybereplacedwithcarrots.Soin1995tworesearcherssetabouttoprovethat
thisswitchwouldworkhere.Theydesignedatwoyearexperimentinwhich"adolescentgirlsatriskofschoolfailure"wereofferedfinancialincentivesforimproving
theirperformance.Theresult:contrarytotheexperimenters'prediction,thesestudentsendedupdoingworsewithrespecttobothgradesandschoolabsencesthan
didgirlswhoreceivedsocialandeducationalserviceswithoutanyrewards.Moreremarkably,theyalsodidworsethanthecontrolgroupthatis,thegirlswhowere
justleftalone!50Aswe'veseeninotherstudies,51offeringrewardsprovedtobenotmerelyineffectivebutactuallycounterproductive.

Offeringmoneyforgoodgradesis,ineffect,arewardforareward.Thus,weshouldn'tbesurprisedtofindthatthedamagingeffectsofgradesarethereby
compounded,evenwhenparentsusethispractice.Nowresearchhasshownexactlythat.Onegroupofsocialscientistsinterviewedfifthgradechildrenandtheir
parentsinVermont,lookingcarefullyatmomsanddadswhoeitherpunishedtheirkidsforbadgradesorrewardedthemforgoodgrades.Bothpractices,itturned
out,"wereassociatedwithlowergradesandpoorerachievementscores"aswellas"lessmotivation,pleasure,andpersistenceindoingtheirworkinschool."Infact,
rewardingseemedtobeevenmoreharmfulthanpunishing.52

Tobefair,thisdoesn'tprovethatrewardsandpunishmentscausedtheseproblemstheymayhavebeenusedmorewithstudentswhoalreadyhadacademic
difficultiesforotherreasons.Butattheveryleastitseemsclearthatrewardsandpunishmentsdidn'thelp.Strongerevidenceofacausalrelationshipcamefromtwo
othersources.Thefirstwasanunpublishedstudyofnearly8,000studentsinthe1980sthatfoundnotonlythatparents'useofpunishmentsandrewardswas
associatedwithlowergrades,butthatstudentswhohadbeenrewardedforgoodgradessubsequentlygotlowergrades.53

ThesecondconfirmationcamefromastudyofchildreninCaliforniapublishedin1994.AdeleGottfriedandhercolleagueshadbeenfollowingaboutahundred
motherseversincetheirchildrenwereayearold.Eightyearslater,theyzeroedinonthosewhopushedtheirkidshardtodowellinschool,especiallythosewhogave
rewardsforgoodgradesorremovedprivilegesforbadgrades.Thechildrenofthesemothersbecamelessinterestedinlearningand,asaresult,werelesslikelytodo
wellinschool.Paradoxically,themorethatachievementwastheparents'chiefconcern,thelowerwasthekids'achievement.54

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Thislastpointsuggeststhattheproblemmaynotbejustwithrewardsandpunishmentspersebutwithanexcessiveconcernaboutkids'performance.Theuseof
grades,stickers,andothergoodiesoftenimpliesthattoomuchattentionisbeingpaidtohowwellstudentsaredoinginschool.Thisisnotatallthesamethingas
helpingstudentstobecomefullyengagedwithwhatthey'redoing.Bribesandthreatsareintendedtoincreaseperformance(or,ifyoulike,"raisestandards"),butthat
mayunderminelearning.

Iwroteaboutthisfascinatingissueonpages15558buthavelatelybeenexploringitmorecarefully,teasingoutitsimplicationsforschoolreform.I'vealsobegunto
lookatalternativestotheuseofgradesandtoanalyzethefactorsthatpromote(aswellasundermine)children'sintrinsicmotivationtolearn.This,inturn,hasledme
torecognizethelimitsoftraditionaleducationmoregenerally.Oneexampleofastudyreleasedjustastheoriginaleditionofthisbookwasbeingpublishedmaysuffice
here.Researchersconfirmedthatwhenthecurriculumisengaging,studentswhoaren'tgradedatalldojustaswellonaproficiencyexamasthosewhoare.55This
wouldseemtoimplythatstudents'lackofinterestinschoolassignments,widelyinterpretedasprovingthatgradesare"needed"tomotivatethem,mayinfactreflect
problemswiththecontentofwhat'sbeingtaught.

Sowhatexactlyiswrongwithconventionalteaching,andwhatshouldbedoneinstead?That'sanotherstoryor,actually,anotherbook.56

ParentingUpdate

AnumberofpeoplehavewonderedoutloudwhetherIwouldcontinuetodefendtheideasinthisbookonceIbecameaparent.Someindividualshavesimply
expressedcuriosityaboutwhethermyviewswouldchangeothershaveofferedknowingsmirks,muttering,"Yeah,well.Let'shearwhatyouhavetosaywhenyou
haveachild"theimplicationbeingthatonceIattainedthatstatusIwouldpromptlyforgetaboutalltheevidencedemonstratingthedestructiveimpactofrewards
andwouldinsteadconfessthatitisnecessarytodoexactlywhatthisparticularmutterer(orfatherer)isdoingtohisorherkids.

IthereforetakespecialpleasureintellingyouthatonabrightchillydayinearlyOctober1995,57AbigailMiraKohnwasborn.No,shewasnotconceivedtobea
subjectinachildrearingexperiment,nortolendcredibilitytomyarguments.Butnowthatshe'shere,nowthatmy

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wifeandIhavespentafewyearsgrapplingwiththechallengesofbedtimeandtoothbrushing,toddlertantrumsandpreschoolerstubbornnessandalltherestofit,I
amreadytomakemyreport.

MyfirstobservationaboutparenthoodisthatitinvolveswaymorelaundrythanIhadbeenledtoexpect.MysecondobservationisthatbooksaboutYourChild's
Developmentseemdesignedtomakeyoufeelinsecure.("Bytheageofsevenmonths,yourbabywillprobablybeabletohoparoundthehouseononefootandplay
simpletunesontheclarinet.")MythirdobservationisthatIcannotexplainwhyI,likemanyotherparents,havebeensoeagertoteachmychildthesoundthatacow
orasheepmakes.Thisinformationissimplynotusefulwherewelive.Mydaughtermayneedtoknowhowtohailacabsomeday,yetforsomereasonIwhileaway
thehoursdrillingheruntilshecanrecognizethenoisesoflivestock.

Butbacktothetopicathand:Ialwaysknewthatrewardsandthreatscould"work"toelicittemporarycompliance,butInowappreciatemorefullyhowappealingthat
goalcanbe,howeasyitistooverlookthedownsideofcarrotsandsticks,howtemptingitcanbesimplytouseyouradultwilestomakeachilddowhateveryou
want.IknowwhatitistobesosleepdeprivedfromababywhokeepswakingupthatyouarereadytodipyourtoesintotherancidwatersofFerber.58Iknow
whatitmeanstolosepatiencewithachild,who(unlikeyou)hasallthetimeintheworld.AndIrealizethatchildrearing,likesomanythings,ismostaccurately
renderedinshadesofgray.Whilesomeinterventionsareclearlybadandsomeareclearlygood,mostaren'tsoeasytopindown.Evenwithrespecttotheissues
highlightedhere,Ihavetoconfessthat"Whenyourbathisover,thenwecanreadanotherstory"(asentenceIhaveindeeduttered)soundssuspiciouslysimilarto''If
youtakeyourbathnow,I'llrewardyoubyreadingastory."59

Alltheseconcessionsandqualificationsaside,however,thebottomlineisthis:Icanhonestlysaythatthereisn'tasinglewordofthismanuscriptthatIwouldtakeback
today.Istillbelievethattherelianceonconventionalstrategiesofcontrolshould,andusuallycan,beavoided.Indeed,whileparentingisunavoidablytryingattimes,
mymajorsourceoffrustrationaroundtheseissuesisdealingwithotheradults.Somepeople,whentheylearnedthatmydaughterwastwo,wouldnodsympathetically
andsay,"So,Iguessshe'ssayingnoallthetime,huh?"AndIwouldreply,"No,weare,"meaningthatthisishowitmustseemfromherpointofview.Ifparenthood
hastaughtmeanything(otherthanhumility),itisthenecessityofremindingoneselfhowthingslookfromthechild'sperspective.Thisisalsothesingle

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bestwaytoavoidfallingbackonrewardsandcoercion,whichtendtofollowfromseeingthechildasanobjectinsteadofasubject.

Thentherearethepeoplewhosesharpestcriticismofparentsisthatthey''lettheirchildcontrolthem"whichoftenmeansthattheseparentsarejusttryingtogive
theirchildsomecontroloverherownlife.Conversely,parentsarewidelyadmiredforgettingtheirchildrentoobey.Weliveinaculturewherethehighestcompliment
aparentcanreceiveisthathisorherkidis"wellbehaved"(read:docile).Whenstrangersinrestaurantstellushow''good"ourdaughteris,theydon'tmeanthatsheis
admirableinanethicalsensebutmerelythatshehasn'tbeenanuisancetothem.60Nowonderpeopledeclarematteroffactlythatit'ssimplyunrealistictodowithout
treatsandthreats:thesetacticsmayindeedbenecessaryifourgoalistoproducechildrenwhospendtheirlivesjustdoingwhatthey'retold.

HavetherebeentimeswhenmywifeandIwouldhavebeengladtohaveAbigaildowhatshewastold?Youbet.Therehavealsobeentimeswhenwewouldhave
beengladtosellhertothehighestbidder.Thechallengewesetforourselves,evenifweknowwewon'talwaysbeabletomeetit,istolookbeyondthebehaviorthat
traditionaldisciplinecanbuyforthemoment.Themorewestayfocusedonourlongtermgoalsofraisingachildwhoisacaring,moral,selfconfident,happy,
responsible,reflectiveperson,thelesslikelyitisthatwewilleversay,"I'llgiveyouagoodieifyoudoit"or"Youneedatimeout"or"BecauseIsaidso!"

OneunexpectedresultofhavingachildisthatmywifeandIhavefounditevenmoredifficulttolistentotheconstantstreamof"Goodjob!"scomingfromother
parents.Thisphrasealongwithallthevariations:"Good______ing!"61issomethingofaverbaltic,akindofParentalTourette'sSyndrome,wherepeoplecan't
stopthemselvesfromblurtingoutjudgmentsofeverythingachilddoes.(Asnotedearlier,thefactthatthejudgmenthappenstobefavorabledoesn'talterwhat'sgoing
on.)Sometimesthemotivesaresuspicious,suchaswhenthepointisjusttoreinforceachild'sbehaviorfortheconvenienceoftheparentandsometimesthemotives
areunassailable,suchaswhenthepointistoexpressone'sprideandpleasureinone'soffspring.Butonceyou'vestoppedtoreflectontheseconstantlittleevaluative
eruptions,theystarttohavethesameeffectonyouasnailsbeingdraggeddownablackboard.Theymakeyoulongforachildtogivehisparentsatasteoftheirown
treaclebyturningaroundtothemandsaying(intheidenticaltoneofvoice),"Goodpraising!"

Incaseyou'rewondering,thiscritiquedoesn'tobligateustogoinfortherapeuticaffectations.Whenourchildscreams,wedon'tnod

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solemnlyandsay,"Hmmm.I'mhearingsomeangerhere.Doyouwanttoexplorethat?"Similarly,mywifeandIdon'twithholdourapprovalwejusttrytominimize
contingentapproval.WehugAbigailconstantlywemakesuresheknowsshe'slovedandalsothatwe'venoticedheraccomplishments,butwetrynottostealher
pleasurebytellingherhowsheshouldfeelaboutthem.Wetrynottopreempttheprocessbywhichshecanlearntoformherownevaluationsaboutwhatshe'sdone.
Whenshemanagessomenewfeat,we'relikelytosaysimply,"Youdidit"or(nowthatshe'soldenough)toaskherhowshedidit.Wegiveherguidanceand
feedbackwhensheseemstoneedit.Whatwetrynottodoisarrogatetoourselvestherighttodecidewhetherthe"job"62shedidwasgoodorbad.Andfrom
everythingwe'veseen,thisapproachreallyworks.Abigailseemstofeelappreciatedwhiletrulytakingprideinherselfratherthanbecomingapraisejunkie.

Inshort,myexperienceasaparenthastendedtoconfirmtheconclusionsIhadalreadyreachedonthebasisofresearch,observation,thought,dialogue,and
experienceintheclassroom.(Ifthathadn'tturnedouttobethecase,thisAfterwordwouldbealotlongerandtherestofthebookwouldnowbealotshorter.)Isaid
beforethatworkingwithpeople,whilemoredifficultandtimeconsuming,endsupbeinganawfullotmoresuccessfulthandoingthingstopeople,suchasbyoffering
themincentivesforjumpingthroughyourhoops.NowI'maddingthatthisconclusionhasbeencorroboratedinmyownhouse.

Sowillthatsatisfyallthepeoplewhohavebeeninsistingthatonlymylackofparentalexperienceledmetocriticizethe(ir)useofbribesandthreats?Nah."They'llfind
someotherwaytofendoffwhattheyfindthreatening,"warnedafriendofmine,apsychologistwhosharesmyconcernsaboutbehavioralmanipulation."They'llsay,
'Oh,well,youhaveagirl.Nowonderyoudon'thavetouserewards.'Or:'Sure,youcanmanagebecauseyouhaveonlyonekid.'Andifyouhaveanotheroneand
reachthesameconclusion,thenthey'lljustsay,'Yeah,well,butyoudon'thavemykids.'"

Hispointwasthatpeoplewhoaren'treadywillnotbeconvincedbywhatadadsaysanymorethanbywhatthedatasay.I'vegottensomeextraordinarilygratifying
lettersfromreaders:testimonialsabouthowthey'vegivenuprewards,howitreallycanbedone,howthey'dnevergobacktotheiroldtricks,howthey'respreading
thenews,andsoon.I'dliketotakethemattheirwordthatthisbookplayedadecisiveroleintheirconversion.Butitisn'tfalsemodestywhenIsaythattheyhadto
experiencesomethingintheirownlivesandtheyhadtobeprimed

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forthatexperience,willingtolearnfromit.Otherwisetheywouldhavereactedwithindifferenceorindignation,ashaveplentyofpeoplewhoreadthesamewords.

Inworkshopsandlectures,Iliketotellpeoplethattheydon'thavetoaccepteverythingI'vesaidinordertoseethevalueofmakingsomechanges.It'snotapackage
deal.Youaren'treadytogiveuprewards(athome,atschool,atwork,wherever),butyou'rewillingtorethinkthewisdomofpunishment?Finegothatfar.Youhave
toadmitthattangiblerewardscanbedestructive,butyoucan'tbringyourselftostopgivingverbalrewards?OKdothatmuch.Ridemytrainasfarasyoucanand
getoffwhenyouhaveto.Maybelateryou'llhopaboardagain,alittlecloserto"workingwith"thanto"doingto,"andwecancontinuethejourney.

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APPENDIXA
ACONVERSATIONWITHB.F.SKINNER
Longbeforehebecamethiscountry'smostinfluentialpsychologist,BurrhusFredericSkinner(190490)decidedtobecomeawriter.HegraduatedfromHamilton
CollegewithadegreeinEnglishandspentamiserableyearwithhisparents,tryingtofigureoutwhattodowithhislifeandstrugglingwithwhatotherpeoplewould
callanidentitycrisis.

Thenhefoundbehaviorism."Ididnotconsideractualsuicide,"helaterwroteinhisautobiography."Behaviorismofferedmeanotherwayout:itwasnotIbutmy
historythathadfailed....Ihavelearnedtoacceptmymistakesbyreferringthemtoapersonalhistorywhichwasnotofmymakingandcouldnotbechanged."1

Hehadfoundhimselfbyabandoninghisself.AdoctoratefromHarvardfollowed,academicappointmentsinMinnesotaandIndiana,andatriumphantreturnto
Cambridgein1948.WhenImethimin1983,hewasstillthere,livinginthefashionablepartofthecity,socializingnowandthenwiththelikesofJuliaChild,and
gettingaridefromhiswifeeachmorningtohisofficeontheseventhfloorofHarvard'sWilliamJamesHall.Justacrossthecorridorwerewallsofcircuitryboards,
clickingandflashingtheirredlights,connectedbywirestoclosed,numberedboxeswithtinypeepholes.Insideofeachwasapigeon,peckingawayinordertobefed.

"I'velivedlongenoughtopickupsomereputation,"hetoldmemodestly."Eightyyearswilldoit."Hetalkedwithanairofamuseddetachmentaboutdrawingcrowds
whereverhewent,aboutbeingapproachedonthestreetforautographs."I'malwayssurprisedthatpeoplerecognizemeorcometohearmetalk,"hesaid."Idon't
knowwhyIshouldbeI'vebeengettingsurprisingaudiencesfornearlythirtyyears.ButIdon'tgetanybangoutofitatall.Igetmuchmorepleasureoutofagood
twohoursatmydeskinthemorning."

Once,hesaid,amancameuptohimonthestreetandaskedwhetherhewasapreacher.Thisgavehimagoodlaughsincehedidn't

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believeinGod.Butthemanonthestreetwasn'taltogetherwrong.Inasense,Skinnerwasapreacher,aproselytizerbytemperament,hiswritingsanextendedsermon
aboutthefollyof"mentalism"thatis,theassumptionthatwhatwedocanbeexplainedbyappealingtoanythingotherthanobservablebehaviorsandthe
environmentalcontingenciesthatreinforcethem.

Inhisautobiography,everyoneofhiscriticsistakentotaskforfailingtograsphisideas."Behaviorismisverybadlymisunderstoodeverywhere,"hecomplainedto
me."I'mverybadlymisunderstood."Tohim,Ibegantorealize,acriticismimpliedamisreadingsinceitwasimpossiblebothtounderstandhistheoryandrejectit.

Despitehisconvictionandhisfame,I,likeotherswhomethimovertheyears,foundSkinnerdisarminglygracious.Inmycase,heagreedtocomespeaktomyclass
eventhoughhedidn'tknowmeand,thefollowingyear,toputupwithseveralhoursofcrossexaminationthatwentwellbeyondwhatIneededtowriteaprofileofhim
foramagazine.Eachquestionheansweredcourteously,andyetasiffromagreatdistance.Isensedthathewasnolessreservedwithpeopleheknewbetter.

TheonerealinsightaboutSkinnerthatcametomeaftertalkingwithhimforawhilewasthathewaslessatheoristthanatechnician.Themanwasfascinated
indeed,almostobsessedwithpracticalproblemsofdesign.Hetalkedaboutthechallengeofdesigningamoreefficienthearingaid.Yearsbefore,hehadtaken
considerablepleasureininventingamorecomfortable,enclosedbassinetforhisinfantdaughters(whichgaverisetoacruelrumorthathewasconfiningthemin
"Skinnerboxes"ofthesortusedforlabanimals).Hedevotedhimselftothedesignof"teachingmachines"forchildrenthatforeshadowedtoday'seducationalcomputer
programs.(Hisprideinthis"Iwasthirtyyearsaheadofmytime"ismatchedbybitternessthatmosteducatorsweren'tinterestedinhisidea.)Hecollected
practicalsuggestionsforhowtomakeone'slastyearsalittleeasier,eventuallycoauthoringaselfhelpbookforseniorcitizens.Eventhequestionofwhentogetupin
themorningwasanengineeringproblem:byrisingat4:00a.m.hecouldnotonlygetinafewhoursofworkbeforethephonestartedringingbutcouldtravelto
England(whereoneofhisdaughterslives)andadjusttoastandardbusinessschedulewithoutsufferingjetlag.

Everything,asSkinnersawit,wasaproblemtobesolved,andhismostfamousandinfamouspronouncementscanbeunderstoodinthatcontext."Designingaculture
islikedesigninganexperiment,"he

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oncewrote.Inrecallinghow,duringWorldWarII,hetrainedpigeonstosteermissiles(leadingagaintobitterdisappointmentwhenhisproposaldidnotexciteenough
interest),hebecameingenuouslyenthusiastic:"Whatafascinatingthing!Totalcontrolofalivingorganism!"

Itmay,therefore,besomethingotherthanmodestythatledhimtomuse,"Idon'tthinkI'maclassicalpictureofagreatthinker,oranythingofthatsort.Idon'tbelieve
thatIhaveaveryhighIQ.IthinkI'vedoneverywellwithwhatI'vegot.ThereareskillsIjustdon'thave.FortunatelyIgotintoafieldwhereIcouldusetheonesIdo
havelargelypracticalskills."

Iaskedhimlateraboutdeathandheshrugged,claiminghedidn'tdwellonthetopic."Ineverthinkmuchaboutdying.Ihavenofearofdeath.Myfamilyiswelltaken
careof.TheonlythingIfearisnotfinishingmywork.TherearethingsIstillwanttosay."Infact,hecontinued,workingupanenthusiasmforthetopic,"Idon'tknow
whypeoplefeardeath.Ofcoursereligiouspeopledobecausethey'renotatallsurewhetherthey'regoingtogotohellornot,buttherearethosewhodon'tbelievein
thatwhostillcan'tfaceannihilation."

Thebeliefthatthereisnoself,whichservedhimsowellasayoungman,alsohelpedhiminhislastyearstodealwiththeprospectofceasingtobe."Icannowtakeall
ofmyfaultsandallofmyachievementsandturnthemovertomyhistory,andthepointImakeisthatwhenIdiepersonally,itwon'tmakeabitofdifference.Because
there'snothinghere,yousee,thatmatters.[Withthisview]youdon'tfeardeathatall."

ExcerptsfromOurConversations:

[Onbehaviortherapy'srejectionofbehaviorism]:Ithinkit'squitewrong,butit'sinevitable.Peoplewhoarefacetofacewithpatients,clients,acrossthetable,
they'renotgoingtoworkonexternal,controllablevariables.They'regoingtoaskpeople,"Howdoyoufeel?"andthey'regoingtotakethatasevidenceofwhat
probablyhappened,butthey'renotgoingtofindoutwhathappened.Andthey'regoingtosay,"Whatdoyouplantodo?"they'renotgoingtotakecareful
measurementsofpotentialitiesofbehavior.

Q.Well,why?Whatdoesthatsayaboutthetheory?

A.Toomuchtrouble!Theymakemoneybythenumberofpeopletheysee,andyoucan'texpectanyonefacingaclienttodomorethan

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usebehavioralprinciplestointerpretwhatishappening.It'sveryeasyjusttogobackonwhat'sbeeninthegeniusofthelanguageforthousandsofyearsthewhole
notionthatpeopledothingsbecauseoftheirattitudesandfeelings,theirthoughts.Iwanttofindoutwhereallthosecamefrom,butyoudon'tneedtobotherifyou're
justconsultingwithsomeone....IthinkthecognitivepsychologistisaJohnnycomelately.Thecognitivepeoplehaveneverbeenpractical.Andpsychoanalysis,while
itisapractice,isn'tpractical.Ican'timaginepsychoanalysisreallydealingwithseriousillnessesintheworldtoday.

Q.Andyetyou'resurroundedbypigeonsinthisoffice,whilethecognitivistsandthepsychoanalystsareseeingrealpeople.They'reonthefrontlines,sotospeak.If
theyfinditimpracticalorunwieldyornotusefultoemployyourlanguageandyourmodel,mightthatnotindicatesomethingaboutthedeficiencyofthemodel?

A.No,no,notatall.IfIweretalkingtoagroupofchildrenaboutastronomyandthenightskyandsoon,Iwouldn'treallygointotheBigBangandmillionsoflight
yearsandwhatnot.I'dtalkabouttheBigBearandtheBigDipper.

Q.Sotalkingwithchildrenisanalogoustohavingtherapywithclients?

A.Yes.Well,youcan'tusetechnicaltermswiththeordinaryclient.Youcan'tteachhimbehaviorisminordertotalktohimthatway.Whatyoucando,andwhatI
thinkagoodbehaviortherapistdoes,istospotthenatureoftheproblemanddealwithitindirectly.Averygoodexampleofthat,Ithink,iswhatDr.VaughanandI
didinourbookEnjoyOldAge,wherethewordbehaviordoesn'toccurinthattext.Nordoesreinforcementordiscriminativestimulus.Wedidn'tuseany
technicaltermsatallbecausewe'renotwritingforpeoplewhoknowanythingaboutthescienceofbehavior.Attheend,justtoreassureourcolleagues,wehavea
littleglossaryexplainingwhatwemeanwhenwesay"whatyouliketodoandenjoydoing."Youcoulddothatwithabookonastronomy.Youcouldsay"thesun
rises"andthen,inafootnote:"Well,actually,itdoesn'ttheworldturns."

Q.Iwonder,though,ifthefactthatwhenwehaveaconversationabouthumanbeingswefindourselvescallingonthoseconceptsmightnotsuggestthatthesearevery
realkindsofthings.

A.Idon'tthinkitsuggeststhey'rereal.Ithinkitsuggeststhattheyaretheimmediatethings.[HereadsfromAMatterofConsequences,pages19192,wherehehas
translatedLaRochefoucauld'sMaximsintothelanguageofbehaviorism.]

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Q.Andyou'resatisfiedthatyourtranslationmissesnothingoftheoriginalitonlymakesitmoreprecise.

A.Yes,itisn'treducingittoanything,either,yousee....Ifyouareacompletelynonverbalorganism,andifpeoplewithwhomyouassociatesimplydealtwithyou
nonverballythatis,fightyouormakelovewithyoutheywouldn'taskyou"Whatareyoudoing?"Youwouldneverhaveanyoftheseconcepts.Youwould
neverlookatyourselfandsay,"AmIhappy?"Youneverwouldlookatyourselfandsay,"WhatdoIintendtodo?"...Youwouldbejustlikeanynonverbal
organism,andthat'sthestuffthatthecognitivepeopledon'teventouch.They'retalkingaboutwhathappenswhenaverbalenvironmentarisesandinducesindividuals
toreportaboutthemselves.[Inacommunity]someonewantstoknow[whether]youseethat.Well,theysay,"Doyouseethat?"Uptillthatpoint,you'veseenit
you'dreachforitifyouwantedit,andsoon.Butnowsomethingelsehappens.Youseethatyou'reseeingit.Butyouwouldn'twithoutthatquestion....

Q.Doyoustillholdto[youroriginal]accountoflove?

A.Wearedisposedtodonicethingstosomepeopleandharmfulthingstoothers.Loveandhateareextremecasesofthat....Inmutualinteraction,twopeoplewho
meet,oneofthemisnicetotheotherandthatpredisposestheothertobenicetohim,andthatmakeshimevenmorelikelytobenice.Itgoesbackandforth,andit
mayreachthepointatwhichtheyareveryhighlydisposedtodonicethingstotheotherandnottohurt.AndIsupposethatiswhatwouldbecalled"beinginlove."

Q.IfIintrospectand,onthebasisofmylife,findthatloveandfreedomareconceptswhosedepthsaren'ttouchedbyabehavioristicanalysis,aren'tyouinfactasking
metoacceptonfaiththeadequacyorthesuperiorityofyourmodel?Isn'titafaiththat'sevengranderthanthefaithinwhichI'maskedtobelievethatthere'saGod?

A.Oh,Idon'tthinkthere'sanyfaithinvolvedhere.It'seitherusefuloritisn'tuseful.Idon'tthinkphysicsisaskingyoutotakeonfaith[its]interpretationofhighenergy
physicsandsoon....It'sasgoodaswecandoatthemoment.

Q.Yes,butithastodowithme,todayitdoesn'thavetodowithsubatomicparticlesornebulaeoutthere.You'resaying,"Yoursenseofyourselfisimpreciseifnot
downrightincorrect.Believemymodelinstead."Whyisn'tthatpreciselyanalogousto"Youthinkthatyou'redecidingwhattodo,butinfactGodhaspredetermined
youractions"?Bothviolatemyexperience.

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A.Idon'tthinkIsayquitethat.IwouldsayIbelievewehavediscoveredrelationsbetweenwhatapersondoesandthenaturalselectionofthespeciesandthehistory
oftheindividualandtheresultingeffectofthecurrentsetting.Ifyouunderstandthat,youcanveryoftensolveproblemspersonalproblemsofyourown,designing
conditionsthatwillsolveproblemsofotherpeople,instructionortherapyorincentivesystemsorpenology,andsoon.Andit'sbaseduponratherrigorousresearch,of
whichthereisnothingcomparablein,letussay,FreudorsomeonelikeWilliamJames.Theyhadveryplausibleaccounts,ofcourse.It'slotsoffuntouseaFreudian
systemtointerpreteverybody....It'smucheasiertouseFreudorJamesbecauseitcameoutofdailylifeandyoucanputitbackinquiteeasily,whereastheother
cameoutoflaboratoryresearchanditisn'teasytoseeitinaninstanceindailylife.Butitisthereifyoulookforit.Anditisexactlylikethewayinwhichaskilled
craftsmandealswithletussay,atinsmiththewayinwhichhebendsmetalandappliessolderandshapesthingsandsoon.Hehasaverygoodscienceof
workingwithmetal,butithasnothingtodo,practically,withactualmetallurgyandwithwhatarealengineerwoulddo.It'seasierforhimanditwouldbeagreat
mistaketotrytogethimtolookattheatomicstructureofmetalsandwhysomeofthemfusebetterthanothersandsoon.

Q.Butthepersonwhoexaminesthechemistryofametal,forexample,doesn'tdeny,asyoudo,theotherreality.Hedoesn'tattempttosaythatit'sbasedona
misconception

A.Itisn'ttherealityhedenies.Hedoesn'tdenytheotherwayoftalkingaboutthesamereality.Idon'tobjecttonovelswrittenineverydaylaypsychology.Ofcourse!
ItriedmyhandattranslatingafewpassagesfromGeorgeEliot.Youcan'tdoit.Forexample,"feelings"it'sashorthandwayoftalkingabouthistories.Withmy
friendsIwilltalkaboutmy"ideas,"my"feelings,"my"plans"and''intentions''andwhatnot.Youngbehavioristsareoftenembarrassedwhentheyusethesewords.I
wastoo,atonetime,butIwouldn'tbenow.NordoIobject,really,toasocialworkeroratherapistusingthatindealingwithclients.Ithinkit'sprobablythebestway
todoit....

Q.WhatifoneweretoarguethatallofsciencecanonlygosofarinprovidingaplausibleaccountoftherealitythatIfaceasahumanbeing?

A.Oh,Iacceptthat.

Q.Thelimitsofscience?

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A.Yes.[Pause.]Thecurrentlimitstheychangeintime.

Q.No,Imeanthatscience,somehaveargued,hasakindofarroganceaboutit.Whatitcan'texplainnow,itwillbeabletoexplaineventually.

A.Thehistoryofsciencesimplyindicatesthat,doesn'tit?NotthatIdon'tthinkforamomentthatastronomywilleverdoacompleteaccountoftheuniverse.Butthey
certainlymakeprogress.

Q.Butcertainhumanrealities,it'sargued,arenotanalogouswithmetalorevenpigeons.Andtothatextent,humansarequalitativelydifferentfromotherthingsthatthe
physicalsciences

A.Again,peopledifferbecausetheybelongtoverbalcommunitieswhichgivethemreasonsforlookingatthemselves.Andthey'relookingattheirbodiesinawaythat
pigeonsneverdo.Anditprovestobeveryusefultoothersandthemselves.Idon'tdenythat.Italsoleadstoscience,mathematics,andsoon.

Q.Buthumans,exceptforthatverbalabilityandwhatflowsfromthat,andexceptforgreatercomplexity,arequantitativelyratherthanqualitativelydifferentfrom
lowerorganisms?

A.Ithinkthatthehumanbeingisnothingmorethanamemberofanevolvedspecies.

Q.ButI'mnotaskingabouttheevolution,thepast.Imean,onecanclaimthatweareevolvedratherthancreatedoutofnothingandstillbelievethatthecurrentstate
ofhumanbeingsisdifferentinkindfromthecurrentstateoflowerorganisms.

A.Whetherit'skindorquantityIdon'tknow,butIwouldsaythatpeopledothingsthatanimalsdonotdo.Anditcomesaboutbecauseoftheemergenceofthe
operantcontrolofthevocalmusculature,whichmadeverbalbehaviorpossibleormadeitmuchmorelikely....

Q.Oneofthethingsthatyoufindfaultwithinconventionalviewsofhumanbeingsistheideathatweactuallychooseourbehavior....[But]whenyouwriteabook
andattempttoargueaposition,itseemslikeapointlessgesturebecauseyouweresimplydeterminedtohavewrittenit,IwasdeterminedtohavereaditwhetherI
finditplausibleornotalsoisdetermined.Nowdoesn'tthatrunagainsttheideaofwritingandreadingabookorattemptingtopersuademeofsomething?Aren'tyou
implicitlyappealingtometobelieveyou,tochoosetobelieveyou?

A.No.No.I'vesaidmanytimesthatmyratsandpigeonshavetaughtmemorethanI'vetaughtthem.Thebehaviorofthescientistisshapedbyhissubjectmatter,and
itisacontinuingevolutionary

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process.Nowwhatit'sallabout,whitherwearedrifting,Idon'tknow.WherewecamefromIdon'tknoweither.Thesearequestionswhethertheyaremeaningful
ornotisitselfaquestion.Butwedowhatwecanandwestopthere.

Q.Butyou'resuggestingthatthere'ssomethingflawedaboutChomsky'svieworaboutareligiousconceptionoflifeoraboutpsychoanalysis.You'resayingthatyours
insomesenseisamorescientific,amoreuseful,andultimatelywhenyoubegintogetgranderabouthumansinBeyondFreedomandDignityyoubeginto
takeonalmostanapocalyptictone,thatifwedon'tacceptthisviewandtheconsequencesofbehavioristicanalysis,we'reinrealtrouble.Nowaren'tyouappealingto
afreehumantobelieveandthenputintoeffectyourrecommendations?

A.No,I'mcreatinganewenvironmentwhichIwouldhopewouldleadindividualstoactindifferentwaysabouttheproblems.Thetherapistdoesn'tchangethe
personthetherapistaddstotheperson'shistory.

Q.Soyourbookbecomespartofthatenvironmentinthesamewaythatasuddenrainshowerwouldaffectmybehaviorbycausingmetoseekshelter.

A.That'sright.That'sright.

Q.Whenwetalkaboutsettingupawholenewenvironment,laWaldenTwo,howdoesanindividuallikeFrazierappeartostepoutofthecontrollingenvironment,if
hehimselfiscontrolled,inordertocontrolothersortosetupanenvironmentthatcontrolsothers?

A.Yousee,hedoesn'tcontrolothers.Hedesignsaworldthatcontrolsothers.

Q.Buthowdoesheevendothatifhehimselfiscontrolled?Doesn'titseemtoexempthimtemporarilyfrom

A.Oh,no,allthewaythroughhe'saspecialistatcontrollinghimself,andyoucontrolyourselfasyoucontrolothers.Youchangeyourownenvironmenttocontrol
yourselfandyouchangetheenvironmentofotherstocontrolthem....ThereisnooneincontrolinWaldenTwonoone'spassingouttheM&M's.There'ssome
contractualarrangementsaboutnumberofhours,butthat'sjustbookkeeping.It'saworldthatreinforcesthebehaviorneededtokeeptheworldgoing.

Q.Theremaynotbeanyoneincontrolanymore,butsomebodyhadsetupasystemandgotitgoing,sortoflikeadeisticmodeloftheuniverse

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A.That'sright.Andthemanwhoinventedthegovernoronsteamenginesisdeadhe'snotcontrollingallthesteamengines.

Q.Butthere'sasystemofcauseandeffectinplacethatgovernspeople'sbehavior.You'vebeenaskedahundredtimeshowWaldenTwoisdifferentfromtheanti
utopiannovelsofOrwellandHuxley.ButI'mstillnotsureIgetit.I'mstillnotsureIdon'tseethepossibilityfortotalitarianism.

A.Oh,itcouldhavebeendesignedthatway,butitwasdesignedsoitcouldn'tbe.Theplannersmoveoffandcan'tbereappointed,andthemanagersarejustjobs,
andsoon....Thequestionisnotwhethersomeonecantakeitover,butwhetherit'spossibletohavesuchasituationatall,andifitmightthenbesogoodthatpeople
woulddefendit....

Q.Letmeaskyouaboutvaluejudgmentsforamoment.IwanttoreadyouaquotationfromBertrandRussellandgetyourreaction

A.Bytheway...[ImetRussellatadinneronceandsaidtohim,]"YoumaybeinterestedtoknowthatyouwereresponsibleformybecomingabehavioristwhenI
readyourbookPhilosophy,"andhesaid,"Goodheavens!Ithoughtthatbookdemolishedbehaviorism."Well,itdid,butIdidn'treadthatpart....

Q.Here'swhatRussellsaid:"Ican'tseehowtorefutetheargumentsforthesubjectivityofethicalvalues,butIfindmyselfincapableofbelievingthatallthatiswrong
withwantoncrueltyisthatIdon'tlikeit."[Skinnerchuckles.]Doyouhaveasimilarkindofdilemmaordoyou

A.Oh,well,yes,obviouslywantoncrueltyiswrongfortworeasons:itiswronginthesensethataculturethattoleratesitwouldbeaweakculture.Thathastodowith
thesurvivaloftheculture,notwithwhatpeoplefeel.Butinordertopreventit,thecultureteachespeopleit'swrongandthattheyshouldfeelguiltyaboutit.Itpunishes
themforitandthatgivesyouthefeelingit'swrong.That'sverydifferentfromthereasonwhytheculturedoesallofthis.

Q.Soineverycasevaluesreducetotwothingsoneisculturalsurvival

A.Therearethreelevels.Therearethevaluesofnaturalselection:saltisgood,sugarisgoodnowthey'renolongergoodbecausewegettoomuchofthem.Then
there'sthepersonal:whatisreinforcingtoyou,foryourownreasons.Andtheculture:whatisgoodforothers,whatculturesreinforceinindividualsbecauseit'sgood
forthecultureandthesurvivaloftheculture,notjustwhatpeoplelike....Aworldthat'sdesignedinsuchawaythatmostofthetimeyou're

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doingwhatyouwanttodo,whichispositivelyreinforcedbehavior,isaneffectiveworld.However,itwon'tbejudgedbythatinthelongrun.Happinessisnotthe
ultimategood.It'stheultimategoodfortheindividual,butit'snottheultimategoodforthesociety.

Q.Butalltheseareinstrumentalusesofthewordgoodit'swhatphilosopherswouldcalla"nonmoral"sense,exclusively.Soyou'vewipedthemoralsenseoutof
existence.

A.Ifyoumeanthewordsensethere,amoralsense,thenthere'sthedistinctionagainaswhetherthisistheconsequencethat'sselectingitorthemodeofpromoting
whichhastodowithusingmeasureswhichtheindividualreports,makehimfeelguilty,andsoon.

Q.Letustakeahypotheticalinstanceofabehaviorlet'stakesacrificingvirginsinaprimitiveculture.It'snotmaladaptivefortheculture,letussay,andthepersons
inithavenoqualmsaboutit.Now,whatcanyousayaboutitotherthan"Yuck,Idon'tlikeit,"justasyoudon'tlikebroccoli?

A.Well,whatcanIsay?Imean,Idon'tknowtheconditionsatthetime,howthiscameabout....SinceIdon'tknowthesurvivalvalueitmayhavehadforthe
culture,Ican'tsayit'swronginthatsense.IfIthensay,ifthiswereinmyculture,myculturehastaughtmetosaythatit'swrong,soIsayit'swrong....

[Oncreativityandtheself]:WhenIfinishedBeyondFreedomandDignity,IhadaverystrangefeelingthatIhadn'tevenwrittenthebook.NowIdon'tmeanthis
inthesenseinwhichpeoplehaveclaimedthatalteregoshavewrittenbooksforthemandsoon,butthisjustnaturallycameoutofmybehaviorandnotbecauseof
anythingcalleda"me"oran"I"inside....

Manisnotacreator....Thatdoesn'tmeantherehaven'tbeengreatbooksorgreatmusic.Ofcourse!Theindividualisveryimportant.Thequestioniswhatisactually
happeningwhenithappens,yousee.IfyouthinkthatBeethovenwassomeonewhopossessedaspecialkindofgeniuswhichenabledhimrightoutofnothingtowrite
ninegreatsymphonies,thenyou'rejustwrongandyouwon'tdomuchasateacherofmusic.IfyouthinkinsteadthatBeethovenwassomeonewho,whenhewasvery
young,acquiredalltheavailablemusicatthetimeandthen,becauseofthingsthathappenedtohimpersonally,asaccidentsandvariations,heintroducednewthings
whichpaidoffbeautifullysohewentondoingthem,andhewrotebecausehewashighlyreinforcedforwriting,thenthat'sadifferentviewandhe'sstillagreatman.

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Q.Don'tyouthinktheremightbesomepartofhumanbehaviorthatcan'tbeexplainedthisway?

A.Well,youcanalwayssaythatmaybethere'ssomethingabouthumanbehaviorthathasn'tbeenexplainedorcan'tbeexplained,butthat'slikesayingtoNewtonthat
thereareafewbodiesthatdon'tobeythelawofgravity.Wherearethey?...

SamuelButler...saidthatahenissimplyanegg'swayofmakinganotheregg.Todaythegeneticistswillsaythesamething:theorganismis...justsomethingthatis
temporarilyinvolvedsothatgenescansurvive.NowIthinkthesamethingcanbesaidofcultures.IgaveapaperonceinthePoetryCenterofNewYorkon"Having
aPoem."Icomparedhavingapoemtohavingababy.Theaudiencedidn'tlikemyanalysisofhavingababybecauseIsaidthat...amotherissimplyafertilizedegg's
wayofmakingmorefertilizedeggs.

WhenIwasinhighschool,Iwasverymuchimpressedbyabotanybookwhichdescribedthelifeofaradish.I'vebeenaccusedofregardingmyselfasaradish,andI
thinkthat'sprobablycorrect.Thefirstyear,thisradishstoresupthisgreatbigroot.Thenextyear,itputsoutbranchesandflowersandseedsandfinallythelittlething
downthereisallgonemoreover,thewholeplantisdeadwhentheseedsareripe.Soaradishplantisjustawayradishseedsmakemoreradishseeds.NowIargued
that'strueofapoet,too:apoetissimplyawayinwhichaliterarytraditionmakesmoreofaliterarytradition.Nowthingshappentoapoet,thesearethevariationsin
genetics,andsomethingnewcomesoutbutitisn'tduetothepoet.It'sthepoet'spersonallife,thepoemshe'sread,thecriticismhe'sreceived,andsoonallof
thisisresponsibleforwhathe'sdone.Shouldyouthengivehimcredit?Well,wedogivecredit,becausethat'showwegetpeopletodothings,butscientificallyit'snot
deserved.Ifthequestionishowmuchtheindividualcontributes,Ithinktheanswertothatis:nothing.

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APPENDIXB
WHATISINTRINSICMOTIVATION?
Forthepurposeofanalyzingtheeffectsofrewards,itmaybeenoughtodefineintrinsicmotivationasthedesiretoengageinanactivityforitsownsakethatis,just
becauseofthesatisfactionitprovides.1 Thisoffersanice,crispcontrasttoextrinsicmotivation,whichmeansthatonetakespartintheactivitybecauseofsomeother
benefitthatdoingsowillbring.However,ifwelookatthequestionmoreclosely,thingsbecomeagooddealmoreproblematicand,forsomeofusanyway,more
interesting.Iwanttoexploreafewofthequestions,disputes,andcomplicationsthatariseinthinkingaboutintrinsicmotivation(IM).

TheveryideaofIMiscontroversialinsomequartersbecauseofitsimplicitaffirmationthatwhatpeopledoisn'talwaysinitiatedbyforcesoutsidetheself.Whilesuch
forcescanexplainsomeofourbehavior,it'salsopossible,andevennecessary,toappealtoothermotivationalsystems,whichfocusonwhatisinsideofus.
Behaviorists,notsurprisingly,havenotlookedkindlyondiscussionsofIMbecauseitspremisechallengesthecoreoftheirbeliefsystem.Theyhavereactedeitherby
denyingitsexistenceor,whatcomestothesamething,tryingtocollapseitintotheirownframework.Ifsomethinglooksintrinsic,theyinsist,it'sjustbecausewe
haven'tyetfiguredoutthereal(extrinsic)causes.(Formoreonthebehaviorists'responses,seeAppendixC.)2

Apartfromthisdispute,therearequiteafewcontroversiesamongthosewhotaketheconceptofIMseriouslybutcan'tseemtoagreeonexactlywhatitmeans.To
beginwith,weneedtodecidewhetheritistobedefinednegatively(specifically,asthatwhichispresentwhenanindividualdoessomethingwithoutexpectinga
reward),positively,orboth.Thenegativedefinitionisconvenientforconductingexperiments,anditisusedexplicitlyorimplicitlybyanumberofresearchers:they
recordhowoftenorhowlongsubjectsengageinanactivitywhennoextrinsicbenefitsfromdoingsoareexpected.Thistechnique,asIwillexplainlater,hasraiseda
numberoftroublingissues.

