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Alternatingcurrent
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Alternatingcurrent(AC),isanelectriccurrentinwhichtheflow
ofelectricchargeperiodicallyreversesdirection,whereasindirect
current(DC,alsodc),theflowofelectricchargeisonlyinone
direction.TheabbreviationsACandDCareoftenusedtomean
simplyalternatinganddirect,aswhentheymodifycurrentor
voltage.[1][2]

ACistheforminwhichelectricpowerisdeliveredtobusinesses Alternatingcurrent(greencurve).
andresidences.Theusualwaveformofalternatingcurrentinmost Thehorizontalaxismeasurestime
electricpowercircuitsisasinewave.Incertainapplications, thevertical,currentorvoltage.
differentwaveformsareused,suchastriangularorsquarewaves.

Audioandradiosignalscarriedonelectricalwiresarealsoexamplesofalternatingcurrent.Thesetypesof
alternatingcurrentcarryinformationencoded(ormodulated)ontotheACsignal,suchassound(audio)or
images(video).Thesecurrentstypicallyalternateathigherfrequenciesthanthoseusedinpower
transmission.

Contents

1 Transmission,distribution,anddomesticpowersupply

2 ACpowersupplyfrequencies

3 Effectsathighfrequencies

3.1 TechniquesforreducingACresistance

4 MathematicsofACvoltages

4.1 Power

4.2 Rootmeansquare

4.3 Example

5 Informationtransmission

6 History

6.1 DCdistributionsystems

6.2 Transformers

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6.3 Pioneers

7 Seealso

8 References

9 Furtherreading

10 Externallinks

Transmission,distribution,anddomesticpowersupply
ElectricpowerisdistributedasalternatingcurrentbecauseACvoltagemaybeincreasedordecreasedwith
atransformer.Thisallowsthepowertobetransmittedthroughpowerlinesefficientlyathighvoltage,
whichreducesthepowerlostasheatduetoresistanceofthewire,andtransformedtoalower,safer,
voltageforuse.Useofahighervoltageleadstosignificantlymoreefficienttransmissionofpower.The
powerlosses( )inaconductorareaproductofthesquareofthecurrent(I)andtheresistance(R)ofthe
conductor,describedbytheformula

Thismeansthatwhentransmittingafixedpoweronagivenwire,ifthecurrentisdoubled,thepowerloss
willbefourtimesgreater.

Thepowertransmittedisequaltotheproductofthecurrentandthevoltage(assumingnophasedifference)
thatis,

Consequentlypowertransmittedatahighervoltagerequireslesslossproducingcurrentthanforthesame
poweratalowervoltage.Powerisoftentransmittedathundredsofkilovolts,andtransformedto100240
voltsfordomesticuse.

Highvoltageshavedisadvantages,themainonebeingtheincreasedinsulationrequired,andgenerally
increaseddifficultyintheirsafehandling.Inapowerplant,powerisgeneratedataconvenientvoltagefor
thedesignofagenerator,andthensteppeduptoahighvoltagefortransmission.Neartheloads,the
transmissionvoltageissteppeddowntothevoltagesusedbyequipment.Consumervoltagesvary
dependingonthecountryandsizeofload,butgenerallymotorsandlightingarebuilttouseuptoafew
hundredvoltsbetweenphases.

Theutilizationvoltagedeliveredtoequipmentsuchaslightingandmotorloadsisstandardized,withan
allowablerangeofvoltageoverwhichequipmentisexpectedtooperate.Standardpowerutilization
voltagesandpercentagetolerancevaryinthedifferentmainspowersystemsfoundintheworld.

Highvoltagedirectcurrent(HVDC)electricpowertransmissionsystemshavebecomeviableas
technologyprovidedefficientmeansofchangingthevoltageofDCpower.HVDCsystems,however,tend
tobemoreexpensiveandlessefficientovershorterdistancesthantransformers.Transmissionwithhigh
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voltagedirectcurrentwasnotfeasiblewhenEdison,Westinghouse
andTeslaweredesigningtheirpowersystems,astherewasthenno
economicallyviablewaytochangethevoltageofDC.

Threephaseelectricalgenerationisverycommon.Thesimplest
wayistousethreeseparatecoilsinthegeneratorstator,physically
offsetbyanangleof120(onethirdofacomplete360phase)to
eachother.Threecurrentwaveformsareproducedthatareequalin
magnitudeand120outofphasetoeachother.Ifcoilsareadded
oppositetothese(60spacing),theygeneratethesamephaseswith
reversepolarityandsocanbesimplywiredtogether. Highvoltagetransmissionlines
deliverpowerfromelectric
Inpractice,higher"poleorders"arecommonlyused.Forexample,a generationplantsoverlongdistances
12polemachinewouldhave36coils(10spacing).Theadvantage usingalternatingcurrent.These
isthatlowerrotationalspeedscanbeusedtogeneratethesame particularlinesarelocatedineastern
frequency.Forexample,a2polemachinerunningat3600rpmand Utah.
a12polemachinerunningat600rpmproducethesamefrequency
thelowerspeedispreferableforlargermachines.

