Sedimentology (2002) 49, 335362

Facies architecture of a submarine fan channellevee complex:

the Juniper Ridge Conglomerate, Coalinga, California
THOMAS A. HICKSON* and DONALD R. LOWE

*Department of Geology, University of St Thomas, St Paul, MN 55105, USA
(E-mail: tahickson@stthomas.edu)

Department of Geological and Environmental Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-2115,
USA

ABSTRACT

The Upper Cretaceous Juniper Ridge Conglomerate (JRC) near Coalinga,

California, provides a rare, high-quality exposure of a submarine channel to
overbank transition. The facies architecture of the JRC comprises a thick,
predominantly mudstone sequence overlain by a channellized conglomerate
package. Conglomeratic bounding surfaces truncate successions of interbedded
turbiditic sandstones and mudstones both vertically and laterally. Thick-
bedded, massive sandstones are interbedded with conglomerates. Facies
architecture, palaeocurrent indicators, slump features, sandstone percentages
and sandstone bed thickness trends lead to the interpretation that these
elements comprise channel and overbank facies. A vertical sequence with
conglomerate at the base, followed by thick-bedded sandstone, and capped by
interbedded turbiditic sandstone and mudstone form a fining-upward
lithofacies association that is interpreted as a single channel-fill/overbank
system. Three similar lithofacies associations can be related to autocyclic
processes of thalweg migration and submarine fan aggradation or to
allocyclically driven changes in sediment calibre.
Keywords Channellevee systems, deep-water conglomerates, facies archi-
tecture, Great Valley Group.

INTRODUCTION processes, channel geometries and lateral facies

Submarine fan channellevee complexes have
long been recognized as components of deep-
water depositional systems (Buffington, 1952)
and, in some areas, deep-water sequences inter-
preted as ancient channellevee complexes host
important hydrocarbon accumulations (King
et al., 1994). A range of depositional styles within
these systems and details of their facies architec-
ture have been explored in shallow seismic,
outcrop and modern morphological studies,
particularly in fine-grained, sand-rich deposi-
tional environments. Coarse-grained, conglomer-
atic channellevee systems have received less
scrutiny.
Studies of modern submarine channellevee
systems provide information about depositional

2002 International Association of Sedimentologists
relationships (Stanley & Kelling, 1970; Maldona-
do et al., 1985; Pickering et al., 1986; Masson,
1994; McHugh & Ryan, 2000), but supply little
information on the vertical stacking patterns and
internal facies architecture of these deposits. In
addition, the value of modern studies is compro-
mised somewhat by the limited resolution of
remote sensing techniques used to gather data,
such as side-scan sonar, bottom profiling and
shallow cores.
Outcrop analyses of ancient deep-water sedi-
ments provide a better opportunity to document
the facies and architecture of submarine fan
channellevees (Hein & Walker, 1982; Clifton,
1983; Hill, 1983; Walker, 1985; Morris et al.,
1989; Morris & Busby-Spera, 1990; Pimpirev &
Sarmiento, 1993; Cronin et al., 2000; Kirschner &
335
336 T. A. Hickson and D. R. Lowe

Bouma, 2000). One of the more problematic
aspects of channellevee complexes is the iden-
tification of unambiguous levee and overbank
deposits, in part because there are relatively few
areas where channellevee transitions and geom-
etries are exposed. Although levees are thought to
consist mainly of thin-bedded sandstone and
mudstone sequences, it is often difficult to
distinguish between levee deposits and other,
lithologically similar fan units, such as lobes. The
Upper Cretaceous Juniper Ridge Conglomerate
(JRC) of central California provides an excellent
opportunity to study a well-exposed channel
levee complex. The facies and architecture of the
JRC in the channel-to-levee transition are des-
cribed in this paper.
channels that tended to occupy the topographic-
ally low areas on the basin floor. The JRC is the
stratigraphically highest conglomeratic unit in
this sequence and is composed of at least nine
lenticular conglomerate bodies (Fig. 1A; Mans-
field, 1971). The best exposures of the JRC lie near
its southern limit, where Juniper Ridge intersects
State Highway 198 (Fig. 1B); the exposures in this
area are termed the Maloney Ranch Section
(MRS). At this locality, the conglomeratic units
pinch out almost entirely, and laterally related
sandstone units can be traced. The MRS serves as
the principal focus of this study.
FACIES ARCHITECTURE OF THE
MALONEY RANCH SECTION (MRS)