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DefiningIMpositively,whichisfavoredbymoretheorists,opensupaPandora'sbox(nottosayaSkinnerbox)ofdifficulties.Themajorquestioniswhetherwe
understandtheconceptintermsofadesiretoengageinaparticulartaskorintermsofcertainqualitiesandmoregeneralmotivationsthatdefinehumanbeings.Ifthe
latterischosen,wenaturallywillwanttoknowwhatthosequalitiesare.Thenomineesincludeadesire"tofeelgood,"3 "anorientationtowardlearningandmastery,"4
andaneedforcompetenceandselfdetermination5 aswellas,perhaps,torelatetoandbeengagedwithothers.6

Whetheranyoralloftheseneedscanbeshowntobeinnateoruniversal,andifso,whethertheyareindeedthemostfundamentalhumanmotivatorsarequestionsfor
anotherday.Whatinterestsmenowistherelationbetweenanysuchcharacteristicsandthetopicofintrinsicmotivation.Itwouldseemthattheconnectiondepends
largelyonthequestionweareasking.Ifwewanttoknowwhatitmeanstosaythathumansareintrinsicallymotivatedorganisms,orwhytheywanttodosomany
things,itmightindeedbeusefultotrytoidentifysomeprimarydrivesorneeds.Butifallwewanttoknowiswhatitmeanstosaythatpeopleare(orthispersonis)
intrinsicallymotivatedtopursuethisparticulartask,thenitmaybeenoughtoanswerintermsoftheappealthatthistaskholds.Thedefinitionofferedinthefirst
sentenceofthisessay,whichdoesn'tbothertopostulate,say,abasicneedforhumanstobechallenged,mightbesufficientforthispurpose.

OnceourdefinitionofIMgoesbeyondsomeone'sdesiretoperformaparticularactivity,webegintorunintootherproblems.Oneisthatthewiderhumangoals
designatedasintrinsic(suchasexploringtheenvironmentorexpressingoneself)mayactuallyinterferewithanindividual'sfocusonaspecifictask.Imayhaveto
choosebetweensatisfyingmybasiccuriosityandattendingtothejobI'mdoingatthemoment.ThetwoapproachestounderstandingIMmay,inotherwords,tugin
oppositedirections.7

AnotherproblemisthatitissometimesunclearwhetheragivencharacteristicdefinesIMorisonlyempiricallyassociatedwithit.Eitherintrinsicallymotivatedpeople
turnouttobeautonomous(orviceversa),orelseautonomyispartofwhatwemeanbythephraseintrinsicallymotivated.Ifwetrytohaveitbothways,our
argumentbecomescircular.EvenpeoplewhohavewrittenextensivelyaboutthetopicoccasionallyseemconfusedaboutwhetherIMentailstaskinvolvementby
definitionorwhetherIM(definedsomeotherway)promotestaskinvolvement.

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Finally,wewillhavetodecidewhethertobuildsituationalelementsintoourunderstandingofIM.Totakeaconcreteexample,peopleoftenloseinterestinatask
whentheykeepdoingitoveraperiodoftime.8 Doesthismeanthatsomeonewasnotreallyintrinsicallymotivatedtoworkonthattaskafterall?OrisIMitselfpartly
afunctionofnovelty?Sinceinterestissovariable,mustweavoidattributingmotivationalpropertiestoactivities?Andwhataboutattributingthemotivationtoperform
anactivitytoindividuals,sincethattoodependsonthecircumstances?

Letusputtheseconceptualproblemsasideandlookataverypracticalissue:howIMinitstaskspecificsenseismeasured.BeginningwithDeci'searlyexperiments,
therehavebasicallybeentwotechniques:askingpeoplehowtheyfeelabouttheactivityandwatchingtoseehowmuchtimetheyspendonit(intheabsenceof
extrinsicfactors)whengivenachoice.ThesearetwoappealinglystraightforwardwaysofgettingattheideaofIMorsoitwouldseem.

Infact,neithertechniqueiswithoutproblems.Selfreportmeasures,whileundeniablyuseful,raisethequestionofwhetherpeoplearedescribingtheirfeelings
accuratelyorinsomecases,whethertheyevenknowwhattheyfeel(whichunleashesahostofphilosophicalquestions).Doexperimentalsubjectsexaggeratehow
muchtheyenjoyedwhattheywereaskedtodobecausethisistheanswertheythinktheresearcherwantstohear?Dosomekindsofpeopledothismoreoftenthan
others,raisingthepossibilitythatameasureofIMisactuallygaugingsomethingelseentirely?

The"freechoice"measuresecretlyobservingpeopletoseewhethertheyreturntoanactivitywhenthey'renotobligedtodosocarriesitsowndifficulties.The
lengthorproportionoftimespentonthetargettaskvariesdependingonarangeofsituationalanddispositionalfactors,includinghowappealingtheavailable
alternativeactivitieshappentobetotheindividual.Theresearcherwantstoknowwhetheryouwillcontinuetoplayagamewhenleftalonewithitforfiveminutesor
whetheryouwillreadamagazine.Buttheanswermaysayasmuchaboutwhichmagazinesareintheroomasitdoesaboutyourinterestinthegame.9 Inexperiments
wheresubjectsarenotleftalone,moreover,theymaybeinclinedtokeepplayingthegamepartlyoutofadesiretopleasetheexperimenter.

AsiftoemphasizetheriskofputtingourfaithineitherorbothofthesetechniquesforquantifyingIM,onestudyafteranotherhasfoundthatthetwomaynotpointin
thesamedirection:thecorrela

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tionbetweenselfreportandbehavioralmeasuresisoftennegligible.10ThisfactledRyanandDecitoreflectonwhatisimpliedbyasituationwheresomeonekeeps
workingonanactivityintheabsenceofextrinsicinducements.IsthisinitselfavalidindicatorofIM?Theanswer,theydecided,isprobablynot,andwiththis
conclusioncomesabundleofnewquestionsaboutmotivation.

Allofusarefamiliarwithpeoplewhodrivethemselvesmercilesslytoachieve,whoapproachtheirworkwithacompulsivehessthatledtotheintroductionoftheterm
workaholic.Whatisinterestingforourpurposesaboutthisstyleoftaskengagementisthatitdoesnotdependontheanticipationofreceivingrewardsorpunishments
fromtheenvironment.Thepressureisinternallygeneratedandyetdevoidof"thegenuineinterest,enjoyment,andexcitementthatphenomenologicallydefineintrinsic
motivation."11Couldthisdescriptionfitsomeoftheexperimentalsubjectswhoreportlowinterestinanactivitywhileneverthelesscontinuingtoworkatitontheirown
time?

Ryanandhiscolleaguessetouttoanswerthatquestion.Theytoldsomesubjectsthatthetasktheywerebeinggiventodowouldrevealhowintelligenttheywere
otherswerejustencouragedtobecomeinvolvedinthetaskwithoutfeelingthattheiregoswereontheline.Itturnedoutthattherewasnomatchbetweentheself
reportandbehavioralmeasuresofinterest(whattheysaidabouttheactivityandwhethertheycontinuedworkingonit)fortheformergroup.Ifpeoplefeltanxious
aboutwhethertheywereanygoodatthetask,theyweremorelikelytokeepatit,presumablymoreto"preservetheirselfworth"thanbecauseitwasintrinsically
motivating."Althoughfreechoicebehaviorisareflectionofintrinsicmotivation"whenpeopleareencouragedjusttoexploretheactivity,''itismoreofareflectionof
internallycontrollingregulationinconditionsofegoinvolvement,"theyconcluded.12Internaldoesnotalwaysimplyintrinsic.

Thisconclusionoffersadirectchallengetopsychologicaltheoriesthatdistinguishonlybetweenwhatisinsideapersonandwhatisoutside.Itforcesustoreconsider
notonlyhowwemeasureIMbutwhattheconceptreallymeans.Anditraisesquestions,asIsuggestedinchapter12,aboutwhetheritisenoughjusttogetchildrento
"internalize"normsandvalues.Afterall,feelingcontrolledfromtheinsideisn'tmuchofanimprovementoverfeelingcontrolledfromtheoutside.

ThislastpointremindsusthatIM,forallitsimportance,issometimesirrelevanttothequestionsthatmattertousasparentsandteachers.Wewantchildrentoputtheir
ownneedsasidesometimes

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anddowhatisintheinterestofalargergroupofpeople,torespecttherightsofothersevenwhenthisinvolvesinconveniencingthemselves.Suchbehaviorisnotreally
analogousto,say,reading,sinceitisnotsomethinginwhichonedevelopsormaintainsanintrinsicinterest(althoughitissometimesdescribedasintrinsicallyvaluable).
InhisdescriptionoflifeinanAmericanclassroom,PhilipJacksonobservedthat''itishardtoimaginethatthestudentswilleverfindanythingintrinsicallysatisfying
aboutbeingsilentwhentheywishtotalk,"afactthatsuggests"thenotionofintrinsicmotivationbeginstolosesomeofitspower"13oratleastitspertinenceto
nonacademicissues.

If,however,weseetheworldonlyintermsofintrinsicversusextrinsicmotivation,wewillbeinclinedtothinkthatwhateverisnotdescribedbytheformermustbe
describedbythelatter.Practicallyspeaking,thatmeanswemayresorttoextrinsicmotivatorstoinducechildrentoactresponsibly.Butthisdichotomousview
overlooksthepossibilityofhelpingtheminternalizeacommitmenttosuchactions,anddoingsoinsuchawaythattheycometofeelasenseofselfdeterminationabout
thematterandultimatelyareabletodecideforthemselveswhatkindofpeopletheywanttobe.14

Theneedtointroduceaconceptsuchasinternalizationimpliesthattheintrinsic/extrinsicdichotomyisnotexhaustive.Infact,wecancomeupwithotherreallife
situationsthatcan'treadilybeclassifiedasoneortheother.Considerascientistwhoseprimemotiveistocontributetoherfield,oralabororganizerwhoisinterested
infightinginjusticeandhelpingworkingpeople.Orimagineastudentinaclassroomwherelearningoftentakesplaceincooperativegroups:hefindstheactivity
extremelyengaging,butmostlybecauseofthepleasurederivedfromworkingwithothers.

Intheseexamples,peoplearenotseekingwhatwewouldordinarilycallextrinsicrewards,yetneitheraretheymotivatedbythetasksthemselves.Thescientistmay
notparticularlyenjoythelaboratorywork,theorganizermaynotbeenthusiasticaboutmakingphonecallsandattendingmeetings,andthestudentmaynotbe
delightedwiththemathassignmentperse.

Ithinkwhatexplainsourfrustrationindecidinghowtocategorizethesepeopleisaqualityofintrinsicmotivationthathasgonelargelyunnoticedbypsychologists:itisa
conceptthatexistsonlyinthecontextoftheindividual.Thescientist,theorganizer,andthestudentareallmotivatedbysocialconcerns,andthesedon'teasilyfitinto

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suchaparadigm.Forcedtochoose,wewouldhavetosaythatthesemotivesareextrinsictotheirtasksratherthanintrinsic.Butthefactthatwehavetolumpsuch
motiveswiththequestformoneyorgradesrevealsalimitationintheideaofIM.Itisanideathatwasneverintendedtoapplytosomethingbeyondtheneedsof
separateselves.Thatthispointhasrarelyevenbeenraisedamongresearchersandtheoristsmaysaysomethingaboutthepervasivenessofanindividualisticframework
inpsychology.15

Ontheotherhand,Iamnotconvincedthatweoughttodiscouragepeoplefrombeingintrinsicallyinterestedinwhattheyaredoing.Forexample,writerswholovethe
actofwritingarenotnecessarilybeingselfindulgentandoblivioustolargersocialconcerns.Evenlessdoesitfollowfromtheimportanceoflivinginaworldwith
othersthatweshouldpromotetheuseofextrinsicmotivators.Wedependoneachotherforemotionalsupportandforfeedbackaboutwhatwehavedone,butneither
ofthesehastotaketheformofrewards.

VerysimilartotheconcernaboutIM'sfocusontheindividualistheideathatsomeoneintrinsicallymotivatediscaughtuponlyintheprocessofwhatheisdoing,tothe
exclusionoftheproduct.Tobesure,oursocietyencouragesapreoccupationwiththeproduct,thebottomline,thepracticalresult.Thus,Csikszentmihalyifindsit
refreshing"whenexperienceisintrinsicallyrewarding[becausethen]lifeisjustifiedinthepresent,insteadofbeingheldhostagetoahypotheticalfuturegain."16
However,itwasalsoCsikszentmihalyiwhomIquotedinchapter10offeringthereminderthat"intrinsicrewardsarenotanultimatestandardtostrivefor.Onestill
mustask:Whataretheconsequencesofthisparticularactivity?"17Itisimportanttoconsiderthecontentofourwork,whatitmeansbeyondthepleasureitmay
provide.

Therelativeemphasisweoughttogivetoprocessandproductconsiderationsisatopictooambitiousforthisdiscussion.Myquestionislimitedtowhether
encouraginganintrinsicorientationthreatenstoexcludeproductconcerns.Theanswerdependsonwhetherweequateintrinsicwithprocess,andextrinsicwith
product.Iamnotsurethisequationiswarranted.Clearlythatwhichpertainstotheprocessofdoingsomethingisnotalwaysintrinsictothetask:thestudentwholoves
cooperatingisanexampleofthat.Conversely,itmaybepossibleforone'spurelyintrinsicmotivationasanartisttobegearedasmuchtotheproductthatresultsas
fromthecreativeactthatprecededit.18Satisfactioninthedoingisdifferentfromsatisfactioninhavingdone,butbothmightreasonablybeclassifiedasintrinsic.The

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latterismoresimilartotheformerthanitistodoingsomethingforareward.

Hereagain,ofcourse,everythingdependsonhowwedefineourterms.Mypointisthatitisnotatallobviouswhatismeantbythephraseintrinsicmotivation.What
appearsatfirstblushanuncomplicatedidearevealsitselfasatangleofpossibilities,allofwhichhavesubstantiveimplicationsforwhatwecounterposetotheuseof
rewards.

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APPENDIXC
THEBEHAVIORISTSTALKBACK
Formorethantwodecades,publishedresearchhasraisedquestionsabouttheuseofrewards.Otherobjections,ofcourse,basedonfirsthandexperienceormoral
considerations,havebeenvoicedforevenlongerthanthat.Anyonefamiliarwiththisliteraturemightbecurioustoknowhowtheseargumentshavebeenreceivedby
individualswithalongstandingprofessional(andsometimespersonal)commitmenttorewardingpeople.

Ifyoulookthroughrecentpsychologytextbooks,articlesinjournalswithabehavioristorientation,orpracticalguidestobehaviormodification,youwillsoondiscover
thattheprincipalresponsetothesechallengesissilence.Eventhetworesearchersbestknowntosocialanddevelopmentalpsychologistsfortheirworkdemonstrating
thedetrimentaleffectsofrewards,EdwardDeciandMarkLepper,aresimplynotcitedinmostwritingsbybehaviorists.Whetherthatisbecausetheyareunawareof
thislineofresearchorbecausetheyfinditunworthyofmentionorinconvenienttocontendwithisnotclear.

Severalwritersinthebehavioristcamp,however,havetakennoteofatleastsomeofthisworkanddiscusseditintonesrangingfromgenuineconcernoverits
implicationstooutrightcontempt.Ithinkitisworthreviewingtheargumentstheyofferindefenseoftheirfield.WhileIdon'tpretendtoapostureofdisinterested
objectivityindeed,IwillattempttorespondtoeachoftheirpointsIdon'twanttogivetheimpressionthateveryonewhohasreadargumentssimilartothose
offeredinthisbookhasfoundthempersuasive.Readerscanjudgeforthemselvesthemeritsofthevariousclaimsand,ofcourse,willbebetterabletodosoafter
readingsomeoftheoriginalresearchcitedintheprecedingpagesaswellastheresponsesfromthebehavioristperspective.1

Theargumentsinsupportofrewardsormoreaccurately,theargumentsagainstthecriticismsofrewardsfallintofourgeneralcategories.First,themotivesof
criticsarequestioned.Second,rewards

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aresaidtobenecessaryorinevitable.Third,theyaresaidtobeeffective.Finally,theyaresaidtobeharmless.

WhatAretheCritics'Motives?

Somewritershaveaccusedthosewhocriticizetheuseofrewardsofdoingso"onideologicalgrounds"2 or,inthecaseofthosewhohavedone"mostofthe...well
over100studies"onthetopic,ofbeing''theorydriven."3 Iftheimplicationhereisthatvaluesinformtheworkofthosewhodon'tlikerewards,thisisabsolutelytrue
andnolesstrueofthosewhodolikethem.Iftheimplicationisthatempiricalinvestigationsarebestconductedintheabsenceoftheory,thisisadebatable
proposition,tosaytheleast.Andiftheimplicationisthata(hypothetical)perfectlyunbiasedobserver,someoneuntroubledaboutethicalissuesandinterestedonlyin
theeffectofrewardsonachievementoroncontinuingmotivation,wouldfindlittlecauseforconcernintheresearchliterature,Ibelievethisconclusionissimply
insupportable.Thenumberofstudiesconductedbyresearcherswhoexpectedrewardstobeeffectiveandfoundthereverseisafairlydecisiverefutationofthis
charge,asisthesheernumberofreplicationsoftheworkshowingthatintrinsicmotivationdeclinesinthepresenceofextrinsicmotivators.

Second,atleastthreebehavioristshaveaccusedtheircriticsofwantingchildrentobeintrinsicallymotivatedtolearneventhoughtheinterestthatthesecritics(and
otheradults)haveintheirownworkpresumably"dependsheavilyupontheweeklypaycheckstheyreceive."4 Thisissaidtorepresent"adoublestandard,"5 anditis
hintedthatpeopleopposedtoextrinsicallydrivenlearningaretryingtodenysomethingtochildrenthattheythemselvesenjoyorperhaps,thattheyaretryingto
cheatchildrenbygettingthemtolearnsomething"only"becauseitisinteresting.

Tobeginwith,thebeliefthatalladultsaremotivatedbymoneywouldseemtobemostinformativeforwhatitrevealsaboutthepersonwhoholdsit.Assuggestedby
theevidencereviewedinchapter7,thisisnottrueofmostpeople,andcertainlynotofmostwritersandacademics.Moretothepoint,behavioriststrategiesinthe
workplacetendtobackfireafactworthkeepinginmindwhenwereadthat"onlytheacademicworkofstudentsissaidtobeputatriskbyextrinsicrewards,"
implyingthatbecausetheserewardsworksowelleverywhereelsetheymustreallybeeffectiveintheclassroomafter

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all.6 Tosomeonewhosays"Weusemoneyasacarrotforadults,sowhynotdothesamewithgradesforchildren?"theproperresponseisnottoacceptthelatter
buttoquestiontheformer.

Butevenifpayforperformanceplanswerebeneficial,thiswouldnotbegintojustifytheuseofsomethingsimilarwithchildren.Theactivitiesaredifferent(learningto
readissimplynotcommensuratewithdoingajob),thepeoplearedifferent(treatingchildrenlikeadultsoverlooksanumberofrelevantdevelopmentalconsiderations),
andourgoalsineachcasearedifferent(weareparticularlyconcernedabouttheenduringattitudestowardlearningthatchildrendevelop).Finally,whileadults
generallymustearnmoneytolive,thesamecannotbesaidofgradesorotherextrinsicmotivatorsusedwithstudentsthelatterareunnecessaryandthereforenot
analogous.

RewardsAreNecessary

Behavioristsinthefieldofeducationhavebeenmostinclinedtoarguethatrewardsareindispensable,sincestudentswillnotdowhatisnecessarytolearn"without
somekindofreward,suchaspraise,grades,orrecognition."7 Orasanotherwriterputsit,"ifastudentisaskedtoadd3+7,whatistheintrinsicrewardfor
answeringcorrectly?...Theteachermustsupplementintrinsicrewardswithextrinsicrewards."8 (Thisissaidtobeparticularlytrueinthecaseof"achildwhohashad
difficultylearning"9 orataskthathasnoimmediateappeal.)

Ihavealreadyaddressedtheseobjections,withrespecttotheallegedneedtouserewardstogetpeopletodothingsthatareuninterestingingeneral(chapter5)and
theoperativeassumptionsaboutchildren'smotivationtolearninparticular(chapter8).Thecaseforextrinsicmotivatorsisoftenmadebysettingupfalsedichotomies:
eitherwepraise,orwearegrimlysilent10(overlookingthepossibilityofprovidinginformationalfeedback)eitherwehandoutreinforcements,orwejusthavestudents
repeatsomethingbyroteinthehopethattheirperformancewillimproveautomatically11(overlookinganynumberofnonbehavioristicapproachestoteaching).

Similarlymisleadingisthecontentionthatabstractmathproblemscanbemadepalatableby,ineffect,bribingstudentstodothem:thehiddenassumptionhereisthat
thisishowmathmustbetaught,overlookingtheeducationaltraditionsthattaketheircuefromthewayeachchildactivelyconstructsmeaningandmakessenseofthe

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worldratherthantreatingstudentsaspassiveresponderstoenvironmentalstimuli(seechapter11and,inparticular,Dewey'scommentaboutteachingnumbers).There
aremanywaysofdealingwithpedagogicaldifficulties,suchasinquiringintowhatwe'reaskingchildrentolearn,andhow,andwithwhom.Danglingarewardfor
successfulperformanceisn'tnecessarytosolvetheproblem.Moretothepoint,itisnotreallyasolutionatall,butawayofcircumventingtheissue.

RewardsWork

Veryrarelyhavebehavioristsaddressedtheresearchindicatingthatperformancetendstodeclineonarangeoftasks,particularlythoserequiringsomedegreeof
creativity,whenpeopleareexpectingtoberewarded.Instead,relyingonearlylaboratoryresearchshowinganincreaseinthenumberofoperantbehaviorsoran
improvementintheperformanceofmechanicaltasks,theyoftensimplyassertthatrewardsworkeven,inonecase,goingsofarastoclaimthat"noonedisputes
[their]effectiveness."12Iamawareofonlyonedirectresponsetoastudyshowingthatrewardsunderminedchildren'sperformanceonastraightforwardtask:the
answerwasthatmorerewardswouldhaveturnedthingsaround.13

Asforthefindingthatbehaviormodificationprogramsrarelyleadtochangesthataremaintainedandgeneralizedtoothersettings,theusualresponseisthatthe
practitionersorresearchersinquestiondidn'tcorrectlyunderstandtheprinciplesofSkinneriantheoryordidn'tsuccessfullyimplementthem.Insomecases,itisargued
thattherewardsbeingusedinthestudiesweren'ttrulyreinforcing.14Inothercases,itissaidthatbysimplytinkeringwiththescheduleofreinforcementorattendingto
unintendedeffectscausedbyotheraspectsoftheenvironment,itispossibleto"programformaintenance."Onewondershowlongitispossibletocontinueaccounting
forthelackofmeaningfulresultsbyinsistingthatabasicallysoundapproachispoorlyimplementedineverycase.

RewardsAreHarmless

Finally,thereistheattemptamongbehavioriststochallengevariousargumentsabouttheundesirabilityofrewards.Againstthechargethatpopbehaviorismis
controllingitiscontended,first,thatevery

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thingiscontrolling,whetherwerealizeitornot,andsecond,thatbehavioraltechnologiesareneutralinthemselvessincetheycanbeusedintheserviceofanyend(and
arethereforeunobjectionable).Idiscussedtheseargumentsinchapter2.

Totheempiricallybasedcontentionthattheuseofextrinsicmotivatorsleadstoadeclineinintrinsicmotivation,somebehavioristshaverepliedthatplentyofpeople
continuetoengagesuccessfullyinvariousactivitiesdespitehavingbeenrewardedfordoingso,whichprovesthatrewardsdonotalwaysundermineinterest.
"Outstandingachievementalwaysproducesextrinsicrewardsofsomekind...[sohow]dooutstandingachieversmaintaintheirmotivation?"15

Infact,bothhalvesofthissentenceareopentoquestion.Thenatureanddegreeoftheextrinsicrewardthatis"always"producedforachievementisactuallyquite
variable.Tobepaidforone'sworkisquitedifferentfromhavingthatpayconditionedonone'sachievement.Toreceivesomeunexpectedrecognitionafterthefactis
quitedifferentfrombeingpromisedanawardifonedoesagoodjob.Inbothcontrasts,thelatteroffersasalientrewardthatprobablyfeelsmorecontrollingand
emphasizesthemeansendscontingencyinvolved,inwhichcasewewouldindeedexpecttoseeareductioninintrinsicmotivation.Whererewards(especiallymoney,
whichmaynotbeperceivedasarewardforachievementatall)arelesssignificantandcanbedecoupledfromthework,thereisnoreasontopredictadeclinein
motivation.Tothatextent,itsfailuretoappearisnotanargumentagainstthegeneralprinciple.

Thesecondhalfofthestatementassumesthatpersistingatsomeactivityimpliestheexistenceofintrinsicmotivationforit.AsItriedtoexplaininAppendixB,thisis
notafairassumption.Manypeoplecontinuetodosomething,andmayevendoitcompetently,withoutfindingitgratifyinginitsownright.Perhapstheyworkonly
becausetheyarestillreceivingextrinsicmotivators,andwillcontinueonlyaslongasthatremainstrue.Alternatively,theymaypersistoutofananxious,almost
compulsive,needtoprovetheirworth.Thelattermightsufficeforgettingthejobdone,butitisnotanidealwaytolive,itisnotwhatwewantforourchildren,anditis
notevidencethatintrinsicmotivationisunaffectedbyrewards.

Havingsaidallthis,Idon'tthinkthisobjectioncanbedismissedentirely.Somepeopleundoubtedlyremainintrinsicallyinterestedinwhattheydodespitetheattempts
ofotherstocontroltheirperformanceortaskengagementwithincentives.Itisworthrememberingthatpsychologicalprinciplesdonotoperatemechanisticallyandin

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variantly.Ifsomepeoplecansmoketwopacksofcigarettesadayovermanyyearsandlivelong,healthylives,thensurelysomeindividualscanendurearegimenof
extrinsicmotivatorsandsurvivewiththeirinterestinanactivityintact.Ithappens.Butinthinkingabouthowtotreatstudentsoremployeesoranyoneelse,weneedto
considertheoddsinvolved.Ibelieveourobligationistoavoiddoingsomethingthathasahighprobabilityofadverselyaffectingintrinsicmotivation.

Behavioristshavealsorespondedtotheargumentabouttheeffectofrewardsonmotivationbychallengingtheclaim'saccuracyinseveralways.Inchapter5I
consideredthreeofthesechallenges:thattheeffectoccursonlywithtaskcontingent,notperformancecontingent,rewardsthatitcanbemitigatedbylettingpeople
administerrewardstothemselvesandthatitoccursonlywhenrewardsareusedfortoolonginsteadofbeingfadedout.(Ironically,somebehavioristshavealso
arguedthatresearchshowingadetrimentaleffectofrewardsisflawedbecausesubjectswerenotrewardedoveralongenoughperiod.)

Inaddition,fiveotherresponsestothisresearchhavebeenoffered:

1.Theeffectsonmotivationaresometimessaidtobe"transientandlimited."16Onthispoint,seepage299note13,orwalkintoanyhighschoolorcollegeclassroom
andlistentostudentsaskingwhetheragivenfactorideaisgoingtobeonthetestandthereforeneedstobelearned.

2.Somehavesaidthatonlytangiblereinforcers,likemoney,toys,orfood,arepotentiallydestructive:symbolicrewards,suchasgoldstarsorplaquestorecognize
performance,arenotonlybelievedtobemore"natural"andeasytoadminister,butharmlessalmostbydefinition.Emphasizingthatacertificatepresentedtostudents
forworkingwellasateamisworthonlytwocents,oneresearcherarguesthatitjustcommunicates"theteacher'sprideandsatisfactionwiththeircooperativeefforts.
Isthatsoterrible?"17

Theansweristhatwhileonestudydidfindsymbolicrewardswerelessdetrimentaltoyoungchildren'sintrinsicmotivationthantangiblerewardswere,18quiteabitof
researchhasshownthateitherkindcanbecountedontoundermineinterest.Thetoxicityofanextrinsicmotivator,afterall,isnotduetoitsexchangevalueorpractical
usefulnessbuttoitsstatusasanextrinsicmotivator(seechapter5).Andthosefactorsarepresentwhenwegivesomeoneaplaquejustassurelyaswhenwepresenta
pizzaorapileofmoney.

Itisusefultokeepinmindinthisdiscussionthatifbehavioristsfallbackonsymbolicrewardswhenthetangiblevarietyareshowntobe

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particularlydestructive(orsimplyproveimpracticaltouseovertime),itisprobablybecausetheirtheoreticalframeworkdictatesthatthebestwecanhopeforisthe
substitutionofonekindofreinforcerforanother,thepremisebeingthatsomeformofcontrolwillalwaysbenecessary.19Thoseofuswhorejectthatpremisewillnot
needtotrytorescueoneversionofrewardbyinsistingitislessdestructivethananother.

3.Behavioristsoftenrejectthepossibilitythatintrinsicmotivationisendangeredbytheuseofrewardsbecausetheyrejecttheexistenceofintrinsicmotivationitself.
Themoredoctrinaireoftheirnumbermakeapointofcordoningoffthephrasewithinquotationmarksasiftodemonstratethattheveryconceptisdubious.Itis
axiomatictothemthatallbehaviordependsonenvironmentalcontingencies,sowhatseemstobeintrinsicissimplythatforwhichwehavenotyetdiscoveredthe
externalreinforcement.

Thus,onewriterinsiststhat"verylittleisactuallyknownaboutthisformof'intrinsic'motivationlargelybecauseitisdifficulttocharacterize"20meaningthatitis
difficulttounderstandfromwithintheconceptualframeworkofbehaviorism.Otherstrytoforceitintothatframework,redefiningintrinsicmotivationas"asimpleform
ofconditionedreinforcement,inwhichthestimuliassociatedwiththetaskhavebeencorrelatedwithapproval,praise,orsomeotherformofreinforcement"orthe
behaviorhasbeen"controlledbyinfrequentextrinsicrewards."21

Hereitbecomesclearthatwearedealingwithanunchallengeabledogma:ifoneentersthediscussionalreadyconvincedthat"allbehaviorisultimatelyinitiatedbythe
externalenvironment,"22noargumentordatacouldeversufficetoshowtheexistenceofmotivationthatistrulyintrinsic.(Noticethatthisisquitedifferentfromarguing
thatintrinsicandextrinsicmotivationarenotalwayseasytoseparateinpractice,apointthatcanbereadilyconcededbutthatdoesnotdenytheeffectthataclear
exampleofthelatterhasonaclearexampleoftheformer.)

4.Somebehavioristshaveofferedveryspecificmethodologicalcriticismsoftheresearchconcernedwiththeimpactofrewardsonmotivation.Thepointsatissue
includethevalueofcomparingonegroupofsubjectstoanotherasopposedtomonitoringthemotivationofeachindividualsubject,theextenttowhichasubject's
initialinterestinthetaskisknown,andthedifferencebetweentheeffectofarewardthatispromisedandonethatisdelivered.23Readerswillhavetojudgetheweight
ofthesecriticismsforthemselvesIwillpointoutonlythat

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avarietyofexperimentaldesignsovertwodecadeshaverepeatedlycorroboratedthebasicfinding.

5.Finally,behavioristshaveconductedsomestudiesoftheirown,predictingthatextrinsicmotivatorswouldnothaveanydetrimentaleffectandfindingexactlythat.(It
iscuriousthatsomeofthesametheoristswhochallengetheexistenceofintrinsicmotivationpurporttoshowthatitisuncompromisedbytheadministrationof
rewards.)Ihavefoundfoursuchstudiesconductedwithchildren,butitishardtogivethemmuchcredencesincethenumberofsubjectsinvolvedarefive,six,nine,
andthree,respectively.24AsbestasIcanascertain,onlytwostudieshavefailedtofindadetrimentaleffectofrewardswithadultpopulations(collegestudents),and
oneoftheseinvolvedonlythreesubjects.25Variousotherobjectionscanbeofferedtotheexperimentaldesignsusedinthesestudies,26butthefactisthatchance
alonewouldpredictthatsomeofaverylargenumberofstudieswillnotreplicateevenaveryrobustfinding.Ithinktheresearch,viewedinitstotality,makesitvery
difficultforanopenmindedindividualtodenythatpromisingpeoplerewardsrunstheriskofreducingtheirinterestinwhattheyhavebeenrewardedtodo.

Veryfewdisputesinthesocialsciencescanbesettledonceandforalltothesatisfactionofeveryone.Evenwithmorethanahundredstudiesalreadypublished,there
continuetobedisagreementsabouthowkeywordsaredefinedandwhatwouldconstituteadecisiveproof.Notmanybehavioristswillreadthisbook,oranyother
thatchallengestheuseofrewards(andtheparadigmthatleadspeopletousethem),andannouncethatitistimetheyfoundanewlineofwork.Norwillmostteachers,
parents,ormanagersaccustomedtosaying''Dothisandyou'llgetthat"suddenlyresolvetochangetheirways.Myhope,though,isthateventhereaderwhodoesn't
accepteveryargumentofferedhere,orwhohasdoubtsabouttheimportofoneoranotherpieceofresearch,maynonethelessdecidethatthereisenoughevidenceto
justifycallingintoquestionasetofbeliefsandpracticesthataffectsusdeeplyeverydayofourlives.

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NOTES

1
SkinnerBoxed

1.ThorndikeultimatelyformulatedtheLawofEffectasfollows:"Ofseveralresponsesmadetothesamesituation,thosewhichareaccompaniedorcloselyfollowed
bysatisfactiontotheanimalwill,otherthingsbeingequal,bemorefirmlyconnectedwiththesituation,sothat,whenitrecurs,theywillbemorelikelytorecurthose
whichareaccompaniedorcloselyfollowedbydiscomforttotheanimalwill,otherthingsbeingequal,havetheirconnectionswiththatsituationweakened,sothat,
whenitrecurs,theywillbelesslikelytooccur.Thegreaterthesatisfactionordiscomfort,thegreaterthestrengtheningorweakeningofthebond"(1911,p.244).

2."Itisabsolutelynecessary,then,whenworkmenaredailygivenataskwhichcallsforahighrateofspeedontheirpart,thattheyshouldalsobeinsuredthe
necessaryhighrateofpaywhenevertheyaresuccessful.Thisinvolvesnotonlyfixingforeachmanhisdailytask,butalsopayinghimalargebonus,orpremium,each
timethathesucceedsindoinghistaskinthegiventime"(Taylor,1911/1947,p.121).

3.SeeRavitch,1974,p.16.

4.Whilearewardmayormaynotproducecertaineffects,areinforcementbydefinitionstrengthensthebehaviorforwhichitisgiven.ThisisonereasonthatSkinner
preferredthelatterterm,anditisthereasonIavoidit:aneffectonbehaviormustbeshownempiricallyratherthanassumedapriori.Whetherrewardsproducethe
consequencesweexpectofthemis,afterall,anopenquestion.(Fordiscussionsoftheconceptofreinforcement,seeMcCullers,1978,pp.1214Schwartzetal.,
1978,pp.24849BregerandMcGaugh,1965,pp.34546.)

5.Watson,1930,p.v.Anotherbehavioristputitabitdifferentlyinarecentbookonthesubject:whatdistinguisheshumanbehaviorfromratbehavioristhefactthat
the"environmentaleventscontrollinghumanbehavior"takeplaceoveralongerperiodoftime(Rachlin,1991,p.265).Thisisratherlikesayingthemaindifference
betweenalivingpersonandacorpseisthattheformerislesslikelytobefoundunderground.

6.Skinner,1974,p.168.

7.Skinner,1983,pp.400,412.

8."Noonethinksbeforeheactsexceptinthesenseofactingcovertlybeforeactingovertly"(Skinner,1974,p.235).

9.Moresuccinctly:"Whatislove...exceptanothernamefortheuseofpositivereinforcement?"(Skinner,1962,p.300).

 Page306

10.Skinner,1972,pp.99,102,107.Similarly,twowellknownpractitionersofbehaviormodificationtalkonlyof"maladaptivebehavior,"whichtheydefineas
"behaviorthatisconsideredinappropriatebythosekeypeopleinaperson'slifewhocontrolreinforcers"(UllmannandKrasner,1965,p.20).

11.Anynumberofcriticshavearguedthatthereisafatalinconsistencyintryingtoconvincesomeonetoacceptthisrepudiationofselfhoodandfreedom.Whenan
authorarguesforthevalidityofhismodelorexhortsustodosomethingSkinnerinparticularwasascoldwhofilledhisbookswithprescriptionsheis
necessarilyappealingtoafreereader,someonewhohastheabilitytoweightheargumentsandactontherecommendations(see,forexample,Chomsky,1971).
Moreover,ifallactions,includingverbalactions,arejustdrivenbyreinforcers,whyshouldweacceptanystatement,includingthisargumentbySkinner,astrue?
Thereisnoreason,afterall,toexpectthatonlytruestatementsarereinforcingforthosewhomakethem.Theveryideaoftruthisfinallyconsignedtothesamefateas
moralvalueintheSkinnerianuniverse.

12.Watson,1930,pp.5,2.

13.Thorndikeputitthisway:"Ifathingexists,itexistsinsomeamount,andifitexistsinsomeamount,itcanbemeasured"(quotedinFiske,1979,p.156).Thissort
ofreasoning,aremnantofthephilosophicalmovementknownaspositivism,haslongsincebeenrepudiatedbymostseriousthinkers,butitretainsacertainintuitive
appealamongpopbehaviorists.

14.WhitakerandMoses,1989.

15.Skinner,1990,p.1209.Ashehadformanyyears,Skinnerconcededinthispaperthatbehaviorists,likeeveryoneelse,wereobligedtospeakinthevernacularto
makethemselvesunderstood,usingexpressionssuchas"Ifeel..."and"Ineed..."Butalthoughsuch"referencestoaninitiatingselfareunavoidable"ineveryday
conversation,thereis''nosupportfor[their]useinascience"(ibid.).

16."DumpingtheGoldCard,"1991.

17.Alexander,1992Tousignant,1992.

18.GingrichquotedinSolomon,1991,p.206.Thestrengthofsuchaprogram,accordingtothisarticle,isthat"ittakeshumannatureasitis"atellingreflectionof
thesortofassumptionsthatdrivepopbehaviorism.SeealsoClymer,1992,p.47.

19."Let'sDoLunch,Billy,"1991.

20.Quick,1990.

21.Zaslowsky,1989.Subsequently,theprogramhasbeenconsideredoradoptedinareasofCaliforniaandMarylandaswell.SeealsoRaspberry,1990.

22.Annualincentiveplansformanagerswereofferedin92percentofmanufacturingcompanies,accordingtoanarticlepublishedin1986(citedinHalachmiand
Holtzer,1987,p.80)90percentofFortune500companieshadshorttermincentiveplansin1980(Posner,1986,p.57)94percentof179corporationspolledhad
somekindofrewardandrecognitionprograminasurveyreportedintheTotalQualityNewsletter(citedinStuart,1992,p.102)threequartersofthe1,600
organizationswhoserepresentativeswerequestionedbytheAmericanProductivityCenterhadsomeformofincentiveplanasof1987(O'Dell,1987,p.8)andmore
than80percentofcompaniesinstillanothersurveyclaimedin1984thatthey"gavesalaryincreasesonlyintheformofmeritpay"(Nash,1985,p.170).

 Page307

23.ThisquotationappearsinabookcalledTeachingtheElephanttoDance(Belasco,1990,p.166),whichIselectedvirtuallyatrandomfromabookstore
businessshelf.

24.Francella,1983.

25.Lawson,1984thisquotationandtheprecedingcommentbySkinnerbothappearonp.86.

26.Thesentence"Psychologistsknowthatpeople(andmostotherlivingorganisms)respondtoincentives"setsupadiscussionabouteconomicdecisionmakingin
Lipseyetal.,1987,p.9.Conversely,withinsocialpsychology,theschoolofthoughtknownas"equitytheory"offersthemostblatantexampleofincorporatingthe
assumptionsofneoclassicaleconomics.Themoregeneraltendencytoapplytheseassumptionsinallcontextstoassumethatanyhumanactivitycanbeexplainedin
termsofamodelbasedonnarrowlyselfinterested,rationalconsumerbehaviorhasbeencalled"economicimperialism"bythepsychologistBarrySchwartz(1986,
chaps.910).TraditionalassumptionsabouttheroleofrationalityineconomicshavebeenquestionedbysuchwritersasAmitaiEtzioni,AmartyaSen,andtoamore
limitedextent,RobertH.Frank.Forchallengestothebeliefthathumanmotivation,orevenareasonableunderstandingofrationality,mustalwaysbebasedonself
interest,seetheanthologyeditedbyJaneMansbridge,BeyondSelfInterest(1990)andalsomybookTheBrighterSideofHumanNature(Kohn,1990a).

27.Herzberg,1966,p.89.

28.Fromwatchingadultsuserewards,"thechildmaythenattemptto'buy'hisorherownfriends"(BalsamandBondy,1983,p.292).Preschoolchildrenwhose
behaviorwascontrolledbyreinforcementshavebeenobserved"hiringtheservicesofoneanother"(O'Learyetal.,1972,p.4).

29.Boggianoetal.,1987BarrettandBoggiano,1988.Anotherinvestigatorfoundthatthemuchreplicatedeffectbywhichpeoplewhoarerewardedbecomeless
interestedinthetaskinquestion(whichisthesubjectofchapter5)wasnotpredictedbystudentsoradults(HomandRiche,1988).

30.AsanEnglishpsychologist,SusanIsaacs,remarkedin1932,"Whenweaskchildrennottomove,weshouldhaveexcellentreasonsfordoingso.Itisstillnesswe
havetojustify,notmovement"(quotedinSilberman,1970,p.128).

31.Onestudyfoundthatsupervisorstendto"demonstraterelativelylessleadership"whenincentivesareinplace(Rothe,1970,p.550).Andahugesurveyof
Americancorporationsdiscoveredanunusuallylowrateofprogramsencouragingactiveemployeeinvolvementinthoseorganizationsthatusedsmallgroupincentive
plans(O'Dell,1987,p.52).Onthegeneralpointthatitistemptinglyeasyforsupervisorstorelyoncompensationprogramstodotheirmanagingforthem,see
Herzberg,1966,p.172Meyer,1975,p.46.

32.McGregor,1960,p.96.

33.SeeBoggianoetal.,1987,p.875.

34.Thatbehaviorism"proves"itselftrueinthiswayisathemethatrunsthroughtheworkofBarrySchwartz."Reinforcementmaximizingpeopleare...made,not
born,"hepointsout.Weoftenassumethatasystemofrewardssimplytakesadvantageof"afundamentalfeatureofthehumancharacter"whenitactually"turns
peopleintoreinforcementmaximizingeconomicactors''(1990b,p.199).Ultimately,hehaswrittenelsewhere,"it

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maybethatasmorecomponentsofthenaturalenvironmentaresubjectedtomodificationbyappliedreinforcementtheory,andmorecomponentsofhuman
behaviorarethuscontrolledbyreinforcementcontingencies,apointwillbereachedatwhichvirtuallyallhumanbehaviorwilllooklikeoperantbehavior.Ifthis
pointisreached,itwilltellusnotthatreinforcementtheoryhascapturedsomethinggeneralandessentialabouthumannature,butthat[it]hasproducedsomething
generalinhumannature''(1982b,p.58).

2
IsItRighttoReward?

1.ThiscommentisquotedinMiller,1984,p.158.Formoreonthe"justworld"phenomenon,seeRubinandPeplau,1973,1975Lerner,1970.

2.See,forexample,Ehrenreich,1989,pp.6872,8491,16895.

3.Lerner,1974,p.539.Likewise,MortonDeutschemphasizesthat"equityisonlyoneofmanyvaluesthatunderliesystemsofdistributivejustice."Forexample,he
continues,"'need'maybethepredominantvalueofdistributivejusticeinthefamilyorothercaringinstitutions...[and]'equality'maybethepredominatingvaluein
friendshipsandothersolidarityrelationships"(1985,pp.2930).

4.Deutsch,1985,p.30.

5.Ibid.SeealsoBarrySchwartz'sdiscussionof"economicimperialism,"mentionedinn.26oftheprecedingchapter.

6.StudiesreportedinLerner(1974)demonstratethatthisistruewithchildren.Researchwithundergraduateslikewisefindsthatwhentwosubjectsworkonapuzzle
andeachmustdecidehowtodivideafivedollarpaymentbetweenthem,thosewhodon'tknoweachotherarelikelytomaketheirdecisionbasedonhowwelleach
didatthetask.Whenthetwoareroommates,however,mostchoosetoapportionthemoneyequally(Austin,1980).

7.SeeBondetal.,1982,p.188.

8.Ibid.,p.187.

9.Sampson,1975,pp.5457.

10.SwapandRubin'sresearchonpersonalityiscitedinLeungandBond,1984,p.794.

11.Sampson,1975,p.58.

12.Patton,1972,pp.58,62.

13.Schwartz,1990b,pp.19697.

14.Goldstein(1988,p.12)usesthisphraseinasomewhatdifferentcontext.

15.Forexample,"HowtoHandleYourKidswithPraise"isthesubtitleofonearticleforparents(Lawson,1984).