Iftheloadonathreephasesystemisbalancedequallyamongthephases,nocurrentflowsthroughthe
neutralpoint.Evenintheworstcaseunbalanced(linear)load,theneutralcurrentwillnotexceedthe
highestofthephasecurrents.Nonlinearloads(e.g.,theswitchmodepowersupplieswidelyused)may
requireanoversizedneutralbusandneutralconductorintheupstreamdistributionpaneltohandle
harmonics.Harmonicscancauseneutralconductorcurrentlevelstoexceedthatofoneorallphase
conductors.

Forthreephaseatutilizationvoltagesafourwiresystemisoftenused.Whensteppingdownthreephase,a
transformerwithaDelta(3wire)primaryandaStar(4wire,centerearthed)secondaryisoftenusedso
thereisnoneedforaneutralonthesupplyside.

Forsmallercustomers(justhowsmallvariesbycountryandageoftheinstallation)onlyasinglephaseand
neutral,ortwophasesandneutral,aretakentotheproperty.Forlargerinstallationsallthreephasesand
neutralaretakentothemaindistributionpanel.Fromthethreephasemainpanel,bothsingleandthree
phasecircuitsmayleadoff.

Threewiresinglephasesystems,withasinglecentertappedtransformergivingtwoliveconductors,isa
commondistributionschemeforresidentialandsmallcommercialbuildingsinNorthAmerica.This
arrangementissometimesincorrectlyreferredtoas"twophase".Asimilarmethodisusedforadifferent
reasononconstructionsitesintheUK.Smallpowertoolsandlightingaresupposedtobesuppliedbya
localcentertappedtransformerwithavoltageof55Vbetweeneachpowerconductorandearth.This
significantlyreducestheriskofelectricshockintheeventthatoneoftheliveconductorsbecomesexposed
throughanequipmentfaultwhilststillallowingareasonablevoltageof110Vbetweenthetwoconductors
forrunningthetools.

Athirdwire,calledthebond(orearth)wire,isoftenconnectedbetweennoncurrentcarryingmetal
enclosuresandearthground.Thisconductorprovidesprotectionfromelectricshockduetoaccidental
contactofcircuitconductorswiththemetalchassisofportableappliancesandtools.Bondingallnon
currentcarryingmetalpartsintoonecompletesystemensuresthereisalwaysalowelectricalimpedance
pathtogroundsufficienttocarryanyfaultcurrentforaslongasittakesforthesystemtoclearthefault.
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Thislowimpedancepathallowsthemaximumamountoffaultcurrent,causingtheovercurrentprotection
device(breakers,fuses)totriporburnoutasquicklyaspossible,bringingtheelectricalsystemtoasafe
state.Allbondwiresarebondedtogroundatthemainservicepanel,asistheNeutral/Identifiedconductor
ifpresent.

ACpowersupplyfrequencies
Thefrequencyoftheelectricalsystemvariesbycountryandsometimeswithinacountrymostelectric
powerisgeneratedateither50or60hertz.Somecountrieshaveamixtureof50Hzand60Hzsupplies,
notablyelectricitypowertransmissioninJapan.

Alowfrequencyeasesthedesignofelectricmotors,particularlyforhoisting,crushingandrolling
applications,andcommutatortypetractionmotorsforapplicationssuchasrailways.However,low
frequencyalsocausesnoticeableflickerinarclampsandincandescentlightbulbs.Theuseoflower
frequenciesalsoprovidedtheadvantageoflowerimpedancelosses,whichareproportionaltofrequency.
TheoriginalNiagaraFallsgeneratorswerebuilttoproduce25Hzpower,asacompromisebetweenlow
frequencyfortractionandheavyinductionmotors,whilestillallowingincandescentlightingtooperate
(althoughwithnoticeableflicker).Mostofthe25HzresidentialandcommercialcustomersforNiagara
Fallspowerwereconvertedto60Hzbythelate1950s,althoughsome25Hzindustrialcustomersstill
existedasofthestartofthe21stcentury.16.7Hzpower(formerly162/3Hz)isstillusedinsome
Europeanrailsystems,suchasinAustria,Germany,Norway,SwedenandSwitzerland.