THE JUNIPER RIDGE CONGLOMERATE Architectural element method

(JRC)
A hierarchical architectural element classification
is used here to organize complex stratigraphic
The JRC lies within the Upper Jurassic to Upper
and sedimentological observations and express
Cretaceous Great Valley Group (GVG) (Mansfield,
stratigraphic, facies and sedimentological rela-
1971; Ingersoll, 1990; Moxon, 1990) that is
tionships at a range of scales. Such a classification
exposed along the western margin of the Central
also provides a structure for subsequent palaeo-
Valley of California as an east-dipping homocli-
environmental interpretation and reconstruc-
nal to broadly folded sequence of predominantly
tion. Miall (1985) subdivided fluvial sedimentary
siliciclastic strata up to 15 km thick (Ingersoll,
sequences into eight basic architectural elements,
1976; Moxon, 1990). The Upper Cretaceous JRC
each a lithosome defined by grain size, bedform
crops out in a north-west to south-east-trending
composition, internal (lithological) sequence,
belt 9 miles west of Coalinga, CA (Fig. 1A). The
and, most critically, external geometry. Architec-
GVG in this area is 8500 m thick and includes at
tural elements are therefore fundamentally des-
least five major units of conglomerate and coarse-
criptive and quasi-objectively defined geometric
grained sandstone interbedded with thick units of
rock units. Their interpretation is appended only
mudstone (Fig. 2). All these units are character-
after they are defined.
ized by a deep-marine fauna, showing mostly
Although architectural element analysis has
middle to lower bathyal water depths (Mansfield,
been applied successfully to fluvial and shallow-
1971; Ingersoll, 1976; Pessagno, 1976). The JRC is
marine deposits (Miall, 1985, 1992; Miall & Tyler,
stratigraphically bracketed by the lower and
1991), it has been used less frequently in deep-
upper Waltham Shales, and its age is constrained
water sequences (Ghosh & Lowe, 1993; Pickering
by a Late Cenomanian to Turonian ammonite
et al., 1995). Architectural elements sensu stricto
fauna within the surrounding mudstones (Fow-
are defined based on their three-dimensional
kes, 1982).
geometry. For fluvial systems, the linkage bet-
Few previous studies have focused on the JRC.
ween two-dimensional outcrop exposures and
Mansfield (1971) compiled clast composition data
three-dimensional geomorphic features is reason-
from the JRC and briefly described the sedimen-
ably clear. This is because there is an abundance
tology of the conglomerates, and Fowkes (1982)
of ancient fluvial sequences with extensive two-
briefly described the JRC but provided limited
and partial three-dimensional exposure, and
sedimentological data or detailed interpretation.
modern geomorphic components of the fluvial
Moxon (1990) noted that most of the coarse-
system can be investigated in detail and related
grained units in the Coalinga area had lenticular
to outcrop. In deep-water depositional systems,
geometries, with the thickest portions of the
however, this linkage is much less clear. Struc-
lenses overlying the thinner margins of underly-
tural dismemberment limits the three-dimensional
ing lenses. Moxon (1990) suggested that this was
exposure of many ancient deep-water sequences,
caused by lateral shifting of large submarine

2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 335362
 Architecture of a submarine fan channellevee complex 337

Fig. 1. (A) Lithofacies map of the Juniper Ridge Conglomerate (JRC) and related units. The Maloney Ranch Section,
which comprises the focus of this paper, is highlighted and detailed in (B). (B) Schematic lithofacies map of the
Maloney Ranch Section. Dashed areas marked 1 (central MRS) and 2 (western MRS) cover areas referenced in
Figs 6 and 11.