16.Thus,"theunconsciousassumptionbehindtherewardpunishmentmodelisthatoneisdealingwithjackasses,thatpeoplearejackassestobemanipulatedand
controlled."Therelationshipbetweenthecontrollerandthecontrolledistherefore"inevitablyoneofcondescendingcontemptwhosemostblatantmaskis
paternalism"(Levinson,1973,pp.1011).

17.Forexample,DouglasMcGregorwrotethat"managementappearstohaveconcludedthattheaveragehumanbeingispermanentlyarrestedinhisdevelopmentin
earlyadolescence."CitingtheworkofChrisArgyris,heobservesthat"managerialstrategies...areadmirablysuitedtothecapacitiesandcharacteristicsofthechild
ratherthantheadult."Ifmanagersevaluateworkersinthesamewaythatteachersgradetheirstudents,"we

 Page309

shouldnotbesurprisedifthereactionstoanobjectiveappraisalaresometimesimmature"(1960,pp.43,86).

18.Whyte,1955,p.3.Ofcourse,thetendencytoreducepeopletothestatusof"humanassets"or"humancapital"cannotbeblamedentirelyonbehaviorism.Butthis
reductiondoesnotoccuronlyinabusinesscontext,andWhytewasnottheonlyonetonoticeit.ArthurKoestlerdescribedbehaviorismas"thetwentiethcentury
postscripttothenineteenthcentury'smechanisticmaterialism,itsbelatedandmostconsistentattempttodescribelivingorganismsintermsofmachinetheory"(1967,p.
557).

19.Particularlyinhisearlywritings,Skinnermademuchofhowoperanttheorydifferedfromthestimulusresponsemodelthatisassociatedwithclassicalconditioning
theory.Theoriginalbehaviorthatisreinforced,inhisview,is"emitted"ratherthanevokedbyapriorstimulus,whichmayseemtosuggestthatorganismscaninitiate
action.Butthisisanawfullythinversionofinitiationifallsubsequentbehavioriscontrolledbytheexpectationofreinforcement.TheSkinnerianpositionthatbehavior
"canbefullyexplainedbyappealtorelationsbetweenitandasmallsetofenvironmentalfactors,bothpastandpresent,andthatitistypicallycontrolledbythese
environmentalfactors,sothatbymanipulatingtheenvironmentonecanmanipulatebehaviorinlawful,predictablewaysisradicallyincompatiblewithoureveryday
inclinationtoassignafairmeasureofautonomyandresponsibilitytohumanagents"(SchwartzandLacey,1988,p.29).

20.DeciandRyan,1985,p.70.

21.DeciandRyan,1987,p.1026.

22.Iamawarethatthewordcontrolcanalsobeusedinastrongersense,todenotetheapplicationofphysicalforcetooverpowersomeone.Neitherthethreatof
punishmentnorthepromiseofrewardiscontrolling,accordingtothisnarrowerdefinition,becausestrictlyspeakingoneisfreetoresistthepositiveornegative
consequencesimposedforacting,orfailingtoact,inaparticularway.Firstofall,though,thisfreedommaybeseverelyconstrainedbyasufficientlyonerous
punishment:onemaynotbeliterally"controlled"byacommandto"handoveryourwalletordie"(inthatonecouldchoosethelatteroption),butthepractical
differenceisnotverygreat.Second,thefreedomtoresistisarelativematter,dependenton,inthecaseofareward,one'sperceivedneed.Adesperatelypoor
individualismorecontrolledbytheofferofasubstantialsumofmoneyinexchangeforperformingsomebehaviorthanissomeoneaffluentbecauseheislessfreeto
declineit.Finally,thereisamoremeaningfuldifference,againinapracticalcontext,betweentheuseofpersuasionandtheuseoftacticsintendedtocontrol(suchas
punishmentsandrewards)thanthereisbetweenthesetacticsandtheapplicationofabsolutecontrol.

23.Bachrachetal.,1984,p.22.

24.Meyer,1975,p.41.HarryLevinsonnotesthatsupervisorsandconsultantstypicallyask,"'Howcantheemployeebemotivated?'Oftentheimplicationisthatby
doingsomethingtothepersonorhisenvironment,hecanbemadetodo,bysomeoneelse,whatiseitherdesiredorexpectedofhim"(1973,p.19).

25."Thetokeneconomy,asamotivatingenvironmentforpsychiatricpatients,isanexampleofthedirectapplicationofprinciplesderivedintheexperimentalanimal
laboratorytocomplexhumanbehavior."Thisisthefirstsentenceofanarticlewrittenbypsychologistswhoaregenerallysupportiveoftheidea(Carlsonetal.,1972,
p.192seealsoKazdin,1976,p.98).

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26.SeeGlynn,1990,esp.pp.38384,39295.

27.ForexamplesofcriticalreviewsoftokeneconomyprogramsinpsychiatrichospitalsallpublishedthesameyearindifferentjournalsseeBiklen,1976
Hersen,1976Zeldow,1976.Questionsabouttheefficacyofsuchprogramshavebeenraisedevenbyenthusiasticsupportersoftheconcept(seeKazdin,1976,p.
105).

28.DrabmanandTucker,1974thequotationsaretakenfrompp.181,183,182,187,and184,respectively.

29.CondryandChambers,1978,p.76.

30.OfallthecontroversialelementsofSkinner'sworldview,oneoftheleastcredibleandmostdistastefulwashisattempttodenythisfactbyinsistingthat"therelation
betweenthecontrollerandthecontrolledisreciprocal....Inaveryrealsense,then,theslavecontrolstheslavedriver"(1972,p.161).Thisperplexingrefusalto
acknowledgetherealityofoppression,toattributesymmetryeventothemostegregiousexampleofsubjugation,proceedsfromafailuretoacknowledgethat
controllerstypicallyhavealotmorealternativesavailabletothemthandothecontrolled.Specifically,controllershavethecapacitytosettheagendabydecidingwhat
mustbedoneinorderfortherewardtobereceived,andcanchangethisagendaatwill(onthispoint,seeLacey,1979,pp.1314).

31.QuotedinHemp,1992,p.41.

32.Kirsch,1974,p.314.Likewise,anotherpsychologist(who,incidentally,describeshimselfasan"avowedbehaviormodifier")remarksthatatokeneconomyina
hospital"wouldappeartoserveasaneffectivesystemofwardmanagementratherthanasaproposedtreatmentregimen"(Hersen,1976,p.209).

33.WinettandWinkler,1972,pp.501502.Evenmorepointedly,theydeclarethat"behaviormodifiershavebeeninstrumentsofthestatusquo,unquestioning
servantsofasystemwhichthrivesonapettyreignof'lawandorder'totheapparentdetrimentoftheeducationalprocessitself"(p.501).Likewise,SamuelBowles
andHerbertGintis,inthecourseofanalyzingthepoliticalandeconomicobjectivesfurtheredbyAmericaneducation,observethat"therewardsystemoftheschool
inhibitsthosemanifestationsofpersonalcapacitywhichthreatenhierarchicalauthority"(1976,p.42).

34.Watson,1930,p.21.

35.Csikszentmihalyi,1978,p.210.

36.OneofWatson'smostfamouspassageshighlightsthissupposedmalleabilityofourspecies:"Givemeadozenhealthyinfants,wellformed,andmyownspecified
worldtobringthemupinandI'llguaranteetotakeanyoneatrandomandtrainhimtobecomeanytypeofspecialistImightselectdoctor,lawyer,artist,merchant
chiefandyes,evenbeggarmanandthief,regardlessofhistalents,penchants,tendencies,abilities,vocations,andraceofhisancestors"(1930,p.104).

37.JamesBeane(1990,p.74)makesthispoint.RichardRyanandacolleaguealsoarguethatwhen,insteadofcontrollingchildrenwithrewardsorpunishments,we
givethemresponsibilityformakingchoices,theyaremorelikelytogrowinto"interested,active,andempoweredcitizens"ofthesortbestabletoparticipateina
democracy(RyanandStiller,1991,p.118).

38.AudreLorde,quotedinBrownandGilligan,1992,p.10.

39.AndrewsandKarlins,1972thequotationsaretakenfrompp.68.The

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claimthatbehaviormodificationprogramsandotherattemptstocontrolwhatpeopledois"valueneutral"iscommonlymadebybehaviorists.

40.LaceyandSchwartz,1987,p.175.

3
IsIsItEffecttivetoReward?

1.Rachlin,1991,p.132.

2.HackmanandOldham,1980,p.38.ThesamepointwasmadebyMcCullers,1978,pp.1415.

3.Thorne,1990.

4."Gettingastudenttointernalizeabehavior(i.e.,toengageinabehaviorwithoutnecessarilyreceivinganyextrinsicreward)shouldbethegoalofeverybehavior
modificationprogram,"declaresonesupporterofsuchprograms(Kaplan,1991,p.21).Andfromtwoothers:"Thesinequanonofsuccessfultherapyisthat
behaviorbegeneralizedtosituationsotherthanthetherapeuticone"(BalsamandBondy,1983,p.290).

5.KazdinandBootzin,1972,pp.35960.

6.Kazdin,1982,pp.43537.

7.Greeneetal.,1976,p.1229.Similarresultswerereportedinacomparablestudyinvolvingchildren'schoiceofdifferentartmedia(Colvin,1972).Iftheeffectsof
behavioralprogramslikethesedon't"transfertonewsituations,"anotherresearcherhasobserved,"itseemsreasonabletoassertthatsolongasthelocusofcontrolis
fledtopeopleandproceduresthatareexternaltothelearner,thereisnoreasontoexpectsuchtransfertooccur"(Thomas,1980,p.218).

8.Withbehaviormodificationprogramsforchildren,moststudieshaveyielded"noevidenceofpositivegeneralization,"onegroupofbehavioristsconcludes.Infact,
theresearcherspointoutafewpageslater,"thereislittlereasontoexpect"it(Johnsonetal.,1976,pp.161,185).Fromanotherpairofreviewers:"Whenappropriate
measuresofsubsequenttaskengagementhavebeenobtainedinsituationswhererewardsweredearlynolongeravailable,decreasesintaskengagement...have
beenobtained,insomecases,followingthewithdrawalofreasonablylongtermtokeneconomyprograms"(LepperandGreene,1978b,pp.14243).Andas
recentlyas1990,anotherwriterclaimsthatitstill''hasnotbeenfullydetermined"whethersuchprogramsproduceanylongtermchanges(Glynn,1990,p.401).

9.SeeLepperandGreene,1978a,p.226.Toanavidbehaviorist,itisonlylogicalthatifrewardsdon'tproducelastingchanges,thesolutionistogivemoreofthem.
"Toavoidbacksliding,"saysKazdin,weneedtoprovidemorerewardsinmoresettingsorshiftfromonerewardtoanother(1976,p.105seealsoO'Learyetal.,
1972,pp.34).Fromanothersource:"Childrenwhohavedifficultyinschoolandhomesettingsshouldprobablyreceivesimultaneoustreatmentinbothsettings.If
positivegeneralizationacrosssettingsisdesired,activeprogrammingofsuchgeneralizationappearstoberequired"(Johnsonetal.,1976,pp.18586).

10.Forageneralcritiqueoftheuseofbehavioraltechniquesbyhealtheducators,seeGreenetal.,1986,pp.51719.

11.DienstbierandLeak,1976.

12.Krameretal.,1986.

13.Curryetal.,1991thequotationappearsonp.323.Corroboratingthe

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resultsofthisexperimentisanearlierstudybythesameresearchersindicatingthatwhentwopeoplesmokethesameamountandhaveanequallystrongdesireto
stop,theonewhosereasonforquittingisextrinsic(e.g.,tosavemoney,toavoidbeingnagged,toreceiveafinancialincentive)ismuchlesslikelytokickthehabit
thansomeonemotivatedbyconcernsabouthealthorselfcontrol(Curryetal.,1990).

14.Gelleretal.,1987thequotationappearsonp.14.Whenacommitmenttoatheoryisstrongenough,however,factscanbeconvenientlybrushedaside.Two
yearslater,inanotherjournal,thesameauthordeclaredthat"incentivestrategieshavebeenparticularlypromisingasamethodofincreasingsafetybeltuse,"andthen
citedtheveryresearchreviewjustdescribedapparentlyhopingnoonewouldlookitupanddiscoverwhathadactuallybeenfound(Gelleretal.,1989,p.4).

15.Kazdin,1976,p.102.

16.DeciandRyan,1985,p.286.Ifthegoalisforbehaviorchangetocontinueoncerewardsarenolongerforthcoming,andforittotransfertonewsituations,Deci
andRyanarguethatthereisnoreasontoexpectthesethingstohappenonthebasisofoperanttheoriesoflearningthereinforcedbehaviorcanbeprolongedusing
varioustechniques,buteventuallyitshouldextinguish(p.285).

17.MillerandEstes,1961thequotationappearsonp.503.

18.Glucksberg,1962.Therewasnostatisticallysignificantdifferenceinsolutiontimewhenthesubjectsgottheboxesalreadyemptiedoftheircontents.Inasecond
study,adifferentgroupofsubjectswererequiredtorecognizeawordeitherasimpleonelikechurchoranunusualonelikepercipiencewhenitwasflashed
onascreen.Onceagain,thoseworkingforarewarddidn'tdoaswellwhenthetaskwasdifficult.Andtwoyearslater,Glucksberg(1964)publishedyetanother
reportshowingthatafinancialincentiveunderminedthecapacityofundergraduatestoperformanothertask,thisoneinvolvingconstructinganelectricalcircuit,when
thesolutionwasn'tobvious.Thosepromisedarewardtookmorethantwiceasmuchtimetosolvetheproblem.

19.Spence,1970,1971thequotationappearsonp.1469ofthesecondarticle.

20.Viesti,1971thequotationsappearonpp.18182.

21.Deci,1971,Experiment2.

22.McCullersandMartin,1971thequotationappearsonp.836.

23.Kruglanskietal.,1971.

24.Lepperetal.,1973,p.135GreeneandLepper,1974,p.1144.Theprimaryfindingofthesestudieswasthattherewardsreducedchildren'sinterestindrawing,
atopictowhichweshallreturn.

25.Onecreativityexperimentfoundthatamonetaryrewardboostedthenumberofideaschildrencameupwithbuthadnoeffectonthequalityofthoseideas(Ward
etal.,1972).Anotherstudyfoundthatchildrenwhoparticularlylikedtodrawtendedtoproducemoredrawingsbutdidasloppierjobwhentheyweretryingtogetan
award(LovelandandOlley,1979).Intheworkplace,aswewillseelater,financialincentivesregularlyproduceshorttermquantitativegainsinperformance(how
many,howfast,etc.)ifthetasksaresimplethosegainsdisappear,however,ifwelookattheeffectsonquality.Areviewersummarizedtheresearchthisway:"One
oftheeffectsofanticipatedrewardsontaskperformanceistoincreaseactivitybuttolowerthequalityofthatactivity"(Condry,1977,p.469).

 Page313

26.McGrawandMcCullers,1979.

27.Garbarino,1975.Alaterstudyof1,330collegestudentswhohadsigneduptotutordisadvantagedchildrenfoundthatthosewhoadmittedtovolunteeringfor
extrinsicreasons(suchasgettingacademiccreditorbetterdormitoryrooms)tendedtoreportthattheirtuteesdidn'tbenefitasmuchasthetuteesofstudentswhose
motiveswerelessorientedtowhattheywouldgetoutoftheexperience(Fresko,1988).Thestrengthofthisstudyisthatitwasbasedonreallifeexperiencesrather
thanacontrivedlaboratorytaskitalsosampledalargenumberofpeople.Unfortunately,thestudentsthemselvesprovidedtheonlyassessmentofhowmuchtheir
tuteeswerebenefiting,andthosewhosawthemselvesasmorealtruistic(orwhowouldlikeotherstoseethemthatway)mighthavebeeninclinedtoexaggeratethe
valueoftheirwork.

28.Fabesetal.,1981.

29.Fabesetal.,1986.

30.Schwartz,1982b,1988.

31.Amabile,1985.Creativitywasjudgedbyhavingadozenprofessionalwritersevaluatethewritingsamplesindependentlywithoutknowingwhatthestudywas
about.

32.Amabileetal.,1986.

33.UnpublisheddatabyTeresaAmabile,BrandeisUniversity,1992.Thestudywasconductedwithprofessionalartists,eachofwhomwasinvitedtosubmitabatch
ofcommissionedandnoncommissionedworks.Withoutknowingwhatdistinguishedthetwopiles,tenotherprofessionalartistsindependentlyjudgedthe
commissionedarttobesignificantlylesscreativethanthenoncommissionedart(p=.014).Theartistswhohaddonetheworkfeltthesameway,incidentally,andalso
reportedfeelingmoreconstrainedwhenworkingforcommissions.Infact,themoreanartistperceivedacommissionforagivenworkasconstrainingorcontrolling,
thelesscreativeitwasjudgedtobe.

34.Anunpublishedreportofthisresearch,DianaI.CordovaandMarkR.Lepper,"TheEffectsofIntrinsicversusExtrinsicRewardsontheLearningProcess,"is
describedinLepperandCordova,1992,pp.201202thequotationisonp.202.Theirstudywaspartlyintendedtodeterminewhethermakingthetaskmorefunby
embeddingitinafantasyscenariowouldimprovethechildren'sperformance,whichitdid.Butthepromiseofarewarddraggeddowntheperformanceevenofthe
childreninthefantasycondition.

35.Deutsch,1985,p.157.

36.BoggianoandBarrett,1991.

37.Deutsch,1985,p.162.

38.DannerandLonky,1981,p.1049.

39.McGraw,1978,p.34.

40.Incombingtheresearchonthistopic,Ihavecomeacrossahandfulofearlystudiespurportingtoshowthatcreativitycanbeoperantlyconditioned.Thiswork
leavesagreatdealtobedesired,however,intermsofexperimentalrigor.Typicallythestudiesareconductedwithonlyahandfulofsubjects,ortheyfailtoincludea
controlgrouptoassessthecreativityofsubjectswhoreceivenoreward,ortheyoverlookthepossibilitythatsubjectsarescoringbetteroncreativitytestsaftera
rewardisoffered(comparedtobefore)simplybecausebythentheyhavehadsomepracticedoingthetask.

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Moreover,themeasuresofcreativitythatareused,whilefamiliartothosewhostudythesubject,aremorethanalittleunsatisfying.Borrowingfromadistinction
offeredbyMcGraw,Amabilehasnotedthatthetasksusedinbehaviormodificationstudiesarealmostalways"algorithmic,"meaningthatitisprettydearfromthe
beginningwhathastobedoneinordertobejudgedcreative,andmeetingthecriteriaisamatterofapplyingafamiliarformula.Bycontrast,peopleworkingfora
rewarddonotdobetterattruly"heuristic"tasks,wherenewgroundmustbebrokenandcuttingedgeapproachesinventedinfact,theyusuallydoworse(see
Amabile,1979,pp.23031).Finally,althoughsomegainsmaybeobservedinthesestudies,thereisnoevidencethatreinforcedindividualsaremorecreativeon
thenexttasktheyattempt.Withthisinmind,andinlightofalltheresearchdemonstratingareductioningenuinecreativitywhenrewardsareused,weareless
likelytobeimpressedwiththesortofexperimentalresultproudlycitedbybehaviorists.Thestudytheymentionmostoftenconsistsofaninterventionwithagrand
totalofthreefouryearoldgirlsshowingthattheyweremorelikelytoarrangeblocksinnewpatternswhenpraisedfordoingso(GoetzandBaer,1973).Readthe
othercreativitystudiesbybehaviorists(e.g.,GloverandGary,1976HalpinandHalpin,1973Raina,1968Johnson,1974Wardetal.,1972)andyouwillfind
littletochallengetheconclusionthatwhileitispossibletoprovideconditionsthatfacilitatecreativity,itissimplynotpossibletobribepeopletobecreative.

41.Condry,1977,pp.47172.

4
TheTroublewithCarrots

1.Forexample,seeSpence,1970,p.110McCullersandMartin,1971,p.837ReissandSushinsky,1975,passim.

2.SeethesecondexperimentreportedinRoss,1975SmithandPittman,1978.Thelatterstudyshowedthatthereductionininterestcausedbyarewarddidnot
weakenasthetaskwasrepeatedlyperformed,whichiswhatthedistractionhypothesispredicts.

3.Thelastlocution,offeredbythephilosopherW.V.Quine,isquotedinKagan,1984,p.125.

4.Lewin,1935,p.153.Ofcourse,Lewinalsorecognizeddistinctionsbetweenrewardsandpunishments.

5.Newby,1991,p.197.

6.Searsetal.,1957,p.324.

7.Anearlyandverysmallstudyofafterschoolclubsthathadbeensetupfortenyearoldboysfoundthat"bothpraiseandcriticismwereespeciallycharacteristicof
ourautocratic[adult]leaders"democraticleadersusedlesspraiseprobably,accordingtotheresearchers,because"bothpraiseandcriticism...suggestan
emphasisonpersonalevaluationfromtheleader'sstandpoint...astatushierarchy...[inwhich]theleaderissettinghimselfupaschiefjudgeofthestatusand
achievementofthemembersofthegroup"(WhiteandLippit,1960,pp.53132).Morerecently,astudyinwhichundergraduateswereaskedtotaketheroleof
teachersdiscoveredthatthosewhowerepressuredtoextractmaximumperformancefromtheirpupilswerebothmorecriticalandcontrolling,ontheonehand,and
morelikelytopraise,ontheother(Decietal.,1982,p.856).

8.Justbecausesomethingisunpleasant,ofcourse,doesnotmeanthatweshouldexpectthateveryonewillactivelyresentthisandrebel.(AliceMiller

 Page315

[1984]haspersuasivelydescribedhowevenpeoplewhowerevictimsofphysicalpunishmentaschildrenmayconvincethemselvesthatitmusthavebeenfortheir
owngoodoncegrown,theymaythenvictimizetheirownchildren,asiftoremoveanytracesofdoubt.)Insteadofcomplainingwhentheyarepunishedby
rewards,somepeoplewillreactbycomingtoseethemselves,theirmotives,andthetaskstheyworkoneachdayinadifferentlight.If,asIwillarguelater,theuse
ofrewardsdrainsthejoyoutofmuchofwhatwedo,thisresultcanfairlybedescribedaspunitivewhetherornotpeopleareupinarmsoverthefact.

9.Ohanian,1982,p.19.

10.DeciandRyan,1985,p.301.

11.Pearce,1987,p.171.

12.Theresearchliteraturesupportingtheachievementenhancingeffectsofcooperativelearningisimmense.DavidandRogerJohnson(whosefavoritemottois
quotedinthetext),RobertSlavin,ShlomoSharan,andothershavepublishedreviewsofstudiesonthetopic.Isummarizetheirworkandothers',whiletryingto
accountforthedemonstratedsuperiorityofcooperativelearning,inKohn,1992a,chap.10.

13.Zeldow,1976,p.319.

14.Idiscussthisissueatlengthinchapters6and7ofmybookNoContest(Kohn,1992a).

15.Jordan,1986,p.409.

16.Severalstudieshavecorroboratedthissee,forexample,HainesandMcKeachie,1967.

17.Thisdynamicwasnoticedbyaresearcherasearlyas1932:"Generally,theusualclassroomincentivescallfortharesponseformaximumexertiononlyfromthe
fewveryablepupils,whilethemajorityofthepupils,knowingthattheirchancesforexcellingarelimited,failtobemotivatedtodotheirverybest"(Zubin,1932,p.
50).Thesame,ofcourse,istrueofworkplaceincentives.

18.Forexample,seeAmes,1978,1981.

19."Ifagroupcontingencyisused,somemembersofthegroupmaybeaggressiveinordertoensurethatthegroupasawholefulfillsthereinforcement
contingency"(BalsamandBondy,1983,p.291).

20.TheodoreH.Cohn,acompensationspecialist,isquotedinKanter,1987,p.66.Sometimessafetyratherthanperformanceisthecriteriononwhichbonusesare
based:everyoneinthedepartmentisrewardedifandonlyiftherearenoinjuries.Theresult,accordingtooccupationalhealthandsafetyspecialistPhilipKorman
(personalcommunication,December1992),isthatanincentiveiscreatedtoavoidreportinginjuries.Moreover,suchprogramseffectivelyshiftresponsibilityaway
fromtheemployer,whoselegalresponsibilityitistomaintainasafeworkplace,andtotheemployees.

21.Garbarino,1975,p.427.

22.Seligmanetal.,1980.

23.Someschoolspresenthighachievingstudentswithcardsgoodfordiscountsatlocalrestaurantsandstores.Onemajorimpactofthisrewardistherelativestatusit
providesrecipients.Onehighschoolseniorisquotedassayingthecardis"funtohavebecausealotofpeopledon'thaveone"(Tousignant,1991,p.A1).Thepointis
thatitisn'tnecessarytosetupanincentiveprogramasacompetitionthatis,withanartificiallimitonthenumberofprizesavailableinordertosabotage
relationshipsamongstudents.

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24.Posner,1986,p.59.

25.Adissertationexperimentfoundsometimeagothatsubordinatesweremorelikelytoaskforhelpwhentheirsupervisorswerenotalsochargedwithenforcinga
certainlevelofperformance(Ross,1957).Thesamepointhasbeenmadeinastudyofmeritpayforteachers,whichprovidesthemwith"astrongincentivenotto
bringproblemstotheirprincipal'sattentionandtobeselectiveabouttheinformationtheydoprovidetoaprincipal"asituationthatnotonlymakeslifemoredifficult
forbothprincipalsandteachersbutalso,ultimately,forstudents(Bachrachetal.,1984,p.23).

26.Glasser,1990,p.29.

27.Thispolicy,whichgoesbythenameof"Learnfare"inWisconsin,unfairlysinglesoutforpressurethosewhodependonpublicassistance.Presumably,
policymakerswouldliketoseeallchildrenstayinschool,buttheyapplycoercionselectivelytotheneedieststudentsbecausewiththemtheyhavesomeleverage.As
onemotherandactivistputit,"classstatus,nottruancyalone,determinedwhowouldbeabusedbyLearnfare"(Gowens,1991,p.90).Whenparents'subsistence
paymentsarecut,thepolicyisdoublyunfairitpenalizespeopleforlackingabsolutecontroloverthebehavioroftheirteenagechildren.(Thelatterpointismadebyan
observerwho,however,thengoesontodistinguishbetweentheuseofpenalties,whichheopposes,andrewards,whichheseesaslikelyto''upliftand
encourage"[Besharov,1992,p.19]therebyoverlookingthefundamentalsimilarityofthesetwoformsofcontrol.)

28.Baron,1988,p.117.

29.ThisisathemethatrunsthroughtheworkofBarrySchwartzseeespeciallySchwartz,1982b.

30.SeveralstudiesofthiskindarereviewedinMcGraw,1978,pp.3740,55.

31.Pittmanetal.,1982,p.790.

32.ThisisthetitleofanarticlebythelateJohnCondrypublishedin1977.Elsewhere,heandacolleaguehaveremarkedthat"periodsofexplorationinwhichthegoal
seemstobeshuntedtothesidemaynotonlybenaturalbutmayalsobefacilitative"thatis,usefulforlearningandsolvingproblems(CondryandKoslowski,1979,p.
254).

33.Amabile,1988,pp.144,143.

34.SeeSchwartz,1982a,1988.

35.SchwartzandLacey,1982,p.247.

36.Schwartz,1988,p.129.

37.Lewin,1935,p.156McGrawandFiala,1982.TheZeigarnikeffect,discoveredinthe1920s,referstothefactthatpeoplearegenerallyinclinedtoreturnto
tasksfromwhichtheyhavebeeninterrupted.ButKennethMcGrawandJirinaFialafoundthatwhensubjectshavealreadyreceivedarewardforworkingonatask
(inthiscase,ajigsawpuzzle),theyweremorelikelythannonrewardedsubjectstoleaveitunfinishedwhengiventhechance.

38.DrabmanandTucker,1974,p.181.

39.SeeCondryandChambers,1978Harter,1978Pearlman,1984Shapira,1976Fabesetal.,1988andthefivestudiescitedinthenextthreenotes.

40.TwostudiesonthispointaredescribedinLocke,1968,pp.18183.

41.Pittmanetal.,1982.Anotherstudyfound,tothecontrary,thatsubjectswentbacktomoredifficulttaskswhentherewardwaswithdrawn,buttheresearchers
concededthatthismayhavebeenduetoapeculiarityofthe

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tasktheyused,acomputergamewhosedifficultylevelwaseasilyadjusted(NewbyandAlter,1989).Eventhisfinding,ofcourse,corroboratesthecentralpoint
thatrewardsleadpeopletoavoidchallengingthemselvestheonlydisagreementconcernsthepermanenceofthateffect.

42.Boggianoetal.,1991,p.517.

43.Thefactthatweseethetaskasanobstacletogettingarewardiscloselyrelatedtotheideathatinterestinthetasktendstodeclineundertheseconditions,which
isthesubjectofthefollowingchapter.Othertheoristsprefertothinkofitthisway:"attentionisfocusedontheeasiestroute"totherewardbecauserewards"createa
'performance'context"inwhichwecaremoreabouthowwearedoingthanwhatwearedoing(CondryandChambers,1978,p.67).Iwillreturntothisideatooin
thecontextofexploringtheeffectsofrewardsoneducation.YetanotherexplanationforthetendencytopickeasiertaskswasproposedbyFabesetal.(1986):the
promiseofarewardforajobwelldonemayseemtoimplythatthejobismoredifficultthanwethoughttodifficulttoenjoy,perhaps.Theseresearchersreported
thatthirdgradechildrenofferedatoyforworkingonamazegamethoughtitwashardertosolvethandidthosewhoweren'tofferedatoy.

44.Pearlman,1984,p.541.

45.Childrenhavebeenfoundtobe"intrinsicallymotivatedtoengageinthosetaskswhichwerewithintheirreachbutdevelopmentallyjustbeyondtheircurrent
level"(DannerandLonky,1981,p.1046).Theentiretraditionof"constructivism"ineducationaltheory,basedinpartontheworkofJeanPiaget,affirmsthechild's
fundamentaldesiretomakesenseoftheworld.(Idiscussthismovementinchapter11.)Evenapartfromeducationalquestions,anumberoftheoristsandresearchers
concernedwithhumanmotivationhavepersuasivelychallenged"tensionreduction"orhomeostaticmodels,whichholdthatorganismsalwaysseekastateofrest.
GordonAllportmadethatchallengeexplicit,andalloftheworkshowingthatwearemotivatedbyaneedtoattainasenseofcompetence(RobertWhite),tobeself
determining(RicharddeCharms,EdwardDeci,andothers),tosatisfyourcuriosity(D.E.Berlyne),orto''acrualize"ourpotentialinvariousways(AbrahamMaslow)
implicitlyrefutestheideathatitisnaturaltodoaslittleaspossible.

46.Twobehavioristsseemtoconcedethiswhentheynotethat"itispossiblewhenarewardsuchascandyisgivenfollowingsuccessfulmathwork,candygettingis
theoperantstrengthened,withmathworkbeingonlyonememberofthatoperantclass"(BalsamandBondy,1983,p.291).

5
CuttingtheInterestRate

1.Surprisingly,researchintheworkplacehasnotalwaysfoundasignificantrelationshipbetweenworkers'reportedsatisfactionwiththeirjobsandthequalityoftheir
performance.Inthemid1980s,onereviewoftheavailablestudiesfoundthatthetwovariableswere"onlyslightlyrelated"(IaffaldanoandMuchinsky,1985),which
echoedtheresultsofpreviousreviews.Anotheranalysis,however,turnedupamoreimpressivecorrelationbetweensatisfactionandperformance(Pettyetal.,1984),
andthetwoalsoseemtobecloselyrelatedwhenwelookatorganizationsasawholeratherthanatindividuals(Ostroff,1992).(Otherstudies[e.g.,Guzzoand
Katzell,1987

 Page318

p.109]havefoundthatjobsatisfactionisprettyclearlyrelatedtowhetheranemployeewillstaywithanorganization.)Thatthereshouldbeanythingbuta
consistentandstrongrelationshipbetweenhowsatisfiedpeoplearewiththeirworkandhowwelltheydoitisratherpuzzling.Itishardtoimagine,forexample,
that,everythingelsebeingequal,someone'sproductivitywouldnotdropifshecametodetestwhatshewasdoing.Alowoverallcorrelationdoesnotnecessarily
meanthatthisisn'ttrue,ofcourse.Itmightbethataboveacertainthresholdlevelofsatisfaction,otherfactorsaremorerelevanttoperformance.Conversely,it
mightbethecasethatpeoplewhodoverygoodworkmayneverthelessbeunhappybecauseofotheraspectsoftheirenvironment,eventhoughlowsatisfaction
andperformancenearlyalwaysgohandinhand.Also,wewouldneedtoknowmoreaboutwhethertherelationshipisstrongerwithcertainkindsofjobsand
certainkindsofmeasuresofhowwellpeoplearedoingtheirwork.Themostimportantpointtobemadeaboutthisresearch,though,isthatanemployeewho
reportsbeingsatisfiedonaquestionnaireisnotnecessarilyenamoredoftheworkitself.''Ifataskisdull...peoplemaybemoresatisfiedandmayenjoythe
experiencemoreiftheyarepaidforit.Butthatdoesnotmeanthattheyaremoreintrinsicallymotivatedforit....Thesatisfactionandenjoymentareextrinsic"in
thiscase(DeciandRyan,1985,p.83).Thus,theabsenceofacorrelationbetweensatisfactionandperformancedoesnotchallengethecontributionthatintrinsic
motivationmakestoqualitywork.

2.Researchershavefoundthatextrinsicincentivescansometimesreducethequalityofpeople'sworkevenwhentheseincentivesdon'tseemtohaveaneffecton
interestinthetask(e.g.,seeMcGrawandMcCullers,1979).Theprecedingchapter,afterall,offeredfourotherexplanationsforthedetrimentaleffectofrewardson
quality.

3.Koestneretal.,1987,p.389.

4.Deci,1971,Experiment1thequotationappearsonp.114.Theresultsofthisveryfirststudywerenotoverwhelming:therewereonlytwentyfoursubjects,with
theresultthatthedifferencebetweenthetwogroups(intermsofhowmuchtimewasspentonthepuzzleduringthelastsession,afteronegrouphadbeenrewarded,
correctedforhowmuchtimeeachgrouphadspentonitinitially)didnotreachconventionallevelsofstatisticalsignificance(p<.10).Moreover,therewasno
differenceininterestatallasmeasuredbyaquestionnaire.Subsequentstudiesnotonlyreplicatedthebasiceffect,however,butdemonstrateditmoreconvincingly.

5.Personalcommunication,September1992.HealsodescribesthisexperienceinLepper,1983,pp.308309.

6.Lepperetal.,1973.

7.Whenstudiesofhowothercontrollingfactorsaffectintrinsicinterestareaddedtothoselookingatrewards,thetotalexceedsonehundred,accordingtoarecent
paperonthesubject(RyanandStiller,1991,p.120).

8.Atleastoneresearcherhashadasimilarexperience.HarryHom(inpress)foundthatundergraduatesgenerallycouldnotpredictthatrewardswouldreduce
intrinsicinterestbutwerenotsurprisedwhentheeffectwasexplainedtothem,withsomesaying"Iknewitallalong."

9.Birchetal.,1984.

10.Personalcommunication,September1989.

11.Wallack,1992.

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12.Schwartz,1982b,p.53n5.

13.Obviously,justbecausepeopledolesscreativeworkwhenarewardisatstakedoesnotmeanthattheircreativitywillbepermanentlydamaged.Butresearch
exploringwhathappenstointerestinparticulartasksconfirmsanenduringnegativeeffect.Lepper,remember,foundthatpreschoolerswerestilllessinterestedin
drawingwithMagicMarkersuptotwoweeksaftertheyhadbeenrewardedfordoingso.Anotherstudyfoundthatchildrenwhowerepromisedaprizeforplaying
withadrumwerelessinterestedinitfourtofiveweekslater(Ross,1975,Experiment1).Twootherresearchers,meanwhile,foundsuchaneffectaweekafterthe
rewardwaspresentedbutnotaftersevenweekshadpassed.Still,theypointedout,forchildren'sreducedinterestindrawingtopersistevenoneweekafterbeing
rewarded"representsaratherpowerfulandlastingchangeinbehaviorassociatedwithaseeminglysmallreward"(LovelandandOlley,1979,p.1209).Another
reviewerwassimilarlyimpressed:"Giventhatstudiestypicallyinvolveonlyasinglereward,thepersistenceoftheeffectisremarkableandisoneofitsstrongestclaims
toimportance.Intheusualclassroom[or,wemightadd,workplace]settingwhererewardsaredispersedcontinuallyoverlongperiods,onemightexpecttheeffectto
beevenlongerlasting"(Morgan,1984,p.24).

14."Thesubsequentbehavioraleffectsofmanipulationsofextrinsicincentivesdonotdependupontheimmediateeffectsofthesemanipulationsonbehaviorduringthe
experimentalsessions"(LepperandGreene,1978b,p.122).

15."Thekeyquestioniswhether...theunderminingofpeople'sintrinsicmotivationforanactivitysimplymeansthattheywon'tchoosethatactivityasameansto
intrinsicsatisfactionorwhetheritmeansthattheiroverallintrinsicmotivationwilltendtodecreaseinadditiontotheirdecreasedinterestintheoneactivity,"asDeciand
acolleagueputit.Already,theycontinued,preliminaryevidencesupportedthelatterview(DeciandPorac,1978,p.174).Intheearly1990s,aCanadianstudy
confirmedthatrewardsdoindeedtendto"subvertintrinsicmotivationtopursueotheractivitiesthatwereneverintendedtofallundertheinfluenceoftheextrinsic
constraint"(EnzleandWright,1992,p.33).

16.Morgan,1983."Theunderminingeffectamongobserverswasnotpersistentbecausetheopportunitywasquicklypresentedtotryouttheactivity"inthiscase,
ajigsawpuzzleanddiscoverthatitreallywasenjoyable."Inothercircumstancessuchopportunitiesmightnotbepresent"(p.644).

17.Gottfried,1986,p.91.Arecentsurveyofworkingadultsdidfindthatolderpeoplewereslightlylessextrinsicallymotivatedthanyoungerpeopleonaverage
(Amabileetal.,1991).Itispossible,though,thattheolderpeopleinthisstudywerealsomoreexperiencedattheirjobsorwereearningmoremoneymotivational
orientationmayactuallyberelatedtooneofthesefactorsratherthantoageitself.

18.Oneexceptionisastudythatofferedcolorfulstickerstokindergartnersforworkingonamaze.Differentwaysofpresentingtherewardhaddifferenteffectson
howlongtheboysspentplayingwiththemazeontheirowntime,whereasanysortofrewardreducedthegirls'apparentinterestinit.However,nonrewardedgirls
seemedmoreinterestedthannonrewardedboys,whichcomplicatesthepicture(Boggianoetal.,1985).

19.Tenthgradegirlsscoredhigherthanboysonameasureofintrinsicintellec

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tualorientationinonesurvey(LloydandBarenblatt,1984).Inanother,elementaryschoolagedgirlstoowerelesslikelythanboystogivepressurefromthe
teacherastheirreasonfordoinghomeworkorclasswork(GrolnickandRyan,1990,p.180).Inathirdstudy,femaleundergraduatesdescribedthemselvesin
wayssuggestingamoreintrinsicorientationtowardacademicsthanmaleshad(VallerandandBissonnette,1992,pp.60910otherresearchpointingtothesame
conclusionismentionedonp.615).Ontheotherhand,anothersurveyofchildreninelementaryschoolfoundthegirlstobemoremotivatedbyextrinsicfactors
thantheboyswere(Boggianoetel.,1991,Experiment1).Typically,themeasuresusedinsuchstudiesassumethatorientationexistsonasinglecontinuum,with
extremeextrinsicononesideandextremeintrinsiconanother.This,asmorerecentresearchindicates,maybeamistake:thetwopossibilitiesoperate
independentlyofeachothersuchthatonepersoncouldbehighorlowonboth(e.g.,seeHarterandJackson,1992).

20.Forexample,seeTerrelletel.,1959andthestudiescitedinSpence,1970,p.104.

21.Condry,1978,p.183n2.

22.Spence,1971(andseethediscussionofpreviousresearchonpp.146264)Wardetel.,1972SewellandWalker,1982.

23.LloydandBarenblatt,1984Gottfried,1985,1990.

24.McGregor,1960,p.41.Sincejobsthatarehighlyregimentedaretypicallyjobsthatalsodon'tpayverywell,itishardtofigureoutwhetheragreaterconcernwith
extrinsicrewardsisduetotheabsenceofpowerorofmoney.Butthereisnodoubtthatpeopleatthebottomofthetotempoledohavesuchaconcern(seeKovach,
1987Jurgensen,1978Lawler,PayandOrganizationalEffectiveness,citedinGuzzoandKatzell,1987,p.107Shapiro,1977HackmanandOldham,1980,p.
11).Onestudyalsosuggeststhatblackworkersaremoreconcernedaboutextrinsicfactorsthanarewhiteworkers(Shapiro,1977).Thisdisparitypersistsevenwhen
socialclassandincomelevelarestatisticallycontrolled.Butastheresearcherconcedes,"blackworkersmayreceivelowerlevelsofextrinsicrewards,otherthan
income,thanwhiteworkers"(p.28)andthereforemaybemoreconcernedaboutthem.Also,theonlyintrinsicfactorexaminedinthisstudywastheselfreported
concernwithhavingajobthatprovidesafeelingofaccomplishmentotherfactorsmightwellbeequallyimportanttoblacksandwhites.

25.Oneofthefirstexplanationsofferedfortheeffectofrewardsonintrinsicmotivationwentlikethis:whenweseeourselvesdoingsomethingandgettingrewarded
forit,weinferthatwemusthavebeenmotivatedbytherewardratherthanbyinterestinwhatweweredoing.Externalpressuresacttodisplace,orcauseusto
"discount,"theinternalexplanationforourbehavior.Weconformtothatselfperceptionandbecomelessinterestedinthetask.Lepper,whoderivedthismodelfrom
theworkofsocialpsychologistsDarylBemandHaroldKelley,calledthisthe"overjustification"hypothesis.Oftheseveralproblemswithitthathavebeenidentified,
twostandoutasparticularlytroublesome.Thefirstisthattheaccountisbasedonatheorythatassumeswehavenoprivilegedaccesstoourownmotivesandmust
figureoutwhyweactinthewaywedo,justaswefigureoutwhyothersactinthewaytheydo,byrelyingonobservablebehaviorandcircumstantialclues.This,of
course,isitselfaremnantofbehaviorism,anditisanassumptiondifficulttoreconcilewithourexperienceofourselves.

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Thesecondproblemisthatyoungchildrenareunabletomakethesortofsophisticatedinferencesabouttherelationshipamongmultiplemotivesthatthetheory
describes.Sincerewardsclearlydohaveaneffectontheattitudesofsmallchildren,theremustbesomeotherexplanationforhowithappens.(Foradiscussionof
thisissue,seeLepperetal.,1982,pp.5253Morgan,1984,pp.1819BoggianoandMain,1986,p.1120.)

Asecondtheoryproposesthatwhenpeopleseemlessinterestedinataskforwhichtheyhavegottenareward,whatisreallygoingonisnotachangeintheway
thetaskisregardedbutatendencytofeelbadasaresultofbeingrewarded.Lowerintrinsicmotivationjustmeansmorenegativeaffect.Thus,ifsomethingelse
makesyoufeelgood(orbad),thatwillhavemuchmorebearingthanarewardonhowinterestedyouareintheactivity(seePrettyandSeligman,1984Fabeset
al.,1988).Thistheoryseemsdifficulttodefendsinceitiscertainlyverycommonforpeopletofeelhappytoreceiveadesiredrewardbutneverthelessbecomeless
interestedinwhatevertheyarerewardedtodo.Evenifitistruethatonlyfeelingsareinvolved,moreover,thetheorydoesn'texplainwhyrewardsmakepeople
feelbad.

Stillanotherexplanationarguesthatinsteadofassumingthatwedon'tperformaswellontasksasaresultofhavinglostinterestinthem,thetruthmightbetheother
wayaround:weloseinterestinthembecausewedothembadly.(Anyofthefourreasonsinthepreviouschapter,andparticularlythelastone,mightexplainwhyit
isthatwedoapoorerjob.)Itdoesseemtobetrue,afterall,thatbetterschoolperformancecauseschildrentobecomemoremotivatedjustassurelyasitresults
frombeingmoremotivated(Gottfried,1990,p.536).Severaltheorists,notingthatourcreativitycandeclineevenwhenweseemjustasinterestedinwhatweare
doing(McGrawandMcCullers,1979),havespeculatedthatrewardsaffectperformancedirectly,whichinturnaffectsmotivation(McCullersetal.,1987,p.
1032).Weighedagainstthisspeculation,however,issomesolidevidencetothecontrary.Sometimesrewardsundermineinterestwithoutdraggingperformance
downalongwithit(Lepper,1982,p.60seealsothediscussiononthispointinLepperandGreene,1982b,pp.11415Morgan,1984,pp.1920)orthese
performanceeffects,iftheydooccur,areonlytemporary,whereastheeffectsoninterestlinger(LovelandandOlley,1979,p.1209).Whilelowerinterestcan
helpexplainlowerperformance,thebestguessisthatrewards"disruptbothperformanceandinterestinasomewhatindependentmanner"(Fabesetal.,1986,p.
25).