Offshore,military,textileindustry,marine,aircraft,andspacecraftapplicationssometimesuse400Hz,for
benefitsofreducedweightofapparatusorhighermotorspeeds.

Computermainframesystemsareoftenpoweredby415Hz,usingcustomersupplied35or70KVAmotor
generatorsets.[3]Smallermainframesmayhaveaninternal415HzMGset.Inanycase,theinputtotheM
Gsetisthelocalcustomaryvoltageandfrequency,variously200(Japan),208,240(NorthAmerica),380,
400or415(Europe)volts,andvariously50or60Hz.

Effectsathighfrequencies
Adirectcurrentflowsuniformlythroughoutthecrosssectionofauniformwire.Analternatingcurrentof
anyfrequencyisforcedawayfromthewire'scenter,towarditsoutersurface.Thisisbecausethe
accelerationofanelectricchargeinanalternatingcurrentproduceswavesofelectromagneticradiationthat
cancelthepropagationofelectricitytowardthecenterofmaterialswithhighconductivity.This
phenomenoniscalledskineffect.

Atveryhighfrequenciesthecurrentnolongerflowsinthewire,buteffectivelyflowsonthesurfaceofthe
wire,withinathicknessofafewskindepths.Theskindepthisthethicknessatwhichthecurrentdensityis
reducedby63%.Evenatrelativelylowfrequenciesusedforpowertransmission(5060Hz),nonuniform
distributionofcurrentstilloccursinsufficientlythickconductors.Forexample,theskindepthofacopper
conductorisapproximately8.57mmat60Hz,sohighcurrentconductorsareusuallyhollowtoreducetheir
massandcost.

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Sincethecurrenttendstoflowintheperipheryofconductors,theeffectivecrosssectionoftheconductoris
reduced.ThisincreasestheeffectiveACresistanceoftheconductor,sinceresistanceisinversely
proportionaltothecrosssectionalarea.TheACresistanceoftenismanytimeshigherthantheDC
resistance,causingamuchhigherenergylossduetoohmicheating(alsocalledI2Rloss).

TechniquesforreducingACresistance

Forlowtomediumfrequencies,conductorscanbedividedintostrandedwires,eachinsulatedfromone
other,andtherelativepositionsofindividualstrandsspeciallyarrangedwithintheconductorbundle.Wire
constructedusingthistechniqueiscalledLitzwire.Thismeasurehelpstopartiallymitigateskineffectby
forcingmoreequalcurrentthroughoutthetotalcrosssectionofthestrandedconductors.Litzwireisused
formakinghighQinductors,reducinglossesinflexibleconductorscarryingveryhighcurrentsatlower
frequencies,andinthewindingsofdevicescarryinghigherradiofrequencycurrent(uptohundredsof
kilohertz),suchasswitchmodepowersuppliesandradiofrequencytransformers.

Techniquesforreducingradiationloss

Aswrittenabove,analternatingcurrentismadeofelectricchargeunderperiodicacceleration,which
causesradiationofelectromagneticwaves.Energythatisradiatedislost.Dependingonthefrequency,
differenttechniquesareusedtominimizethelossduetoradiation.

Twistedpairs

Atfrequenciesuptoabout1GHz,pairsofwiresaretwistedtogetherinacable,formingatwistedpair.This
reduceslossesfromelectromagneticradiationandinductivecoupling.Atwistedpairmustbeusedwitha
balancedsignallingsystem,sothatthetwowirescarryequalbutoppositecurrents.Eachwireinatwisted
pairradiatesasignal,butitiseffectivelycancelledbyradiationfromtheotherwire,resultinginalmostno
radiationloss.

Coaxialcables

Coaxialcablesarecommonlyusedataudiofrequenciesandaboveforconvenience.Acoaxialcablehasa
conductivewireinsideaconductivetube,separatedbyadielectriclayer.Thecurrentflowingontheinner
conductorisequalandoppositetothecurrentflowingontheinnersurfaceofthetube.Theelectromagnetic
fieldisthuscompletelycontainedwithinthetube,and(ideally)noenergyislosttoradiationorcoupling
outsidethetube.Coaxialcableshaveacceptablysmalllossesforfrequenciesuptoabout5GHz.For
microwavefrequenciesgreaterthan5GHz,thelosses(duemainlytotheelectricalresistanceofthecentral
conductor)becometoolarge,makingwaveguidesamoreefficientmediumfortransmittingenergy.Coaxial
cableswithanairratherthansoliddielectricarepreferredastheytransmitpowerwithlowerloss.