2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 335362

338 T. A. Hickson and D. R. Lowe
and the data set of observations on modern
submarine geomorphic systems is of low resolu-
tion and only weakly linked to outcrop observa-
tions (Pickering et al., 1995; Clark & Pickering,
1996). Although it is expected that this linkage
will become firmer in the future, at present it is
only possible to hypothesize about the three-
dimensional character of ancient deep-water
architectural elements. As a consequence, in this
study, architectural elements are defined based

2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 335362
Fig. 2. Generalized stratigraphic
column for the area west of Coalinga,
CA, and schematic stratigraphy of the
Juniper Ridge Conglomerate
(Mansfield, 1971; Moxon, 1990).
Thicknesses are approximate.
on their two-dimensional geometry (lens, tabular,
etc.), and their three-dimensional geometry is
inferred.
This study uses the architectural element
method of Ghosh & Lowe (1993). In this scheme,
no a priori interpretive descriptors are appended
to architectural elements at any level in the
hierarchy. Genetic interpretations are appended
to the elements after they have been described,
which follows the methodology of Miall (1985).
 Architecture of a submarine fan channellevee complex 339

Pickering et al. (1995) proposed a system that
specifically defines architectural elements gen-
etically and interpretatively, referring to their
planform elements as channels (CH), nested
channels (NCH) and mounds/lobes (M/L). These
authors also intermix descriptive with genetic
terminology at the same level in their classifica-
tion (cf. channel, sheet, lens, sigmoid, inclined,
irregular, scour, scour-and-fill, waveform). This
system was not used in this study because (1) it
runs counter to the spirit of Mialls (1985)
scheme; (2) there is insufficient evidence, even
in many of the best outcrops of deep-water rocks,
to distinguish between mounds, lobes, nested
mounds and channels (for instance, a low aspect
ratio channel might be indistinguishable from a
lobe or mound); (3) a genetic and interpretive
classification may bias both the author and the
reader in favour of one interpretation over alter-
native explanations; and (4) the linkage between
two-dimensional outcrop geometry and three-
dimensional planform geometry is extremely
weak for deep-water sequences and, hence, no
linkage should be implied by the choice of
terminology or classification system.
Ghosh & Lowe (1993) considered first-order
elements as the smallest-scale lithologic units,
ranging up to fifth-, sixth- or higher order ele-
ments at the largest scale. Hence, the scheme is
open-ended at the largest scale. Figure 3 sum-
marizes the lithofacies associations that charac-
terize the architectural elements of the JRC. Six
main orders of architectural elements are recog-
nized within the JRC. Vegetation cover, difficul-
ties in access and faulting prevented detailed
mapping of first- and second-order elements,
except in limited areas. Third-order architectural
elements therefore form the basic mapping unit of
this study.
Third-order elements are designated IIIy,
where y is replaced by a code that represents the
dominant lithology of the architectural element.
The MRS consists of four principal third-order
units: IIImd includes mud-rich units containing
subordinate thin sandy turbidites (Fig. 4A); IIIss/md
comprises interbedded sandstone and mudstone
(Fig. 4BD); IIIss consists of thick-bedded sand-
stone (Fig. 4E and F); and IIIcg encompasses layers
of pebble and cobble conglomerate with <5%
thick-bedded sandstone (Fig. 5AD). Table 1 sum-
marizes the lithofacies and geometries of each of
these third-order elements. Further observations
and interpretations of their sedimentology are
provided below.
Characteristics of third-order elements
Figure 6 is a detailed map of the central MRS,
made from large-scale, down-dip aerial photomo-
saics. The outcrop was mapped at the scale of

Fig. 3. Generalized facies associations that comprise the architectural elements of the Juniper Ridge Conglomerate.
Scales on the vertical axes are approximate. This architectural element scheme is similar to that of Ghosh & Lowe
(1993), in which lower order bounding surfaces bound the most vertically and laterally restricted lithosomes. Ta to Te
notation refers to Bouma sequence divisions (Bouma, 1962).