Becausenoneofthesethreeexplanationsforhowextrinsicmotivatorslowerintrinsicmotivationseemsentirelysatisfactory,then,Iinclinetotwoothers,which
followinthetext.

26.Neill,theauthorofSummerhill,isquotedinMorgan,1984,p.5.

27.Lepperetal.,1982,Experiment3.Inthesamepapertheresearchersreporthavingtoldanothergroupofpreschoolersastoryaboutachildwhowasgiventwo
newfoods,"hupe"and"hule"(bothofwhich,ofcourse,arenonsensewords),andtoldthats/hehadtofinishonebeforegettingtoeattheother.Thechildrenlistening
tothissaidthattheywouldrathereatwhicheverofthefictitiousfoodshadbeensetupastheend,asopposedtothemeans(Experiment1).

28.Freedmanetal.,1992.

29.Playingfortoys:Boggianoetal.,1986playingforcookies:Pittmanetal.,1992,pp.4748talkingformoney:Pittmanetal.,1992,pp.4043.

30.NewmanandTaylor,1992.

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31.Rotter,1982.RotterwasastudentofLeannLippsBirchandacoauthorofthekefirstudy.

32.BoggianoandMain,1986.

33.SeeespeciallyDeciandRyan,1985.

34.SeedeCharms,1968.

35.DeciandRyan,1990,p.253.

36.Ryanetal.,1983,p.748.

37.Reducedintrinsicmotivationis"theresultoftheimpositionofsuperfluousextrinsicconstraints...notaspecificfunctionoftheuseoftangiblerewardsper
se"(Lepperetal.,1982,p.62).

38.Forexample,seeFisher,1978Fabes,1987.

39.AnunpublishedstudybyDealandCascioisdescribedinDeciandPorac,1978,pp.15758.

40.LepperandGreene,1975Pittmanetal.,1980.

41.EnzleandAnderson,1993.Additionally,surveillancemayundermineintrinsicmotivationtotheextentthatitfostersselfconsciousnessand,thus,"internally
controllingregulation"(PlantandRyan,1985).

42.Strickland,1958.

43."Evaluativecontingenciesconstrainbehaviorandexertperformancepressure,leadingtodecrementsinintrinsicinterest"(Harackiewiczetal.,1984,p.298).See
alsoButler,1987.

44.Thiseffecthasbeenfoundwhensubjectsareaskedtogenerateideas(Bartisetal.,1988)ormakecollages(Amabile,1979).JudithHarackiewiczandher
colleaguesdiscoveredthatperformancedroppedevenonapinballgamewhenpeopleknewtheyweregoingtobeevaluated(seepreviousnote).

45.Koestneretal.(1987),forexample,foundthatthiswastruewithadults.Manymorestudies,whichIwillreportlater,haveshownthatinducingchildrentothink
aboutthequalityoftheirperformance(asopposedtowhattheywerelearning)underminesinterest,impedesachievement,andhasahostofotherundesirableeffects.

46.Amabileetal.,1976ReaderandDollinger,1982.

47.Deci,Driver,etal.,1993.

48.Mossholder,1980.

49.DeciandRyan,1985,pp.325,85.AmongtheresearchsupportingthisfindingisDeci,Betley,etal.,1981.SeealsoNicholls'svariousreports(e.g.,1989)ofthe
perilsofinstillinginchildrenan"egoorientation"thatis,aconcernaboutdoingbetterthanothersandmyownanalysisofcompetition(Kohn,1992a).Ofcourse,
competitionisunlikelytoundermineintrinsicmotivationuntilachildisoldenoughtounderstandthemeaningofmutuallyexclusivegoalattainment(R.Buder,1989).

50.Ontheuseoftangiblerewardplussurveillance,seeLepperandGreene,1975onverbalrewardplussurveillance,Pittmanetal.,1980.

51.SwannandPittman,1977.

52.ManagementguruTomPetersisagoodexample.InthebestsellingbookInSearchofExcellence,heandhiscoauthordroppedDeci'snameandbriefly
mentionedtheimportanceofintrinsicmotivation,buttheyalsospentseveralpagesextollingtheusefulnessofSkinnerianpositivereinforcementasiftherewereno
incompatibilityinchampioningboth(1982,pp.6772).Severalyearslater,Petersstressedtheneedforworkerstoexperienceasenseof"involvementandthe
opportunitytoinfluencetheoutcome"ofdecisions,buthealsoasserted,"Thereis,Iearnestlybelieve,nodown

 Page323

side"toaplan(whichnowfillsanentirechapter)thatcallsformanagersto"provideboldfinancialincentivesforeveryone"(1987,pp.341,332).Inanotherforum
hedeclaredthat"businessproblemnumberoneisthealmosttotalabsenceofpositivereinforcement"(1988,p.80).Inhisview,thingsarewonderfullysimple:
positivereinforcementisgoodnegativereinforcement(atermheusesinterchangeablywithpunishment)isbad.HeeveninvokesthenameofW.Edwards
Demingtosupportthisdichotomy,althoughDeminginfactopposestheuseofpayforperformanceandotherincentiveplansonthegroundsthattheyareinimical
toquality.

53.DeCharms,1983,p.396.DeCharmsoffersthisobservationbywayofcorrectinghisownformulationoffifteenyearsearlierinwhichhe,likemanyothers,
"separate[d]actionsequencesintoobservableelementsliketaskplusreward"(p.397).Ultimately,heimplieslater,itisnecessarytoquestiontheapplicationofa
naturalsciencemodeltohumanbeings.Weneedtobeginwiththeexperienceofthesubject,andtoshiftfromananalysisthatreduceswhoweareintofragmentary
behaviorstowardamorecomprehensiveaccountofthewhole.Asusual,KurtLewinunderstoodthisdecadesbeforeothertheorists:"Boththreatofpunishmentand
theprospectofrewardmayindefiniteinstancesandtoacertaindegreeleadtoatransformationinvalenceofthethingitself....Rewardmayleadthechildtoregard
thethingnotatfirstwantedassomethingtobevaluedforitsownsake"(1935,p.169).Alsoonthispoint,seeCondryandChambers,1978,pp.6970,75.

54.Schwartz,1988,p.131.

55.Deci,1978,p.202.Thisdynamicisrarelymentionedindiscussionsofthetopicintendedforgeneralreaders.Awelcomeexceptionwasaparentingcolumninthe
NewYorkTimes:"Oneproblemwithbriberyisthatinsteadofactingasatransitiontotheseinternalmotivations,itcanbecometheprimaryfocusofthechild'sefforts.
Thenaturalrewardsthatcomewithdoingajobwellorbeingpartofagroupareovershadowedandgounnoticed,makingitlesslikelythatthechildwilldothejob
againwithoutanotherbribe"(Kutner,1991).Thesamecolumnist,however,subsequentlyurgedparentsto"payextraattentiontoyourchildwhenheactsthewayyou
wish"(Kutner,1992),effectivelybribingthechildtocomplybyselectivelywithholdingsomethingthatsurelyoughtnottobeofferedconditionally.

56.Elsewhere,borrowingfromtheworkofapairofsportspsychologists,Ihaveusedthisanalogytodescribetheprocessoftryingtofeelbetteraboutourselvesby
takingpartincompetition.Itseemsevenmoreaptwithrespecttotheuseofrewards,inpartbecausethepracticeisevenmorecommon.

57."Selfcontrolisactuallyamisnomerforselfinducedchange,foralthoughsomepatternsofbehaviormaycomefromwithinourselvesinthesensethattheywere
acquiredbeforebirthorsoonthereafter,whatevercausesabehaviortoappearatagiventimemustcomefrominteractionwiththeenvironment.Thusselfcontrol
reallyreferstothecontrolofbehaviorbycertainaspectsoftheenvironment"(Rachlin,1991,p.264).

58.Forexample,seethesummaryofT.F.McLaughlin'sworkinThomas,1980,p.220.

59.Johnsonetal.,1976,p.185.

60.DeciandRyan,1987,p.1031.

61.DollingerandThelen,1978.Anotherresearcher,however,arguesthatthis

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resultwasduetothefactthatthestandardsforwhatconstitutedsuccessfulcompletionofthetaskwerenotdeartothechildren(Enzleetal.,1991).

62.Ryan,1982.

63.BrophyandKher,1986,p.264.

64.Again,TomPeterscomestomind:"Thesolution...isnottoabandonincentives,buttobasethemonnonvolumetricfactorsaswell....Youcankeepscoreon
quality,customerservice,responsiveness,innovativeness,evencustomerlistening.Moreover,thesheeractofkeepingscorewillprovideapositivestimulantto
improvement"(Peters,1988,p.81).

65.Forexample,seeDickinson,1989,pp.89and,borrowingfromheranalysis,Chance,1992,pp.203204.Interestingly,ofthestudiescitedbyDickinsonin
supportoftheclaimthatthereisnoproblemwithrewardsthataregiventopeoplebecauseofgoodperformance,twodon'taddressthatclaimatallandone(Weiner
andMander,1978)showspreciselythereversethatperformancecontingentrewardsaredetrimental.

66.See,forexample,Greeneetal.,1976,p.1221LuytenandLens,1981,esp.p.29.

67.KarniolandRoss,1977Arkes,1979Rosenfieldetal.,1980Zimmerman,1985,pp.14452.Inanotherstudy,performancecontingentrewardsundermined
theinterestofpreschoolagechildrenbutnotthatofolderchildren(BoggianoandRuble,1979).

68.Boggianoetal.,1985.

69.HarackiewiczandManderlink,1984.

70.SeeHarackiewiczetal.,1984,foradiscussionoftherelativeimpactofcompetenceandevaluation.

71.Ryanetal.,1983.

72.Forexample,seeDeci,1971,Experiment1GreeneandLepper,1974Garbarino,1975SmithandPittman,1978OrlickandMosher,1978Harackiewicz,
1979Fabes,1987LepperandCordova,1992,pp.201202.Seealsothestudiescitedin,andconclusionsoffendby,McGraw,1978,p.40Lepper,1983,pp.
304305DeciandRyan,1985,p.78.

73.WeinerandMander,1978.

74.Personalcommunication,June1992.

75.Forexample,seeBoggianoetal.,1982andthebriefdiscussioninBarrettandBoggiano,1988,p.295.Butseethefollowingnoteforastudythatfailedtofind
this.Also,whethershortterminterestinpursuingataskisequivalenttotrueintrinsicmotivationisnotdear.

76.DannerandLonky,1981,Experiment2thequotationappearsonp.1049.

77.MarkLepper'smorerecentworkconcernsthepromotionofstudents'intrinsicmotivation,andtheuseoffantasyscenariosisoneofthetechniqueshedescribes.
See,forexample,LepperandHodell,1989,pp.9293LepperandCordova,1992.

78."CanthespeedatwhichImowtheyardorapartofitprovidefeedbacktomyactions?CanItellhowneatlyIdothisjobincomparisontoothertimes?Isit
possibletodeveloprulesabouthowtoproceedforinstancebyfollowingacircularpath,orazigzagpattern?OrdoIratherwanttodeveloprulesformyphysical
movementsasIwalkbehindthemachine?...SupposingIdecideIwanttocutparallelswathsinthegrass,makingaUturnattheendofeachrunwithout
overlappinganyoftheruns,gettingasclosetothetreesaspossiblewithoutnickingthebark.AssoonasIsetupthesetacitrules,theydefinewhatstimuliwillbe
relevantformeto

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watchfor.Theyalsodefinewhatwillbenegativeandpositivefeedbackundertherules.Whenthisisdone,Iamreadytogoandmowinggrassbecomesa
moderatelyenjoyableactivitywithitsownsetofintrinsicrewards"(Csikszentmihalyi,1978,p.214).

79.Therelevanceofchildren'sinterestinatasktotheirresponsivenesstorewardswasdemonstratedbyLovelandandOlley,1979.ButLepper'soriginalstudyfound
thatrewardshadtobepresentedafterthetaskwascompletediftherewasanyhopeofboostingtheinterestevenofchildrenwhowereboredeveryonelostinterest
whentheywerepromisedinadvance(Lepperetal.,1973,p.135).

80.SeeArnold,1976PhillipsandFreedman,1985.Interestingly,bothofthesepaperswerewrittenbypeoplewhospecializeinworkplacemanagement.

81.CondryandChambers,1978,p.64.

82."Itisconceivable...thattheperceptionofchoiceisaffectedbytheinterestleveloftheactivitythatsubjectsarerequestedtoperform.Ifaskedtoperforman
interestingactivity,subjectsmayhavetheexperienceofchoicebecausetheyarebeingaskedtodowhattheywouldfreelychoosetodo.Ifaskedtoperformadull
task,subjectsmayexperienceconstraintbecausetheyarebeingaskedtodowhattheyordinarilywouldchoosenottodo"(Quattrone,1985,p.32).

83."Insituationsinwhichanentireclassroomisorganizedaroundreinforcementcontingencies,itisextremelydifficulttoindividualizecontingenciessufficientlysothat
eachchild'sinterestsandabilitiesaretakenintoaccount.Withoutsuchindividualization,itwillsurelybethecasethatreinforcementissometimesavailable,forsome
children,forsomeactivitiestheywouldeagerlyengageinwithoutit"(Schwartz,1982b,pp.5354).

84.Deci,Eghrari,etal.,inpress.

85.Atleastwithrespecttochildreninschool,abouthalfofthestudentsinonerecentstudydonotseemtoshowaconsistentintrinsicorextrinsicorientationovertime
oracrossdifferentschoolsubjects(HarterandJackson,1992).Onthelattersortofconsistency,seealsoGottfried,1985.However,Amabileandhercolleagues
(1991)haveshownsomestabilityovertimeofadults'intrinsicandextrinsicorientationontheirWorkPreferenceInventory.

86.Ryanetal.,1992,p.168.

87.Deci,Nezlek,andSheinman,1981.

88.Harter,1981.OnescaleonHarter'squestionnaire,filledoutbymorethan1,600studentsinthreestates,measurestheextenttowhichtheyaretryingtosatisfy
theirowncuriosityasopposedtodoingschoolworkforgradesortheteacher'sapproval.Hergraphoftheresultsshowsasteadyandsignificantshiftfromtheformer
tothelattermotiveastheygetolder,fromthirdtoeighthgrade,beforethecuriositymotivereboundsslightlyinninthgrade(p.307).Shereplicatedthistrendinalater
study(HarterandJackson,1992,p.224).

89.SwitzkyandSchultz,1988,pp.1011.

90.Ross,1975.

91.LepperandGreene,1978b,p.111.Thisaccount,however,ispremisedonanexplanationfortheeffectsofrewardsonintrinsicmotivationthatisitselfopento
questionnamely,thattheseeffectsareduetoformingconclusionsaboutourownmotivessolelyonthebasisofourbehavior(seenote25).

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92.Forexample,seeLepperetal.,1973GreeneandLepper,1974Harackiewiczetal.,1984.However,seealsoOrlickandMosher,1978Kruglanskietal.,
1972.Inthelaststudy,somesubjectsreceivedarewardwithoutpriornoticebutwerefalselytoldthatithadbeenannouncedearlierthataprizewouldbegiven.
Someofthesepeopleexperiencedadropininterest,asiftheyreallydidrememberbeingtoldthisbeforeengaginginthetask.

93.Forexample,seeDeci,Betley,etal.,1981Pritchardetal.,1977andtheresearchreviewedinKohn,1992a.Someofthestudiesthathavedocumenteda
detrimentaleffectofrewardsonmotivationactuallysetupcompetitionsfortherewards.

94.Onthecommonlyheardjustificationthatitisnecessaryto"recognizeexcellence,"seechapter6.

95.SeeKruglanski,1978,esp.pp.96100.

96.Evenchoicewithrespecttoaperipheralaspectoftheactivitymaykeepinterestinithigh,atleasttemporarily(EnzleandWright,1992,Experiment1).

97.Pittmanetal.,1977.Tellingstudentsthataphysiologicaltestindicatestheyareeitherintrinsicallyorextrinsicallyorientedtowardataskaffectedthewaythey
respondedtoitlater.Unfortunately,anextrinsicinductionwasmuchmorelikelytoreducetheirinterestthananintrinsicinductionwastoenhanceit.

98.Fazio,1981.Inthisstudy,arewarddidnotunderminechildren'sinterestinanactivitywhentheywereshownaphotoofthemselvesvoluntarilyengaginginit
earlier.

99.Inaseriesofstudieswithelementaryschoolstudents,listeningtoanotherchildtalkabouthowlearningcanbefun(andhowthisismoreimportantthangradesor
parentalapproval)seemedtohavesomeeffectonthestudents'ownmotivationinthattheircreativitywasnotimpededwhentheywerepromisedrewards.Theresults
ofthisresearchweresomewhatequivocal,however,anddidnotproducealastingeffect(Hennesseyetal.,1989HennesseyandZbikowski,inpress).

100.Csikszentmihalyi,1990,p.47.

101.DeciandPorac,1978,p.153Ryanetal.,1985,pp.4

102.BoggianoandBarrett,1992Boggianoetal.,1992."Incontrast,becauseintrinsicallymotivatedchildrenpursueactivitiesforthesatisfactioninherentinthe
activities,particularlyhighlychallengingones,thedesiredoutcomeforintrinsicchildrenisinlargeparttiedtotheeffortexpendedinperformingtheactivity.Moreover,
becauseintrinsicallymotivatedchildrenrelyonlypartlyonexternalevaluationoftheirperformanceandhaveinternalcriteriaforsuccessandfailure,theroleoftheir
owneffortinproducingagivenoutcomeshouldbehighlysalient"(Boggianoetal.,1992,p.276).

6
ThePraiseProblem

1.Farson,1977,p.66.ThisistheonlyarticleIcouldfinddevotedexclusivelytotheeffectsofpraiseinaworksetting.Farson'spointthatpraisemaymostlybenefit
thepersonwhogivesitisechoedandappliedtotheclassroombyBennett,1988,p.23.

2.Brophy,1981,p.15.

3.ThesummaryofareviewbyW.K.Eslerpublishedin1983appearsinHitzandDriscoll,1988,p.9.

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4.Butler,1987.Theresultswerethesameregardlessofhowwellthestudentactuallyperformedonthetask.

5.Baumeisteretal.,1990thequotationappearsonp.145.

6.Meyeretal.,1979thequotationappearsonp.268.SeealsoreplicationsbyBarkerandGraham,1987Milleretal.,1992.Suchinferencesarenotgenerally
madebyyoungerchildren,however.

7.Foradefenseofpraisingabilityratherthaneffort(asiftheseweretheonlytwoalternatives),seeKoestneretal.,1987,1989.Fordescriptionsoftheperilsof
encouragingchildrentofocusonability,seethevariouspublicationsofCaroleAmes,CarolDweck,andJohnNicholls,whicharediscussedinchapter8.

8.SylviaPlath'sjournalentryisquotedbyAmabileetal.,1991,ms.p.5.

9.Quotedin''WyethFearedPublicReaction,"1986.

10.SeetheaccountofastudybyD.E.KanouseandE.Pullan(inKanouseetal.,1981,pp.11213),whichfoundthat"subjectswhoreceivedpraiseimplying
continuedgoodperformancesubsequentlyproduceddrawingsoflowerqualitythaneitherspecificpraisesubjectsorcontrols...andtheyratedthemselvesas
significantlymoreanxious"(p.113).SeealsoKastandConnor,1988.

11.SkinnerisquotedinLawson,1984,p.86.

12.Rowe,1974,p.302.

13.Madden,1988,p.143.SeealsoHitzandDriscoll,1988,p.7.

14.ThispointwasmadebyKoestneretal.,1987,pp.38283.SeealsoButler,1987,p.475.

15.Andersonetal.,1976Harackiewicz,1979.Anothersurveyfoundasignificantcorrelationbetweenthemotivationandachievementofnineyearoldchildrenand
theirmothers'tendencytosaytheypraisedtheirchildrenfordoingwellandencouragedtheireffortswhenthechildrendidpoorly(Gottfried,1991a).Itisnotclear
fromthisstudywhetheritwaspraiseorencouragementthatmatteredmore,whetherthemotherswereaccuratelyreportingtheirownbehavior,andwhetheruseof
praisemightbejustamarkerforothercharacteristicsofthesefamiliesthatmoredirectlyaffectedthechildren.

16.Deci(1971,Experiment3)foundthatinterestneitherincreasednordecreasedwhenpeoplereceivedverbalreinforcementfortheirperformancebycontrast,the
controlgroupsubjects'interestdeclinedmarkedlyforsomereasonastheycontinuedworkingonpuzzlesthatweregenerallyseenasintrinsicallymotivating.William
SwannandThanePittman(1977)foundthat"theadditionofverbalrewardcanneutralizeoreliminatetheeffectsofcontingentphysicalreward"(astickonstar),but
interestwasnohigherthanitwasforchildrenwhoreceivednorewardatall.SeealsoDollingerandThelen,1978.

17.ThisargumentisofferedbyPittmanetal.,1983,p.322LepperandGreene,1978b,p.130n.

18.Interestingly,though,inonesmallstudy,childrenwhowatchedavideotapeofsomeonebeingpraisedforwhattheythemselveswereabouttodoshowedmore
interestinthetasklaterthanthosewhowerepraisedunexpectedly(Pallaketal.,1982).

19."Verbalrewardsthatacquireasalienceoftheirown...shouldbeexperiencedinmuchthesamewayasareothertypesofextrinsicrewardsthatcanleadto[a
declineininterest]"(Kanouseetal.,1981,p.110).

20.DannerandLonky,1981,Experiment2.

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21.Smith,1976.

22.Pittmanetal.,1980Ryan,1982Boggianoetal.,1988,Study2.

23.Morgan,1984,p.16.SinceDeci'searlyworkisoftenquotedbyotherpsychologistsinsupportoftheideathatpraiseisn'tasbadasotherextrinsicmotivators,it
isworthnotingthathesays,''Idon'tthinkfundamentallyit'sanydifferent"(personalcommunication,February1992).Hisearlystudies,hepointsout,involvednot
praisebutinformationalfeedback,whichgenerallydoesnotundermineintrinsicmotivationandmayevenenhanceit.Outsidethelaboratory,Deciadds,"wefindpraise
canbeverycontrolling.Ifyou'retryingtoget[someone]todosomething,that[factwill]comethrough."

24.MillsandGrusec,1989,p.299.

25.Grusec,1991.

26.Farson,1977,p.67.

27.AsimilarpointismadeinWolfgangandBrudenell,1982,p.238Chandler,1981,p.11.Bycontrast,abehavioristfacedwithachild'sresistancecanonly
speculatethat,"duetopoorlearningexperiencesorperhapsbiologicaldeficiencies,praiseandaffectiondonotacquirereinforcingvalueforsomepeople"(O'Learyet
al.,1972,p.7).

28.Kanouseetal.,1981,pp.101,106,107.SeealsotheworkofThomasGordon.

29.Chandler,1981,p.12.Onthispoint,seealsoWolfgangandBrudenell,1982,p.237Farson,1977,p.66.

30.Dreikurs1957,p.43.Elsewhere,hehasnotedthat"flatterymaypromoteinsecuritysincethechildmaybecomefrightenedofthepossibilityofnotbeingableto
liveuptoexpectationsormaynotbecertainhewillgetthesamekindofpraiseagain.Thechildhasthemistakenideathatunlessheispraised,hehasnovalueand
thereforeheisafailure"(Dreikursetal.,1982,p.109).Thesamethemecanalsobefoundinotherdiscussionsofpraise,suchasChandler,1981,p.11Wolfgang
andBrudenell,1982,p.241Madden,1988,p.143HitzandDriscoll,1988,p.8.

31.Rowe,1974,pp.301303.

32.Cannella,1986,p.298.SeealsoKanouseetal.,1981,p.100.

33."Youngstudentsintheearlygradesarelikelytofindpraisereinforcing....Also,atanygradelevel,butperhapsespeciallyintheearliergrades,studentswhoare
lowinability,whocamefromlowSESbackgrounds,orwhocomefromminoritygroupsmaybeespeciallyresponsivetopraiseandencouragementfromteachers.
Finally,introvertsapparentlyaremoreresponsivethanextroverts"(Brophy,1981,p.20).Thesespecificconclusionsshouldbeviewedwithsomecaution,giventhat
thestudiesonwhichtheyarebasedmaybeoutdated.Rememberthatearlierfindingsthatchildrenoflowsocioeconomicstatusrespondmorereadilytotangible
rewardsdidnotproveterriblyrobust.Anothersourcesuggeststhatpraiseislesslikelytoundermineachievementwhenusedwithchildrenofhighsocioeconomic
status(Canne!la,1986,p.298).ConsistentwithBrophy'sassertionregardingthegreaterresponsivenessofyoungerchildren,alaterstudyshowedthat"olderchildren
givemoreweighttothecontrollingcomponentofthe[positivefeedback]messagethandoyoungerchildren"(KastandConnor,1988,p.521),whichshouldincrease
theprobabilityofanegativereaction.

34.Brophy,1981,pp.1015."Certainstudents(mostofwhomareboys)seemtogetmorepraiseandmorecriticismsimplybecausetheyaremoreinitia

 Page329

toryandactivewithintheclassroom:Theyhavemoreofeverykindofinteractionwiththeteacher....[Certain]studentsalsotendedtorewardteachersfortheir
praisebyrespondingverypositivelytoitsmiling,beamingproudly,andsoforth.Ineffect,theywereconditioningtheteacherstopraisethem"(pp.11,12).

35.Decietal.,1975,pp.8384Koestneretal.,1987.

36.KastandConnor,1988.

37.MillsandGrusec,1989,pp.322,303.Thegenderdifferencehere,ofcourse,referstowhatgirlsasopposedtoboysarepraisedforratherthanhowchildrenof
eachsexinterpretpraise.Theimplicationisthatifboyswerepraisedforaltruisticacts,theytoowouldbeunlikelytodevelopaninternalcommitmenttoaltruism.

38.Brophy,1981,p.21.To"praise"someone,forBrophy,means"tocommendtheworthofortoexpressapprovaloradmiration"notmerelytoprovidefeedback
buttoexpress''positiveaffect"(pp.56).

39.Harackiewicz,1979Harackiewicz,Abrahams,andWageman,1987Boggianoetal.,1982ButlerandNissan,1986Butler,1987.

40.Whensubjectsinoneexperimentwereconstantlymadeawareoftheirsuccessatsolvinginterestingpuzzles,theyreportedlessinterestinthetask(Crinoand
White,1982).Anotherstudyfoundthatinformationalfeedbackdidn'tincreaseintrinsicmotivationverymuch,eventhoughcontrollingfeedbackdecreasedit
significantly(KastandConnor,1988).

41."Negativefeedbackwhetherselfadministeredoradministeredverballybytheexperimenteradverselyaffectedtheintrinsicmotivationofbothmaleand
femalesubjects"(DeciandPorac,1978,p.160).Otherresearchhasshownthisismoretrueofpeoplewhoareextrinsicallyoriented(BoggianoandBarrett,1991,
ms.pp.29,32).Occasionalnegativefeedbackcansometimesbehelpfulifitservestomakethepositivefeedbackofferedatothertimes(and,byextension,the
personprovidingit)seemmorecredible.Whethercriticismiswelcomeddependsonanumberoffactors,includingthetonewithwhichitisoffered,the(in)securityof
thepersonhearingit,thenatureoftherelationshipbetweenthetwoindividuals,thepresenceorabsenceofrewardsandothercontrollingfactors,andsoon.Allthings
beingequal,negativefeedbackisprobablylessthreateningwhenitflowsfromanindividualinalesspowerfulpositiontosomeoneinamorepowerfulposition(for
example,fromstudenttoteacher)thantheotherwayaround.

42.DeciandChandler,1986,p.591.Lepperandhiscolleagues,meanwhile,havediscoveredthatsuccessfultutors"generallyprovidestudentswithextremelylittlein
thewayofovertdiagnosesconcerningtheirerrorsorexplicitcorrectivefeedback."Instead,they"offerstudentshintsquestionsorremarksthatindirectlyimplythe
inaccuracyoftheirpriorresponse,suggestthedirectioninwhichtheymightproceed,orhighlightthesectionoftheproblemthatappearstobecausingthem
difficulty"(Lepperetal.,1990,pp.22829).

43.Boggianoetal.,1992,p.286.

44.TheviewofMichaelLewisisdescribedinKaren,1992,p.62.Alsoonthispoint,seeKanouseetal.,1981,pp.10910Chandler,1981,p.11.Ontheother
hand,whenwearetryingtopromotealtruism,JoanGrusecarguesthat"dispositionalpraise,"wherebyweattributethecharacteristictochildren("Iguessyou'rethe
kindofpersonwholikestohelpothers"),ismore

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likelytohelpthemcometodevelopasenseofthemselvesasaltruisticandthereforeactthatwayinthefuturethanissimplycomplimentingthemontheir
behavior.Someearlyresearchsupportedthisapproachwitholderchildren,althoughnotwithfourandfiveyearolds(GrusecandRedler,1980),butalater
studyraisedsomedoubtsaboutthosefindings,yieldingamuchmurkiersetofresults(MillsandGrusec,1989).

45.Kanouseetal.,1981,p.104.Moregenerally,seepp.101109ofthisarticleandalsoHitzandDriscoll,1988,p.10.

46."General,informationfreepositivefeedbacktendstoincreaseproductivity,butdecreaseinterest....Onceattentioniswithdrawn,manykidswon'ttouchthe
activityagain....Myadviceis,keepthevolumeoffeedbacklow,butwhenyougiveit,makethecommentaryspecific"(Katz,1988,p.16).

47.Koestneretal.,1990.SeealsoButler,1987Harackiewicz,Abrahams,andWageman,1987.

48.Formoreonthedestructiveconsequencesofcompetition,seeKohn,1992a.

49.ThispointismadebyBennett,1988,p.23.

50.Forexample,seeAmes,1992a,p.337(borrowinginthisinstancefromtheworkofMartinCovington)HitzandDriscoll,1988,p.11.Evenabehaviorist
concedesthat"olderchildrendonotasarulefavourpublicpraiseandpreferpraisetobedeliveredinamoreprivatemanner"(Burland,1984,p.122).Brophy
remarksthat"anattempttomotivateotherstudentsbyvicariousreinforcementeffects"maybackfire."Unlessthestudentssingledoutforsuch'praise'arevery
immatureandteacherdependent,theyarelikelytofeelmanipulatedratherthanrewardedbyit"(1981,pp.15,17).

51.Dreikurs'sdistinctionbetweenpraiseandencouragementisdiscussedinHitzandDriscoll,1988,pp.1012Nelsen,1987,pp.103105andotherbooksand
articlesondiscipline.

52.TheKpelleofLiberiaandtheGusiiofKenyaarementionedbyonewellknownanthropologistasexamplesofpeopleswhoseculturesallowchildrento"growup
withoutexperiencingpraisefromtheirparentsorothersforbehavinginasociallyapprovedwayorforlearningadesirableskill.IncontrastwiththefamiliarAmerican
sequenceofachild'sperformingwell,callingtheperformancetoadultattention,andbeingpraisedbytheadult,theAfricanchildlearnsthroughanothersequence:
observetheapprovedtask(asperformedbyanoldersibling),imitateitspontaneously,andreceivecorrectivefeedbackonlyforinadequateperformance.Thereisno
expectationofrecognitionforgoodperformanceinlearningorforcarryingoutatask,yettasksarelearnedandperformedwithskill"(LeVine,1989,p.63).

53.Rosemond,1990.

54.Hagood,1989.Thisarticlebeginswithanaptwarningthatchildrencanbecomehookedonrewardsratherthanonwhatwearetryingtogetthemtodo.Butit
soonbecomesclearthattheauthorischieflyconcernedaboutfindingthebestwayweadultscan"reachourobjectives"(myemphasis)and"maintainorderinthe
classroom,"suggestinganagendapotentiallydifferentfromwhatchildrenneed.Itisasmallstepfromheretotheargumentthatchildrenshouldlearnaboveallthat
"theymustearnthecouponorticket"providedasareward(heremphasis)."Itisnotagift."

55.O'Brien,1990,p.249.

56.Adler,1992,p.49thequotationisattributedtoNancyE.Curry,apsychoanalyst.

57.Laird,1986.

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7
PayforPerformance

1.Seen.22inchapter1forareviewofrecentsurveys.

2.Ellig,1982,p.26.Elligcontinues:"Nottovarycompensationinrelationtoanobjectiveassessmentofperformanceisdefactotorewardmediocrityandtopenalize
thebetterperformingexecutive"(p.28).

3.Kearney,1979,p.5.

4.GuzzoandKatzell,1987,p.110.

5.SometimestheseperfunctorydefensesoftheideaofpayingforperformancearejustifiedbyaquicknodinthedirectionofThorndike'sLawofEffect,equitytheory,
orexpectancytheory,allofwhichareinterpretedtomeanthatpeopleactwhentheythinkthey'llgetsomethingthebiggerthegoody,theharderthey'llwork.Ifone
choosestodefineone'sterms(forexample,"getsomething")verybroadly,suchatheorywouldseemtobetautologicaloratbestratheruninformativedefinedmore
narrowly(forexample,intermsofextrinsicincentives),itissimplyfalse.Expectancytheoryalsopredictsthatintrinsicandextrinsicmotivationareadditiveexactly
whatthestudiescitedinchapter5disproveandthusinclinesitsadherentstosupporttheuseofavarietyofmeritpaysystems.

6."Atthecoreofanytheoryofthemanagementofhumanresourcesareassumptionsabouthumanmotivation,"McGregornoted(1960,p.35seealsoWhyte,1955,
p.7).Afewyearslater,McGregorwentontosuggestthatmanagementpracticesmayalsoreflectanimplicitpositiononwhatphilosophersrefertoasthemindbody
problem:Thereis"atacitbeliefthatmotivatingpeopletoworkisa'mechanical'problem...manhasbeenperceivedtobelikeaphysicalbodyatrest.Itrequiresthe
applicationofexternalforcetosethiminmotiontomotivatehimtowork"(1966,p.205).

7.InanundeservedlyobscurecollectionofessaysentitledTheGreatJackassFallacythefallacyinquestionbeingthatpeoplecanbemotivatedthroughtheuse
ofcarrotsandsticksHarryLevinsonpointedout,"Sincetheturnofthecentury,halfadozendifferentphilosophiesofmanagementhaveappeared...each
advocatinganewsetoftechniques.Thoughtheydifferfromeachotherinmanyrespects,allarebasedonrewardpunishmentpsychology"(1973,p.11).

8.Eimersetal.,1979,p.A3.

9.Mostwritersneverevenraisetheunderlyingmotivationalissues.Othersdotakethetimetoemphasizetheimportanceofintrinsicmotivationorevenmentionthat
extrinsicincentivesareproblematicbutthenproceedtoofferrecommendationsthattakenoaccountofthesearguments,asiftheyfailtounderstandthesignificance
ofwhattheyjustwrote.Forexample,theonlyoneofthirtychaptersinananthologyoncompensationtoaskwhethermoneyreallymotivatespeopleissprinkledwith
commentsthathavetheeffectofchallengingthebehavioristpremiseofitssuggestionsforfinetuningrewardsystems,althoughtheauthorseemsnottoseethis
(McLaughlin,1991).Twootherwritersremindusthatwhatreallyallowspeopletobecomemotivatedisaworkplacecharacterizedbymutualrespect,attentive
listening,andcooperativeeffort.Butafewpagesearlier,theyapprovinglycite"abasiclessoninpsychology"that"ifyouwantadesirablepatternofbehavior,
rewardit"(MowerandWilemon,1989,pp.28,24).

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10.PearceandPerry,1983,p.324.Interestingly,oneoftheseauthorshaselsewhereremarkedpointedlythat"itisarareauthorwhodoesnotendthelistof'merit
payproblems'withupbeatsuggestionsforthesuccessfulimplementationofsuchprograms"(Pearce,1987,p.169).

11.Meyer,1975,p.40.

12.McGregor,1960,pp.3335,91."TheoryXisnotastrawmanforpurposesofdemolition,butisinfactatheorywhichmateriallyinfluencesmanagerialstrategyin
awidesectorofAmericanindustrytoday"(p.35).ThesamepointwasmadeemphaticallybyWilliamFooteWhyteconcerningasimilarsetofassumptions:"Does
anybodyreallybelieveinthistheoryofmotivationanymore?Theanswerseemstobethatmostpeoplewilldenythattheyholdsuchabeliefandyetwillthenhave
difficultyinabandoningthebelief"(1955,p.6).

13.PetersandWaterman,1982,p.43.

14.Brennan,1985,p.73.

15.LawlerisquotedinBraham,1989,p.16.Forotherswhouncriticallyadoptthepositionthatextrinsicmotivatorsmustbegiventoencouragecooperation,see
MowerandWilemon,1989Rosen,1989,p.145.

16.SusanLeddick,aconsultant,isquotedinOlson,1992.

17.SeethesectioncontributedbyDonaldBerwickinEhrenfeld,1992,p.18.Berwick,whoisaformerjudgeoftheBaldridgeAward,goesontotalkabouttheneed
for"intrinsicmotivators,"examplesofwhich,asheseesit,include"puttingemployeephotosonthewalls[and]givinggifts"(p.20).

18.Forexample,MonroeHaegelewrites,"Thereislittleincentiveforthemanagertoeliminatepositions[thatis,throwpeopleoutofwork]orradicallychange
compensationwhenhisorherowncompensationisnotaffectedbythisbehavior"(1991,p.358).

19.McGregor,1960,pp.910.

20.AformerdirectorofsalescompensationatIBMoffersasimilarview:"Weusedtogivebonusesandawardsforeveryimaginableactionbythesalesforce.Butthe
morecomplexitgot,themoredifficultitwastoadminister,andtheresultswerenotconvincing.WhenwebegantoaskourselveswhyDigitalEquipmenthad
salespeople,whoaretoughcompetitors,onstraightsalary,wedecidedperhapswe'dgoneoverboardabit"(quotedinKanter,1987,p.63).Moremanagersmight
offeranecdotalcorroborationofthefailureofincentivesexceptforthefactthattheypersistinseeingproblemsofattitudeandperformanceasexistinginspiteof,rather
thanpreciselybecauseof,thesesystems.

21.See"Bosses'Pay,"1992,p.20Deming,1986,p.72.Furthermore,"Japanesefirmsalmostnevermakeuseofindividualworkincentives,suchaspieceworkor
evenindividualperformanceappraisaltiedtosalaryincreases"(Ouchi,1982,p.41)."Japaneseorganizationsdonotrankemployeesorforce'winlose'situations"
"only25percentofthecompaniessurveyeduseaperformanceappraisal"(Schultz,1990,pp.88,86).

22."Bosses'Pay,"1992,p.20.

23.Iftworecentsurveysofsatisfactionareanyindication,theresultscanvarywidely.Aboutthreequartersofthecompensationandhumanresourcesspecialistsat
almost1,600organizationssaidtheyapprovedoftheirincentiveplans,accordingtoasurveyconductedin1987.Bycontrast,only30percentofthoseusing
recognitionawardsthoughtthatthesewereeffective(O'Dell,1987,p.14).Butafewyearslater,astudyconductedbyTowers

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PerrinandtheAmericanProductivityandQualityCenterfoundthatonlyabout40percentofseniorexecutivesweresatisfiedwithrewardorpayforperformance
systems.Interestingly,thoseinlinepositions,whoareclosertotheaction,wereevenlesshappywiththemthanwererespondentsinstaffpositions(American
ProductivityandQualityCenteretal.,1991,pp.10,F2).Butthesesurveys,likemostconductedonthesubject,sufferfromamajorlimitation:thepeople
conductingthemdidn'tbothertocheckwiththoseonthereceivingendofincentiveplans.Inhisexhaustivereviewofevidenceonthepsychologicaldimensionsof
work,RobertLanenotesthat"mostworkersdonotlikePBR[paymentbyresults]andinsteadofbeingdrawntoworkbyit,theyaremorelikelythanthosepaid
bytimetobeabsentfromwork.Bydefinition,therewardsthemselvesarenotaversive,butthePBRrewardsystemis"(1991,p.354).

24."Theincentiveresearchliteratureislimitedbutstronglysupportstheconclusionthatincentiveplansmakepeopleproductive,improvingtheirperformance"(Nash,
1985,p.171).Forsomeonewhohasfoundthattheresearchliteraturepointsunmistakablytotheoppositeconclusion,suchastatementisintriguing,tosaytheleast.
Theauthorcitesthreestudiestosupportitormoreexactly,makesthreespecificempiricalclaims,onlyoneofwhichcontainsacitation.First,"smalldailybonuses
paidforcomingtoworkontimeareeffectiveinreducingchronictardiness."Second,"employeeswhoarepaidincentivesperceiveahigherlinkagebetween
performanceandpaythanthosepaidonlysalaries."Third,peopleweremorelikelytoenlistinthenavywhengivenasiguupbonusorfreetuitionthanwhenthey
weren't(although,interestingly,thesizeofthatbonusdidnotaffectenlistmentrates).Ofcourse,noneofthesethreefindingsoffersanysupport,muchlessstrong
support,fortheideathatincentivesimproveperformance.

25.Jenkins,1986,p.167.

26.Forexample,seeKearney,1979,p.8Redling,1981Pearce,1987,pp.17275"Bosses'Pay,"1992.

27.RichandLarson,1987.

28.Jenkins,1986.

29.Whyte,1955,pp.45.

30.Locke,1968,pp.17475,181.

31.Rothe,1970.

32.SeeGuzzoetal.,1985GuzzoandKatzell,1987.

33.Silverman,1983."Themeritpaysystemputapreviouslystableemployeecompensationsysteminshambles"(p.294).

34.Pearceetal.,1985,p.274.

35.PearceandPerry,1983.Toassessgeneralattitudestowardfinancialincentives,peoplewereaskedtoreacttothestatement"Iwouldprobablyworkharderon
myjobperformanceifIthoughtIwouldthenreceiveacashrewardorunscheduledpayincrease"onasevenpointscale,with1meaning"stronglydisagree,"4
meaning"undecided,"and7meaning"stronglyagree."Theaverageresponseoverthefourperiodsrangedfrom3.92to4.47.Theaverageresponsetothestatement
''Itisdifficulttodocumenttheaverageperformancedifferencesamongmanagersandsupervisors''rangedfrom4.58to4.95.Finally,andmostrevealingly,the
responseto"Allinall,currentmeritpayprovisionsencouragemetoperformmyjobwell"droppedfrom3.52to2.75asthesystemwasactuallyimplemented.

 Page334

36.Bachrachetal.,1984,p.22.

37.Writinginaconservativepolicyjournal,twoanalystsreportwithseemingdisappointmentthatnoneoftheteacherstheyinterviewed"toldusthatmeritpayitself
improvedteachers'classroomwork.Severalteacherssaidthattheplansdiscussedhereaffectedinstruction,butitwastheevaluation,asmuchormorethantheraises,
towhichtheypointed.Andeventheseteacherssawonlymarginalchanges....Moneyisimportanttoteachers,butthelargestrewardscomefromstudent
achievement....Teacherswouldlikehighersalaries,butfewsaythattheirteachingwouldimproveiftheywerepaidmore."Moreover,"fewadministratorsclaimed
thatmeritpayimprovedteachers'workinclassrooms,eventhoughtheyhadthestrongestreasontomakesuchclaims."Overall,thesewritersconcluded,''thereisno
evidencethatthemoneyhadanappreciableorconsistentpositiveeffectonteachers'classroomwork."Theonlysuccesstowhichtheycouldpointwasthefactthat
someteachersdidmoreworkoutsidetheclassroom.Butthisresultwas(1)limitedtosmall,affluentdistricts,and(2)apparentlyduetopayingteachersmorewhen
theirjobsexpandedtoincludemoreextracurricularresponsibilities,whichisnotreallymeritpayatall(CohenandMurnane,1985thequotationsarefrompp.2022).
AreportpublishedthesameyearbytheUrbanInstituteconcludedthat"thereislittleconvincingevidenceonewayortheotheronwhetherteachermeritpay..
.[has]substantiallyaffectedstudentachievement,teacherretentionrates,ortheabilitytoattractnewqualityteachers"(HatryandGreiner,1985,pp.11112).Fora
criticalinvestigationofthespecificeffectsofmeritpay,seeBachrachetal.,1984.

38.Pettyetal.,1992.Inanycase,theevidenceofenhancedperformanceinthisstudywasbasedonasinglemeasureconductedimmediatelyaftertheintervention.
Formoreonthedemonstratedbenefitsofincreasingemployeeparticipation,seechapter10.

39.Onthispoint,seeSwanson,1992,p.2.

40.Thoseatthetopofthecorporatehierarchyareoftenmunificentlyrewardedsometimeswithmultipleincentiveplansevenasthecompanyispostinglosses
and,worse,layingoffworkersbythethousands.Between1977and1987,U.S.corporateprofitsinchedupbyonly5percent,whilesalariesandbonusesforCEOs
roseby220percent(Naylot,1990,p.568).Totakebutoneexample,in1990thechiefexecutiveofGeneralDynamicswasawardedanew$4millionstockoption
packagewhilethecompanylosthalfabilliondollarsandfired27,000employees(Linden,1991,p.208).Thisbecomesapracticalaswellasanethicalissueassoon
aswebegintoconsiderthemorevaluableusestowhichthesegargantuansumscouldbeput.