Waveguides

Waveguidesaresimilartocoaxcables,asbothconsistoftubes,withthebiggestdifferencebeingthatthe
waveguidehasnoinnerconductor.Waveguidescanhaveanyarbitrarycrosssection,butrectangularcross
sectionsarethemostcommon.Becausewaveguidesdonothaveaninnerconductortocarryareturn
current,waveguidescannotdeliverenergybymeansofanelectriccurrent,butratherbymeansofaguided
electromagneticfield.Althoughsurfacecurrentsdoflowontheinnerwallsofthewaveguides,those
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surfacecurrentsdonotcarrypower.Poweriscarriedbytheguidedelectromagneticfields.Thesurface
currentsaresetupbytheguidedelectromagneticfieldsandhavetheeffectofkeepingthefieldsinsidethe
waveguideandpreventingleakageofthefieldstothespaceoutsidethewaveguide.

Waveguideshavedimensionscomparabletothewavelengthofthealternatingcurrenttobetransmitted,so
theyareonlyfeasibleatmicrowavefrequencies.Inadditiontothismechanicalfeasibility,electrical
resistanceofthenonidealmetalsformingthewallsofthewaveguidecausedissipationofpower(surface
currentsflowingonlossyconductorsdissipatepower).Athigherfrequencies,thepowerlosttothis
dissipationbecomesunacceptablylarge.

Fiberoptics

Atfrequenciesgreaterthan200GHz,waveguidedimensionsbecomeimpracticallysmall,andtheohmic
lossesinthewaveguidewallsbecomelarge.Instead,fiberoptics,whichareaformofdielectric
waveguides,canbeused.Forsuchfrequencies,theconceptsofvoltagesandcurrentsarenolongerused.

MathematicsofACvoltages
Alternatingcurrentsareaccompanied(orcaused)byalternating
voltages.AnACvoltagevcanbedescribedmathematicallyasa
functionoftimebythefollowingequation:

where

isthepeakvoltage(unit:volt),
istheangularfrequency(unit:radianspersecond)
Theangularfrequencyisrelatedtothephysical
frequency, (unit=hertz),whichrepresentsthe
numberofcyclespersecond,bytheequation
. Asinusoidalalternatingvoltage.
isthetime(unit:second). 1=peak,alsoamplitude,
2=peaktopeak,
ThepeaktopeakvalueofanACvoltageisdefinedasthe 3=effectivevalue,
differencebetweenitspositivepeakanditsnegativepeak.Sincethe 4=Period
maximumvalueof is+1andtheminimumvalueis1,an
ACvoltageswingsbetween and .Thepeaktopeakvoltage,usuallywrittenas or
,istherefore .

Power

Therelationshipbetweenvoltageandthepowerdeliveredis

where representsaloadresistance.

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Ratherthanusinginstantaneouspower, ,itismorepracticalto
useatimeaveragedpower(wheretheaveragingisperformedover
anyintegernumberofcycles).Therefore,ACvoltageisoften
expressedasarootmeansquare(RMS)value,writtenas ,
because

Asinewave,overonecycle(360).
Poweroscillation Thedashedlinerepresentstheroot
meansquare(RMS)valueatabout
0.707

Bythefollowingtrigonometricidentity,thepoweroscillationisdoublefrequencyofthevoltage.

Rootmeansquare
Forasinusoidalvoltage:

Thefactor iscalledthecrestfactor,whichvariesfordifferentwaveforms.

Foratrianglewaveformcenteredaboutzero

Forasquarewaveformcenteredaboutzero

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Foranarbitraryperiodicwaveform ofperiod :

Example

Toillustratetheseconcepts,considera230VACmainssupplyusedinmanycountriesaroundtheworld.It
issocalledbecauseitsrootmeansquarevalueis230V.Thismeansthatthetimeaveragedpowerdelivered
isequivalenttothepowerdeliveredbyaDCvoltageof230V.Todeterminethepeakvoltage(amplitude),
wecanrearrangetheaboveequationto:

For230VAC,thepeakvoltage istherefore ,whichisabout325V.

Informationtransmission
Alternatingcurrentisusedtotransmitinformation,asinthecasesoftelephoneandcabletelevision.
InformationsignalsarecarriedoverawiderangeofACfrequencies.POTStelephonesignalshavea
frequencyofabout3kilohertz,closetothebasebandaudiofrequency.Cabletelevisionandothercable
transmittedinformationcurrentsmayalternateatfrequenciesoftenstothousandsofmegahertz.These
frequenciesaresimilartotheelectromagneticwavefrequenciesoftenusedtotransmitthesametypesof
informationovertheair.