2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 335362

340 T. A. Hickson and D. R. Lowe

A B

2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 335362

 Architecture of a submarine fan channellevee complex 341

Fig. 4. (A) Close-up of thin-bedded

sandstones (light beds at 012, 015,
025 and 028 m; scale in dm) within
the IIImd element; most are ripple
laminated. The intervening mud-
stones are typically massive, and
shale is uncommon. (B) Overview of
bedding style within the IIIss/md ele-
F ment; the stratigraphic top of the
section is to the right. Lenticular,
thicker bedded sandstone bodies are
highlighted. (C) Complete Bouma
sequence in IIIss/md turbiditic sand-
stones; circled letters represent
Bouma divisions. (D) Thin-bedded,
Bouma Tcd turbidites (pen is 13 cm).
(E) Thick-bedded, turbiditic sand-
stones of the IIIss element exposed at
the south-east end of the Maloney
Ranch Section. Letter a represents
amalgamation surfaces with sand-
on-sand contacts. Letter b represents
laterally continuous mudstone inter-
beds with flat bases and tops. (F)
Thick-bedded sandstone showing
amalgamation (a), mudstone inter-
beds (b) and a large mud clast near
the base of a bed (c).

2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 335362

342 T. A. Hickson and D. R. Lowe

Fig. 5. IIIcg element. (A) Interbedded

conglomerates and massive sand-
stones. R2 (inversely graded), R3
(ungraded) and S3 (massive sand-
stone) refer to Lowe (1982) divisions
of high-density turbidity current
deposits. (B) Erosional base of the
lowest conglomeratic unit exposed at
the Maloney Ranch Section, showing
1 m of truncation of IIIss/md elements.
(C) Strongly developed imbrication in
conglomeratic units; palaeocurrents
C are from right to left. (D) Topography
(depositional or erosional) developed
on top of a conglomeratic sedimenta-
tion unit with infilling sandstone.
Note the relatively flat base of the
conglomerate package. (E) Detail of
the basal contact of the lowest IIIcg
unit (a), showing compensational-
style bedding of thick sandstones
within conglomerates (b). Bases of
sandstone lenses tend to be
concave-up with relatively flat upper
contacts, suggesting either an
erosional topography or infilling of
depositional bar relief (b). Also note
the onlap of second-order bounding
surfaces (c) on the erosional,
third-order bounding surface that
dips uniformly towards the right
(south-east).

2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 335362

 Architecture of a submarine fan channellevee complex 343

Fig. 5. (Continued).

2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 335362

 Table 1. Third-order architectural elements of the Juniper Ridge Conglomerate exposed at the Maloney Ranch Section, Coalinga, CA.
344
T. A. Hickson and D. R. Lowe

2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 335362

 Architecture of a submarine fan channellevee complex 345

Fig. 6. Third-order facies architecture of the Juniper Ridge Conglomerate at the Maloney Ranch Section corres-
ponding to area 1 on Fig. 1B. (A) North-west to south-east-oriented, down-dip aerial photomosaic of the main
portion of the Maloney Ranch Section. Numerous normal faults cross-cut the section, as can be seen by the offset of
the lowest conglomerate (dark grey, cliff-forming units in left-centre of the photo). (B) Third-order facies architecture
mapped on the above photomosaic. Measured section localities are provided (MS 1 to MS 9).

third-order elements, using a high-powered tele- of IIImd, is continuous across the outcrop and
scope. Second-order stratal geometries were continues for over 30 km along strike to the
noted where possible, and stratigraphic relation- north-west of the MRS (Mansfield, 1971). The
ships were field checked where accessible. The remaining elements, except the uppermost IIIss,
stratigraphically lowest element, a thick sequence interfinger with one another, showing rapid facies

2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 335362
346 T. A. Hickson and D. R. Lowe

changes along strike. Exposure of the upper IIIss
element is poor, and its lateral variability in
thickness is unclear.
The thickness of third-order elements at the
MRS varies considerably along strike. Two of the
IIIcg elements range from over 80 m thick in
the north-west to <10 m thick to the south-east.
The lowest IIIcg element pinches out altogether
near the middle of the MRS and lies in erosional
contact with the underlying IIImd and IIIss/md
elements (Figs 5B and E and 6). A relatively
thin IIIss/md element lies stratigraphically above
the sequence exposed at the MRS and is in
gradational contact with the underlying IIIss
element. This IIIss/md grades upwards into the
Upper Waltham Shale.
Where the basal contact of a IIIcg element is in
contact with an underlying, finer grained facies,
the contact is abrupt, stepped and lacks a mud-
stone drape (Fig. 5B). This element also contains
minor sandstone bodies with low aspect ratio,
concave-up, channel-form geometries. These
geometries suggest that they fill broad, slightly
asymmetric depressions within the conglomerate
(Fig. 5E). In some cases, the lower surfaces of
these sandstone bodies truncate conglomeratic
bounding surfaces, whereas others show con-
glomerate stringers feathering into the sandstones
within low-angle stratification.
Palaeocurrent indicators within the IIIcg ele-
ments, based primarily on clast imbrication, are
strongly south-west directed (Fig. 7). Palaeocur-
rent indicators on thin turbidites in IIImd below
IIIcg and IIIss/md elements also indicate palaeoflow
towards the south-west, similar to that of the
channelized conglomerates, suggesting that the
regional palaeoslope was towards the south-west.
Palaeocurrent data from the IIIss/md element