JohnKennethGalbraithhasobservedthat"thesalaryofthechiefexecutiveofthelargecorporationisnotamarketrewardforachievement.Itismuchmoreinthe
natureofathoughtfulpersonalgesturebytheindividualtohimself."Afterquotingthiscomment,psychologistPaulWachtelsuggeststhatperhapstheproblemisnot
thatmodestincentivesaretoosmallforexecutivesbutratherthattheirsalariesaremuchtoolarge."Iftheyhavebecomesobloatedwiththeirpresent
accumulationsthatittakeshundredsofthousandsofdollarstomakethemevennoticetheyaregettingpaidfortheirwork,wecouldtaxtheirpresentwealthto
bringitclosertothelevelofeveryoneelse.Theycouldthenexperiencethe

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sameneedsastherestofthepopulationandberelievedoftheennuithattodayrobsthemoftheabilitytorespondtoordinaryincentives"(Wachtel,1983,pp.
280n,281).

Inthemiddleof1992,however,topexecutivesfinallybegantorespondtotheproblem:theytookdecisivestepstopreventthereleaseofanymoreinformation
abouthowmuchmoneytheyweremaking(Cowan,1992).

41.Forexample,seeGuzzoandKatzell,1987,p.111McGregor,1960,p.95.

42.Apartfromtheultimatefutilityofsubstitutingoneformofextrinsicmotivatorforanother,thetendencyofsomeorganizationstoofferincentiveschieflyasanexcuse
tocutcompensationcostshasbeenalltooapparenttothepeoplewhoworkthere.Bonusesinlieuofannualraisesoftenleaveemployeeswithlesstakehomepay,
whichhardlyamountstoamoralebooster(Uchitelle,1987).Theuseofmoneysubstitutescanbeevenworse:theproudrecipientofabrandnewM.B.A.degree
tookchargeofaclinicinSeattleandpromptlybeganstampingthecuteimageofafroggyonthetimecardsofthe(underpaid)nurseswhohadperformedwell.
Predictably,thisaddedinsulttofinancialinjury.

43.ThesizeofincentivesdilemmaisidentifiedbyKearney,1979,p.10Luce,1983,p.21HalachmiandHolzer,1987,p.88.

44.Oneanalysisarguesthateffortstoimproveonmostperformancemeasurestowhichexecutives'incentivesaretied,suchasreturnonequity,salesgrowth,or
marketshare,doinfacttendtoruncountertothecompany'slongterminterests("Bosses'Pay,"1992,p.22).

45.SeeHalachmiandHolzer,1987,p.86.Tothosewho,unawarethatthereisadilemma,simplytellustomeasureeverythingandrewardonanobjectivebasis
(e.g.,Eimersetal.,1979,p.A4),wecanrespondnotonlybypointingouttheperilsofinflexibilitybutalsobynotingthatthisisreallyanimpossibility.Evaluationis
unavoidablysubjective.Regardlessofhowscientificanappraisalsystemmayappear,twosupervisorsarelikelytoratethesameindividual'sworkdifferently."For
somereason,compensationexpertsalwaystrytodesignpreciserulesforprocessesthatareinherentlysubjective"(McLaughlin,1991,p.74).

46.Scholtes,1990,p.51.ScholtesisamanagementconsultantwhoiswellknownandhighlyregardedintheTotalQualitymovement.

47.Winstanley,1982,p.38.

48.SeeThompsonandDalton,1970,p.154.

49.SeeMcGregor,1960,p.82.

50.Forexample,seeScholtes,1990,pp.3031.

51.McGregor,1960,p.83.

52."Almostnothingisaccomplishedbyanindividualoperatingalone.Mostworkisobviouslyacollectiveeffort.Yetevenworkerswhoseemquiteindependent
dependonothersforideas,stimulation,feedback,moralsupport,andadministrativeservices.Whenanindividualmakessomeheroiceffortandaccomplishesan
extraordinarytask,oftenheorshecantakethetimetodothatworkonlybecauseothershavefilledinonthelessheroicpartsofthejob.Whensomeoneiscredited
withasuccess,heorsheisindividuallyhonoredforwhatwasmostlikelytheworkofmany"(Scholtes,1990,p.27).

53.McGregor,1960,p.87.

54.DemingisquotedinMullen,1990,p.89.

55.Deming,1986,p.102.

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56.Deming,1991,p.24.

57.Seetheevidencereviewedonp.76andp.300n24.

58.Itneedstobeemphasizedthatacriticalexaminationofextrinsicmotivationisnottantamounttotellingsomeonewhoisstrugglingtomakeendsmeetthatheshould
gethismindoffthesubject.Infact,fewthingsaremoreinsultingthanloftypronouncementstotheeffectthatthebestthingsinlifearefreespokenbypeoplewho
havemorethanenoughofthethingsinlifethatarenotfree.Onethinksofwealthylyricistswhoputsuchsentimentsas"Nothin'splentyforme"inthemouthsofpoor
folks.

59.Kovach,1987.

60.Jurgensen,1978.

61.ThesesurveysarediscussedinCsikszentmihalyi,1990,pp.16061.Thefindingreplicatesadiscoverymadeinsurveysdatingbackatleasttothe1930s.These
earliersurveysalsoconfirmedtherelativeimportancetoworkersofjobcharacteristicsotherthanmoney(Watson,1939).

62.Gruenberg,1980thequotationappearsonpp.26768.

63.GreenbergandGreenberg,1991,p.10.Thewriterscitingthispollcontinue,"Infact,webelievethatoneofthebiggestmanagementfallaciesisthatsalespeople
canbemotivatedbyexternalfactors"(ibid.).

64.SeethechaptersontheideaofworkinRobertE.Lane'smonumentalscholarlywork,TheMarketExperience(1991),whicheffectivelychallengesthetraditional
criteriabywhichwejudgethesuccessorfailureofaneconomicsystem.Forhispart,Schwartzarguesthat"workaspuremeans,aspurelyoperantbehavior,isa
relativelyrecenthumaninvention"(1990,p.10).

65.Foragoodexampleofthiskindofthinking,seeFein,1976.

66.Varioussurveyshaveshownthat"betterthan80percentoftheworkforceconsistentlyreportbeing'satisfied'withtheirjobs"(HackmanandOldham,1980,p.
10).Forexample,whenfifteenstudiesconductedduringthe1970sweresummed,theyrevealedthat52percentofU.S.workerspronouncedthemselves"very
satisfied"withtheirjobsandanother36percentsaidtheywere''somewhatsatisfied"(thesefigures,fromMichaelArgyle'sThePsychologyofHappiness,arecitedin
Csikszentmihalyi,1990,p.255n68).Itisworthaskingjustwhat"satisfaction"consistsin,whetherselfreportsonthesubjectarevalidmeasures,andwhothe
respondentsareinthesesurveys.Butsuchnumbersofferapointofdepartureforadiscussionofthetopicthatcontradictsthewidespreadbeliefthatmostpeoplecan
barelystandtheirjobs.

67.Asurveyofnearlysixhundredlotterywinnersrevealedthat,ofthosewhohadbeenworking,60percentofthosewhohadwonmorethan$1millionneither
retirednorquittheirjobsintheyearafterwinning.(Thosewhowonlesswere,ofcourse,evenmorelikelytokeepworking.)Moreover,manyofthosewhodidquit
"laterreturnedtothelaborforceindifferenttypesofjobs"(Kaplan,1985thequotationappearsonp.94).

68.Tostudywhathecallsthe"flow"experience,whichconsistsoffeelingactive,challenged,andfullyengaged,thepsychologistMihalyCsikszentmihalyilikestogive
peoplebeepersandquestionnairestocarryaroundwiththem.Whentheyarebeepedatvarioustimesduringthedayandevening,subjectsdescribewhattheyare
doingandhowtheyarefeeling.Itturnsoutthat,despitetheirstatedbeliefsthattheywouldprefernottobeworking,peopleactuallyreportmoreflowexperiences
whileatworkthanatanyothertime.(Thiswastrueofworkersonassemblylines,too.)Despite

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declarationsthattheyhatework,peopleareoftenabsorbedinitandhappyatitonamomentbymomentbasis.ThisCsikszentmihalyicallsthe"paradoxofwork":
"Peopledonotheedtheevidenceoftheirsenses.Theydisregardthequalityofimmediateexperience,andbasetheirmotivationinsteadonthestronglyrooted
culturalstereotypeofwhatworkissupposedtobelike"(Csikszentmihalyi,1990,pp.15762thequotationappearsonp.160).Inoneofhisstudies,itturnedout
that"flowlikesituationsoccurredmorethanthreetimesasofteninworkasinleisure"(CsikszentmihalyiandLeFevre,1989,p.818).Noristhistheonlyresearch
projecttoproducesuchresults.Amoreconventionalsurvey,inwhichparticipantswereaskedtoratetheenjoymenttheyderivedfromovertwodozencommon
activities,foundthat"theintrinsicrewardsfromworkare,onaverage,higherthantheintrinsicrewardsfromleisure.''Samplesinthemid1970sandtheearly
1980sratedtheirjobsmoreenjoyablethanallbutafewleisureactivities(Juster,1985thequotationappearsonp.340).Thisfinding''upsetstherationaleofthe
market[economy]asthebestdeviceforsatisfyinghumanwantsandthusformaximizinghumanhappiness"(Lane,1991,p.337).Therationalebeingchallengedis
thatwhileworkisunpleasant,itneverthelessprovidesuswiththemoneytobuythingsweuseathomeandfromwhichwederiveourprimarysatisfactions.

69.Slater,1980,p.25."Whatdistinguisheswealthaddictsfromotheraddicts,"hecontinues,"isthattheyhavebeenlargelysuccessfulinsellingthisdelusiontothe
generalpublic"(p.27).

70.Thispointhasbeenmadebymanywriterssee,forexample,Meyer,1975,p.40Slater,1980,p.161.McGregoraddstheimportantobservationthatthereisno
reasontoassumethatintrinsicmotivationmustbe"associatedexclusivelywithhumanactivitiesofthekindthataredefinedasrecreational....Itisnothumannature
thatexcludesthepursuitofgoalsyieldingintrinsicrewardsfromthejobenvironment"(1966,p.210).

71.Forprovocativeessaysonthesetopics,seeWachtel,1983Slater,1980.Fromthelatter:"Whenwe'goshopping'withoutacleargoalinmind,meansandends
havebecomereversed.Insteadofacquiringmoneytohelpusgetsomethingweneed,webuysomethingwedon'tneedtohelpspendthemoneyweacquired.Money,
then,twistsourthinkingandputsusoutoftouchwithourfundamentalgoalsanddesires.Insteadofusingmoneytoserveourselves,weuseourselvestoserve
money"(p.11).VariouswritingsbyKarlMarx(especiallyhisEconomicandPhilosophicManuscriptsof1844)andErichFrommarealsopertinenttothegeneral
subject.

72.KasserandRyan,1993.Wecannotbesure,however,thatthechoicetofocusonfinancialmatterscausesthesepsychologicalproblems.Itmaybethatanxious,
depressedpeoplearemorelikelytoadoptmaterialgoals,orthatanothervariableisresponsiblebothforthispsychologicalprofileandanemphasisonmoney.

73.JohnKotter,quotedin"Bosses'Pay,"1992,p.19.

74.See,forexample,Herzberg,1966,chap.6.

75.Forexample,seeLerner,1982.

76.Referringtothethingsthatwerequireinordertoavoiddissatisfactionas"hygienefactors"(asopposedtothethingsweneedtobecometrulymotivated),
Herzbergwrites,"Thereisnothingwrongwithprovidingthemaximumofhygienicbenefitstotheemployee.Thebenefitsshouldbeasgreatasthesocietycanafford..
..Whatisinerroristhesummationofhumanneedsintotallyhygienicterms"(1966,p.174).

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77.Thequotation,fromMotivationandProductivity(1963),bySaulW.Gellerman,iscitedinKovach,1987,p.65.

78.ThiscommentisquotedinLabichandBallen,1989,p.84.

79.Gabor,1992,p.F1.

80.Ellig,1982,p.28.

81.O'ReillyandPuffer,1989,p.48.Thecasefor"negativesanctions"offeredinthisarticlereliesonanimplicitcontrastbetweenpunishingpeopleanddoingnothing
whenaproblemarises.Ifthelatterdoesn'tsolveproblems,theauthorsseemtosay,wemustturntotheformer.

82.Herzberg,1968,p.54.

83.Ibid.

84.ThebestknownresearchinthisregardwasconductedbyHerbertMeyerandhiscolleaguesatGeneralElectric(Meyer,1975,pp.4245).Morerecently,
people'scommitmenttoanorganizationwasfoundtodeclineiftheyreceivedonlya"satisfactory"rating(PearceandPorter,1986).Otherreportsincludesuch
commentsfromsupervisorsasthese:"Afterwetellamanhis[performance]scoreisbelow40,hewon'tdoanythingforamonth.Hestewsoverhislowrating,andhe
mayeventakeafewdays'sickleave,eventhoughhe'snotphysicallysick"and''Afewmenwillworkharderifyoulowertheirratings,butmostwillgiveup."Norisit
thecasethatonlythelowestperformersleavethecompany:''Ananalysisoftheratingsof60engineerswhohadleftoverafouryearperiodrevealedthatalmostallof
themhadaboveaverageratingsorratingsjustafewpointsbelowaverage,"suggestingthatmaximumdiscouragementmaybefoundwhenreasonablyhighachieving
employeesaregivenratingslowerthanwhattheyexpectorthinktheydeserve(ThompsonandDalton,1970,pp.152,153)."Themoreableandmobileemployees
oftenarethosewholeavefirst,"anothermanagementspecialistremarks,notingthatthechoiceforsupervisorswhorefusetoabandonameritpaysystemamountsto
watchingemployeesbecomedemoralized(withtheresultthattheyleaveorbecomebitterandunproductive)orloweringthestandardsrequiredforgettingmore
money(Kearney,1979,p.10).Therealissue,ofcourse,isnothowhighthestandardsaresettheissueonwhichsomanymanagersfocusbuttheSkinnerian
systemofratingandrewardingperformance.

85.HalachmiandHolzer,1987,p.88.Theuseofmeritpayforteachershasbeenfoundtohaveexactlythiseffect:"Thosewhodonotreceivethemeritincrementwill
experiencearelativedeclineintheirrewards,andcommensuratelylowertheirperformance"(Bachrachetal.,1984,p.20).

86.TheexecutiveisquotedinKanter,1987,p.66.Theresultofincentiveplans,saysPeterScholtes,isasfollows:"Everyoneispressuringthesystemforindividual
gain.Nooneisimprovingthesystemforcollectivegain.Thesystemwillinevitablycrash"(1990,p.32).

87.Ofninecompanieswhoserepresentativesattendedaconferencein1983,sixsaidtheyusedforcedrankings:Exxon,Amoco,PhilipMorris,Procter&Gamble,
Kodak,andGoodyear(seeHallerandWhittaker,1990,pp.13132).

88.ThompsonandDalton,1970,p.156.Organizationsemployingatotalofninemillionpeopleweresurveyedin1987forinformationontheuseofvariousincentive
programsrecognitionsystemswereviewedastheleastsuccessful,judged"positive"or"effective"byonly30percentofrespondents.Onaverage,only45percentof
employeesinagivenorganizationarewinnersinsuchprograms(O'Dell,1987,pp.14,71).

 Page339

89.Forexample,theuseofmeritpayforteachers,"accordingtomoststudies,stimulatesacompetitivespirit(dissension,misunderstanding,suspicion,lowered
morale)amongteachersagroupwhichneedscooperationandalowpressure,highqualityatmospheretoworkbest.Itemphasizesindividualperformanceatthe
expenseofcooperativeteamwork"(Weissman,1969,p.16).

90.Asituationinwhich"thesuperiorisintheroleofajudgeisthepoorestpossibleoneforcounseling,"McGregor(1960,p.86)pointsout.SeealsoPearce,1987,
pp.17273.

91."Rewardsreinforceconflictavoidance,whichwearediscoveringoverandoveragainisveryharmfulfororganizations.Theironyisthatpeoplewhoarenot
interestedinpromotionsandsuchrewardsaremorepreparedtocontributetoproductivediscussions.Indeed,theirbossmayseethemasmoredisinterestedand
morecrediblebecausetheyarenotvyingforhisfavor"(personalcommunication,June1992,fromTjosvold,aspecialistinorganizationalbehavioratSimonFraser
University).

92.Oneconsultant,forexample,notesthatincentiveschemesspecificallydesignedtoreducetherateofabsencesareunlikelytobesuccessfulbecauseproblemslike
absenteeism"aremerelymanifestationsofaperson'sdeepdissatisfactionwithhisorherworkaproblemthatgiftmerchandiseandtravel,nomatterhowvaluable,
willhardlysolveforlong"(Walters,1979,p.A5).Onthispoint,seealsoLevinson,1973,p.30.

93.Thestudymentionedabove(Rothe,1970)thatfoundtheeliminationofanincentiveplandidnotreducewelders'productivityoverthelonghaulalsonotedthat
supervisorstendto"demonstraterelativelylessleadership"whenincentivesareinplace(p.550).Andthe1987surveyof1,600organizationsdiscoveredrelatively
littlebywayofactiveemployeeinvolvementinorganizationsthatusedsmallgroupincentiveplans(O'Dell,1987,p.52).Yetanotherresearchernotesthatpayfor
performance"impedestheabilityofmanagerstomanage"(Pearce,1987,p.172).

94."Humanproblemswerereducedtoadministrativeproblemsandchanneledthroughcommitteesintooblivion"whenabehaviormodificationsystemwas
implementedinapsychiatrichospital(Zeldow,1976,p.322).Amotivationspecialist,meanwhile,remarksthatpromisingchildrenmoneyforeveryAontheirreport
cards"relievesthoseparentsofresponsibilityuntilthegradescomeout"(PeterA.Spevak,quotedinKutner,1991).

95.Haegele,1991,p.357.

96.Slater,1980,p.127.

97.HalachmiandHolzer,1987,p.86.

98.PearceandPerry,1983,p.321.

99.SeeRollins,1987,p.106:"Theendresultisanemployeepopulationsointentuponmeasuringitselfthatithasmuchlesstimelefttoperformthejobsathand."

100.In1992,stateagenciesinCaliforniaandNewJerseyfoundthatemployeesatSearsAutoCentersweresellingpartsandservicesthatcustomersdidn'tneed,a
practicethatthecompanyitselflaterseemedtoacknowledgewasconnectedtotheincentiveplanithadinstitutedtwoyearsearlier.(Anadvertisementrespondingto
theseallegationsappearedonJune25,1992,inmajornewspapersacrossthecountry.)

101.Mohrman,1990,p.10.SeealsoMarlowandSchilhavy,1991,p.31.Asfarbackas1931,researchonTaylor's"scientificmanagement"madetherelatedpoint
that"timestudiesandincentiveschemescouldactuallyencour

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ageworkerstorestricttheiroutput.Workersknewfrombitterexperiencethatiftheyconsistentlyproducedmorethan30or40percentabovethelevelatwhich
bonusesbegantobepaid,theirjobwouldbereratedandtheywouldhavetoworkhardertomakethesamewage"(Gillespie,1991,p.162).

102.Mohrman,1990,p.10.Moreover,interesttendstodropwhengoalsareassigned,atleastonreasonablyinterestingtasks(Mossholder,1980).

103.Forexample,seePinder,1976("Ourdatasuggestthatindividualswhoarepaidunderanoncontingentschedulemayderiveamoreintrinsicorientationtoward
thework,greaterworksatisfaction,andhigherdegreesofintrinsicmotivationthanpeoplepaidaccordingtoamorecontingentpayschedule"[p.699])andJordan,
1986(whichfoundthathealthcaretechnicianswhowereputonagroupincentiveplanbecamelessintrinsicallymotivatedbytheirwork).

104.DeciandRyan,1985,p.299.

105.McGregor,1960,p.40emphasisomitted.

106.Lane,1991,p.403.

107."Peoplewillmakeinsistentdemandsformoremoney"whenmanagementhasfocusedonmoney.Theywill"behaveexactlyaswemightpredictwithindolence,
passivity,unwillingnesstoacceptresponsibility,resistancetochange,willingnesstofollowthedemagogue,unreasonabledemandsforeconomicbenefits.Itwould
seemthatwemaybecaughtinawebofourownweaving"(McGregor,1960,pp.4142)."Naturally,[themanager]takestheevidenceprovidedbytheirbehavioras
proofofhisviewsofhumannature''(McGregor,1966,p.215).SeealsoLevinson,1973,pp.10,30Herzberg,1968,p.55.Theonlyrecognitionofthis
phenomenonIcouldfindinthelasttwodecadesappearedasapassingcommentinanobscurejournal:companieswhere"moneyrewards...havebecome
traditional...risk'conditioning'theirtechnicalpeopletovalueonlyextrinsicrewards"(MowerandWilemon,1989,p.26).

108.Schwartz,1986,p.233.RobertLanemakesessentiallythesamepoint:anemphasisonhowmuchmoneypeoplewillmakeshifts"thelocusofcausalityfrom
dispositiontocircumstance,frominternaltoexternalitaltersthetaskfromchosentounchosen....Strangely,itcreatesSkinnerianmanwherehewasmissing
earlier"(1991,p.379).

8
LuresforLearning

1."Themajorityof[motivational]strategieswerebasedonsupplyingorrestrictingextrinsicsatisfiers,"accordingtoonestudy(Newby,1991,p.198).Anotherfound
that94percentoftheelementaryschoolteacherssurveyedreportedusingrewardsto"improveclassroomconductandhomeworkbehavior."Eightyonepercentused
themtoimprovereadingbehavior(Fantuzzoetal.,1991,p.178).

2.Alexander,1992,p.B1.

3.BrophyandKher,1986,p.285.Theauthorscontendthatmanyteacherssayasmuch,and"mostoftherestappeartoactasiftheyholdthisbeliefevenifthey
haveneverarticulateditconsciously"(ibid.).Aresearcherwhospenttimeobservingseveralteachersdiscussesthecommentsofferedbyonewhoreliedoncontrolling
techniques:"Sincerewardsandthreatsdidnotalwaysresultinworkproduction,however,sheseemedtowantto

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showtheobserverthatitwasnotherfaultifthestudentsdidnotlearn.Forexample,onseveraloccasions,shespontaneouslycommentedtotheobserver(inthe
presenceofthestudents)thatstudents'poorperformancewasduetolazinessorpoorworkhabits"(Marshall,1987,p.137).

4.AbigailThernstrom,authorof"SchoolChoiceinMassachusetts,"publishedbytherightwingPioneerInstituteinBoston,isquotedinPalmer,1992.

5.Shanker,1990,p.20.In1992,Shankerdevotedtwoofhisweeklynewspapercolumnswithinathreemonthperiodtomakingacaseforincentives.

6."SchoolHaze,"1991,p.7.Theauthoralsocallsformorestandardsandtestingthat"wouldinstillcompetitivepressurethroughoutschoolsystems"(p.8).

7.Personalcommunication,1986.

8.CondryandKoslowski,1979,p.255.SeealsoLepperandHodell,1989,p.73.Scoresofothersourcescouldbecitedaswell.

9.BrophyandKher,1986,pp.28283."Apparently,"theycontinue,"studentsstartschoolwithenthusiasmbutgraduallysettleintoadullroutineinwhichinterest
centersonbeingabletomeetdemands."ThisisexactlywhatJohnGoodlad(1984)foundinhismammothsurveyofoverathousandrepresentativeclassroomsacross
thecountry(seeesp.pp.23235).

10.ThequotationisfromBoggianoetal.,1989,p.24."Childrenwhoadoptedanextrinsicratherthananintrinsicorientationtowardschoolworkweremorelikelyto
dopoorlyonoverallachievement,asindexedbynationaltestscores,evenwhencontrollingforachievementscoresfromthepreviousyear"(p.23).Formore
evidenceonthispoint,seeGottfried,1985,1990LloydandBarenblatt,1984HatterandJackson,1992BoggianoandBarrett,1991andthereviewofstillother
researchinSansoneandMorgan,1992,p.266.

11.Andersonetal.,1987,p.288.SeealsotheworkofStevenR,Asher(e.g.,1980).

12.Amongthetheories:intrinsicallymotivatedlearnerspaymoreattentiontowhattheyarelearning,becomemoredeeplyinvolvedinthinkingaboutit,orareina
happierframeofmindandthereforearemoreapttosucceed(see,forexample,Lepper,1985,p.6).Boggianoandhercolleagues(1992)arguethatintrinsically
motivatedlearnersarealsomorelikelytorespondtofeedbackabouttheirperformanceinawayconducivetohigherachievementoverthelonghaul:theyarerelatively
unlikelytofeelcontrolledbyitandmoregiventoattributingtheirfailuretolackofeffortratherthanlackofability.

13.Onthispoint,seeRyanandStiller,1991,esp.p.124.

14.Forexample,inaspeechentitled"WhyWe'reatRisk,"formerProcter&GamblechairmanOwenB.Butler(1989)talkedabouthow"we"decidedatsomepoint
that"schoolshouldbefunandnotwork."

15."Itisdistressinglyeasytodesigneducationalprogramsthatmayprovehighlymotivating,butinstructionallyuseless"(LepperandHodell,1989,p.98seealso
Jackson,1968/1990,p.111).

16.Brophy,1983,p.200.EducationcriticFrankSmithoffersausefulperspectiveonthesubject:"Theunderlyingimplicationof'learningshouldbefun'isthatlearning
willbeapainfulandtediousactivityunlessitisprimpedupasentertainment.Learningisneveraversiveusuallywearenotawareofitatall.Itisfailuretolearnthat
isfrustratingandboring,andsoishaving

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toattendtononsensicalactivities....Itismeaninglessteaching,notlearning,thatdemandsirrelevantincentives"(1986,pp.8283).

17.MontaigneisquotedinLepper,1988,p.305.

18.Bruner,1961,p.26.Anothereducationresearcherdescribesasetof"highabilitystudents...[who]aredocileandcompliantcomparedtotheirpeers,andthey
seemtofindschoolarewardingplacetobe.Yetmanyofthesehighachieverslearnshortcutstoachievementrewardsandlearntoregardoutofclasslearningas
unrewarding:twoverydysfunctionalinstructionaloutcomes"(Thomas,1980,p.215).

19.RyanandPowelson,1991,p.62.CaroleAmesputitthisway:"Motivationistoooftenequatedwithquantitativechangesinbehavior(e.g.,higherachievement,
moretimeontask)ratherthanqualitativechangesinthewaystudentsviewthemselvesinrelationtothetask,engageintheprocessoflearning,andthenrespondtothe
learningactivitiesandsituation"(1992,p.268).

20.Itisunsettlingtoreflectonthefactthatoureducationalsystemfunctionswithinaparticulareconomicsystemandthatthelatter'sinterestsmayconflictwiththe
goalsofthoughtfuleducators.Forexample,itisreasonabletosupposethatthefunctioningoflarge,undemocraticcorporationsrequiresasupplyofworkerswho
possessnotonlyasetofskillsbutalsoasetofvalues.Ideally(fromtheperspectiveofthosewhoownorruntheseenterprises),jobapplicantswouldappearhaving
alreadybeentrainedtoacceptasnaturalsuchthingsascompetition,hierarchicalcontrol,andextrinsicmotivation.Bywhatmaynotbeanastonishingcoincidence,
thesearejustthevaluesthatschoolsseektoinstill."Themotivationalsystemoftheschool,involvingasitdoesgradesandotherexternalrewardsandthethreatof
failureratherthantheintrinsicsocialbenefitsoftheprocessofeducation(learning)oritstangibleoutcomes(knowledge),mirrorscloselytheroleofwagesandthe
specterofunemploymentinthemotivationofworkers"(BowlesandGintis,1976,p.12).

21.Nicholls,1989,p.192.SeealsoSchwartz,1990a,p.13.

22.Silberman,1970,p.114.

23.Bruner,1961,p.26.

24.Ames,1992b,p.268HeymanandDweck,1992,pp.23233.

25.Whenthemothersofmorethanonehundrednineyearoldswereaskedwhether,orhowoften,theyreliedon"extrinsicrewardstrategies"inresponsetothe
children'sschoolperformance,itturnedoutthattheserewardswere"consistentlyandnegativelyrelatedtomotivationandachievement.Thesestrategieswerealso
associatedwithmoreschoolbehaviorproblemsandlesseffectivelearning"(GottfriedandGottfried,1991a,pp.34).

26.Roemer,1992,p.58.

27.O.Butler,1989.

28.Glasser,1990,pp.8,118119.

29.SuchanapproachwasperceivedbyFrederickTaylortobesoobviouslynecessarythatheuseditasananalogytojustifytheuseofasimilarlycontrollingformat
inthefactory."Noefficientteacherwouldthinkofgivingaclassofstudentsanindefinitelessontolearn.Eachdayadefinite,clearcuttaskissetbytheteacherbefore
eachscholar,statingthathemustlearnjustsomuchofthesubjectanditisonlybythismeansthatproper,systematicprogresscanbemadebythestudents.The
averageboywouldgoveryslowlyif,insteadofbeinggivenatask,heweretoldtodoasmuch

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ashecould.Allofusaregrownupchildren,anditisequallytruethattheaverageworkmanwillworkwiththegreatestsatisfaction,bothtohimselfandtohis
employer,whenheisgiveneachdayadefinitetaskwhichheistoperforminagiventime,andwhichconstitutesaproperday'sworkforagood
workman"(1911/1947,p.120).MostworkplaceslongagodiscardedTaylor'sstultifying"scientificmanagement"butmostclassroomsarestillrunonthesame
basicprinciple.

30.RyanandStiller,1991,pp.117,143.Ryan'scolleagueEdDeciismorepithy:"Initiativesthatestablishstrongercontrolsineducationwillresultinpoorer
education"(1985,p.52).

31.See,forexample,Boggianoetal.,1989.

32.Haddad,1982.

33.ResearchbyDavisandMcKnightissummarizedinDoyle,1983,p.185.

34.See,forexample,theresearchdescribedinStipekandKowalski,1989,pp.38485."Wemaynotbeabletoassurethateachindividualbecomes'competent,'
giventhedifficultyofattainingthisgoalbutattheveryleast,weshouldnotmakepeoplehelplessbytheuseofwellintentionedproceduresdesignedtomotivate
them"(Condry,1978,pp.19091).

35.Boggianoetal.,1988.

36.Deci,Nezlek,andSheinman,1981Deci,Schwartz,etal.,1981.

37.EnzleandWright,1992.

38.BoggianoandBarrett,1991,ms.pp.21,34.

39.EinsteinisquotedinBernstein,1973,p.88.

40.Light,1992,pp.6465.Thesciencecoursesthatstudentsratedhighestandlowestinoverallqualityhadalmostidenticalworkloads.Whatdistinguishedthe
lowestratedcourseswasmoreintensecompetitionforgrades.

41.Koestneretal.,1984.

42.Ryan,1982,p.457.Anothergroupofresearcherscomments:"Ifsuchaseeminglysimplemanipulationassaying'should'canhavesuchdramaticeffects,onecan
onlybegintosurmisehowchildrenmaybesignificantlyaffectedbytheirdailyinteractionswithteachersandparentsintheareaofachievement"(Boggianoetal.,1991,
p.519).Anearlierstudywithcollegestudentsofferedcoursecreditfortakingpartinapsychologyexperimentthatinvolvedastudyofproblemsolving.Halfofthem
wereinformedwhentheyshowedupthattheywouldnotbereceivingcreditafterallandwereaskedtoparticipateanyway.Almostalldecidedtodoso,andthese
students,deprivedofcompensationfortheirwork,triedharderandperformedmoreeffectivelyonarangeofmeasuresthanthosewhoworkedatthesametaskfor
coursecredit(Weick,1964).

43.GrolnickandRyan,1989.Oneinterpretationofthisfindingisthat"excesscontrolathomemaypreventchildrenfromtakingonorinternalizingtheregulationfor
theirownschoolrelatedbehavior"(p.151).SeealsoGrolnicketal.,1991.

44.BrophyandKherlistsomefairlytypicalcommentsofthiskindthattheyhaveheardteachersmake:"lfyougetdoneby10o'clock,youcangooutside""Your
scoreswilltellmewhetherweneedtostaywithmultiplicationforanotherweek""Thispenmanshipassignmentmeansthatsometimesinlifeyoujustcan'tdowhatyou
wanttodo.Thenexttimeyouhavetodosomethingyoudon'twanttodo,justthink'Well,that'sjustpartoflife'""Getyournoseinthebook,otherwiseI'llgiveyoua
writingassignment''''You'vebeenworkingrealhardtoday,solet'sstopearly""My

 Page344

talkersaregoingtogetathirdpagetododuringlunch"(1986,p.284seealsothecommentsofferedbyTeacherYinMarshall,1987).

45.AtaconferenceinCalifornia,oneadministratorurgedteacherstodothisasawayofforcingstudentstothink.Theadministratorhimselfmighthavebenefitedfrom
anopportunitytothinkaboutthecircumstancesinwhichthinkingoccurs,andwhetherlearningismorelikelytobepromotedbycreatinganatmosphereoffearorof
safety.

46.TuettemannandPunch,1992.Thiswasfoundtobeparticularlytrueoffemaleteachers.

47."Teacherswilltendtoseestudentsasameanstoanendundermeritpay.Studentperformanceinclassesortestswillbethemainbarrierbetweenateacheranda
meritincrement,"whichmeansthat"poorstudentswouldnolongerposechallenges,theywouldposethreats"(Bachrachetal.,1984,pp.1617).

48.Garbarino,1975thequotationisonp.427.

49.Decietal.,1982.Thecomparisonhereistosubjectswhowereexplicitlytoldthattherewerenoperformancerequirements.

50.Ibid.,p.858.Formoreontheeffectsofacontrollingschoolstructure,seeMcNeil,1986.Asimilardynamicappearsinthecorporateworkplace:peoplewhofeel
controlledfromabovearemorelikelytotrytocontrolothersdownbelow(seeKanter,1977,pp.18990).

51.Flinketal.,1990thequotationsareonp.918.

52.Undergraduateswhotookapianolessonfromsomeonetheybelievedwasfinanciallymotivatedreacteddifferentlytotheexperiencethanthosewhothoughtthe
teacherwasintrinsicallymotivated,eventhoughteachersinthetwoconditionstaughttheidenticallesson(and,indeed,didn'tknowwhatthestudentshadbeentold).
Thoseassumingtheirteacherwasextrinsicallyorientedenjoyedthelessonless,thoughtitwaslessinnovative,expressedlessdesiretoplaythepianoagain,andwere
lesslikelytotrysomethingnewonthekeyboardwhentheyhadthechance(Wildetal.,1992).Conversely,teachers'beliefsaboutstudents'motivesforlearningcan
beimportant,too.Whenteachersweretoldthatcertainstudentswereextrinsicallyoriented,thosestudentsdid,infact,showlessinterestinataskafteralesson,
presumablybecauseofhowtheteachers'expectationschangedtheinteraction(PelletierandVallerand,1989).

53.Forapenetratingcritiqueoftheconceptoflearningdisabilitiesthewaytheconceptisformulatedandapplied,thewayallegedlylearningdisabledchildrenare
treated,andthewayaneurologicalbasisforthephenomenonhasbeenpostulatedwithoutgoodevidenceseeColes,1987.

54.GrolnickandRyan,1990,p.182.

55.Dasetal.,1985,p.309.

56.LincolnandChazan,1979,p.215.

57.Inoneexperiment,rewardsgiventohyperactivechildrenmadethemrespondmoreimpulsively(FirestoneandDouglas,1975).Inanother,anybeneficialeffectsof
rewards(onreactiontimes)disappearedassoonastherewardsstoppedcoming,andsometimestheuseofrewardshadtheconsequenceofunderminingperformance
fromthebeginning(DouglasandParry,1983).Inyetathirdstudy,thisonewithchildrenwhohadshortattentionspansbutwerenothyperactive,rewardsdidnot
improvereactiontimes,astheexperimentershadpredictedrather,itcausedthechildrentomakemoremistakes(Kistner,1985).

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58.SwitzkyandSchultz,1988,p.10.

59.Ibid.,p.7.Thesameistrueofprogramsformentallyretardedadults(HaywoodandSwitzky,1985,p.157).

60.Knitzeretal.,1990,pp.3435.

61.Houghtonetal.,1987.

62.DeciandChandler,1986,pp.589,590Decietal.,1992,p.470.

63.GuessandSiegelCausey,1985thequotationsappearonpp.241,233,237,and236,respectively.

64.Decisuggests"usingaslittlecontrolaspossibleencouragingchildrentothinkthroughtheirownproblemsratherthangivingthemsolutionspermittingthemtotry
outtheirownplansandideasandallowingthemtoworkattheirownspeed"(DeciandChandler,1986,p.590).Amoreelaboratesetofpracticalstrategiesfor
enhancingtheintrinsicmotivationoflearningdisabledchildrenisofferedinAdelmanandTaylor,1983.Abooklengthtreatmentoftheseissuesadecisiverejoinder
totheclaimthatbehavioralmanipulationisnecessarywithpeoplewhoareseverelyretardedorotherwiselimitedintheircapacitytofunctionhasbeenwrittenbya
psychologistwithextensiveexperienceinthefield(Lovett,1985).Foradiscussionofhowchildrenwithprofoundhandicapscanandshouldbehelpedtomake
choices,seePeck(1985).Peckfound"substantialincreasesinthesocial/communicativebehavior"ofseverelyretardedandautisticchildrenbygivingthem"more
opportunitiesforstudentinitiationandcontrolofsocialinteractions"(p.191)seealsoShevinandKlein(1984).Alengthycompendiumofresourcesoninclusive
educationisavailablefromtheInstituteofCommunityIntegration,CollegeofEducation,UniversityofMinnesota,6PatteeHall,150PillsburyDriveS.E.,Minneapolis,
MN55455.TheCouncilforChildrenwithBehaviorDisorders(CEC,1920AssociationDrive,Reston,VA22091)publishesajournalcalledBeyondBehaviorthat
challengessomeofthecommonassumptionsofthefield.Finally,interestededucatorsmightlookattheworkbeingdoneattheInclusiveEducationProjectat
SyracuseUniversity'sSchoolofEducation.

65.BrophyandKher,1986,p.264.

66.SeeDweck,1986Ames,1992bNicholls,1989andvirtuallyanythingelsewrittenbythesethreeresearchers.Onthemoregeneralpointthatchildren's
conceptionsofabilityareshapedbyparticularclassroompractices,seeRosenholtzandSimpson,1984.Dweckinparticular(seeDweckandLeggett,1988)seesa
child'sfocusonperformanceasareflectionoftheextenttowhichheorshehascometobelievethatintelligenceisafixedtrait,althoughIhavesuggestedthatthis
beliefcanalsofollowfromapreoccupationwithperformanceresultingfromotherfactors.

67.GrahamandGolan,1991.SeealsoNolen,1988.

68.Astudydonein1985byFarrellandDweckisdescribedinDweck,1986.

69.Butler,1992.

70.Nicholls,1989,p.130.

71.GrolnickandRyan,1987ButlerandNisan,1986Butler,1988.SeealsoBenwareandDeci,1984.

72.Evenwhenstudentsareencouragedtothinkaboutthetaskitself,anenvironmentthatemphasizeshowwelltheyaredoingcomparedtoothersmaycreatea
performancefocus,orwhatNichollscallsanegoorientation(JagacinskiandNicholls,1987).Morebroadly,seeNicholls,1989Kohn,1992a(esp.pp.4143fora
discussionofsocialcomparison).

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73.Ryan,1982,pp.45658.

74.ButlerandNisan,1986Butler,1987.AstudyofjuniorhighschoolstudentsinJapanalsofoundthatthosetoldahistorytestwouldcounttowardtheirfinalgrade
werelessinterestedinthesubjectandlesslikelytopreferansweringdifficultquestionsthanthosetoldthetestwasjusttomonitortheirprogress.Thesameresearcher
foundthatundergraduates'interestinanintelligencetestwashigherwhentheyevaluatedtheirownworkthanwhentheexperimenterevaluatedit(Kage,1991).

75.Butler,1992.Onthelastpoint,seealsoBoggianoandBarrett,1991.

76.Silberman,1970,p.148.

77.ResearchbyM.RohrkemperandB.BershonissummarizedinBrophyandKher,1986,p.267seealsoBlumenfeldetal.,1986,p.102.

78.LeCompte,1978,p.34.

79.HeymanandDweck,1992.ThesameistruewithrespecttoextrinsicallyorientedstudentsseeBoggianoandBarrett,1991.

80.Forexample,seeMaehrandStallings,1972Harter,1978Pearlman,1984ElliottandDweck,1988andtheresearchcitedinDweck,1986,pp.104142.
Someofthisresearch,aswellasclassroomobservations(e.g.,Marshall,1987,p.145),demonstratesthatchildrenwhoareabletofocusonthetaskinsteadofon
theirperformancedonottrytoavoidworktheyaskformoreassignments,andmoredifficultones.Bycontrast,onestudyfoundthatmotherswhowereespecially
concernedabouthowwelltheirchildrendidinschoolweremorelikelytosaytheypreferredthattheirchildrenbegivenprojectsthatensuredsuccessasopposedto
projects"wherethey'lllearnalotofnewthingsbutalsomakealotofmistakes"(AmesandArcher,1987thequotationappearsonp.410).

81.Onthispoint,seeMiltonetal.,1986,p.145.

82.StipekandKowalski,1989asummaryofSeymourSarason'sresearchonanxiousstudentsappearsonpp.38485.Twootherresearchersmakearelatedpoint:
"Theteacherwhoemphasizes'backtobasics'inordertoraisetheperformancelevelofpreviouslowachieverstherebynarrowsthedefinitionoflegitimateacademic
performance,thusstratifyingperformanceexpectationsintheclassroom,withtheironicoutcomethatpreviouslowperformersarelikelytoconsolidatetheirlow
academicselfconcepts"(RosenholtzandSimpson,1984,p.57).

83.ElliotandDweck,1988,p.10.

84.Butler,1988,pp.12131992,p.942.

85.Kirschenbaumetal.,1971,p.201.

86.UnpublisheddatabyRayWolfe,StateUniversityofNewYorkatGeneseo,1991.Thecorrelationbetweenaveragegradeearnedinhighschoolandselfesteem
incollegeforonesampleofstudentswas.27.Foranothersample,highschoolgradescorrelated.27with"optimism"and.28with"wellbeing."(Allthree
correlationsaresignificantatp<.01.)

87.Rogers,1985,p.259.Theauthoradds,"Itisnowonderthattheunderachievinggiftedchildisaproblemofgreatconcernwearehelpingtoproducethem."

9
BribesforBehaving

1.Glasser,1969,p.22.

2.RyanisquotedinKutner,1990.

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3.DeciandRyan,1985,p.263.ThesocialcriticEdgarZ.Friedenbergsimilarlyobservedthat"behaviormodificationisplannedtomolddesirablebehaviordirectly,
withoutrootingitinethicalpurposes.Itseekstooperateat[the]lowestlevelofmoraljudgment:behaviorisgoodbecauseitisrewarded"(quotedinOhanian,1982,
p.19).

4.Itisoftenimpliedthat"teachersmustchoosebetweenputtingupwithbehaviorproblemsandbeingthebossandstampingthemout"(NichollsandHazzard,1993,
p.56).Indeed,onebehavioristframesthechoiceexactlythisway:"Givenadisruptiveclass,should[behavioralconsultants]trytoreducedisruptivebehaviorsinthe
classroom[bymeansofaSkinnerianregimen]orshouldtheyignoresuchproblemsandtrytoimproveacademicperformance?"(Peterson,1976,p.341).

5.Forexample,DianaBaumrind(1971),inherinfluentialworkonchilddevelopment,introducesanotherparentalapproach,analternativetoauthoritarianand
permissiveparentingthatshecalls"authoritative,"characterizedbyacombinationofwarmthandfirmcontrol.Inareanalysisofherdata,however,CatherineLewis
arguesthatwhat"actuallyfosterscompetenceorresponsibilityinchildren"iswarmthandabsenceofpunishmentparentalcontrolactuallymay"resultinless
internalizationofbehavioralnormsbythechild"(1981,pp.560,562).

6.SomeofthedifferencesbetweenwhatisexpectedofparentsandteachersarediscussedinKatz,1980.

7.Thephrase"hiddencurriculum"appearsinJackson,1968/1990,p.33.ThefiveelementsmentionedherearedescribedinLeCompte,1978,p.29seealsoWinett
andWinkler,1972.

8."Ifteachersareobsessedwithsilenceandlackofmovement,therefore,itisinlargepartbecauseitisthechiefmeansbywhichtheircompetenceisjudged....
Thus,thevowsofsilenceandstillnessareoftenimposedonteacherswhomightpreferamoreopen,livelyclassroom"(Silberman,1970,p.144).

9.Ohanian,1982,p.18.

10.Seepage82.