History
ThefirstalternatortoproducealternatingcurrentwasadynamoelectricgeneratorbasedonMichael
Faraday'sprinciplesconstructedbytheFrenchinstrumentmakerHippolytePixiiin1832.[4]Pixiilater
addedacommutatortohisdevicetoproducethe(then)morecommonlyuseddirectcurrent.Theearliest
recordedpracticalapplicationofalternatingcurrentisbyGuillaumeDuchenne,inventoranddeveloperof
electrotherapy.In1855,heannouncedthatACwassuperiortodirectcurrentforelectrotherapeutic
triggeringofmusclecontractions.[5]

AlternatingcurrenttechnologyhadfirstdevelopedinEuropeduetotheworkofGuillaumeDuchenne
(1850s),TheHungarianGanzWorks(1870s),SebastianZianideFerranti(1880s),LucienGaulard,and
GalileoFerraris.

In1876,RussianengineerPavelYablochkovinventedalightingsystembasedonasetofinductioncoils
wheretheprimarywindingswereconnectedtoasourceofAC.Thesecondarywindingscouldbeconnected
toseveral'electriccandles'(arclamps)ofhisowndesign.[6][7]ThecoilsYablochkovemployedfunctioned
essentiallyastransformers.[6]

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In1878,theGanzfactory,Budapest,Hungary,beganmanufacturingequipmentforelectriclightingand,by
1883,hadinstalledoverfiftysystemsinAustriaHungary.TheirACsystemsusedarcandincandescent
lamps,generators,andotherequipment.[8]

ApowertransformerdevelopedbyLucienGaulardandJohnDixonGibbswasdemonstratedinLondonin
1881,andattractedtheinterestofWestinghouse.TheyalsoexhibitedtheinventioninTurinin1884.

DCdistributionsystems

Duringtheinitialyearsofelectricitydistribution,Edison'sdirectcurrentwasthestandardfortheUnited
States,andEdisondidnotwanttoloseallhispatentroyalties.[9]Directcurrentworkedwellwith
incandescentlamps,whichweretheprincipalloadoftheday,andwithmotors.Directcurrentsystems
couldbedirectlyusedwithstoragebatteries,providingvaluableloadlevelingandbackuppowerduring
interruptionsofgeneratoroperation.Directcurrentgeneratorscouldbeeasilyparalleled,allowing
economicaloperationbyusingsmallermachinesduringperiodsoflightloadandimprovingreliability.At
theintroductionofEdison'ssystem,nopracticalACmotorwasavailable.Edisonhadinventedameterto
allowcustomerstobebilledforenergyproportionaltoconsumption,butthismeterworkedonlywithdirect
current.

Theprincipaldrawbackofdirectcurrentdistributionwasthatcustomerloads,distributionandgeneration
wereallatthesamevoltage.Generally,itwasuneconomicaltouseahighvoltagefortransmissionand
reduceitforcustomeruses.EvenwiththeEdison3wiresystem(placingtwo110voltcustomerloadsin
seriesona220voltsupply),thehighcostofconductorsrequiredgenerationtobeclosetocustomerloads,
otherwiselossesmadethesystemuneconomicaltooperate.

Transformers

Alternatingcurrentsystemscanusetransformerstochangevoltagefromlowtohighlevelandback,
allowinggenerationandconsumptionatlowvoltagesbuttransmission,possiblyovergreatdistances,at
highvoltage,withsavingsinthecostofconductorsandenergylosses.

AbipolaropencorepowertransformerdevelopedbyLucienGaulardandJohnDixonGibbswas
demonstratedinLondonin1881,andattractedtheinterestofWestinghouse.Theyalsoexhibitedthe
inventioninTurinin1884.Howevertheseearlyinductioncoilswithopenmagneticcircuitsareinefficient
attransferringpowertoloads.Untilabout1880,theparadigmforACpowertransmissionfromahigh
voltagesupplytoalowvoltageloadwasaseriescircuit.Opencoretransformerswitharationear1:1were
connectedwiththeirprimariesinseriestoallowuseofahighvoltagefortransmissionwhilepresentinga
lowvoltagetothelamps.Theinherentflawinthismethodwasthatturningoffasinglelamp(orother
electricdevice)affectedthevoltagesuppliedtoallothersonthesamecircuit.Manyadjustabletransformer
designswereintroducedtocompensateforthisproblematiccharacteristicoftheseriescircuit,including
thoseemployingmethodsofadjustingthecoreorbypassingthemagneticfluxaroundpartofacoil.[10]
Thedirectcurrentsystemsdidnothavethesedrawbacks,givingitsignificantadvantagesoverearlyAC
systems.