Fig. 7. Palaeocurrent data from the lowest fourth-order element, IV1, at the south-eastern end of the Maloney Ranch
Section (see Fig. 1B for location). Bidirectional indicators generally derive from parting current lineations. The large
dot on each rose diagram provides the probable palaeocurrent direction of bidirectional indicators as constrained by
sole marks, cross-stratification and other unidirectional indicators.

2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 335362

 Architecture of a submarine fan channellevee complex 347

Fig. 8. Correlation diagram for the Juniper Ridge Conglomerate at the Maloney Ranch Section, lowest channel/
overbank element (IV1). The thick, vertical, black bar to the right of measured section 5 delimits the portion of the
section covered in Fig. 12. Bed thicknesses are from the actual measured sections and are not drawn schematically.
The datum for this correlation lies at the contact between the IIImd and IIIss/md elements. Position of measured
sections shown on Fig. 6.

2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 335362

348 T. A. Hickson and D. R. Lowe

indicate a strong divergence of palaeocurrent
indicators from laterally equivalent IIIcg elements
(Fig. 7). This divergence is strongest nearest the
contact with the adjacent IIIcg element and
gradually shifts back towards the south-west in
a south-easterly direction along strike.
Lateral and vertical variation
in the IIIss/md element
Detailed measured sections from the MRS offer a
unique opportunity to examine lateral trends in
sandstone bed thickness and sandstone percent-
ages within the IIIss/md element. The sections
cover the lowest and most accessible portion of
the element (Fig. 6). Figure 8 provides a correla-
tion diagram of these sections, with reference to
the adjoining IIIcg and IIIss elements.
For the purpose of this study, sand bed
thickness refers to the thickness (in metres) of
the well-indurated, fine sand and coarser grained
portions of a sedimentation unit, excluding the
recessive-weathering silts and shales. The sand-
stone:mudstone ratio is defined, for the purposes
of analyses of vertical trends, as the ratio between
the total thickness of sandstone and the total
thickness of siltstone plus shale over a 20-bed-
thick moving-average window. When considering
lateral variability, this ratio is defined as the ratio
of total sand thickness to total thickness.
The lowest portion of the IIIss/md element
shows a remarkably consistent vertical trend in
sandstone:mudstone ratio that is present across
the mapped portion of the MRS. Where the
transition from IIImd to IIIss/md is visible (sections
2, 3a, 4, 7A, 8a and 9, Fig. 9), the sandstone:
mudstone ratio tends to increase then decrease
abruptly over the bottom 810 m of the IIIss/md
element. The ratio then tapers off gradually to
values near unity towards the contact with the
overlying IIIcg or IIIss element (Fig. 9).
The lateral variability within the lowest
810 m of the IIIss/md element shows that
sandstone bed thickness initially increases but
then decreases away from the erosional contact
with the adjacent IIIcg element (Fig. 10). The
stratigraphically higher IIIss/md interval, which
correlates with the basal 16 m of section 5, shows
lateral sandstone bed thickening but not the
thinning seen in the lower units (Fig. 10). This
upper interval cannot be correlated further than
section 9 (Fig. 6), and it is therefore not known
whether sandstones in this interval thin further
along strike. Similarly, sandstone percentages in
the lower 810 m of the IIIss/md element increase
then decrease away from the channel margin
(Fig. 10). This trend is less well defined for
stratigraphically higher portions of the IIIss/md
element, but is still detectable (Fig. 10).