11.Silberman,1970,p.134.

12.LeCompte,1978,p.30.

13.Blumenfeldetal.,1986,p.98.Tobehavewell,thestudentsalsosaid,istoobeytheteacher,stayoutoftrouble,workcontinually,andavoidfighting.

14.Inapenetratingarticleentitled"CompliantCognition,"educationalresearchersMaryMcCaslinandThomasGoodobservedthat"behaviormodificationsystemsof
studentmanagementarecompatiblewithacurriculumofbasicskillacquisition.Inbothsystems,concerniswiththeidentification,sequencing,andreinforcementof
discreteskills"(McCaslinandGood,1992,p.12).Anothereducatorputsitthisway:ifthemissionofteachersisprimarilytoimpart"tostudentsabodyofacademic
knowledgeandtechniques...[thenthey]musthaveacontrolledclassroom"(Watson,1982,p.76).Inshort,Skinnerianapproachestodisciplineareagoodmatch
forSkinnerianapproachestolearning.(Notbycoincidencearebothincludedaselementsofthe''backtobasics"movement,inwhich"theroleofthestudentistopay
attentionandfollowdirections,theroleoftheteacheristoeffectacontrolled,structuredenvironmentwithinwhichdirectinstruction[e.g.,drillandpractice]isthe
dominantactivity,andtheprincipaloutcomesofinterestaretheskillsanditemsofknowledgethatcomprisethe

 Page348

subjectmatter"[Thomas,1980,p.213].)Therearesometeachers,however,whoexperimentwithinnovative,"learnercentered"lessonswhilecontinuingtorely
onmanipulativebehaviorcontrol.Thisismorethanaparadox,asMcCaslinandGoodseeitit's"anoxymoron:acurriculumthaturgesproblemsolvingand
criticalthinking,andamanagementsystemthatrequirescomplianceandnarrowobedience.Themanagementsystematleastdilutes,ifnotobstructs,thepotential
powerofthecurriculumformanyofourstudents.Studentsareaskedtothinkandunderstand,butintoomanyclassroomstheyareaskedtothinknoiselessly,
withoutpeercommunicationorsocialexchange.Andtheproblemstheyareaskedtothinkaboutmustbesolved,neatly,within(atmost)45minuteintervals.In
theproblemsolvingcurriculum,intoomanycases,theteachersetstheperformancegoals,identifiesrelevantresources,establishescriteriaforevaluation,and
eventuallyannounceswinnersandlosers.Studentsgenerallygainrecognitionandapprovalbypayingcloseattentiontorecommendedproceduresandbytaking
fewacademicrisks"(1992,p.12).

15.Whenvariousapproachestoclassroommanagementareexaminedempirically,somestudiestypicallyshowpositiveeffectsandsomeshownoeffects.Itisrareto
discoverthataprogramhasnegativeeffects,butthisisactuallywhathasturnedupinsomestudiesofAssertiveDiscipline.Overall,mostresearchershavefoundthe
techniquetobedetrimentalortohavenoimpactatall(EmmerandAussiker,1990Renderetal.,1989).ForothercriticismsofAssertiveDiscipline,see
Crockenberg,1982Watson,1982Gartrell,1987.

16.Covaleskie,1992,pp.173,179.

17.Itseemsreasonable,whenpeople'stempersareflaring,totakeafewminutestocooloffbeforeresumingadiscussion.But"timeout"(originallyshortfor"timeout
frompositivereinforcement")ismoreoftenusedasapunitivestrategy,somethingforciblyimposedonachild,complete,insomecases,withaformulaforcalculating
thenumberofminutesthechildmustremaininsolitaryconfinement."Thereisevidencetosupportthenotionthattimeoutservesasanaversiveconsequence,"one
groupofbehavioristswrote,afternotingthat"someoftheearliestdemonstrationsoftimeoutasadeceleratingconsequencecomefromanimalstudies''(Whiteetal.,
1972,p.111).

18.Asof1990,corporalpunishmentwas"stilllegalin30states,whereatleast1millionschoolchildrenages6to18arepaddledeachyearsomesufferingsevere
bruises,brokenbones,andconcussions"(Hembree,1990,p.69).Foralistofcountriesthathaveabolishedthepractice,seeGordon,1989,p.xxi.

19.EightyfourpercentofU.S.parentssaidthey"agreed"or"stronglyagreed"that"itissometimesnecessarytodisciplineachildwithagood,hardspanking,"
accordingtoa1986poll(reportedinLehman,1989,p.29).Inasurveyof679collegefreshmen,93percentofthestudentsreportedhavingbeenspanked,leading
thepsychologistswhoconductedthestudytoreflectthat"althoughanger,physicalattack,andpainareinvolvedbetweentwopeopleofvastlydifferentsize,weight,
andstrength,suchbehavioriscommonlyacceptedasaproperexerciseofadultauthorityoverchildren"inourcultureandthatnootherinteractions"carrysuchclear
socialsupportsfortheunilateraluseofphysicalpunishmentbyonepartyonanother''(GrazianoandNamaste,1990,p.450).Itwouldseemthatdoctorsplayarole

 Page349

inthatsocialsupport:twooutofthreeprimarycarephysiciansinarecentsurveyapprovedoftheuseofphysicalpunishment(McCormick,1992).

20.Ignoringchildren,onthetheorythattheywillstopdoingsomethingiftheynolongerreceivethereinforcementofourattention,isaparticularlydemeaningand
shortsightedstrategy.Behavioristsfrequentlyurgeparentsandteacherstowithholdtheirattentiondeliberately(whiletakingcaretoassureusthatthisdoesn'tconstitute
apunishment):inatypicalpassage,onepsychologistassertsthat"behaviorsuchastempertantrumsinchildrenorincoherenttalkinmentalpatientswilloftendisappear
ifitisignored"(Kazdin,1976,p.102).Infact,therealmessagethissendsis,"Wedon'tknowwhyyoudothisandwedon'tcare"(Lovett,1985,p.36).Tosaythat
childrenwhoactoutarejustdoingitfortheattention,Lovettcontinues,seemstoimplythat"wantingtobenoticed[is]amysteriousorstupidneed....[It's]alittle
likesaying,'Youonlytalktoyourfriendsbecauseyou'relonely'''(pp.69,104105).Toignoreachildwhoactsinappropriatelyisultimatelyineffectivebecauseit
neitheraddressestheunderlyingcauseofthatbehaviornorteaches"moresophisticatedwaysofconfrontingandsatisfyingabasicsocialneed"(p.69).Mostofall,itis
cruelandpunitive.

21.BalsamandBondy,1983,p.293.

22.Researchdocumentingthedetrimentaleffectsofphysicalpunishmenthasbeenpublishedatleastsincethe1940s.Oneinterestingstudyfoundaclearcut
relationshipbetweentheseverityofthepunishmentreceivedbyeightyearoldsandhowaggressivetheirpeersjudgedthemtobe.Morethantwodecadeslater,the
researcherstrackeddownsomeofthesesamesubjectsandfoundthattheaggressivechildrenhadgrownintoaggressiveadults,manyofwhomwerenowusing
physicalpunishmentontheirownchildren(Eronetal.,1987).Evenmorerecentresearchhasfoundthatalcoholicsandpeoplesufferingfromdepressionaremuch
morelikelythanotherindividualstohavebeenbeatenwhentheywerechildren(HolmesandRobins,1988),thattoddlerswhoarehitbytheirmothersareinfactless
likelythantheirpeerstodowhattheyaretold(PowerandChapieski,1986),andthatthreetofiveyearoldswhoarespankedbytheirparentsaremorelikelythan
otherchildrentobeaggressivewhileplayingatadaycarecenter(WatsonandPeng,inpress).Forotherreferencesonthistopic,seeKohn,1990b,pp.13538,
21718.Formorecomprehensivediscussionsofphysicalpunishment,includingitssocial,religious,andpsychologicalroots,seeMiller,1984Greven,1992.

23.Lehman,1989,p.29.Amongprimarycarephysiciansaswellthereis"considerablesupportforuseofcorporalpunishmentinresponsetoanaggressive
misbehaviorinallchildren'sagegroups"(McCormick,1992,p.3163).Oneelementaryschoolprincipal,stressingherintoleranceofviolence,assuredmeafewyears
agothatherstudents"knowiftheyhurtsomebodyphysically,they'regoingtogetit."

24.Gordon,1989,p.7.

25.Someboyswhowerepartofanafterschoolclubwithanauthoritarianleaderbecameaggressivetowardtheirpeersimmediatelyothersbecameapatheticbut
thenexplodedintoviolencewhentheleaderwasaway(Lewinetal.,1939).Otherstudieshavefoundasignificantrelationshipbetweenmothers'useofpower
assertivetechniquesandtheirchildren'slevelofhostilitywithpeers(Hoffman,1960)aswellasatendencytoshow"weak

 Page350

moraldevelopment"(HoffmanandSaltzstein,1967).Morerecently,controllingparentaldisciplineofpreschoolerswasrelatedtothedisruptivenessofthe
children'splaygroundbehavior(Hartetal.,1992).Projectivetestshavealsosuggestedthatstudentswhoseteachersweremorecontrollingentertainedmore
aggressivethoughtsthanotherstudentsdid(RyanandGrolnick,1986).Thepointaboutchildrenbreakingmorerulesawayfromhomewhensubjectedtopunitive
disciplineisattributedtoareviewoftheresearchbyMartinHoffman(citedinToner,1986,p.31).

26.Searsetal.,1957,pp.485,486,484.

27.Kamii,1984,p.121991,p.383.

28.Greven,1992,p.88.

29.Piaget,1965,p.339.

30."MainFault,"1984,p.28.

31.DeVries,1987,p.377.

32.Whensevenyearoldsweretoldbyanadultthathewouldbe"veryupsetandveryangry"iftheyplayedwithatoywhenhelefttheroom,theyweremorelikely
toplaywithitandwerealsomorelikelytobreaktherulessetdownbyanotheradultthreeweekslaterascomparedwithchildrenwhowereinitiallytoldtheir
disobediencewouldleadtheadulttobe"alittlebitannoyed"(Lepper,1973).Inanaturalisticstudy,childrenwhosemothersusedcontrolling,punitive,orrestrictive
techniqueswerelesslikelythanotherstocomplywiththeirrequestsathomeorinalaboratorysituation(CrockenbergandLitman,1990).

33.Forexample,seeDreikursetal.,1982,chap.12.

34."Thelinebetweenpunishmentandlogicalconsequencesisthinattimes"(DinkmeyerandMcKay,1989,p.85).

35.Albert,1989,p.79.

36.Theexamplesaretakenfrom,respectively,Albert,1989,p.78DinkmeyerandMcKay,1989,pp.8485Nelsen,1987,pp.72,81Dreikursetal.,1982,p.
119CurwinandMendler,1988,pp.72,81.

37.Strictbehavioristswoulddescribesomeoftheseinterventionsas"responsecosts,"whichconsistoftheremovalofsomethingpleasantratherthantheapplicationof
somethingunpleasant,butthisdistinctiontooisratheracademic.Forourpurposes,bothmaybedescribedaspunishment.ThomasGordonhasobservedthat
"Dreikurs'sconceptof'logicalconsequences'issimplyanothernameforthemorestraightforwardtermpunishment"(1989,p.31).

38.Dreikursetal.,1982,p.117.

39.HoffmanandSaltzstein,1967,p.54.

40.Thesameorientationmaybepromotedbyacontractwithachildthatcallsforrewards:theseoften"generatewhatoneparentcalled'thelawyersyndrome':
lookingforloopholesinacontractwhichwillfulfillitsliteralbutnotintendedmeaning"(BalsamandBondy,1983,p.291).Itisperfectlyreasonableforachildtothink
alongtheselinestheproblemrestswiththeuseofrewards.

41.IowemuchofthisanalysistoMarilynWatson,programdirectoroftheChildDevelopmentProject.

42."Punishmentisalwaysineffective,"AlfredAdlerwrotemanyyearsago."Itcandonothingbutconfirmtheopinion,'Othersareagainstme'"(1956,p.370).

43."Clearly,itisnotpermissiveparentswhoproducetheantisocials,delin

 Page351

quents,andcriminalsinoursociety.Itisstrict,authoritarian,punitiveparents.Kidswhogetintoserioustroubleareinvariablythosewhoarereactingto,rebelling
against,orescapingfrombeingneglectedormistreatedathome.Theunhappy,resentful,rebellious,angry,andretaliatoryyoungpeopleinoursocietyhavenothad
toomuchfreedomquitethecontrary,theyhavehadtoomuchcontrol,toomuchdiscipline,toomuchpainanddeprivation"(Gordon,1989,p.215).Ofcourse,
thisdoesn'tmeanthateveryonewhowasraisedbypunitiveparentsisdestinedtogrowintoacriminalnumerousotherfactors,onlysomeofthemfamilial,are
relevanttothatoutcome.

44.Whileafewstudies(e.g.,Boggianoetal.,1987BarrettandBoggiano,1988)haveaskedsmallnumbersofadultstoreacttohypotheticalscenariosinorderto
elicittheirbeliefsabouttheuseofrewardswithchildren,thereareveryfewgooddataonjusthowmanyparentsactuallyuserewardsathome,andmostofthe
researchthatdoesexistisquitedatedbynowandentirelydependentonselfreports.Interviewswith379mothersofkindergartnersinthe1950sindicatedthat30
percentneverorrarelyusedrewards,43percentusedthem"sometimes"or"fairlyoften,"and25percentusedthem''frequently"or"regularly."Asforpraise,the
breakdownwas7percentfornouseorrareuse,48percentforoccasionalormoderateuse,and44percentforfairlyfrequent,veryfrequent,orregularuse(Searset
al.,1957,pp.32122).Thisstudyturneduptwootherinterestingfindings:therewasasignificantcorrelationbetweenthosewhoreliedheavilyontheuseofrewards
andthosewhoreliedheavilyonphysicalpunishment(p.324),andtherewasnodifferenceamongsocialclasseswithrespecttotheuseofrewards(pp.43132),even
thoughquiteabitofresearchhasshownthatparentsclassifiedaslowersocioeconomicstatusarerelativelymorelikelytousepunishment.Asomewhatlargerstudy
involvingonegroupofparentsin1953andanothergroupin1971askedhowtheywouldrespondiftheirchilddidsomethinggood.Betweentwothirdsandthree
quarterssaidtheywouldusepraise,andbetweenonequarterandonethird(includingsomeofthesamepeople)saidtheywouldofferamaterialreward.Veryfew
respondentstalkedaboutencouragingthechildtofeelproudofwhatheorshehaddone(Duncanetal.,1973,p.37).

45.Daley,1990.

46.Batsonetal.,1978,p.90.Thestudyfoundthatadultswhowereofferedmoneyforagreeingtohelparesearcherratedthemselvesaslessaltruisticthanthosewho
didn'texpecttobepaid.Anotherstudydiscoveredthatchildrenwhoreceivedrewardsfordonatingsomethingtoanotherchild(orwhowerefinedfornotdonating)
werelesslikelytoexplaintheirownbehaviorinwordssuggestinganintrinsicmotivationtohelpthanwerechildrenwhoreceivednorewardsorpunishments(Smithet
al.,1979).Otherexperimentshaveshownthatrewardingpeoplefordonatingblood(Upton,1974)orhelpingablindstudent(KundaandSchwartz,1983)
underminespeople'smotivationtohelpforaltruisticreasons.Forotherrelevantresearch,seeKohn,1990a,pp.202203.

47.GrusecandDix,1986,p.220.

48.Fabesetal.,1989.

49.Grusec,1991.

50.Kamii,1991,p.383.

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10
ThankGodIt'sMonday

1.McGregor,1966,p.208.Onthispoint,seealsoLevinson,1973,p.19.

2.SeeMcGregor,1960,p.411966,p.204.

3.Inabroadersense,virtuallyallpaidworkmightbethoughtofascontingentinthattheworkerispaidfordoingsomething.Butthereisanimportantdifference
betweenwhatRobertLanecalls"molarcontingency,asinearningaliving,andmolecularcontingency,asinworkingforpay....Apersonrequiredtoworkfora
livinghasmanychoicesofjusthowtogoaboutitapersonrequiredtoturnoutsomanyunitsofanidenticalproductorrewardedbytokensforaspecifiedbehavior
hasnodiscretionleft"(1991,pp.36061).Salescommissions,piecework,andbonusesaresalientrewards,intendedtofunctionasmotivatorsonadailybasis,and
arethereforenotreallycomparabletotheconceptofworkperse.

4.InaverylargesurveyofAmericanorganizations,"notonerespondentreportedthatgainsharinghasanegativeimpactonperformance"(O'Dell,1987,p.15).

5."Demingwouldpayeveryemployeerightupthroughthechiefexecutiveastraightsalaryorwages.Thoseinthesamejobwouldbepaidroughlythesame
somedifferenceswouldbecreatedbyseniority,sinceeveryonewouldgetannualraises.Thoseraiseswouldbeuniform,notbasedonmerit.Suchasystem,heargues,
wouldencourageteamworkratherthanencouragesuperstars.TheoneacceptablebonusplantoDemingisprofitsharing.Buteveryemployeewouldgetanequal
share.Thechiefexecutivegettingthesamebonusasafactoryworker?'Well,whynot?Certainly,'saysDeming,lookingastonishedbythequestion"(Linden,1991,p.
211).

6.Seep.312n21.

7."CompaniesasdiverseastheGeneralMotorsCorporationandEastmanKodakare...graduallybeingwonovertothenotionthatrewardingahandfulof'winners'
andholdingthemupasthekeystocorporateinnovationandsuccessbrandsthemajorityofemployeesaslosers,hurtingmoraleandcooperation....[Somedivisions
ofGMhave]tiedcompensationnottoannualappraisals,buttoa'maturitycurve'thatconsider[s]anindividual'sseniority,levelofexpertiseandtheoverallmarketfor
hisorherservices"(Gabor,1992,pp.F1,F6).

8.HalachmiandHolzer,1987,p.87.Oneusefuldiagnosticquestion,Lanesuggests,is"Forwhoseuseisthefeedbackonperformancedesired?Iffortheperformer,
selfdeterminationisprotected....Ifforapaymaster...controlpassestoothers"(1991,p.387).

9.ThelatterpointismadebyHailerandWhittaker,1990,p.133.

10.Whileperformanceappraisalssometimesusefeartomotivateemployees,onewriterpointsoutthatabolishingthemwillnotautomaticallyimprovethingsthe
evaluationprocessmayjustbeasymptomofamoregeneralrelianceonfearintheorganization(seeGabor,1990,p.124).

11."Insomecompanies,theenvironmentofattitudeandpracticeissuchthattheindividualwhoisnotpromotableisconsideredtobeafailure.Itissaidofhimthathe
'lackspotential,'orthathe'hasreachedhisceiling.'Notonlyisthisattitudeinitselfpunishing,buttherewardsforfurthergrowthsalary,status,recognition,etc.
arelacking(theformalmachinerycannotencompasssuchexceptions).This,despitetheprobabilitythathecould,ifadequaterewardswereavailable,continueto
growandtoincreasehiscontributiontotheorganizationathispresentlevel.Cantheindividual

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whoforpersonalreasonsdoesnotwanttoclimbhigherontheorganizationalladder,butinsteadwishestomakehiscontributiontotheenterpriseanoutstanding
oneathispresentlevel,remaintherewithoutbeingpunishedinavarietyofsubtlewaysforhavingmadethischoice?"(McGregor,1960,p.196seealsoScholtes,
1990,p.48).

12.Bachrachetal.,1984,p.25.SeealsoThomasGordon'sproposedalternativetotheperformanceappraisal,whichhecallsa"periodicplanningconference."His
detaileddescriptionappearsinGordon,1977,chap.11.

13.Scholtes,1990,p.46.

14.Meyeretal.,1965/1989.

15.HalachmiandHolzer,1987,pp.87,89.

16.Blinder,1990,p.13.

17.Thisview,moreorless,isthegistofTheoryY.Incontrasttotheassumptionthatpeoplehavetobebribedorcoercedintodoinganything,TheoryYholdsthat
"theaveragehumanbeingdoesnotinherentlydislikework,"andthatwhenpeople'sbasicneedsaretakencareof,theyactivelyseekresponsibility(McGregor,1960,
pp.4748).

18.See,inthisconnection,Tjosvold,1986Scholtes,1988,esp.chaps.6and7Kohn,1992amuchoftheworkofW.EdwardsDemingandmanyothersources.

19.McGregor,1960,pp.228,48.

20.MichaelBeer,quotedinEhrenfeld,1992,pp.23,22.

21.HerzbergisquotedinBosquet,1973,p.25.

22.Herzberg,1987,p.30.

23.Csikszentmihalyi,1978,p.215.RobertLanewarnsthatanexclusiveconcernwithintrinsicworksatisfactionmightbedescribedas"selfcentered"(1991,p.403).

24.Herzberg,1987,p.87.AlsoseeLevinson,1973,p.13.Intheareaofpsychologyconcernedwithmotivation,anentiresubspecialtyhasgrownuparoundtheidea
thathumanbeingshaveabasicneedtofeelcompetent.

25.HackmanandOldham,1980,p.71.

26.Ibid.,pp.6668,7182thequotationsappearonpp.66,7677.Thepremisehereisthatmanagementwantstomakeworkinteresting,anditmaywellbe
arguedthatthisisnotalwaystrue."Atpresent,however,whetherworkisenjoyableornotranksquitelowamongtheconcernsofthosewhohavethepowerto
influencethenatureofagivenjob"(Csikszentmihalyi,1990,p.154).Inwhatmaybearelatedpoint,twosocialscientistscontendthatthosewithpowermay
themselveslackintrinsicmotivation:"Thevastmajorityofworkersinhigherlevelsofthehierarchyofproductionarebynomeansautonomous,selfactualizing,and
creativelyselfdirected.Rather,theyareprobablysupersocializedsoastointernalizeauthorityandactwithoutdirectandcontinuoussupervisiontoimplementgoals
andobjectivesrelativelyalienatedfromtheirownpersonalneeds"(BowlesandGintis,1976,p.145).

27.Sansone,1992thequotationappearsonp.379.Sheoffersseveralconcreteexamples:first,aninspectorinapotatochipfactorymighttryto"discovermeaningful
shapessuchastheimageofElvisPresleyinthenonuniformchips"andtrytobuild"acollectionofcelebratedchips"second,peopledoingtasksthatdon't
requiretheirfullattentioncouldusetheopportunitytolistentomusicortrytobeattheirpreviousspeedrecord(pp.380,389).

28.Perry,1978thequotationsappearonpp.111,119.

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29.Foralucidessayonthispointand,moregenerally,ontheselfdefeating,neverendingquestformore,seeWachtel,1983.

30.ForaninterestingdiscussionofhowthissyndromedescribesworkersintheUnitedStatesandthe(former)SovietUnionforthesamereasonthatis,the
inabilitytomakedecisionsseeNaylor,1990.Theeffectsofbeingcontrolledarepredictableandpervasive.Forexample,notlongagothetopmanagementofa
bigcitypostoffice,pointingtoproblemswithseveralemployees,sharplycurtailedthecapacityofallworkerstomakedecisionsforthemselves:precisejob
assignmentswereemphasized,andenforcementwastightened.Thereactiononthepartoftheemployeeswastostopdoingallthethingstheyhadtakenupon
themselvestodoinordertomakethefacilityrunmoresmoothly,suchascatchmistakesandsolveproblemstheyhappenedtonotice,helpoutaninexperienced
workerwhowashavingtroublesortingmail,andsoforth.Theirattitudewas,"Ifyou'regoingtomonitorandcontrolus,we'regoingtodoexactlywhatwe'rerequired
todoandnothingelse"(personalcommunication,1990).

31.ThiswasthefindingofamajorstudyofU.S.andSwedishworkersinarangeofoccupations(Karaseketal.,1988thequotationsappearonpp.915,910).
"TypeA"referstopeoplewhoareimpatient,competitive,andhostile.

32.Amabile,1988thequotationappearsonp.147.Theresearchhereconsistedofsurveyingresearchanddevelopmentscientistsaswellaspeopleinthemarketing,
development,andsalesdepartmentsoflargeorganizations.Whentheywereaskedtorelateaneventfromtheirworkexperiencethatexemplifiedhighcreativity,the
mostcommonsinglecharacteristicofthateventwasfreedom.Whenaskedtorelateaninstanceoflowcreativity,themostcommonsinglefactorwaslackoffreedom.
Performanceonlesscreativetasksinlaboratoryexperimentsisalsoenhancedasarulewhensubjectsbelievetheyhavesomechoiceaboutwhichtaskstheywillwork
on(seeareviewofsomeofthisresearchinPerlmuterandMonty,1977).

33.Scholtes,1988,p.1:21.

34.Forexample,whereas"absenteeismof10percentormoreisnotunusualinUnitedStatesautoplants,"theAmbrakeCorporation,whereworkersaregivenmore
discretionabouthowtheydotheirjobs(andwheretherearenotimeclocks),"enjoysanabsenteerateoflessthanfivetenthsof1percent"(Levin,1992,p.D8).

35.SeeKanter,1977,pp.18990.

36.HackmanandOldham,1980,pp.13839.

37.Onthispoint,seeDeciandRyan,1985,esp.p.308.

38.McGregor,1960,p.103.

39.Companieswithnolayoffpoliciesdoeverythingpossibletoavoidthrowingpeopleoutofwork.Theyfreezehiring,transferworkerswithintheorganization,offer
attractiveretirementpackagestosenioremployees,andconsidersuchoptionsasleavesofabsenceandjobsharing.Moretothepoint,theyworkwithemployeesto
decideamongtheseoptions(seeLevineandTyson,1990,pp.215,226Gabor,1992,p.F6).

40."Contrastthesituationinwhichasubordinateisevaluatinghisownperformancerelativetospecifictargetswhichhesetafewmonthsagowiththesituationin
whichheislisteningtohissuperiorevaluatehisperformanceagainstthesuperior'sstandardsandobjectives.Inthelattercase,thestageissetforrationalization,
defensiveness,inabilitytounderstand,reactions

 Page355

thatthesuperiorisbeingunfairorarbitrary.Thesearenotconditionsconducivetoeffectivemotivation"(McGregor,1960,p.87).

41."Anyefforttoredesignworkinatechnologythatpermitslittleemployeediscretionisprobablydoomedtofailurefromtheoutset"(HackmanandOldham,1980,
p.122).

42."Breakdownsoccurbecausethenewpatternofcooperativeactivityatthetoplevelhasnotbeenaccompaniedbythedevelopmentofamoreparticipatorystyleof
managerialleadership"(Whyte,1983,p.404).

43.Fordescriptionsofvariousapproachestoparticipativemanagement,therationalesofferedinitsbehalf,andalistofthecharacteristicsthatmaximizetheprobability
ofsuccess,seeMarguliesandBlack,1987LevineandTyson,1990,esp.pp.20514.

44.Fivesuccessful,ifsomewhatdated,examplescanbefoundinBosquet,1973,pp.2526.Amorerecentandcompellingcasestudyinvolvingatelephone
equipmentmanufacturercalledTellabsappearsinHolusha,1991.StillmoreillustrationshavebeencollectedinSimmonsandMares,1985.Finally,anynumberof
organizationscurrentlyworkingtowardTotalQualityManagementare,ineffect,puttingintoplaceaversionofparticipativemanagement.

45.SeeLevineandTyson,1990,pp.22235forarecentdescriptionofparticipativemanagementinJapaneseandSwedishcompanies.WilliamFooteWhyte,
describingW.EdwardsDeming'smissiontobringstatisticalmethodsofqualitycontroltoJapanintheearly1950s,commentsthat"Demingthoughthewasteaching
methodstobeusedbyengineersandotherprofessionalsinmanagement.TheJapaneseapparentlyreasonedthat,ifthesemethodsweregoodformanagement,they
shouldalsobegoodforworkers.ThisrepresentedaquantumjumpfromthesystemDemingpresentedtothemandenabledthemtoinvolveworkersinparticipationin
decisionmakingtoafargreaterextentthanhasoccurredintheU.S.,eventhoughweoriginatedsomeofthebasicideas"(Whyte,1983,p.403).

46.Blinder,1990,p.13.See,forexample,thecontributiontothissymposiumbyLevineandTyson,1990,esp.pp.183204.

47.MillerandMonge,1986.OneinterestingsetofstudiesconductedwithBritishcompaniesfoundamarkedandsustainedimprovementinperformance(using
variousmeasures)whenpeoplewhodidarangeofjobsweregivenmoreresponsibility,authority,andautonomy(Pauletal.,1969).Stillotherresearchsuggeststhat
workplaceparticipationmayleademployeestobecomemorepoliticallyactiveinvolvementindecisionmakingonthejobmaybeanantidotetoapathyinother
arenas,whichinturnraisesthepossibilitythatundemocraticworkplacesmayfostersuchapathy(Elden,1981).

48.Onthispoint,seeMelcher,1976LevineandTyson,1990Deci,1992.Inparticular,QualityCircles(LevineandTyson,1990,p.197)andManagementby
Objectives(Pinder,1977,p.388)havebeenfaultedfornotgoingfarenoughtowardenablingsubstantiveparticipationandeven,inthelattercase,foramountingto
"systemsofphonyparticipation."

49.O'Dell,1987,pp.2627thequotationappearsonp.27.Fromanothersource:"Countlessexamplesexistinwhichemployeeshavebeenencouragedtosolve
companyproblemsonlytodiscoverthatmanagementisnotatallcommittedtotakingtheirideasseriously"(Loden,1985,p.130).

50.Whyte,1983,pp.39697.ExactlythesamepointismadebyMcGregor(1960,p.125)andHerzberg(1968,p.56).

 Page356

51.Inacomicstripthatappearedin1991("Dilbert,"byScottAdams),aworkeraskshisboss,"Whatdidyoumeanwhenyousaidallemployeesareempowered?
DoesthatmeanIcancontrolmyownbudget,makedecisionswithouttwelvelevelsofapproval,andtakecalculatedrisksonmyown?"Repliestheboss,"No,it'sjust
awaytoblameemployeesfornotdoingthethingswetellthemnottodo."Lookingchastened,theemployeemuses,"Nowonderyouneededanewword.''

52.Inthesurveycitedearlier,29percentoftherespondentsactuallyexplainedthedisappointingfailureofemployeestoplayanactiveroleininvolvementprograms
onthegroundsthattheywerenotrewardedfordoingso(O'Dell,1987,p.27).

53.Levering,1988,p.208.

54.ThispointhasbeenmadebyBowlesandGintis,1976,p.129Bosquet,1973,pp.2627.Moretroublingistheargumentofferedbysomecriticstotheeffectthat
theveryprogramsrecommendedforenhancingworkerparticipationmayservetolegitimateandperpetuatesystemsofcontrolbymakingthemmorepalatable.
"Pseudodemocracy...iscurrentlypitchedundersuchlabelsas'employeeinvolvement,''teamproduction,'and'jointness.'Theseprogramshavelittleincommonwith
theautonomousexpressionofworkers'hopesandaspirations.TheyareasmuchaproductofmanagementpowerandamanipulativeideologyastheCommunist
unionsoftheBrezhnevera,"onehistorianremarks(Lichtenstein,1992).The"humanrelations"schoolofmanagementandthereformsitengenderedhavealsobeen
criticizedfor"encouragingworkerstoidentifywithcorporategoals"andservingto"reinforcemanagerialauthorityandconfinethesubordinate'sroletothatofhighly
motivatedobedienceandgreaterproductivity"(Gillespie,1991,pp.268,270).Suchsystems,alongwiththeworkofpeoplelikeMcGregorandHerzberg,mayhave
theeffectofdeflectingattentionfrom''thebasiceconomicandpoliticalstructureoftheorganizationsinwhichindividualswork"indeed,theyaresometimes
recommendedexplicitly"asnotchangingmanagement'sauthorityinanyway"(Nord,1974,pp.55859).

55.Forexample,oneorganizationaltheorist,claimingthatpeoplewitha"lowneedforindependencereactpositivelywherelittleparticipationisused,"contends"a
nonparticipativeapproachwouldbeacceptableandcontributetopositivebehavioralresponses"(Melcher,1976,p.20).

11
HookedonLearning

1.Ifemployershelpworkerstoacquireskills,thisisgenerallyintendedasawaytobuildaneffectiveorganizationitisn'tagoalinitsownright.Bycontrast,helping
studentstoacquireskills,tobecomegoodlearnersandgoodpeople,istheverypointofschool.Anotherdifferenceemergeswhenweconsiderourresponsetoa
childwhocausesproblemsforothersandcomparethattoourattitudetowardanadultworkerwhodoesthesame.Mostconcretely,thetwoarenasdivergeinthat
moneyandgradesarenotanalogous:peopleneedtoearnmoneytosurvive,whilegradesareunnecessary.Thegeneralpointaboutdifferencesbetweenworkplace
andclassroomwillstrikemostreadersasglaringlyobvious,butsomepeopleworkingtoimportthemethodsoftheTotalQualityManagementmovementtothe
schoolsmaynothaveconsideredtheimportanceofthesedifferences.

 Page357

Helpingstudentsbecomeselfdirectedlearnersisfundamentallydissimilartopleasingcustomers.Marketmodelsandmetaphorssimplydonotbelonginan
educationalcontextwhentheyareimposedbyforce,itisatthepriceofunderminingthepurposesofschooling(seeKohn,inpress).

2.WlodkowskiisquotedinKutner,1990.

3.AdelmanandTaylor,1983,p.385.

4.Silberman,1970,p.138.

5."Businesscan...stopemphasizingtheGPA[gradepointaverage]duringrecruitingiftheschoolhascertifiedthatthestudenthasgraduated,suchinformation
shouldbeenough.Businessleadersmustconsiderthefactthatthereisslightrelationshipbetweengradesandpostgraduationachievementsinindustry"(Miltonetal.,
1986,pp.14748).Ontheotherhand,commentatorssuchasAlbertShankerthinkgradesshouldreceiveevenmoreemphasisthantheydoatpresent:businesses
"shouldhireentrylevelworkersonthebasisoftheirhighschooltranscriptsandrecommendationsfromteachers,andtheyshouldstartthebettergraduatesathigher
salaries,"hedeclares(1990,p.21).

6.Seethediscussion,andresearchcited,inKirschenbaumetal.,1971,pp.5557,19597.

7.Dressel,1957,p.6.IamindebtedtoDavidLangfordforcallingthisquotationtomyattention.

8.Miltonetal.,1986,p.224.

9.Bythetimechildrenreachsixthgrade,accordingtoonestudy,gradesarethecriteriontheycitemostoftenforjudgingtheirownability(Blumenfeldetal.,1986,p.
98).Otherresearchsuggeststhatgradescontinuetoplayamoreprominentroleinchildren'sunderstandingofcompetenceastheygetolder(SansoneandMorgan,
1992,p.258).RuthButlerarguesthatitiswhenchildrencometoseeability"asastabletraitbestassessedbycomparisonwithothers"usuallyataboutagenineor
tenthattheyaremostsusceptibletothedestructiveeffectsofgrades(1988,p.3seealsoR.Butler,1989).

10.SeeButler,1988,esp.p.11.

11.Tests,particularlythestandardizedvariety,aresometimescriticizedonthegroundsthatassessingcompetenceisnotthesamethingascontributingtocompetence.
"Youdon'tfattenasteerbyweighingit"isonerusticexpressiontogetacrosstheideathatevaluatingstudentsisdifferentfromteachingthem.Infact,thiscriticism
understatestheproblem.Themoreemphasisisplacedontestingstudents,themoreteachingbecomesapreparationforthesetests,whichmeansthatpotentially
innovativelessonsmustbesetasideinorderthatchildrencanbecoachedtofillintherightbubbleswiththeirno.2pencils.Tests,inshort,arenotirrelevantto
instructionasHeisenbergdiscoveredinanothercontext,measuringaffectswhatisbeingmeasuredinthiscase,fortheworse.Noticehow,onceagain,most
criticismsofthispracticefailtogetattherootoftheproblem.Ifthequestionishowweassesschildren,oureffortswillberestrictedtodevisingmoremeaningfulkinds
ofevaluation(whichwould,Ihastentoadd,representanimprovementoverthecurrentstandardizedtests).Butthemoreimportantquestioniswhywewanttoassess
children.Eventhemostcleverlydesignedassessmentmechanism,thedeepestandrichestmeasureimaginableofwhatchildrenknow,isnotaboontolearningifits
purposeistosortstudentsorrewardthem.

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12.FrankSmithismoreblunt:"Ateacherwhocannottellwithoutatestwhetherastudentislearningshouldnotbeintheclassroom.Facesrevealwhenstudentsare
notlearning.Theyarelearningunlesstheyareboredorconfused,andboredomorconfusionleaveunmistakabletraces.Itisnotalwayspossibletotellwhethera
studentislearningaparticularthingataparticulartime,butthatshouldnotbeasignificantconsiderationforanyonewhoisnotaparanoidbureaucrat"(1986,p.259).

13."Oneofthemostinterestingfeaturesoftheinterviewmaterialwastheabsenceofreferencetoobjectiveevidenceofschoollearningincontextsinwhichonemight
expectittobediscussed.Testing,whenitismentionedatall,isgivenlittleemphasis.Theseteacherstreatitasbeingofminorimportanceinhelpingthemunderstand
howwelltheyhavedone.Thestudents'enthusiasmandinvolvementseemmuchmoreimportantthandotheirperformanceontests"(Jackson,1968/1990,p.123).

14.Inareviewofresearchconcerningthefactorsthatleadchildrentoaskforhelpintheclassroom,onewritersinglesout"encouragement,personalwarmth,anda
learning(versusperformance)goalorientation"(Newman,1991,p.153).

15.I'vebeenabletofindonlyonestudypurportingtoshowthatgradeshavea"positive"effect.Highschoolstudentswereaskedbysomeonetheydidn'tknowto
writeapaperwithouthearinganyjustificationforthisassignment.(Theinterestvalueandrelevanceoftheassignmentareunclearfromthedescriptionofthe
experiment.)Sureenough,gradeswererelatedtocompliance:themorethepaperwassaidtocounttowardtheirmarkforthecourseandinparticular,themore
studentsweretoldtheywouldlosepointsfornotdoingitthemorelikelytheyweretohandsomethingin(thequalityoftheworkwasnotassessed)(Cullenetal.,
1975).

16.Harter,1978.

17.Miltonetal.,1986,p.149.

18.Foradiscussionofhow"gradesputchildrenandteachersintoconflict,"seeSmith,1986,p.198Kirschenbaumetal.,1971,pp.115,163.

19.Inonestudy,experimentershadcollegestudentswriteanessayonacontroversialtopicinwhichtheyweretotakeapositiontheydidn'tactuallybelieve.These
essayswerethengivengradesonarandombasis(althoughthestudentsdidn'tknowthis).StudentswhoreceivedA'sweremorelikelytoexpresssatisfactionwith
theiressaysandalsomorelikelytochangetheiropinionsinthedirectionoftheviewstheyhaddefendedonpaper(Bostrometal.,1961).Morerecentresearchhas
shownthatgradeorientedstudentshaveamoreexternallocusofcontrol,whichmeanstheyaremorelikelytoseetheirfateasdeterminedbyluckorotherpeople
(Miltonetal.,1986,p.140).Theauthorsofanextendedessayongradingintroduceafictitiouscharacter,newlyandsuccessfullygraduatedfromcollege,who
addressesthestudentsinhisoldhighschool:"WhenIwasachildmyparentspattedmeontheheadfordoingsomethings,butwithdrewtheirrewardswhenIdid
otherthings.SoIbegantoconformtotheirvaluesandexpectationsbecausethosepatsontheheadwereprettyimportanttome.WhenIgottoschool,theteachers
hitmewiththeimportanceofgettinggoodgrades....Ihadtoconformtotheirvaluesandexpectations,whichIdid.Soagain,Igotmorepatsonthehead.Andthe
subjectsinwhichIgotthemostpatsontheheadwerethesubjectsIdecidedIlikedthemost....[ButIwas]sobusygettinggradesthatIdidn'ttakethetimeto
discoverwhoIwasandwhatIwantedtodowithmylife"(Kirschenbaumetal.,1971,pp.8788).

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20.Miltonetal.,1986,p.141.

21.Deutsch,1985,pp.19899.

22.IowethissuggestiontoPhilandJoanHarris,whohaveuseditincollegeandthirdgradeclasses,respectively.PhildirectstheCenterforProfessional
DevelopmentatPhiDeltaKappa,aninternationaleducationalorganization.CaroleAmeswrites,"Offeringstudentsopportunitiestoimprovetheirgradessuggests...
thatmistakesanderrorsarepartofthelearningprocessandnotindicativeoffailuretolearn"(1992a,p.341).Thisreflectsalargerconcerntomakesurethat
classroompracticesputapremiumoneffortratherthanidentifyingrelative(andostensiblyfixed)levelsofability.

23.Foradiscussionofhowrewardsaremostdestructivewhengivenforskillsstillbeinghoned,seeCondryandChambers,1978,pp.63,66.

24.ThislovelyphraseisfromClarkeetal.,1990,p.11.

25.Miltonetal.,1986,p.225.

26.LepperandGreene,1978b,pp.13839.Indeed,theopportunitytocomeupwithadetailedevaluationofone'sownartworkhasbeenfoundtopromotehigher
scoresonameasureofcreativepotentialascomparedtohavingone'sworkjudgedbyothers(WhiteandOwen,1970).

27.ThedeanofadmissionsatHarvardUniversity,WilliamR.Fitzsimmons,reportsthathisoffice"deal[s]withawidevarietyofadmissionscandidates,someofwhom
haveneverevenattendedsecondaryschool....Ifwehavenogradesofanysortwewillaskthecandidateforasmuchsupplementarymaterialaspossible"(personal
communication,December1992).Likewise,theassociatedeanofadmissionsatBrownUniversity,MichaelGoldberger,observesthat"moreandmoreschoolsare
providinguswithunconventionaltranscripts,someofwhichdonothavegrades."Hesaysheandhiscolleagues''feelcomfortablethatwecanmakeagooddecision"if
thesetranscriptsaresufficientlyinformative.Moreover,studentsfromtheseschoolsactually''receivemoretimeofreviewandtheymay,infact,havemore
opportunities[thanstudentsfrommoretraditionalschools]toimpresstheadmissionofficerreviewingthefile"(personalcommunication,April1993).

28.Ames,1992b,p.263.SeealsoNolen,1988.

29.SeeStipekandKowalski,1989.

30.AmesandArcher,1988.

31.Bruner,1961,pp.26,28.Boggianosuggeststhatchildrenwhoareintrinsicallyorientedarelikewiseabletointerpretfeedbackasinformationalratherthan
controlling(Boggianoetal.,1992,p.286).

32.IespeciallyrecommendMaloneandLepper,1987Keller,1987andAdelmanandTaylor,1983.(Thelastoftheseisframedasaguideforworkingwith
learningdisabledchildrenbutactuallyoffersausefulwayofthinkingaboutmotivationingeneral.)Foraveryaccessiblebookonthesubject,seeWlodkowskiand
Jaynes,1990.

33.BrophyandKher,1986,p.267.

34."Childrenareinherentlymotivatedtoreducethediscrepancybetweenthestimulusandthelackofknowledgeaboutit,andtheyshowcuriosity,exploration,or
playasaresult"(GottfriedandGottfried,1991b,p.5).However,aswiththelevelofdifficulty,wewanttoavoidtoomuchortoolittleincongruityordiscrepancy.
"Ideastoogreatlyatvariancewithexistinginformationandbeliefswilltendtobediscountedorrejectedideastoosimilartoexistingknowledgemaybeassimilatedor
ignored"(LepperandHodell,1989,p.92).

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35.Onmodelinganinterestinlearning,seeWlodkowskiandJaynes,1990,pp.2629.

36."Teacherswhocheerfullyacknowledgetheirownfailuresandtryagaintodoataskbettershowstudentsthathighstandardsarenotpunitivebutratherpermit
prideingenuineaccomplishment.Teacherswhoacknowledgeareasofabilityandofincompetenceinthemselvesandothersshowchildrenthatcompetenceisnota
singlemetricbywhichselfworthisjudged"(Potter,1985,p.206).

37.Infact,saysoneexpertonearlychilddevelopment,"teachersshouldcreatelearningencountersthatamplifytheproblemsanduncertaintiesinchildren'sown
thinking.Theseencounterswillcapturechildren'sinterestbecausetheycorrespondtotheissueonwhichchildrenthemselvesarespontaneouslyworkingattheirstage
ofdevelopment"(Edwards,1986,p.9).

38.StudentshaveverylittleopportunitytotalkinmostAmericanclassroomstypically,theteacherouttalkstheentireclassaboutthreetoone(seeSilberman,1970,
p.149Goodlad,1984,pp.12930).

39.Glasser,1990,p.22.

40.Anumberofwriters,includingPauloFreire,haveelucidatedthepoliticalimplicationsofthismodel,andparticularlythewaytheviewofthestudentasapassive
receptacleforknowledgediscouragesa"criticalconsciousness"thatcouldbeusedtomakesocialchange.

41.Jackson,1968/1990,p.16."Studentsmusttrytobehaveasiftheywereinsolitude,wheninpointoffacttheyarenot.Theymustkeeptheireyesontheirpaper
whenhumanfacesbeckon"(ibid.).