Pioneers

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Intheautumnof1884,
KrolyZipernowsky,Ott
BlthyandMiksaDri
(ZBD),threeengineers
associatedwiththeGanz
factory,determinedthat
opencoredeviceswere
impractical,astheywere
incapableofreliably TheHungarian"ZBD"Team(Kroly
regulatingvoltage.[11]In Zipernowsky,OttBlthy,Miksa
TheprototypeofZBD.transformeris theirjoint1885patent Dri).Theyweretheinventorsofthe
ondisplayattheSzchenyiIstvn applicationsfornovel firsthighefficiency,closedcore
MemorialExhibition,Nagycenk, transformers(latercalled shuntconnectiontransformer.The
Hungary ZBDtransformers),they threealsoinventedthemodernpower
describedtwodesignswith distributionsystem:Insteadofformer
closedmagneticcircuitswherecopperwindingswereeithera) seriesconnectiontheyconnect
woundaroundironwireringcoreorb)surroundedbyironwire transformersthatsupplythe
appliancesinparalleltothemain
core.[10]Inbothdesigns,themagneticfluxlinkingtheprimaryand
line.BlathyinventedtheAC
secondarywindingstraveledalmostentirelywithintheconfinesof
Wattmeter,andtheyinventedthe
theironcore,withnointentionalpaththroughair(seeToroidal
essentialConstantVoltageGenerator.
coresbelow).Thenewtransformerswere3.4timesmoreefficient
thantheopencorebipolardevicesofGaulardandGibbs.[12]

TheGanzfactoryin1884shippedtheworld'sfirstfivehighefficiencyACtransformers.[13]Thisfirstunit
hadbeenmanufacturedtothefollowingspecifications:1,400W,40Hz,120:72V,11.6:19.4A,ratio
1.67:1,onephase,shellform.[13]

TheZBDpatentsincludedtwoothermajorinterrelatedinnovations:oneconcerningtheuseofparallel
connected,insteadofseriesconnected,utilizationloads,theotherconcerningtheabilitytohavehighturns
ratiotransformerssuchthatthesupplynetworkvoltagecouldbemuchhigher(initially1,400to2,000V)
thanthevoltageofutilizationloads(100Vinitiallypreferred).[14][15]Whenemployedinparallelconnected
electricdistributionsystems,closedcoretransformersfinallymadeittechnicallyandeconomicallyfeasible
toprovideelectricpowerforlightinginhomes,businessesandpublicspaces.[16][17]

Theotheressentialmilestonewastheintroductionof'voltagesource,voltageintensive'(VSVI)systems'[18]
bytheinventionofconstantvoltagegeneratorsin1885.[19]OttBlthyalsoinventedthefirstACelectricity
meter.[20][21][22][23]

TheACpowersystemswasdevelopedandadoptedrapidlyafter1886duetoitsabilitytodistribute
electricityefficientlyoverlongdistances,overcomingthelimitationsofthedirectcurrentsystem.In1886,
theZBDengineersdesigned,andtheGanzfactorysuppliedelectricalequipmentfor,theworld'sfirstpower
stationthatusedACgeneratorstopoweraparallelconnectedcommonelectricalnetwork,thesteam
poweredRomeCerchipowerplant.[24]ThereliabilityoftheACtechnologyreceivedimpetusafterthe
GanzWorkselectrifiedalargeEuropeanmetropolis:Romein1886.[24]

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IntheUKSebastiandeFerranti,whohadbeendevelopingAC
generatorsandtransformersinLondonsince1882,redesignedthe
ACsystemattheGrosvenorGallerypowerstationin1886forthe
LondonElectricSupplyCorporation(LESCo)includingalternators
ofhisowndesignandtransformerdesignssimilartoGaulardand
Gibbs.[25]In1890hedesignedtheirpowerstationatDeptford[26]
andconvertedtheGrosvenorGallerystationacrosstheThamesinto
anelectricalsubstation,showingthewaytointegrateolderplants
intoauniversalACsupplysystem.[27]
ThecitylightsofPrinceGeorge,
IntheUSWilliamStanley,Jr.designedoneofthefirstpractical BritishColumbiaviewedinamotion
devicestotransferACpowerefficientlybetweenisolatedcircuits. blurredexposure.TheACblinking
Usingpairsofcoilswoundonacommonironcore,hisdesign, causesthelinestobedottedrather
calledaninductioncoil,wasanearly(1885)transformer.Stanley thancontinuous.
alsoworkedonengineeringandadaptingEuropeandesignssuchas
theGaulardandGibbstransformerforUSentrepreneurGeorge
WestinghousewhostartedbuildingACsystemsin1886.Thespread
ofWestinghouseandotherACsystemstriggeredapushbackinlate
1887byThomasEdison(aproponentofdirectcurrent)who
attemptedtodiscreditalternatingcurrentastoodangerousina
publiccampaigncalledthe"WarofCurrents".

In1888alternatingcurrentsystemsgainedfurtherviabilitywith
introductionofafunctionalACmotor,somethingthesesystemshad
lackeduptillthen.Thedesign,aninductionmotor,was
independentlyinventedbyGalileoFerrarisandNikolaTesla(with WestinghouseEarlyACSystem1887
Tesla'sdesignbeinglicensedbyWestinghouseintheUS).This (USpatent373035
designwasfurtherdevelopedintothemodernpracticalthreephase (http://www.pat2pdf.org/patents/pat3
formbyMikhailDolivoDobrovolskyandCharlesEugeneLancelot 73035.pdf))
Brown.[28]

TheAmesHydroelectricGeneratingPlant(springof1891)andtheoriginalNiagaraFallsAdamsPower
Plant(August25,1895)wereamongthefirsthydroelectricACpowerplants.Thefirstcommercialpower
plantintheUnitedStatesusingthreephasealternatingcurrentwasthehydroelectricMillCreekNo.1
HydroelectricPlantnearRedlands,California,in1893designedbyAlmirianDecker.Decker'sdesign
incorporated10,000voltthreephasetransmissionandestablishedthestandardsforthecompletesystemof
generation,transmissionandmotorsusedtoday.

TheJarugaHydroelectricPowerPlantinCroatiawassetinoperationon28August1895.Thetwo
generators(42Hz,550kWeach)andthetransformerswereproducedandinstalledbytheHungarian
companyGanz.ThetransmissionlinefromthepowerplanttotheCityofibenikwas11.5kilometers
(7.1mi)longonwoodentowers,andthemunicipaldistributiongrid3000V/110Vincludedsix
transformingstations.

Alternatingcurrentcircuittheorydevelopedrapidlyinthelatterpartofthe19thandearly20thcentury.
NotablecontributorstothetheoreticalbasisofalternatingcurrentcalculationsincludeCharlesSteinmetz,
OliverHeaviside,andmanyothers.[29][30]Calculationsinunbalancedthreephasesystemsweresimplified
bythesymmetricalcomponentsmethodsdiscussedbyCharlesLegeytFortescuein1918.
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Seealso
ACpower
Directcurrent
Electriccurrent
Electricalwiring
Heavydutypowerplugs
Hertz
Mainspowersystems
ACpowerplugsandsockets
Utilityfrequency
WarofCurrents
AC/DCreceiverdesign

References
1. N.N.Bhargava&D.C.Kulshreshtha(1983).BasicElectronics&LinearCircuits.TataMcGrawHill
Education.p.90.ISBN9780074519653.
2. NationalElectricLightAssociation(1915).Electricalmeterman'shandbook.TrowPress.p.81.
3. ThelargestcapacityfirstgenerationAmdahl(470V)requiredtwo70KVAMGsets
4. PixiiMachineinventedbyHippolytePixii,NationalHighMagneticFieldLaboratory
(http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/java/pixiimachine/index.html)
5. Licht,SidneyHerman.,"HistoryofElectrotherapy",inTherapeuticElectricityandUltravioletRadiation,2nded.,
ed.SidneyLicht,NewHaven:E.Licht,1967,Pp.170.
6. "StanleyTransformer".LosAlamosNationalLaboratoryUniversityofFlorida.RetrievedJan9,2009.
7. DeFonveille,W.(Jan22,1880)."GasandElectricityinParis".Nature21(534):283.
Bibcode:1880Natur..21..282D.doi:10.1038/021282b0.RetrievedJan9,2009.
8. Hughes,ThomasP.(1993).NetworksofPower:ElectrificationinWesternSociety,18801930.Baltimore:The
JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.p.96.ISBN0801828732.RetrievedSep9,2009.
9. McNichol,Tom(2006).AC/DC:thesavagetaleofthefirststandardswar.JohnWileyandSons.p.80.
ISBN9780787982676.
10. Uppenborn,F.J.(1889).HistoryoftheTransformer.London:E.&F.N.Spon.pp.3541.
11. Hughes,p.95
12. Jeszenszky,Sndor."ElectrostaticsandElectrodynamicsatPestUniversityintheMid19thCentury"(PDF).
UniversityofPavia.RetrievedMar3,2012.
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theAmericanInstituteofElectricalEngineers80(3):121125.doi:10.1109/AIEEPAS.1961.4500994.Retrieved
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17. Zipernowsky,K.Dri,M.Blthy,O.T."InductionCoil"(PDF).U.S.Patent352105,issuedNov.2,1886.
RetrievedJuly8,2009.
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(120):5777.doi:10.1049/jiee1.1896.0005.StudentpaperreadonJanuary24,1896attheStudents'Meeting.
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25. Hughes,ThomasP.(1993).NetworksofPower:ElectrificationinWesternSociety,18801930.Baltimore:The
JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.p.98.ISBN0801828732
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MuseumofScienceandIndustry(Accessed22022012)
27. Hughes,ThomasP.(1993).NetworksofPower:ElectrificationinWesternSociety,18801930.Baltimore:The
JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.p.208.ISBN0801828732
28. ArnoldHeertje,MarkPerlmanEvolvingTechnologyandMarketStructure:StudiesinSchumpeterianEconomics
(https://books.google.com/books?
id=qQMOPjUgWHsC&pg=PA138&lpg=PA138&dq=tesla+motors+sparked+induction+motor&source=bl&ots=d
0d_SjX8YX&sig=sA8LhTkGdQtgByBPD_ZDalCBwQA&hl=en&sa=X&ei=XoVSUPnfJo7A9gSwiICYCQ&ved
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29. I.GrattanGuinness,HistoryandPhilosophyoftheMathematicalSciences2003,Page1229
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ifsUOmuLKio0AHXtIGoBg&ved=0CFUQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=theoretical%20%20alternating%20current%2
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ent%20%20Charles%20Steinmetz&f=false)