42.IdiscusstheseissuesanddescribethesupportingresearchatsomelengthinKohn,1992a,esp.chap.10Kohn,1992b.Sincethemid1970s,aconsiderable
numberofeducatorshavestudied,writtenabout,andusedcooperativelearning.Infact,amovementofsortshasgrownuparoundtheneedtorestructureclassrooms
sochildrencanlearntogether.Interestedreadersmaywanttosubscribeto,andorderbackissuesof,themajorperiodicalonthesubject:CooperativeLearning
Magazine,P.O.Box1582,SantaCruz,CA95061.

43.Anumberofpeoplewithinthecooperativelearningmovementemphasizetheneedtohelpstudentsdevelopsocialskills,bothasanendinitselfandasa
prerequisiteforeffectiveacademicinteraction.Theseskillsincludesuchthingsaslistening,makingeyecontact,resolvingconflicts,andbeingabletodisagreewith
otherswithoutinsultingthem.Beyondsuchdiscretecapacities,though,classroomsmustbetransformedintocaringcommunitiessuchthatinteractionsareroutinely
informedbyconcernandcollaborationcooperativelearningismorethanasetoftechniquestobehauledoutforparticularlessons.InthefollowingchapterImakethe
casethatthisapproachisinvaluableforpromotinggoodvalues.HereIwanttoindicatethatitfacilitateseffectivelearningaswell.

44.Onverybasictasks,asRobertSlavin'sresearch(e.g.,1990)hasshown,cooperativelearningstructuresthatrelyonrewardsforsuccessfulperformancecan
promotelearninggainswhencomparedwithtraditionalstructuresthatalsorelyonrewardsorwithunstructuredsituationswherestudentsworkingroupsthatdon't
reallycooperate.Ontheotherhand,rewardsclearlyarenotnecessaryinorderforstudentstolearneffectivelyincooperativegroups(seetheresultsofthreeresearch
projectsinvolvingversionsofcooperativelearningdeliberatelystructuredtoexcludeextrinsic

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motivators,describedinKohn,1992a,pp.22526seealsoNiehoffandMesch,1991Kohn,1991a).Thereisreasontothinkthatintrinsicmotivationwill
declineovertimewhenrewardsareusedincooperativelearningarrangements,justasitdoesinothersettings.Observationalstudiessuggestthatstudentsoften
cometoplace"morevalueontherewardsgiventothegroupsthan[on]theactualprocessofworkingtogether"(Ayres,1990,p.29).Moreover,while
cooperativelearningoftendoesleadstudentstobecomemoreexcitedaboutwhattheyarelearning(JohnsonandJohnson,1985,p.272),theintroductionof
rewardsmaylimitorerasethatadvantage.Forexample,adirectcomparisonofarewarddrivenapproachtocooperativelearningwithrewarddriven
individualizedlearningdidnotfindanyhigherintrinsicmotivationintheformeronmostmeasures(Hometal.,1990).

45.ThoreauisquotedinLickona,1991,p.227.

46.LepperandHodell,1989,p.74.

47."Sometasks,especiallythosewhichinvolveunderstandingandhigherlevelcognitiveprocesses,aredifficultforteachersandstudentstoaccomplishinclassrooms.
...Teachers...facecomplexmanagementproblemsresultingfromdelaysandslowdownsandfromthefactthatasignificantportionofthestudentsmaynotbeable
toaccomplishtheassignedwork.Astasksmovetowardmemoryorroutinealgorithms,theseproblemsarereducedsubstantially.Thecentralpointisthatthetypeof
taskswhichcognitivepsychologysuggestswillhavethegreatestlongtermconsequencesforimprovingthequalityofacademicworkarepreciselythosewhicharethe
mostdifficulttoinstallinclassrooms"(Doyle,1983,p.186).

48.McNeil,1986,pp.15758.

49."Becausethislowquality,standardized,fragmentedapproachissounsatisfyingtostudents(andteachers),moreandmorestudentsareactivelyresistingandthis
resistanceisseenasadisciplineproblem.Schooladministratorsthenfallintothetrapofthinkingthatdisciplineproblems,notunsatisfyingeducation,arethecauseof
lowlevelsofachievement.Thisexplainstheincreasedemphasisonstrictrulesofdeportment(morecoercion),whichfurtherdefineagoodstudentasapassivething
ratherthananinvolved,questioning,evenattimesdissentinglearner"(Glasser,1990,p.22).

50.BrophyandKher,1986,p.286.

51."Ifschoolisnotinviting,ifthetasksarenotclear,interesting,andatanappropriatelevel,howcanweexpectpupilstobeontask?Adversestudentreactions
shouldbeexpectedwhenclassesaredull,teachingisuninspired,andfailureisbuiltin.Theiroppositionalbehaviorisasignofpersonalhealthandintegrity"(Morse,
1987,p.6).

52.LepperandHodell,1989,p.91.LilianKatzputsitthisway:itisnotenoughforschoolworktobeverticallyvalid,bywhichshemeansitpreparesstudentsfor
whatthey'llhavetodonextweekornextyear.Itmustalsobehorizontallyvalid"thatis,itshouldteachthemsomethingthatwillbeuseful,perhaps,ontheway
homeorinsomefamiliaraspectofcommunitylife"(1988,p.16).

53.Dewey,1913,pp.20,24,34.Similarly,hehaswrittenelsewhere,"whenitistakenawayfromitsnaturalpurpose,itisnowonderthatitbecomesacomplexand
difficultproblemtoteachlanguage....Sincethelanguagetaughtisunnatural,notgrowingoutoftherealdesiretocommunicatevitalimpressionsandconvictions,the
freedomofchildreninitsusegradually

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disappears,untilfinallythehighschoolteacherhastoinventallkindsofdevicestoassistingettinganyspontaneousandfulluseofspeech"(1915/1990,pp.55
56).Sadly,thisindictmentisnolessapttodaythanitwasearlyinthecentury.

54.O'Neil,1992,p.4.

55.Asubstantialliteraturehasaccumulatedonthesesubjects.InterestedreadersmightlookupthewritingsofEleanorDuckworth,RhetaDeVries,LilianKatz,and
others.

56.SeeDweck,1986,p.1045.

57.DannerandLonky,1981,p.1046.SeealsotheworkofMihalyCsikszentmihalyiand,foradiscussionofhowaperformanceorientationdisruptsthispreference
formoderatechallenge,Nicholls,1989,chap.7.

58.Foradiscussionofthispointinthecontextofcooperativelearning,seeCohen,1986.

59.MacIver,1987,p.1259.Theabsenceofgradeshelps,too.

60.Cannella,1986,p.300.

61.LepperandCordova,1992,p.203.Partofwhatmakessuchaprogram"carefullydesigned,"Lepperhasarguedelsewhere,isan"integralrelationshipbetween
thecontentbeingpresentedandthemotivationaldevicesemployed"(LepperandMalone,1987,pp.26162).

62.ItwasDeweywhowarnedmostcogentlythat"whenthingshavetobemadeinteresting,itisbecauseinterestitselfiswanting."Ontheonehand,hesaid,thereare
"thoseconditionswhichexactthesimulationofattentionwithoutsecuringitsessence"ontheother,thereisthenaturalexpressionofinterestandapplicationofeffort
thatcomesfromselectingsubjects''inrelationtothechild'spresentexperience,powers,andneeds"(1913,pp.11,23).

63.RichardLauricella,quotedinLickona,1991,p.148.Presumablyhedoesnotmeantosuggestthateveryaspectofaunitmustbetaughtdifferentlyfromoneyear
tothenext,butonlythatanelementthatischangedonthebasisofstudents'suggestionswithinapredictablestructurecanbeinvigoratingforateacher.

64.Yackeletal.,1991,p.401.

65.WangandStiles,1976thequotationappearsonp.167.Unfortunately,taskcompletionwastheonlyoutcomemeasuredinthisstudy.

66.Rainey,1965,pp.29091.

67.AmabileandGitomer,1984.

68.Zuckermanetal.,1978.SeealsoNicholls(1989,p.169)ontherelationbetweenchoiceandtaskinvolvement.

69.deCharms,1972.

70.RyanandGrolnick,1986thequotationappearsonp.553.

71.Foradescriptionoftheclassroomstructureinthisyearlongexperiment,seeCobbetal.,1989Yackeletal.,1991.Foradiscussionoftheresults,seeCobbet
al.,1991.

72.Boggianoetal.,1992,pp.27880.Informalreportsfromotherresearcherssuggestthatamoretypicalresultfromaninterventionofthissortisanenhancementof
conceptualthinkingskills(alongwithintrinsicmotivationandotherpsychologicalandsocialbenefits)butnochangeonstandardizedtestscores,whichusuallymeasure
relativelysuperficialcapabilitiessuchasstudents'skillattakingstandardizedtests.Itshouldbesufficienttobeabletoshowpeoplewhocareaboutthesescoresthat
givingstudentsmore

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choiceabouttheirlearninghasnodetrimentaleffectontheirperformanceonmachinescoredtestswhilebringingaboutavarietyofotheradvantages.

73.ThreestudiestothiseffectarecitedinCondry,1977,p.466.

74.DannerandLonky,1981.This,accordingtotheresearchers,"suggeststhatatleastpartoftheteacher'sdifficultproblemofmatchingtaskstochildrencanbe
solvedbyprovidingchildrenwithmorechoicesthantheyaretypicallyoffered"(p.1050).

75.Foronediscussionofhowclassroomscanbearrangedtomaximizestudents'choice,seeIngramandWorrall,1987.Ofcourse,anumberofalternativeschools
andfreeschools,aswellasthetheoreticaltraditionsthatsupportthem,haveemphasizedthisideaforyears.

76.OnemodelofcooperativelearningthattakestheideaofautonomyseriouslyisGroupInvestigation.Here,studentsforminquirygroupsbasedonwhattheywant
toknowaboutagiventopicandthenmakedecisionstogetherabouthowtheywilldivideupthelaborandconducttheirinvestigation.Eachgroupcollectsinformation
andanalyzesit,thenpreparesandsharesafinalreportorinnovativepresentationthatreflectswhathasbeenlearned.Finally,eachgroupcontributestotheevaluation
process,perhapsmakingupthequestionsontheirunitthatwillbeincludedinaclasswidetest(ifthereistobeone)inordertoincorporatetheevaluationintothe
learningprocess.Atboththeelementaryandsecondarylevels,thismodelhasbeenassociatedwithahigherlevelofacademicachievement(alongwithother
advantages)preciselybecauseitgivesstudentsmorecontrolovertheirlearning,accordingtoShlomoandYaelSharan,whodevelopedthetechnique(seeSharanand
Sharan,1992.)Atitsbest,cooperativelearning"givesstudentsanactiveroleindecidingabout,planning,directingandcontrollingthecontentandpaceoftheir
learningactivities.Itchangesthestudents'rolefromrecipientsofinformationtoseekers,analyzersandsynthesizersofinformation.Ittransformspupilsfromlisteners
intotalkersanddoers,frompowerlesspawnsintoparticipantcitizensempoweredtoinfluencedecisionsaboutwhattheymustdoinschool"(Sharan,1986,p.4).

77."Nothingismoreabsurdthantosupposethatthereisnomiddletermbetweenleavingachildtohisownunguidedfanciesandlikesorcontrollinghisactivitiesbya
formalsuccessionofdictateddirections"(Dewey,1915/1990,p.130).

78.Ames,1992b,p.266.Shemakestheadditionalpointthatstudentsshouldbegiven"achoiceamongarangeofequallydifficultbooksorachoiceofequally
desirableactivitiesorassignments.Thestudent'schoice,then,isguidedbyhisorherinterestandnotbyeffortstoprotectfeelingsofselfworth"(Ames,1992a,p.
336).

79.Wassermann,1989,p.204.

80.Onthegeneraltopicofdealingwithlessinterestingtasks,seeGlasser,1990,p.126andthedescriptionofDeci'sresearchonp.90.

81.Ware,1978.

82.NolenandNicholls,inpressthequotationsappearonms.pp.2021.

12
GoodKidsWithoutGoodies

1.Thisdistinctionappearsinmanyoftheirwritings."Settinglimitstypicallyinvolvesaskingchildrentodosomethingthatconflictswithoneoftheir

 Page364

needsorfeelings.Byacknowledgingthepotentialconflict,perhapsprovidinganalternativeoutletforsatisfactionoftheneedorexpressionofthefeeling,butat
leastaffirmingthelegitimacyoftheneedorfeeling,onecangenerallyavoidthekindofpowerstruggle...thatunderminesthechild'sselfdeterminationand
intrinsicmotivation"(DeciandRyan,1985,p.252).Elsewheretheyhavearguedthatwhenstructuresareproperlyused,"behavioroutcomecontingenciesare
understandable,expectationsareclear,andfeedbackisprovided"anarrangementdiametricallydifferentfromcontrol(DeciandRyan,1990,p.245).Inone
experiment,childrendidnotloseinterestinpaintingwhenlimitsonthewaytheyusedthematerialswerephrasedinanoncontrollingmanner(Koestneretal.,
1984).

2.Hoffman,1960,esp.pp.13839.

3.See,forexample,theresearchofMarianRadkeYarrowandCarolynZahnWaxler,MartinHoffman,NancyEisenberg,ErvinStaub,NormaFeshbach,and
others,muchofwhichiscitedinKohn,1990a.

4.Ryanetal.,1992,p.184.

5.Intwoseparatestudies,boyswhoweregivenanexplanationaboutwhytheyshouldn'ttouchcertaintoyswerelesslikelytodosowhentheexperimenterleftthe
roomthanthosewhowerejusttoldnottotouchthem(inbothconditions,theywerewarnedthatabuzzerwouldsoundiftheydisobeyed)(CheyneandWalters,
1969Parke,1969).

6.Forexample,seeHoffmanandSaltzstein,1967aswellasvirtuallyanythingelsebyHoffmanonthesubjectofdiscipline.

7.NichollsandHazzard,1993,p.59.

8.Kamii,1984,p.11.

9.AnicediscussionofthismisuseoftheideaofchoicecanbefoundinCrockenberg'scritiqueofAssertiveDiscipline(1982,pp.6570).Butthetacticisnotlimited
tosuchprogramsofcrudecontrolfalselyclaimingthatachildhas"chosen"toreceiveapunitiveconsequenceisanelementofcertainapproachestodisciplinethatbill
themselvesasmoreenlightened(e.g.,seeCurwinandMendler,1988,p.107Albert,1989,p.77Glasser,1990,pp.14445).

10.Thiswasfoundinstudieswithninetotwelvemontholdbabies(Staytonetal.,1971)andsixtosevenyearoldchildren(Parke,1969).

11.Moreover,inanenvironmentwherestudentsfeelsafetorespond,theteacherprobablywon'tfeelcompelledtopraise,accordingtoMaryannGatheral,ateacher
educator(quotedinMartin,1977,p.51).

12.Foramoredetaileddiscussionoftherelationbetweensecureattachmentininfancyandnurturantcaretakinginchildhood,ontheonehand,andprosocialattitudes
andbehaviorsonthepartofthechild,ontheother,seeKohn,1990a,pp.8788(andthestudiescitedonpp.29899nn100101).

13.Itwas,afterall,JohnB.Watsonwhowroteinaninfamouspassage,"Thereisasensiblewayoftreatingchildren.Treatthemasthoughtheywereyoungadults....
Letyourbehavioralwaysbeobjectiveandkindlyfirm.Neverhugandkissthem,neverletthemsitinyourlap.Ifyoumust,kissthemonceontheforeheadwhenthey
saygoodnight.Shakehandswiththeminthemorning.Givethemapatontheheadiftheyhavemadeanextraordinarilygoodjobofadifficulttask.Tryitout....You
willbeutterlyashamedofthemawkish,sentimentalwayyouhavebeenhandlingit....Rememberwhenyouaretemptedtopetyourchildthatmotherloveisa
dangerousinstrument"(1928,pp.8182,87).

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14."Littlechildrenarenot'makingdemands'whentheycrytheyareengagingincommunicationintheonlywayavailable"(Condry,1978,p.182).Thebestthing
parentscandointhissituationistorespondbymeetingthechild'sneedsasbesttheycan.AfamousstudyatJohnsHopkinsUniversityfoundthatbabiesmostlikelyto
fussandcrywerethosewhosemothershadn'trespondedpromptlytotheircriesearlier.Parentswhoheldbackforfearofspoilingthebabyoftensetaviciouscircle
intomotion:ignoringthenewborn'scriesledtomorecryingasthebabygrew,whichfurtherdiscouragedtheparentfromresponding,whichmadethebabyevenmore
desperate,andsoon(BellandAinsworth,1972).Morerecentresearchhasconfirmedthecentralpoint(e.g.,CrockenbergandSmith,1982BarrandElias,1988).
Oneresearcherhasshownthatmotherswhoaremostworriedaboutspoilingtheirbabiesareleastlikelytoprovideawarm,caring,emotionallysupportive
environment(Lusteretal.,1989).

15.AndersenandAndersen,1987,pp.5758.Thearticleproceedstoitemizesomeofthebehaviorsthatareassociatedwithcaringattitudesonthepartofteachers,
suchasbodilyrelaxation,smiling,eyecontact,andsoon.

16.SeethestudiescitedinKohn,1990a,pp.9192.

17.Seethestudiescitedinibid.,pp.9091.

18.HoffmanandSaltzstein,1967,p.50."Inductioninsumshouldbethemostfacilitativeformofdisciplineforbuildinglongtermcontrolswhichareindependentof
externalsanctions,andthefindingswouldseemtosupportthisview"(p.55).

19.Thirdgraderswhoweretauntedandpreventedfromcompletingataskbyanotherchildweremuchlesslikelytorespondaggressivelywhensomepossible
explanationsforthechild'sbehaviorwereofferedtothem(MallickandMcCandless,1966).

20.AsIhavearguedelsewhere,itistemptingtoinduceayoungchildtosharebyexplainingthatifsheoffershertoytoanotherchildhemayletherplaywithhistoy.
Butthisstrategydoesnotpromoteconcernforothersitpromotesselfregardingshrewdness.

21.Thiswasthefindingofasurveyofmorethan330parentsofpreschoolchildren(Clayton,1985).

22.Thephrase"thebestpossiblemotiveconsistentwiththefacts"comes,Ibelieve,fromNelNoddingsbywayofMarilynWatson.Thequalificationattheend
indicatesthatitwouldbefoolishordisingenuoustosuggesttoachildwhohasviciouslykickedsomeonethatheprobablydidn'tmeantohurthim.Ingeneral,though,
ourinclinationshouldbetomakeallowancesandgivethechildthebenefitofthedoubt.Asonepreschoolteacherremarked,"Iusedtothinkthatchildrenbreakrules
mainlytobedefiant.NowIrealizehowharditisforthemtothinkaboutroleswhentheyaredoingsomethingelse,likeplaying"(quotedinEdwards,1986,p.164).

23.TheworkofErvinStaub(e.g.,1979andsomeofhismorerecentwritings)isespeciallyrelevanthere,as,indeed,itistosomeoftheotherideasdiscussedinthis
section.

24.SeeKohn,1990a,pp.9395Kohn,1992a,chap.10aswellasothersamplesfromanimmenseliteratureoncooperativelearning.

25.Staub,1978.

26.IdiscusstheseissuesatlengthinKohn,1990a,chaps.4and5.

27.ThefactthatthewordempathyissometimesusedtodenotewhatI(andothers)callperspectivetakingcreatessomeconfusionaboutthewhole

 Page366

question.Atbest,weneedtobeableto"feelinto"otherpeople'semotionallife(whichisthemeaningoftheGermanword,Einfhlung)aswellastoperformthe
cognitiveactofimaginingwhatisgoingonforthatperson.Thefirstissomethinghumansdemonstratefromthefirstmomentsoflife:newbornsaremorelikelyto
cry,andtocrylonger,whentheyareexposedtothesoundofanotherinfant'scrythanwhentheyhearother,equallyloudnoises,suggestingtheexistenceof"a
rudimentaryempathicdistressreactionatbirth,"aprimitiveprecursortowhatwethinkofasempathy.(SagiandHoffman,1976,p.176).SeealsoHoffman,
1981Kohn,1990a,pp.6566,11920,16263.

28.ThebestsourceofsuchactivitiesIknowofisFeshbachetal.,1983.

29.Formoreonthispointandthesuggestionsthatfollow,seeKohn,1991b.

30.ThisstatementistakenfromunpublishedmaterialswrittenbythestaffoftheChildDevelopmentProject,whosedirectorisEricSchapsandwhoseprogram
directorisMarilynWatson.Idescribetheprojectinmoredetail,includinginterviewswithchildren,teachers,parents,andothersaffectedbyit,inKohn,1990a,chap.
61990c1991b,pp.505506.

31.ApartfromtheworkoftheCDPstaff,discussionsaboutclassmeetingscanbefoundinGlasser,1969,chaps.1012Nelsen,1987,chap.7Lickona,1991,
chap.8.

32.Justice,1988,p.34.

33.Kobasa,1979(andsubsequentresearchbythisresearcherandhercolleagues)foundthatcontrol,togetherwithadeeplyfeltcommitmenttoone'sactivitiesand
thetendencytoperceivechangeasapositivechallenge,contributedtoaprofileof"hardiness"thatprovidessignificantprotectionagainstillness.SeealsoKaraseket
al.,1988.

34.RodinandLanger,1977.Inanotherstudy,nursinghomeresidentswhowereabletocontrol(oratleastpredict)whenastudentwouldcomevisitthemwerenot
onlyhappierandmorehopefulbutalsophysicallyhealthierthanthosewhoreceivedthesamenumberofvisitsbutonarandomschedule(Schulz,1976).

35.Forexample,seeHilletal.,1990.Somestudiesofpatientcontrolledanalgesiahavefoundonlysomeofthesebenefits,butthispictureemergeswhentheresearch
isviewedcollectively.Interestingly,medicalresearchershaveattributedthebeneficialeffectsofthisformofselftreatmenttophysiologicalfactorssuchasindividual
differencesinpatients'responsestopain(whichmeansthatstandardizeddosesdeterminedbyphysiciansgivemostpatientsmoreorlessmedicationthantheyneed).
Butthefactthatpatientsoverwhelminglyprefertomedicatethemselvesandfeellessanxietywhentheydosoandtheexistenceofothersortsofresearchonthe
importanceofcontrolsuggeststhatpsychologicalfactorsprobablyplayarole.

36.MartinSeligman'sresearchonhelplessnessiscentraltothisfieldofstudy.Forareviewofsomeoftherelevantstudiesbyhimandothers,seeTaylor,1989.One
recentstudyshowedthatteachers'psychologicaldistresswasinverselyrelatedtotheirperceivedinfluenceandautonomyatwork(TuettemannandPunch,1992).

37.Womenwhoweretoldtheycouldchoosetheparticularsofanexerciseprogramatahealthclubweremorelikelytocontinueattendingoversixweeks(andto
declaretheirwillingnesstokeepcomingafterthat)thanwerewomenwhoweretoldtheirprogramwassimplyassignedtothemeventhoughtheiractivitiestoowere
actuallyassignedonthebasisoftheprefer

 Page367

encestheyhadexpressed(ThompsonandWankel,1980).Asmokingcessationprogramthat"focusedattentionontheindividual'sowneffortsinsmoking
cessation"wasmoresuccessfulthanoneinwhichpeoplefollowedasetofguidelines(Harackiewicz,Sansone,etal.,1987).Adolescentgirls(butnotboys)were
morelikelytocontinueusingananticavityfluoriderinsefornearlyhalfayearwhentheywereinvitedtomakedecisionsabouthowtheprogramwasdesignedand
monitored(Burlesonetal.,1990).

38.ThisresearchisreviewedandevaluatedinThompson,1981.

39.GunnarVongnechten,1978.

40.RyanandGrolnick,1986.

41.Kamii,1991,p.387.Infact,thelessonsofconformitythatKamiifindstroublingarethosethatconcernacademicactivities,suchashavingto"learnmathematics
throughblindobedience,"notonlybehavior(ibid.).

42.McCaslinandGood,1992,p.13.OnewriterhasprovocativelysuggestedthatthedisturbingobedienceofMilgram'ssubjects"mightberelatedtothefactthat
theywerepaidfortheirparticipation"(Lane,1991,p.353n).

43.Berman,1990,p.2.

44.Glasser,1969,p.37.Onthispoint,seealsoRyanandStiller,1991,p.118.

45.Sometimeselementaryschoolstudentsareaskedtoputtheirheadsdownwhentheyvoteinanycase,thisisanaptmetaphorforthewholeenterprise.Votingmay
betheclosestapproximationtodemocracywecanmanagewhenaquarterofabillionpeoplemusttrytogovernthemselves,butclassroomteacherscandobetter.
"Whothinksweshouldtakeourfieldtriptothemuseum?Raiseyourhands.Okayandwhoprefersthezoo?Thezoowins,fifteentotwelve."Fromthisexercisein
adversarialmajoritarianismchildrenlearnpreciouslittleabouthowtosolveaproblem,accommodateotherpeople'spreferences,orrethinktheirinitialinclinations.
Moreover,twelvechildrenarenowunlikelytofeelveryexcitedabouttheupcomingfieldtrip.Aboutthebestthatcanbesaidforvotingisthatitdoesn'ttakelong.The
politicalphilosopherBenjaminBarberhascogentlyarguedthatvotingis"theleastsignificantactofcitizenshipinademocracy"(1984,p.187)teachersinterestedin
democracywilldiscouragethisformofdecisionmakingwheneverpossible.(Formoreonthisperspective,Barber'sbookisworthacarefulreadalsosee
Martsbridge,1983.)

46.DeciandRyan,1987,p.1031.Foranempiricaldemonstrationthatinternalcontrolcanhavesomeofthesameundesirableeffectsasexternalcontrol,seeRyan,
1982.

47.BowlesandGintis,1976,p.39.Theauthorscontinue:"Disciplineisstillthetheme,butthevariationsmoreoftencenteronthe'internalizationofbehavioralnorms,'
onequippingthechildwithabuiltinsupervisorthanonmereobediencetoexternalauthorityandmaterialsanctions"(ibid.).

48.SkinnerofferedthiscommentinafamousdiscussionwithCarlRogers(RogersandSkinner,1956,p.1065).SeealsoKaplan,1991,p.21.

49.DeciandRyan,1987,p.1025.

50.Deciandacolleaguehavedefined"supportingautonomy"intermsof"usingaslittlecontrolaspossibleencouragingchildrentothinkthroughtheirownproblems
ratherthangivingthemsolutionspermittingthemtotryouttheirownplansandideasandallowingthemtoworkattheirownspeed.Pressuringthemwithrewards,
tokens,deadlines,andprescriptionsiscountertosupportingautonomy"(DeciandChandler,1986,p.590seealsoDeci,Eghrari,etal.,1993).

 Page368

51.Forexample,RicharddeCharms,oneofthefirsttheoriststothinkseriouslyabouttheimportanceofselfdetermination,arguesthatsomeoneworkingtowardthat
objective"musthelptheperson(a)todeterminerealisticgoalsforhimself(b)toknowhisownstrengthsandweaknesses(c)todetermineconcreteactionthathecan
takenowthatwillhelphimtoreachhisgoalsand(d)toconsiderhowhecantellwhetherheisapproachinghisgoal,thatis,whetherhisactionishavingthedesired
effect"(deCharms,1972,p.97).

52.HssisquotedinMiller,1984,pp.6768.

53.Gordon,1989,p.9.

54.Aludicrousexampleofthisunityatallcostsphilosophywasofferedinthefollowingactualconversationreportedinafamousstudyofparenting(Searsetal.,
1957,p.353):
CHILD:Mother,whycan'tIgooutandplay?JaneandLindaareout.

MOTHER:It'sraining,dear,andIdon'twantyoutocatchcold.

CHILD(lookingoutthewindow):Butitisn'training,Mummy.Itjuststopped.

FATHER:(overhearingtheinterchange):Younglady,ifyourmothersaysit'sraining,it'sraining.

55.Samalin,1987,pp.13233.

56.SelmaWassermann,aprofessorofeducationandformerteacher,recallsherowndifficultiesinswitchingtoaclassroomthatsupportedchildren'sdecisions:"It
wasmyexplicitexpectationthat,onceinformedtheywouldhavetolearntotakeresponsibilityfortheirlearning,thechildrenshould,infact,learntodoitsimplyby
followingmyorders.Now,inretrospect,itbogglesmymindthatIwouldeverhavesuchanexpectation....Wecan'torderittoworkwehavetomakeitwork.We
havetoteachchildrentheskillsofworkingthoughtfullyandresponsiblytogether....Mostteachersalreadyknowthis,andtheyactonthatknowledgeinsuchskill
areasasteachingchildrentoreadandwriteandnumber.Butwemostlyforgetthatthesameistrueforlearninginterpersonalandgroupprocessskills"(1989,pp.
202203).

57.That,atanyrate,isthefindingofaseriesofsurveystakenofnearlytwothousandparentsinDetroitfromthelate1950stotheearly1980s(Alwin,1984).

58.Kelman,1990,p.44.

59.Beane,1990,p.35.

Afterword

1.Ofcourse,it'spossiblethatyouhaven'tactuallyreadityet,thatyouturnedtotheAfterwordfirstbecauseyou'rethekindofpersonwhohastoknowhow
everythingendsbeforeitstarts.InthiscaseIsaytoyou,"Rosebudwasthesled."

2."TheCaseAgainstGoldStars"(October1993)and"WhyIncentivePlansCannotWork"(SeptemberOctober,1993),respectively.

3.Forexample,alternativestorewardsmaybelessfamiliartousandmorechallengingtoputintopractice.Alsoseepp.1318,16264.

4.Forexample,seep.145.

5.TheBrighterSideofHumanNature:AltruismandEmpathyinEverydayLife,publishedin1990byBasicBooksandavailableatabookstorefarfromyou.

 Page369

6.Roane,1998.''Thereislittleevidencethattheydomuchtosolvemostcrimes.Expertssaytherearenostudiesthatdemonstrateaconnectionbetweenrewardsand
crimeclearancerates.Infact,themultitudeofleadsgeneratedbytheannouncementofalargerewardcansenddetectivesoffontimeconsumingandfruitless
tangents."Moreover,"manycallersarecriminalsthemselves[who]makealivingbyinforming."

7.Kolata,1997."Dr.LeeSilver,amolecularbiologistatPrincetonUniversity,said,'It'saverypeculiarpsychologicalthingthatgoeson.Ifyou'reagoodscientist,you
shouldalwaysbedoingexperimentstoattempttodiscredityourowntheory.But...theNobelPrizecertainlygetsinthewayofthat...Youhavethispsychological
blockyoudon'twanttheretobeanexperimentthatdisagrees.'"

8.Robison,1998.Thisiscertainlyconsistentwiththedatareviewedonpp.3941.

9.Forexample,seeMarshall,1995,andKellyandDaniels,1997.Thelatterarticlereportsastudyshowingthatchildrenofdifferentagesweremoreimpressedby
teacherswhooffered"encouragement"(responsesthatdescriberatherthanjudgeandthat"focusonhowthechild'sbehaviormayintrinsicallypleasethechildorhow
itmaybefunctionallyusefultoselforothers")thanbythosewhoofferedconventionalpraise(suchas"I'mveryproudofyou"or"Youdidagreatjobonthatpoem'').
Thissuggeststhatwhenchildrenseemtowantpraise,itismostlybecausetheyhaven'tbeenofferedlessmanipulativealternatives.

10.Likealladhominemarguments,ofcourse,thiscriticismsuffersfromtheadditionalweaknessthatevenifitweretrue,evenifIreallyweremoneyhungryor
otherwiserewarddriven,thatfactwoulddonothingtorefutetheargumentsandevidenceaboutthenegativeeffectsofrewards.

11.Samplesuggestion:Askhimif"hereceive[s]royaltiesforwritingbooksandspeakingengagements."

12.Manydefendersofrewardprograms,especiallyincorporatesettings,havedismissedtheresearchcitedinthisbookonthegroundsthatmuchofitwasconducted
withchildren.Infact,asubstantialnumberofstudieswithadultswerealsoincluded,butit'sinterestingthatthesesamecriticsnowdelightedlycitetheconclusionof
Cameron'sreviewdespitethefactthatit,too,leansheavilyonresearchwithchildren.

13.CameronandPierce,1994.

14.InEisenberger'sexperiments(forexample,seeEisenbergerandSelbst,1994),"creativity"wasmeasuredeitherbyaskingchildrentoconstructwordsfromastring
oflettersorbyaskingthemtomakepicturesfromasetofcirclesonapieceofpaper.Thesedrawingsweresaidtobecreativeifrelativelyfewotherchildrenhad
madesimilarpictures.Eveniftheuseofrewardscanindeedpromotetheproductionofrelativelyuncommonwordsordrawings,thishardlyrefutestheresearch
indicatingthatrewardsunderminemoreauthenticandimpressivekindsofcreativity.Butthere'sreasontodoubtevenEisenberger'smodestclaiminlightofthefactthat
otherresearchhasshownexactlytheopposite.(See,forexample,Grovesetal.,1987.Alsoseetheresearchoncreativitydescribedonpp.4445,6264.)Formore
onbehaviorists'claimsofbeingabletoreinforcecreativity,seepp.29394n40.

15.EisenbergerandCameron,1996.Evenbeforeweevaluatethescientificvalidityoftheirconclusions,it'sinterestingtolookatthe"spin"theseauthorshaveputon
thewholedispute.Theoriginalreportofthismetaanalysisbe

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ganwiththeapparentlyblandobservationthat"severalresearchers"distinguishbetweenintrinsicandextrinsicmotivation(CameronandPierce,p.365).Thetruth
isthatthisfundamentaldistinctioniswidelyacceptedbytheoristsandresearchers,withtheconspicuousexceptionoforthodoxbehaviorists.Theattempttoportray
itasmarginalprefiguresastrenuousefforttorescuethetechniquesofappliedbehaviorism.

Inthesecondarticle,EisenbergerandCamerontrytoturnthingsaroundandpositionthemselvesasbravechallengerstotheconventionalwisdom,suggestingthat
justabouteveryonebynowacceptsthatextrinsicmotivatorsundermineintrinsicmotivationandimplyingthatittakesrealcouragetocomeoutinfavorofrewards
inlatetwentiethcenturyAmerica.Theyproceedtoarguethatcertainbeliefsabouthumannaturearewhatdrivecriticsofbehaviorismtotakethepositiontheydo.
(Theirownreductionofhumanlifetooperantprinciplesispresumablyunrelatedtoanyideologicalpreconceptionsit'sonlythoseofuswhochallengetheir
premiseswhoseconclusionscannotbetakenatfacevalue.)Wecritics,theycontinue,acceptthe"impliedprimacyoftheindividualratherthanthecollective"(p.
1154).ThisisaratherpeculiarchargeinlightofthefactthatWatson,Skinner,andtheirfollowersareconcernedwiththelawsoflearningthatpertaintothe
individualorganismasitrespondstothecontingenciesofitsenvironment.It'salsopeculiarinlightof(a)DeciandRyan'semphasisonsocialinteractionandthe
needfor"relatedness,"(b)myownworkexplicitlycriticalofindividualism(e.g.,Kohn,1990,chapter9),and(c)thefactthatthevastmajorityofresearcherswho
havepublishedempiricaldemonstrationsoftheproblemswithextrinsicincentivesgivenohintofholdinganypositiononthisissue,onewayortheother.

ButEisenbergerandCameronaren'tfinished.TheirfinalstepistoequatetheallegedindividualismoftheircriticswithakindofRomanticismhearkeningbackto
theworkofRousseau(peopleareborngood,thenoblesavage,etc.).Weresistrewards,notbecausetheyunderminepreciselywhatthey'reusedtoreinforce,but
onlybecausewe'reafraidthey'll"interferewiththedesiretoexploreone'sownpotential"(p.1155).Theimplicationwouldseemtobethatreaderswhofind
themselvesobjectingtothetheoryorpracticeofbehaviorismorwhosimplyfindfaultwithCameron'smetaanalysisarejuststuckinthe'60s.

16.Butseepp.53,9293.

17.Insomestudies,positiveresponsesaresimpleexclamationsofpleasureinothers,theycontainspecificfeedback.Insomestudies,praisefocusesontheperson's
abilityinothers,ontheperson'seffort.Insomestudies,attentionispaidtotheindividualinothers,towhattheindividualdoes.Insomestudies,thepersonbeing
praisediscomparedtowhatheorshedidearlierinotherstudies,thecomparisonistowhatotherpeoplehavedoneinstillothers,thereisnocomparisonatall.All
thesedistinctionsareveryimportant.Purelyinformationalfeedbackaboutone'sperformance,forexample,wouldn'tbeexpectedtoreducesubsequentintrinsic
motivation,butaverbalrewardthatisconstruedasmanipulativearguablythemorecommontypeofpraiseoutsidethelaboratoryshould,anddoes,havejust
thiseffect.OnlybysweepingasidesuchdistinctionsandderivingasingleeffectsizefromallthesedifferentkindsofstudiescanCameronreportthatthereisnothing
wrongwithgivingverbalrewards.(Incidentally,shealsofailstodistinguishbetweentheeffectsofrewardsonhowpeoplefeelaboutinterestingasopposedtoboring
tasks.)

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18.Forexample,Ryan,1982,andBoggiano,Main,andKatz,1988.

19.Butler,1987,p.481.

20.Ipublishedsomecriticalcomments(Kohn,1996)butwouldespeciallyrecommendtwolengthiercritiquesthatimmediatelyfollowedmineintheSpring1996issue
oftheReviewofEducationalResearch,onebyMarkLepperandhiscolleagues,theotherbyRichardRyanandEdwardDeci.

21.Decietal.,inpress.

22.Forexample,studieswereincludedonlyiftheyusedcontrolgroups(sopeoplewhoreceivedarewardcouldbecomparedtopeoplewhodidn't)andonlyifthey
assessedperformanceorattitudesafterrewardswerenolongeroffered(inordertogetabettermeasureofsubjects'intrinsicmotivation).

23.Asnotedearlier,rewardsaremorelikelytokillpeople'sinterestinappealingtasksbecausethere'sthatmuchmoreinteresttokill.Butthisdoesn'tprovidean
excuseforofferingrewardsfordoingboringtasks:seepp.8790.

24.One'sconfidenceinthesefindingsandone'sdoubtsaboutthevalidityoftheconclusionsofferedbyCameronisstrengthenedbythefactthatanother,less
ambitiousmetaanalysispublishedindependentlyin1995alsofoundthatpromisingpeopletangiblerewardsfordoinginterestingtasksdoesindeedreducetheir
intrinsicmotivationtoengageinthosetasks.SeeTangandHall,1995.

25.McClain,1998.

26.CharlesPeckisquotedinBrenner,1995,p.28.

27.Contrarytopopularopinion,thisacronymdoesnotstandforControlFreaksinOffices.

28.Filipczak,1993McCormack,1994Lancaster,1994Maister,1994Brenner,1995.

29.Aquarterlyprofitsharingdistributionaccountsforasmallpercentageoftotalcompensation,butunlikemostgainsharingplans,itisnotdangledconspicuouslyin
frontofemployeesasawayof"motivating"them.

30.PersonalcommunicationwithRobRodin,March1999.

31.Scholtes,1998,esp.chap.9.

32.HarackiewiczandLarson,1986.Thequotationisfromp.553.

33.PelletierandVallerand,1996.Theseresultsareespeciallydisturbingbecausemostmanagersassumetheiremployeesareextrinsicallymotivated(seeKovach,
1987).

34.Anyonewhocantalkabout"incenting"employeesshouldhavenoproblemwiththiscoinage.

35.Thompson,1993,p.14.

36.Clement,1994.

37.BobDjurdjevicisquotedinZuckerman,1996,p.C1.

38.McClain.

39.Noble,1993.Thereareplentyofpeople,ofcourse,forwhommoneydoesmattermostsomebecausetheyareunderpaidandfindthemselvesworryingabout
howtopaythebills,andothersjustbecausegettingrichisapriorityforthem.Thelatterindividuals,asImentionedonpage133,tendtoexperienceanunusualdegree
ofanxietyanddepressionaswellasaloweroveralllevelofwellbeing.TheevidencetosupportthisconclusionhascontinuedtoaccumulateseeKohn,1999a.

40.Parentsandteachers,too,maybereluctanttostopusingrewards(includingpraise)ifitentailsgivingupcontrolinthiscase,overchildren.Theclose

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relationshipbetweenrewardsandpowerconstitutesanindependentexplanationforthecontinuedpopularityofrewardswherevertheyareused.

41.Thestudy,conductedbytheDevelopmentalStudiesCenterin1992,wasreportedinLewis,1995,p.224n9.Ofthoseteacherswhoacknowledgedusingsuch
rewardsystems,morethanhalfsaidtheydidso"always"or"usually."AsurveyinIrelandfoundalmostexactlythesamerateofrelianceon"reward[ing]good
behaviour"amongfemaleteachersbutasomewhatlowerrate(61percent)amongmaleteachers(IrishNationalTeachers'Organization,1993,p.41).

42.Andermanetal.,1996.

43.Andermanetal.,1998.

44.AndermanandJohnston,1998.

45.Seepp.11,7374.

46.Forasimilarcriticism,seeCarter,1996.Thisarticle,whichappearedinSchoolLibraryJournal,elicitedanumberofletterstotheeditor.Onefanwroteinto
defendAcceleratedReaderonthefollowingbasis:"Iftheprogramissoineffective,thenwhyare25,000schoolsparticipating?"Inthesameissue,however,another
librarianreportedseeing"parentstakebooksawayfromchildrenbecausetheydidn'thaveahighpointvalueandthereforeweren'tworthreading."Othereducators
havepointedouttomethattheAcceleratedReaderprogramhasademoralizingeffectonstudentswhodon'treadasfluentlyastheirpeers,drivinghometheirrelative
failureinapainfullypublicway.

47.McQuillan,1997.Quotationappearsonp.122.

48.Seepp.61,296n27.

49.Coles,1997.

50.ReidandBaileyDempsey,1995.Intheyearfollowingtheexperiment,absencesincreasedby2.1percentforthecontrolgroup,2.2percentforthosewho
receivedsocialservices,and7.8percentforthosewhowereintherewardprogram.

51.Forexample,seepp.40,4245,174.

52.GinsburgandBronstein,1993.Quotationsappearonp.1470.

53.Dornbuschetal.,1988.

54.Gottfriedetal.,1994.Whilethesedata,too,werecorrelational,theauthors,whohadfollowedthechildrenthroughmostoftheirlives,arguedthatitwasindeed
theuseof"extrinsicconsequences"thatresultedinlowerlevelsofintrinsicmotivation,whichinturnaffectedachievement.Seepp.11011oftheirarticle.

55.MoellerandReschke,1993.

56.TheSchoolsOurChildrenDeserve:MovingBeyondTraditionalClassroomsand"TougherStandards"(Boston:HoughtonMifflin,1999b).

57.Myeditortellsmethesedetailsaddcolortoanarrative.Tobehonest,Idon'trememberwhattheweatherwaslikethatdayitmayjustaswellhavebeencloudy
andunseasonablywarm.

58.HereIamreferringtotheworkofRichardFerber,whosaysthat,ratherthancomfortingacryingchildatnight,parentsshouldadheretoastrictschedulebywhich
theygraduallydelaytheirarrivalinthechild'sroom.Thetheoryhereisthatbywithholdingcomfort,theywillbe"teaching"thechildtofallasleeponhisown.Whether
heiscryingbecauseofterror,boredom,loneliness,hunger,orsomeotherreasoniscompletelyirrelevant.Moreover,evenifthechild,aloneinthedarkandunableto
understand

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whynooneiscomingtosoothehim,criessohardthathethrowsup,theparentmuststickwiththeprogram.Changethesheets,instructsFerber,"andthenleave
again.Ifyourewardhimforthrowingupbystayingwithhim,hewillonlylearnthatthisisagoodwayforhimtogetwhathewants.Vomitingdoesnothurtyour
child,andyoudonothavetofeelguiltythatithappened.This,likethecrying,willsoonstop"(Ferber,1985,pp.7374).

ItakenoprideintellingyouthatmywifeandIputFerber'stheorytothetest,notoutofcuriositybutdesperation.Wefollowedhisrecipeanddiscoveredthatany
positiveeffectswereextremelyshortlived.Wecanonlyhopethattheeffectonourdaughter'srelationshipwithusfromwhatwedidisalsotemporary.Afterall,
evenifthistechniquehadcausedthecryingtostop,whatwouldshehavelearnedaboutus,abouttheworld,andaboutherselfwhenshefinallyrealizedweweren't
goingtobethereforher?"Behaviormanagement"programs,whetherthey'reusedtogetkidstostopcryingatnight,tostopusingdiapers,ortostopmaking
trouble,arejustwhattheirnameimplies.Theyareaboutmanagingbehaviors,notattendingtoreasonsandneedsandthepeoplewhohavethem.

59.Onbalance,I'darguethereareimportantdifferencesbetweenthem,thata"when/then"frameworkreallyislessobjectionable,particularlywithayoungchild,than
anexplicitofferofarewardforagivenbehavior.Mypointissimplythatthedifferenceisnotabsolute.

60.I'mindebtedtoBobKeganforthisinsight.

61.Thispracticebecomesalmostcomicalwhenparents(andothercaretakers)congratulatetinyinfantsontheirclappingorpushatoddleronaplaygroundswingand
thencry,"Goodswinging!"

62.Theuseofwhatis,whenyouthinkaboutit,aworkmetaphortodescribeachild'sactivityisasirritatingastheparent'sinsistenceonpassingjudgmentaboutits
quality.Thus,bothwordsareobjectionableinthephrasegoodjob.

AppendixA.AConversationwithB.F.Skinner

1.Skinner,1983,p.407.

AppendixB.WhatisIntrinsicMotivation?

1.Forexample,basedonherstudiesofcreativity,Amabilesaysthatpeopleare"intrinsicallymotivatedtoengageinaparticulartaskiftheyviewtheirtaskengagement
asmotivatedprimarilybytheirowninterestandinvolvementinthetask"(1985,p.393).

2.OnetheoristarguesthattheexistenceoffreewillpreventsusfromcollapsingIMintoreinforcementtheory(Csikszentmihalyi,1978,pp.207208).SeealsoDeci
andRyan'sdiscussionofIMas"theprototypicalformofselfdetermination"(1990,p.253).

3."Intrinsicmotivationmaybebetterconceivedofasaninternallygeneratedneedtoengageinactivitiesthatmakeonefeelgoodratherthanasasetofspecificinternal
motivators"(PrettyandSeligman,1984,p.1251).Thisapproachtothequestionisnotverypopularamongmostpeoplewhothinkaboutthesubject,probably
becauseitreducescognitiveandmotivationalquestionstoanuncomplicateddesireforpleasure.Moreover,theimplica

 Page374

tionisthatvariousactivitiesareinterchangeablesincewhatappearstobeagenuineinterestinonecanjustaseasilybesatisfiedbysomethingelsethatenhances
one'smood.

4.Thisisofferedbyaneducationalresearcherinthecontextofclassroommotivation(Harter,1981,p.310seealsoButler,1988,p.2).

5.DeciandRyan,1985,p.32.ThesetwofeaturesarelatercombinedindescribingIMas"theinnate,naturalpropensitytoengageone'sinterestsandexerciseone's
capacities,andinsodoing,toseekandconqueroptimalchallenges"(p.43).Evenmorebroadly,thetermisdefinedas"thelifeforceorenergyfortheactivityandfor
thedevelopmentoftheinternalstructure"(p.8).

6."Anexclusivefocusonmasterymotivationfailstotakeaccountoftheintrinsicsocialneedthatdirectspeople'sinteresttowardthedevelopmentofrelationalbonds
andtowardaconcernforinterpersonallyvaluedandculturallyrelevantactivities"(DeciandRyan,1990,p.242).

7.ThispointisraisedbyRobertSternbergandacolleagueinthecontextofadiscussionaboutmotivationandcreativity,duringwhichtheysuggestthat"toengageina
task'foritsownsake'suggeststheunparsimoniousviewthatthereareasmanymotivatorsasthereareinterestingtasks"(1991,p.15).Tothis,Csikszentmihalyi
repliesthat"whatmotivatesarenotmanyinterestingtasks,butasinglepropensitytoenjoyinteractionwithchallengingtasks."Nevertheless,hepointsoutthatin
creativesituationsitisoftendifficulttodrawasharplinebetweenthegoalandthetaskitself,afactthatraisesinterestingquestionsabouttheintrinsic/extrinsic
distinction(1991,pp.3334).

8.Forexample,seeSansoneandMorgan,1992,p.262.

9.Forempiricalconfirmationoftherelevanceofthispoint,thatis,theappealofthealternativeactivities,seeWickeretal.,1990.

10.ThisproblemisnotuniquetotheissueofIM,butitcertainlydoesappearregularlyinthiscontext.Forexample,seeDeci,1971,Experiment1LuytenandLens,
1981("Wedoubtthatthepaperandpencilmeasuresandthebehavioralmeasurecanstillbeconsideredoperationalizationsofthesameunderlyingconstruct,called
intrinsicmotivation"[p.33])PrettyandSeligman,1984,esp.pp.125051Koestneretal.,1987,esp.pp.38889Koestneretal.,1989Wickeretal.,1990.For
furthercriticismsofbothmeasures,seeArnold,1976.ForatheoreticalaccountofwhythetwomeasuresofIMwouldnotbeexpectedtobesimilaranexplanation
ratherdifferentfromtheonethatfollowsinthetextseeQuattrone,1985,esp.pp.2829,33.

11.Ryanetal.,1991,p.189.

12.Ibid.thequotationsappearonpp.197,202.

13.Jackson,1968/1990,p.28.

14.Foranargumentthatinternalizedbehaviorswereinitiallycontrolledbyextrinsicmotivators,seeChandlerandConnell,1987Ryanetal.,1992.Chandlerand
Connellevenarguethat"internalizedmotivationisconceptuallymoreakintoextrinsicthantointrinsicmotivation"(p.357).

15.OneoftheveryrareexceptionsisabriefdiscussionofIMinthecourseofalongercritiqueofpsychology'sacceptanceofselfinterestasthepremiseforall
investigations.InreviewingtheconnectiondrawnbetweenIMandtheneedforselfdetermination,MichaelandLiseWallachcommentthat"itcouldhardlybemade
moreclearthattherelevanceoftheexternalenviron

 Page375

mentcontinuestobeunderstoodasdependingentirelyonitsrelationtotheneedsthatwehaveforourselves"(1983,p.214).

16.Csikszentmihalyi,1990,p.69.

17.Csikszentmihalyi,1978,p.215.

18.Insayingthis,IamquestioningDeciandRyan'sapparentidentificationofintrinsicmotivationwithprocess:theyarguethatsomeonewhocleansthehousebecause
ofthepleasureofhavingthehousecleanattheendisengaginginanextrinsicallymotivatedbehavior(1987,p.1034).Infact,Ryanbelievesthatanaltruisticindividual,
inseekinganimprovementinthewelfareofthepersonwhomhehelps,isnotintrinsicallymotivated.Toqualifyasthelatter,hewouldhavetotakepleasureinthe
processofchangingthestrandedmotorist'stire,asopposedtofocusingontheresultoftherescue(personalcommunication,April1993foradifferentperspective,
seeKundaandSchwartz'sdescriptionof"thedesiretodotherightthing"as"adifferentkindofintrinsicmotivation"[1983,p.764]).Thisdisputereturnsustothe
questionofwhethertheideaofintrinsicmotivationisnecessarilyindividualistic.

AppendixC.TheBehavioristsTalkBack

1.ThefewexplicitattemptstorefutecriticismsoftheuseofrewardsthatIhavebeenabletofindappearedinjournalsforbehaviorists(Dickinson,1989),
organizationalpsychologists(Mawhinney,1990),consultingpsychologists(O'Learyetal.,1972),andeducators(Slavin,1991Chance,1992)andinanearlychapter
inaguidetobehaviormodification(Kaplan,1991)andatextbook(Kalish,1981).Theargumentsthatfollowinthetextaredrawnchieflyfromthesesources.

2.Slavin,1991,p.91.

3.Dickinson,1989,p.4.

4.Kalish,1981,p.143.

5.Kaplan,1991,p.24.SeealsoO'Learyetal.,1972,p.1.

6.Chance,1992,p.207n10.

7.Slavin,1991,p.90.SeealsoO'Learyetal.,1972,p.3.

8.Chance,1992,p.206.

9.Kaplan,1991,p.23.

10.SeeChance,1991.

11.Chance,1992,p.200201.

12.Ibid.,p.203.

13.O'Learyetal.,1972,pp.67.TheresearchinquestionwasoneofJanetSpence'sstudies.

14."Mostnonbehavioralresearchershaveusedreinforcingrewards"(Dickinson,1989,p.12).Infact,itistruethatmoneyandothercommonrewardsareoftennot
asimportanttopeopleasweassume.Butthestudiesthathavefoundadetrimentaleffecthavegenerallyusedrewardsthatwereclearlyattractivetothesubjects.The
onlywaytheserewardscouldbeclassifiedasnonreinforcingistodefineareinforcingrewardasonethatproducedthedesiredeffect,inwhichcasetheargumentis
tautological.

15.Slavin,1991,p.90.ThesamepointismadeinChance,1991,p.803.

16.Dickinson,1989,p.13.SeealsoSlavin,1991,p.90.

17.Slavin,1991,p.91.

18.DollingerandThelen,1978.

 Page376

19.See,forexample,Kalish,1981,p.143.

20.Kalish,1981,p.256.

21.Dickinson,1989,pp.23."Fromabehavioralperspective,then,intrinsicallycontrolledbehaviorconsistsofbehaviorcontrolledbyunprogrammed
consequences"thatis,thosethatare"moreorlessinevitablyproducedbythestructuralcharacteristicsofthephysicalenvironmentandbiological
organism"(Mawhinneyetal.,1989,p.111).

22.Dickinson,1989,p.12.

23.Forvariouselaboratemethodologicalcriticisms,seeDickinson,1989Mawhinney,1990.

24.FeingoldandMahoney,1975DavidsonandBucher,1978Vastaetal.,1978VastaandStirpe,1979.Iamexcludinghereastudysometimescitedbyothers
(ReissandSushinsky,1975)becauseitdidnotchallengethepotentialofrewardstoundermineinterestrather,ittookexceptiontoonewidelyacceptedreasonfor
thiseffect.Specifically,itwasarguedthatrewardsdistractpeoplefromthetask,ahypothesisprettywelldisprovedinsubsequentresearch(Ross,1975,Experiment
2SmithandPittman,1978).Foradiscussionofthisstudy,seeLepperandGreene,1976.

25.BrennanandGlover,1980Mawhinneyetal.,1989(N=3).

26.Withasingleexception(BrennanandGlover,1980),noneofthestudieshadacontrolgroupinwhichsubjectsengagedintheactivitywithoutbeingrewardedfor
purposesofcomparison.(ThatexceptionhasbeencriticizedforotherreasonsseeDeciandRyan,1985,p.184.)Mostofthestudiesmeasuredinterestnotbyhow
muchtimethesubjectsspentonthetargettaskbutbyhowmuchofittheydid.Inthecaseofthemostwidelycitedfinding(FeingoldandMahoney,1975),for
instance,intrinsicmotivationwasmeasuredbycountingthenumberofconnectthedotspuzzlesthatwerecompletedaftertherewardhadbeenwithdrawn,anumber
thatcouldwellhavereflectedthechildren'sincreasedskillattheactivityafterhavinghadachancetopractice.Inthemostrecentexperiment,conductedwiththree
collegestudents(Mawhinneyetal.,1989),eachsubjectwastoldatthebeginningthathewouldreceive$30forparticipating,whichmeansthatthestudentswerestill
beingrewardedeveninthe"nonreward"sessions.

 Page377

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Zimmerman,BarryJ."TheDevelopmentof'Intrinsic'Motivation:ASocialLearningAnalysis."InAnnalsofChildDevelopment,vol.2,editedbyGroverJ.
Whitehurst.Greenwich,Conn.:JAIPress,1985.

Zubin,Joseph.SomeEffectsofIncentives.NewYork:TeachersCollege,1932.

Zuckerman,Laurence."I.B.M.,forOne,PlanstoGiveMoreMoneytoEmployees."NewYorkTimes,27February1996:C1,C3.

Zuckerman,Miron,JosephPorac,DrewLathin,RaymondSmith,andEdwardL.Deci."OntheImportanceofSelfDeterminationforIntrinsicallyMotivated
Behavior."PersonalityandSocialPsychologyBulletin4(1978):44346.

 Page412

NAMEINDEX

Amabile,Teresa,4445,6364,348n1

Ames,Carole,56,148,155,224

Anderman,Eric,268

Anderson,Rosemarie,68

Baldwin,James,130

Barrett,Marty,45,15051

Baumrind,Diana,327n5

Beane,James,25455

Beethoven,Ludwigvan,7,288

Berman,Shelley,249

Birch,LeannLipps,72

Blinder,AlanS.,186

Boggiano,Ann,16,45,15051

Brophy,Jere,107,145,218

Bruner,Jerome,146,14748,158,211

Butler,Ruth,157,158,261

Cameron,Judy,26061,36970n15

Coles,Gerald,324n53

Csikszentmihalyi,Mihaly,29,189,191,295,31617n68

deCharms,Richard,78,82,348n51

Deci,Edward,6971,7879,81,83,84,86,90,105n,106,140,230,25051,29293,297,308n23

Deming,W.Edwards,129,130,13637,182,183,258,261,264,266,303n52,335n45

Deutsch,Morton,22,45,46,207

DeVries,Rheta,169

Dewey,John,198,214,219,223,300,342n62

Dillinger,John,135

Dreikurs,Rudolf,104,11112,16970

Driscoll,Amy,96

Drucker,Peter,139

Dweck,Carol,148,155,158,325n66

Einstein,Albert,151

Eisenberger,Robert,260,36970n14,15

Ferber,Richard,272,37273n58

Fromm,Erich,253

Frost,Robert,228

Galbraith,JohnKenneth,314n40

Gingrich,Newt,12

Glasser,William,58,149,16162,213,249

Glucksberg,Sam,42,46

Gordon,Thomas,167,252

 Page413

330n37,33031n43,333n12

Gottfried,Adele,270

Greven,Philip,168

Grusec,Joan,102

Guzzo,RichardA.,125

Hackman,Richard,190

Harrigan,Alisa,v,xiv

Herzberg,Frederick,15,13334,136,141,182,189,190

Hitz,Randy,96

Hoffman,Martin,144,230,236

Hss,Rudolf,252

Huxley,Aldous,287

Jackson,Philip,294

Jenkins,G.Douglas,Jr.,12425

Johnson,David,215

Johnson,Roger,215

Kafka,Franz,244

Kamii,Constance,160,162,168,174,249

Kant,Immanuel,77

Katz,Lilian,341n52

Kazdin,Alan,3839

Kher,Neelam,218

Koestler,Arthur,3,289n18

Koestner,Richard,261

Kohn,Abigail,27174

Korman,Philip,295n20

Lacey,Hugh,3334

Lane,Robert,141,313n23,316n64,317n68,320n108,332n3,332n8,333n23

Laotzu,49

Lawler,Edward,122

Lehrer,Tom,174,225

Lepper,Mark,45,7071,7677,78,83,86,93,216,297,300n25,304n77

Lerner,Melvin,22

Levinson,Harry,141

Lewin,Kurt,50,65

Locke,EdwinA.,12425

Locke,John,30

McGraw,Kenneth,47

McGregor,Douglas,17,76,121,123,129,140,141,181,188,194,198,28889n17

McQuillan,Jeff,269

Meyer,Herbert,186

Milgram,Stanley,249

Miller,LouiseBrightwell,42,46

Montaigne,MichelEyquem,146

Neill,A.S.,76

Nicholls,John,73,78,147,155,237

Oldham,Greg,190

Orwell,George,287

Pavlov,Ivan,5

Pearce,JoneL.,54

Peters,Tom,121,3023n52,304n64

Piaget,Jean,168,214,219

Pierce,W.David,260

Plath,Sylvia,99

Robertson,D.H.,181

Rodin,Rob,264

Rowe,MaryBudd,99,105

Russell,Bertrand,287

Ryan,Richard,7879,81,84,86,91,105n,147,14950,162,230,25051,261,293

Samalin,Nancy,25253

Sampson,EdwardE.,23

Sansone,Carol,191

 Page414

Scholtes,Peter,186,193,265

Schwartz,Barry,3334,44,64,82,141,287n26,28788n34

Shanker,Albert,143

Shaw,GeorgeBernard,244

Silberman,Charles,147,164

Skinner,B.F.,xixii,511,13,19,19n,25,30,31,33,41,51,99,166,251,27989

Slater,Philip,13132,139

Slavin,Robert,34041n44

Spence,Janet,35,43

Staub,Ervin,244,345n23

Stiller,Jerome,14950

Taylor,FrederickW.,4,7,32223n29

Thoreau,HenryDavid,216

Thorndike,Edward,4,142,145

Tjosvold,Dean,138

Vaughan,Margaret,282

Wassermann,Selma,224,348n56

Watson,JohnB.,4,6,9,10,19,29,30,290n36,344n13

Whyte,WilliamFoote,25,119,195,312n12

Wilde,Oscar,133

Winfrey,Oprah,25859

Wlodkowski,Raymond,199

Wyeth,Andrew,99

 Page415

SUBJECTINDEX

Absenteeism,125,193,319n92

AcceleratedReader.SeeReadingincentiveprograms

Accountability,80,152

Age

anddegreeofextrinsicorientation,91,321n9

anddegreeofrelianceongrades,202

relevanceof,toeffectsofpraise,26162,308n33

relevanceof,toeffectsofrewards,75,304n67

Aggression

beliefininevitabilityof,24243

physicalpunishmentasexampleof,165

punishmentascauseof,16768,230,29495n8

useofexplanationstoreduce,242

Altruism.SeeGenerosity

Americanculture

andbeliefsaboutdemocracyandeconomics,19697

andbeliefsaboutsuccess,20

andreceptivenesstobehaviorismandrewards,910,14,23

Art

benefitsofevaluatingone'sown,339n26

effectsofrewardson,4445

AssertiveDiscipline,165

Assessment.SeeEvaluation

AttentionDeficitDisorder.SeeHyperactivity,effectofrewardson

Autonomy.SeeSelfdetermination

Awardsassemblies,93,11011

"Backtobasics."SeeSchool:"backtobasics"movementin

BaldridgeAward,122

Behaviorism,610,28189.

SeealsoMotivation

andAmericanculture,910,14

appealof,toB.F.Skinner,279

derivedfromworkwithanimals,6,24,27,36

andeconomics,1415

andimplicationsforhumanself,67,25,28889,289n19

andjudgmentsabouttruth,286n11

vs.popbehaviorism,3,45,911

 Page416

Behaviorism(cont.)

responsebyproponentsof,toargumentsagainstrewards,26061,297304,36970n15

inschool,21314,32728n14

andscientism,910,28485

andstimulusresponsepsychology,289n19

viewofcreativity,7,28889

viewofdeath,281

viewoffreedom,89,28586

viewofintrinsicmotivation,290,303

viewoflove,8,283

viewofmoralityandvalues,8,28788

inworkplace,12021,141,196

Behaviormodification.SeeBehaviortherapyRewardsTokeneconomies

Behaviortherapy

Freudianviewof,60

vs.orthodoxbehaviorism,10,26162

questionableeffectivenessof,41

"Bonuseffect"ofrewards,7778

Bonusplans.SeePayforperformance

"BookIt!"program.SeeReadingincentiveprograms

Boringtasks

andexperienceofconstraint,305n82

questioningthenecessityof,8990,192

rewardsfordoing,8790

waysofdealingwith,90,191,225

Burnout,153,193

Capitalism.SeeEconomics

"Carrotsandsticks,"originof,24

Challenge,preferencefor

degreesof,190

asnatural,66,199

practicesthatpromote,211,223

practicesthatundermine:

control,151

performanceorientation,15859

praise,99

rewards,6567,13940,297n43

ChildDevelopmentProject,24647

Children.

SeealsoLearningPraiseRewards

advicetypicallyofferedforraising,22829,235,27273

allianceofparentsagainst,252

collaboratingwith,tosolveproblems,23638

controlof,3233,16165,16769,173,22934,27273

coststo,ofparents'preoccupationwithgradesandrewards,11,205,207,210,270,322n25

growingextrinsicorientationof,91,144

importanceofexperienceofselfdeterminationby,249

longtermgoalsfor,9192,161,162,17276,17980,226,22829,24952,293

 Page417

punitivestrategiesusedon,16573,23034

rethinkingrequestsmadeof,23435

trendtowardpromotingautonomyin,254n

valuesof,41,161,164,17276

Choice.

SeealsoSelfdetermination

aboutabandoningrewards,194,199,209

benefitsofhaving,9394,22123,24850

forchildreninsolvingproblems,23639,247,252

deceptiveuseofword,23839,25455

degreesof,22324

abouthowrewardsareused,85,9394

aboutlearning,22126

useofrewardstopromote,196

waysofproviding,19396,22324,23638,247,25253

atwork,140,191,19297

Coercion.SeeControlPower

Collectivereward,56

College,concernaboutacceptanceinto,2045,210,339n27.

SeealsoPreparationH

Compensation.SeeMoneyPayforperformance

Competence,feelingof,86,95,1078,18990,209,220

Competition

destructiveeffectsof,5557,8081,93,137,151,157

powerstrugglewithchildrenasexampleof,16364,231

atschool,93,151,157,209,214,220,226

usedalongsidecooperation,188

atwork,93,137,188

Conditioning,classicalvs.operant,56,289n19

Consequences.SeeLogicalconsequencesPunishment

Constructivism,219,222,223,299300,297n45

Contests.SeeCompetition

Continuousimprovement.SeeTotalQualityManagement

Contractswithchildren,238,330n40

Contrasteffect,40n

Control.

SeealsoChoicePowerSelfdetermination

appealof,toB.F.Skinner,28081

appearancevs.realityof,19596,25455

andassumptionsaboutmotives,24243,265

asavoidableinrelationships,3132

ascharacteristicofrewards,2634,5152,7881,8485,86,136,173,174

ofchildren,3233,16165,16769,173,21718,22934,242,25052,268

ascompatiblewithrotecurriculum,217,327n14,341n49

degreesof,31,289n22

difficultyofabandoning,164,23334

ineducation,8384,14855,16365,2089,21718,221

 Page418

Control,(cont.)

effectsof,on:

achievement,151,153,154

attitudetowardwork,334n30

behavior,217n,327n5

creativity,151,193

interest,7881,89,150

needforrewards,91,15051

psychologicalhealth,150

vs.explanation,191n,23133,236,24142

asgoalofperformanceappraisals,184

vs.guidanceandlimits,33,199,22930,252,34344n1

andpraise,100101,1045,1067,109n,110

reasonsfor,byteachers,15253,155

reciprocal,Skinner'sviewof,290n30

asselfperpetuating,33,150,15253,154,193

byselfvs.other,84,105n,25051,273

inspecialeducationprograms,15355,325n64

Cooperation

benefitsof,54,18788,21416,243

andchoice,194

destructionof,byperformanceappraisal,129

destructionof,byrewards,5457,13638,174

inlearning,54,21416,223,246,340n42

rarityof,inschool,214

rarityof,inworkplace,188

useofrewardstopromote,55n,122,18889,21516,34041n44

wordusedtosignifyobedience,135n

Cooperativelearning.SeeCooperation:inlearning

Corporalpunishment.SeePunishment:physical

Creativity

behaviorists'viewof,7,28889

effectson,of:

choice,222

control,151,193

performanceorientation,157

praise,98,99

rewards,4445,47,6267,157,29394n40,369n14

incompletingboringtasks,88,191,225

Crimes,rewardsforsolving,259

Criticism.SeeFailure:feedbackabout

Cryinginfants,respondingto,240

Curriculum,qualityof,21621,22526,32728n14

Deadlines,80

Democracy

teachingof,24950

vs.useofrewards,30

vs.voting,249,347n45

intheworkplace,19697

Difficultyoftasks,4647.

SeealsoChallenge,preferencefor

Discipline,16465,16869,22839,268,341n49

SeealsoControl:ofchildren

Distractioneffectofrewards,49

 Page419

Economics

andbehaviorism,1415

andcommitmenttorewards,12122

anddemocracy,197

andeducationalgoals,322n20

andfairnessinrewarddistribution,22

andincentives,123n

andviewofworkasdisutility,131,316n64

Education.SeeGradesLearningSchoolTeaching

Effort

gradesfor,2089

praising,9899n

relationof,tooutcomeforintrinsicallymotivatedchildren,306n102

Empathy,244,34546n27.

SeealsoPerspectivetaking

Encouragementvs.praise,9697,11114,369n9

Equityprinciple(forresourcedistribution),2124,53

Equitytheory(insocialpsychology),287n26,311n5

Evaluation.

SeealsoGradesPerformance:effectsoffocusonPerformanceappraisalTests

effectsofexpectationof,7980

effectswhenunfavorable,136

emphasison,vs.onlearning,112,15759,2023,208

participationin,ofone'sownwork,94,185,209

inschool,112,15759,2013,2089,337n11

unavoidablesubjectivityof,2012,315n45

intheworkplace,12829,136,18486

Exercising

effectsofrewardson,259

significanceofchoicein,248

Expectancytheory,311n5

Explanation

asalternativetorelianceonpower,191n,236,24142

inductive,236,345n18

forschoolassignments,212

Extrinsicmotivation:significanceofcontrastbetweenintrinsicmotivationand,25758

Extrinsicmotivators.SeePunishmentRewards

Extrinsicorientation

attributionof,toeveryone,278

effectsof,45,95

increasein,withageofchild,91,144

reasonsfor,9192,141,15051,200

Failure

feedbackabout,108,109n,309n41

andperformancecontingentrewards,86

Fear

deliberateuseof,asmotivator,13536,184,201

offailureasmaladaptive,136,158,159,213

ofgivingupcontrolofchildren,254

performanceappraisalsascauseof,129,184,332n10

vs.safetyforchildren,203,239,324n45

ofspoilingchildren,11415,240

 Page420

Feedback.SeeInformationalfeedback

Foods

preferencesamong,andeffectsofrewards,72,77

useof,asreward,11,6566,73,75,77

Freeenterprise.SeeEconomics

Gaming,139

Garbagecollectors,motivationof,191

Genderdifferences

incriteriaforrewarddistribution,22

ineffectsofpraise,106

ineffectsofrewards,75

Generosity

effectofpraiseon,102,106,30910n44

effectofrewardson,16,17374,255

andintrinsicvs.extrinsicmotivation,350n18

promotionof,23948,252

Grades

comparativeandcompetitive,93,15758,209

dependenceon,200,2046

effectsof:

onachievementandlearning,152,157,201,268,271,338n15

oncheating,204,268

onconcernforothers,255

oncontroloverone'sfate,204

onpleasurefromaccomplishment,204

onpreferenceforchallengeandexploration,66,151,15859,268

onreactiontofailure,158

onselfesteem,159

onstudentteacherrelationship,204

foreffort,2089

eliminationof,200201,206,20910,255

emphasison,byteachersandparents,200,205,207

implicationsof,forhighachievers,15859,2046,211

vs.informationalfeedback,2023

justificationsfor,2013,210

minimizingharmsof,20610,337n5

perceivedsignificanceof,158,200,202,2046

andperformanceorientation,2023,271

rewardsfor,11,138,207,270

studentinvolvementindetermining,209

uninformativenatureof,2012

asunnecessaryforcollegeadmission,210,339n27

usedtosortstudents,2012

GroupInvestigation,343n76

HarvardBusinessReview,257,259

HeadStart,70

Hierarchyinorganizations,184,196,202,336n54

Hyperactivity,effectofrewardson,154

Ignoringbehavior,329n20

Immunizationagainsteffectsofrewards,94

 Page421

Incentives.

SeealsoRewardstobusinesses,123n

toemployees.SeePayforperformance

towelfarerecipients,61

Incidentallearning,6263,64

Informationalfeedback

andperformanceorientation,15657,211

vs.praise,96,1078,109n,110,310n52

productiveresponseto,211,321n12

fromrewards,7879

usefulnessof,1078,187,211

withoutrewards,86,18586,202,211,295

Interest.

SeealsoIntrinsicmotivation

effectofrewardson,6995

effectofvariouscontrollingstrategieson,7981,86

Internalizationofrulesandvalues,25052,29394,327n5,333n26

Intrinsicmotivation

behaviorists'denialof,290,303

definitionsof,68,29092,296

asgoalinitself,147

asindividualisticconcept,29495

asirrelevanttocertaingoals,29394

lackofdesiretopromote,bymanagers,333n26

tolearn,14448,21721

limitsofcontrastbetweenextrinsicmotivationand,29495,300n19,349n7

andmeaningfulnessofwork,189,295

measurementof,29293

vs.persistenceattask,101,293,301

aspositiveaffect,300301n25,349n3

andprocessproductdistinction,29596,350n18

promotionof,9092,94,138,200,207,211,213

relationtoachievement,6869,14447,321n12

relationtoinformationalfeedback,1078,339n31

relationtoselfdetermination,79,90,91,19293,291,306n102

vs.reportedsatisfaction,298n1

significanceofcontrastbetweenextrinsicmotivationand,25758

socialcontextof,189,192,295

asunderminedby:

controllingstrategies,15051

performanceorientation,15759,271

praise,99101,107

rewards,6995,148,175,258,301304

''Justworld''phenomenon,20

Kefirstudy,72,77

LawofEffect,4,311n5

Learnfare,269,296n27

Learning

active,21112

behavioristmodelof,21314,299300

 Page422

Learning,(cont.)

constructivistmodelof,219,222,223,299300,297n45

cooperative,54,21416,223,246,340n42

asdiscovery,21113

effectofcurriculumon,21621,22526

effectofdisciplinesystemon,328n14

effectson:

ofchoice,22223

ofcontrollingpractices,14855

ofcooperationvs.competition,21415

ofgrades,20610

ofperformanceemphasis,15559,2023,211,271

ofpraise,98101

ofsortingstudents,202

evidenceofsuccessful,146,207

asfun,145,32122n16

incidental,623,64

andmotivation,14448,198200,321n12

ofpositivevalues,23948

promotionof,21126

teachers'beliefsabout,226

Learningdisabilities,15354

Learningstyles,9092

Literature,prosocial,247

Logicalconsequences,16973

Love,unconditional,vs.praise,113

Managementbyobjectives,139,335n48

MarshallIndustries,264

Meritpay.SeePayforperformance

Mistakes,attitudetoward,21213

Modeling

toenhancelearning,212

ofperspectivetaking,24445

ofpositivevalues,24041

ofuseofrewards,15

Money

explanationsforinterestin,76,13233,141

extentofinterestin,13032,266,278,371n39

genuineneedfor,76,130,316n58

motivationand,13334,139,18283,266

andrecommendedcompensationpolicy,18283

Motivation.

SeealsoExtrinsicorientationIntrinsicmotivationRewards:effectsof,oninterestintasks

andcontentoftasks,18992,21721

differentkindsvs.differentamountsof,8889,145,257

goalswithrespectto,9192,19697,226

identicaltheoryof,underlyingrewardsandpunishments,51,136

identicaltheoryof,underlyingselectiveandindiscriminatereinforcement,11516

impossibilityofimposingonpeople,1617,181,19899

inadequacyofcarrotandstick

 Page423

modelof,2526,67,119,andpassim

tolearn,14448,198200,21114,221,224,226,321n9

andmoney,13334,139,18283,266

asnatural,25,131,144,19899

relianceoncarrotandstickmodelof,1213,15,12022,127,13536,143,196,21314,226

ofstudents,impactofteachers'beliefsabout,324n52

ofteachers,impactofstudents'beliefsabout,153

tensionreductionmodelof,297n45

towork,13034,18697

Negativefeedback.SeeFailure:feedbackabout

Negativereinforcement,52n

NobelPrize,259

Obedience.SeeChoiceControl

Oldman,storyofthe,7172

Overjustificationhypothesis,300301n25

Parenting.SeeChildren

Participativemanagement.

SeealsoChoice:atwork

halfheartedversionsof,19596

aslegitimatinghierarchy,336n54

resultsof,19496

useofrewardstopromote,122,196

Patientcontrolledanalgesia,248

Payforperformance

absenceofdataon,124,265

angerinresponsetocriticismsof,259

asdifferentfromrewardsforchildren,299

effectsof,onproductivity,12226,141,26267,313n24

eliminationof,18283

expenseof,26364,315n42

inequitiesof,aspracticed,31415n40

asmanipulative,2627,267

modestcriticismsof,12021,259

vs.moneyperse,182,25960,301,332n3

motivatingpowerofmoneyaspremiseof,13034,266

qualitativevs.quantitativeeffectsof,124

reasonsforfailureof,12641,26567

satisfactionvs.disenchantmentwith,12324,26263,31213n23

assubstituteformanagement,16,263

widespreaduseof,13,12022,262

Performance

absolutevs.relative,93,137n

effectsoffocuson,80,15559,2023,211,271,297n43,326n80

paymenttiedto.SeePayforperformance

atworkandrelationtosatisfaction,29798n1

 Page424

Performanceappraisal,12829,136,18386,267n,315n45

Performancecontingentrewards,45,8587.

SeealsoPayforperformance

Permissiveness,fearof,2021,163

Perspectivetaking,166,24345,27273

Pieceworkpay,12425.

SeealsoPayforperformance

PlannedParenthood,12

Politicalimplicationsofrewards,2930

Popbehaviorism.SeeBehaviorism:vs.popbehaviorismRewards

Positivefeedback.SeeInformationalfeedback

PotatochipsresemblingElvisPresley,333n27

Pottytraining,rewardsusedfor,87

Power.

SeealsoControl

andemphasisonchildren'scompliance,16364,23134,25455

relative,ofrewarder,28,36,54,5759,1023

anduseofpunishment,16769,170n,23132

Praise

asabsentinsomecultures,111n

ofactionsvs.people,108

andage,26162,308n33

asbenefitinggivervs.recipient,97,107,11213,273

competitiveandcomparative,11011

ascontrolling,100101,1045,109n,110,27374,308n23

criticismofindiscriminate,11416

Decion,308n23

definitionsof,96,99100,309n38,370n17

dispositional,30910n44

anddesiretoplease,104

aseasytogive,112,273

effectsof:

onachievement,98101

onassumptionsaboutability,98

oncommitmenttoabehavior,102,105

oncreativity,98,99

onfeelingsofpressure,99,109n

ongenerosity,102,106,30910n44

oninterestintask,99101,107,110,261

onlevelofinsecurity,1045

onneedforapproval,99,1045,10910

onpreferenceforchallenge,99

onrelationships,11011

onselfesteem,98,102

ofeffortvs.ability,9899n

vs.encouragement,9697,11114,369n9

expectationof,100101

asfavoredbyautocraticindividuals,51,103n

andfearofspoiling,11416

andgender,106

vs.informationalfeedback,96

 Page425

1056,1078,110,261,274,279

asjudgment,1023,27374

vs.otherrewards,97,100101

phony,10910

public,110

purposeof,97

resistanceandnegativereactionsto,1024

responsesto,asvariable,100,102,1056

salienceof,100101

andselfdetermination,1067,274

andsocialclass,308n33

specificityof,103,1089

vs.unconditionallove,113,274

widespreaduseof,13,97,11214,273,331n44

intheworkplace,98

PreparationH,205

Problemsolving

asalternativetopunishment,23133,23738

ascollaborativeactivity,23638

rewardsassubstitutefor,5962,13839,175

useofperspectivetakingin,245

Profitsharingplans,183,195

Promotions,job,18485

Prosocialbehavior.SeeGenerosity

Psychotherapy,useofrewardsin,41

SeealsoBehaviortherapy

Punishment

advancewarningof,171

ascounterproductiveanddestructive,26,50,13536,161,16669,17173,23034

definitionof,167,170

effectof,onrelationships,58,167,23132,330n42

vs.explanationandproblemsolving,23133,24142

falselycounterposedtoinactionorpermissiveness,163,232,318n81

falselypresentedaschild's"choice,"23839

andhumannatureassumptions,21314,231,242

justificationsforusing,2021,171,23033

vs.negativereinforcement,52n

physical,165,16667

referredtoas"consequences,"165,16973

assimilartorewards,26,5054,58,59,136,173,17476

Skinner'sviewof,166

successof,atproducingcompliance,160,169,233

widespreaduseof,165

Race

extrinsicorientationand,300n24

rewards'effectsand,7576

useofrewardsand,269

Rankingofemployees,137.

SeealsoCompetition

Rationality,14,287n26

Readingincentiveprograms,11,6566,7374,26869

Recognizingexcellence,9293,11011,137

 Page426

Reinforcementsvs.rewards,5,300,285n4

Relationships

natureof,asrelevanttorewarddistribution,22

andpraise,1023,11011

punishment'seffectson,58,167,23132,330n42

rewards'effectson,26,28,5459,65n,77,13638,175,204,255.

SeealsoRewards:ascontrolling

useofrewardstoimprove,41

Religion

ifthencontingencyin,14

useofrewardstoundermineinterestin,73

Reportcards.SeeGrades

Respect

forauthoritywithoutreason,249

careasprequisitefor,239

foraswellasfromchildren,239n

asconfusedwithobedience,161n

lackof,shownbysomeparentingguides,229

lossof,foradultwhopunishes,166

shownbycollaboratingwithchildrentosolveproblems,232

shownbyofferingchoices,194,221

shownbyofferingreasons,212

Responsecosts,52,330n37

Responsibility

asconfusedwithobedience,16162

effecton,ofrewards,punishment,andotherformsofcontrol,162,168,17173,174,175,249

vs.intrinsicmotivation,294

promotionof,224,24952

taking,forothers,241,243.

SeealsoCooperation

Rewards

adhominemattacksoncriticsof,25960

alternativesto:

complexityofspecifying,60,17980,267

formanagingemployees,18197

forraisingchildren,22856

forteachingstudents,199200,20613,21415,21821

appealof,vs.ofbeingrewarded,4,83,174,313n23

assumptionsaboutothers'interestin,13032,226,265

andattitudechange,4142

basesfordistributing,2123,45,8587,128

behaviorismand,3,45,10,11,62,121

beliefineffectivenessof,16,226,25960.

SeealsoRewards:popularityof

asbenefitingrewarder,2829,97,162,267,273

"bonuseffect"of,7778

forboringtasks,8790

forchildrenvs.adults,279

choicesabout,85,9394

collective,56

competitiveandcomparative,5557,137

conservativeimplicationsofuseof,2930

 Page427

ascontrolling,2634,5152,7879,81,8485,86,89,9394,136,140,149,174,267

forcooperation,55n,122,18889,21516,34041n44

criteriaforjudgingeffectsof,37

definitionof,4,53

asdehumanizing,2530

dependenceon,17,26n,8384,9192,15051,15455,200,303,291n9

anddifferencesofage,gender,raceandclass,7576,269,331n44,372n44

asdistracting,49

as"earned,"23

aseasytouse,1617,5962,112

effectsof:

onbehaviorchange,3642,87,300

oncreativity,4445,47,6267,157,29394n40,369n14

ondevelopmentofvalues,41,161,17376,255

oninterestintasks,6995,14041,148,175,258,26061,301304,320n103

onperformanceoftasks,4248,6263,87,12226,141,153,154,300

onpreferenceforchallenge,6567,13940,297n43

onproductiveevaluation,203

onpsychologicalwellbeing,95

onrelationships,26,28,5459,65n,77,13638,175255

eliminationof,18283,199200,20610,25556,27475

endogenous,93

expectedvs.unexpected,53,9293,301

andfocusonperformance,15559,271

andhumannatureassumptions,2526,41,115,158,21314,286n18

immunitytonegativeeffectsof,94

andinterestleveloftasks,8790

asjustdeserts,2024

justificationsforusing,26971,27784,36970n15

levelofinterestin,13032,226

lifelongstruggletoattain,2046

longtermvs.shorttermeffectsof,17,3542,46,74,82,128,273,302

andmeansendcontingency,7678,84,140,148n,301

minimizingadverseeffectsof,31,9294

moralvs.practicalargumentsfor,19,2324,34

newactivitiesasaffectedby,74,82,150

observingsomeoneelse'sreceiptof,74

performancecontingent,45,8587,261

 Page428

Rewards,(cont.)

popularityof,1113

citedinresponsetocriticisms,260

tochangebehavior,12,173,22829,268,272,331n44

toimproveperformanceatwork,1213,12022,26263,267

topromotelearningatschool,11,143,153,26869

aspunitiveorsimilartopunishment,26,5054,58,59,13536,173,17476

qualitativevs.quantitativecriteriafor,85

qualitativevs.quantitativeeffectsof,44,46,124

reasonsforineffectivenessof,4976,12641

reasonsfornegativeeffectoninterest,7679,140,148,300301n25

reasonsforpopularityof,1318,60,16264,25758

vs.reinforcements,5,280,285n4

andrisktaking,6267,99,13940,174n

salienceof,92

forscientificaccomplishment,259

selfadministered,8485

asselfperpetuating,17,26n,8384,141,15051

forsolvingcrimes,259

inspecialeducationprograms,15355,325n64

assubstitutesforanalysisandproblemsolving,5962,13839,175

successof,atproducingcompliance,1516,41,160,162,17980

symbolicvs.tangible,302303

temporaryuseof,8283

useof,topromotechoice,196

useof,withatriskstudents,270

withdrawnorwithheld,5253,136,17475

asworsethandoingnothing,39,40,162,175,180

Risktaking,rewardsand,6267,99,13940,174n

Rulesforchildren

creationof,byadultsalonevs.withchildren,33,165,236,247,250,25253

disadvantagesoflisting,164,171

expectationofblindconformityto,162,165,249

explainingjustificationfor,236

internalizationof,25052,29394,327n5

punishmentforbreaking,16768,231

questioningreasonablenessof,22930,23435

relationshipbetweenchildandadultwhoenforces,5759,167

Safety.SeeFear:vs.safetyforchildren

Salienceofrewardsorpraise,92,100101

School.

SeealsoControl:ineducationCurriculum,quality

 Page429

ofGradesLearningTeaching

"backtobasics"movementin,115n,326n82,32728n14

businessgoalsandmodelsin,322n20,32223n29,33637n1

caringcommunitiesin,24547,340n43

competitionin,93,151,157,209,214,220,226

cooperationin,54,21416,243

emphasisoncontrolvs.choicein,16365,250,253

incentivesforattendance,61

influenceofbehaviorismin,21314,32728n14

punishmentin,16566,232n

rewardsin,11,6566,74,82,8384,8991,143,151n,15354,17376,268

strategiesforpromotionofpositivevaluesin,23948

Scientism,910

Seatbeltuse,useofrewardstopromote,4041

Selfcenteredness.

SeealsoGenerosity

asoutcomeofpunitiveconsequences,17273

Selfdetermination.

SeealsoChoiceControl

denialof,bybehaviorists,84,289n19

effectofrewardson,7879,90,15455,162

effectofvariouscontrollingpracticeson,7981,91,150,169,170n

andevaluation,194,209

illusorysenseof,195,25455

andinterestleveloftask,305n82,306n96

lackof,bymanagers,333n26

needfor,78,191,19293,24850,294

andpraisevs.encouragement,96,1067

promotionof,90,96,19397,22324,25052

resistanceto,25354

trendtowardemphasison,inparenting,254n

Selfesteem,102,115

Selffulfillingprophecy

assumptionsaboutchildren'smotivesas,24243

useofrewardsas,17,26n,8384,141

Selfinterest,15,242,287n26

Sexdifferences.SeeGenderdifferences

Sleep,children's,37273n58

Smokingcessation

importanceofselfdeterminationin,347n37

useofrewardstopromote,40,259

Socialclass

effectsofpraiseand,308n33

effectsofrewardsand,7576,331n44

useofrewardsand,269

Specialeducation,15355,325n64

Spoiling,fearof,11416,240

Surveillance,79,81

Symptomsubstitution,60

Teaching.

SeealsoLearningSchool

 Page430

Teaching,(cont.)

andbeliefsaboutstudents'motives,271,324n52

andchoicesforstudents,22126,250,253

constructivistmodelof,219,223,299300,297n45

andcreationofcaringcommunities,24547

anddemandforquiet,21315,327n8

effectsofcontrollingstrategieson,153,159,163,221,346n36

andemphasisongrades,200,20510

highquality,effectofextrinsicdisciplinesystemon,328n14

motivationfor,students'beliefsabout,153

vs.parenting,163

ofperspectivetaking,245

useofcontrollingstrategiesin,16365,221,328n14

useofcooperationvs.competitionin,21416,243

useoffeedbackin,309n42

useofrewardstoimprove,44,126,143

andvalueofwhatistaught,21521,22526,271

"Teamplayer,"meaningof,188n

Teamwork.SeeCooperation

Tests.

SeealsoEvaluation

lackofneedforinschool,203

relationtolearning,157,200

standardized:

effectsof,oncurriculum,217,337n11

pressuresassociatedwith,159

scoreson,ofextrinsicallyorientedstudents,45

scoreson,ofstudentsgivenchoices,223,34243n72

useof,asreflectionofbehaviorism,21314

timingof,208

useof,tocoercestudenteffort,8384,149,208

TheoriesXandY,121,333n17

Threats,79,17071.

SeealsoPunishment

"Timeout"tacticwithchildren,328n17

Tokeneconomies,5n,27,3839,138

TotalQualityManagement(TQM)

andabolitionofpayforperformance,183

anddifferencebetweenworkplaceandschool,33637n1

andparticipatorymanagement,335n44

useofrewardstopromote,122

Values.SeeChildren:valuesof

Violence.SeeAggression

Voting,reasonstoavoid,249,347n45

WaldenTwo,11,30n,28687

Weightloss,useofrewardstopromote,3940,259

Work

behavioristaccountof,120,141

 Page431

contentof,18992,295

motivationtodo,13034,18697

restructuring,190

satisfactionwith,29798n1,316n66,31617n68

Zeigarnikeffect,296n37