Furtherreading
WillamA.Meyers,HistoryandReflectionsontheWayThingsWere:MillCreekPowerPlantMakingHistory
withAC,IEEEPowerEngineeringReview,February1997,pages2224

Externallinks
"AlternatingCurrent
WikimediaCommonshas
(https://nationalmaglab.org/education/magnet mediarelatedtoAlternating
academy/watchplay/interactive/alternatingcurrent1)". current.
InteractiveJavatutorialexplainingalternatingcurrent.
(NationalHighMagneticFieldLaboratory)
"AC/DC:What'stheDifference(http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/edison/sfeature/acdc.html)?".
Edison'sMiracleofLight,AmericanExperience(http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/index.html).(PBS)
"AC/DC:InsidetheACGenerator
(http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/edison/sfeature/acdc_insideacgenerator.html)".Edison'sMiracleof
Light,AmericanExperience.(PBS)
Kuphaldt,TonyR.,"LessonsInElectricCircuits:VolumeIIAC
(http://www.faqs.org/docs/electric/AC/index.html)".March8,2003.(DesignScienceLicense)
Nave,C.R.,"AlternatingCurrentCircuitsConcepts(http://hyperphysics.phy
astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/accircon.html)".HyperPhysics.
"AlternatingCurrent(http://www.ndt.net/article/az/mpi/alternating_current.htm)(AC)".Magnetic
ParticleInspection,NondestructiveTestingEncyclopedia.
"Alternatingcurrent(http://www.apcs.net.au/nav/article/fg40400.html)".AnalogProcessControl
Services.

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1/24/2016 AlternatingcurrentWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Hiob,Eric,"AnApplicationofTrigonometryandVectorstoAlternatingCurrent
(http://www.math.bcit.ca/examples/elex/trig_vectors/)".BritishColumbiaInstituteofTechnology,
2004.
"Introductiontoalternatingcurrentandtransformers(http://www.tpub.com/neets/book2/index.htm)".
IntegratedPublishing.
Chan.Keelin,"AlternatingcurrentTools(http://www.jcphysics.com/toolbox_indiv.php?sub_id=17)".
JCPhysics(http://www.jcphysics.com/),2002.
Williams,Trip"Kingpin","UnderstandingAlternatingCurrent
(http://www.alpharubicon.com/altenergy/understandingAC.htm),Somemorepowerconcepts".
"TableofVoltage,Frequency,TVBroadcastingsystem,RadioBroadcasting,byCountry
(http://salestores.com/worldvol.html)".
ProfessorMarkCsele'stourofthe25HzRankinegeneratingstation
(http://www.technology.niagarac.on.ca/people/mcsele/Rankine.html)
50/60hertzinformation(http://www.henkpasman.com/id1.html)
ACcircuits(http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/AC.html)Animationsandexplanationsofvector
(phasor)representationofRLCcircuits
Blalock,ThomasJ.,"TheFrequencyChangerEra:InterconnectingSystemsofVaryingCycles
(http://www.ieee.org/organizations/pes/public/2003/sep/peshistory.html)".Thehistoryofvarious
frequenciesandinterconversionschemesintheUSatthebeginningofthe20thcentury
(Italian)GeneratinganACvoltage(http://www.sandroronca.it/areacomune/femas/sinus0_low.html).
Interactive.

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