Fig. 9. Vertical and lateral trends in the sandstone:mudstone ratio in the IIIss/md element. Sandstone:mudstone ratio
is defined as the ratio between total sandstone and mudstone bed thickness. Measured section locations 19 are
shown in Fig. 6. Note the change in x-axis scale range for section 5.

2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 335362

 Architecture of a submarine fan channellevee complex 349

Fig. 10. Lateral variation in sandstone:mudstone ratio and mean sandstone bed thickness within the IIIss/md element.
Lower levee refers to the lowest 810 m of the element, measured upwards from its lower contact with the under-
lying IIImd element. The upper levee corresponds to the stratigraphically higher IIIss/md interval, which correlates
with the basal 16 m of section 5 (Fig. 6).

system than the IIImd element. As interpretation

Sedimentary processes in third-order elements
The IIImd element represents the deposits of
low-concentration, low-velocity, mud-rich tur-
bidity currents. Within numerous, thin (35 cm)
sandstone beds, normal grading from very fine
sand to silty shale indicates waning flow (Table 1,
row 1). Underlying units are not truncated,
suggesting that the flows that deposited these
beds had insufficient turbulent energy for erosion.
The geometry of many of the sandstone units
suggests that they may have filled subtle bottom
topography (Table 1). Hemipelagic suspension
settling produced the minor, thin shales. Flows
were unchannellized, sheet-like and far from the
locus of coarse-grained deposition.
The IIIss/md element is characterized by first-
and second-order elements that suggest high
concentration and high velocity flows (Bouma
Ta and Tb divisions; Table 1, row 2). Flows were
sufficiently competent to transport medium- to
coarse-grained sand, and convolute bedding sug-
gests rapid suspension settling, where water is
trapped within the rapidly depositing sediment
mass and escapes upwards, disturbing overlying
primary sedimentary structures.
These observations indicate that the IIIss/md
element represents the deposits of a more prox-
imal, higher energy part of the depositional

2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 335362
of the environment of deposition of IIIss/md
elements relies on architectural relationships
between the other third-order elements, a detailed
interpretation will be provided below.
Massive, predominantly structureless, deep-
water sandstones of the IIIss element (Table 1,
row 3) have been interpreted as the deposits of (1)
collapsing, turbulent, highly sediment-charged
clouds (Lowe, 1982, 1988); (2) relatively continu-
ously fed, long-duration turbidity currents (Knel-
ler & Branney, 1995; Vrolijk & Southard, 1997); or
(3) cohesive, sandy debris flows (Shanmugam &
Moiola, 1995). At the MRS, the presence of cross-
stratification suggests sustained, quasi-steady,
tractional flow and strongly argues against a
sandy debris flow interpretation, because this
stratification forms solely beneath turbulent,
tractional flows. The low detrital matrix content
(35%) of the MRS turbidites (Hickson & Lowe,
1996) further detracts from a sandy debris flow
origin. At this time, it is not possible to ascertain
whether the massive sandstones were deposited
rapidly through collapse or gradually through
sustained turbidity current flow.
In some cases, flat, non-erosional bases of
sandstone beds indicate that turbulence near the
base of the flows was damped, and sediment fall-
out rates were high, suppressing the erosional
350 T. A. Hickson and D. R. Lowe
ability of the flow. In other areas, these sandstones
are highly amalgamated, although concave-up
lower bounding surfaces are not discernible. The
presence of mud clasts near the base and top of
some beds suggests erosive, energetic flows
upstream that then evolved into primarily non-
erosive, rapidly depositing flows at the position of
the MRS. Floating mud clasts near the tops of
some massive sandstone beds have been cited
as evidence for plastic, debris flow behaviour
(Shanmugam & Moiola, 1995) yet, as mentioned
above, sedimentary structures and textures within
the massive sandstones of the MRS argue strongly
against this interpretation. Mud clasts are easily
eroded and transported as part of an active bedload
layer and can be deposited at any vertical position
within a bed (Lowe, 1997), therefore they do not
serve as adequate indicators of flow plasticity.
Within the IIIcg element (Table 1, row 4), the
cohesionless matrix, pervasive imbrication and
clast-supported fabric suggest that the flows that
deposited these conglomerates had little or no
yield strength, arguing against a debris flow
origin. It is more likely that very energetic, sandy
turbidity currents transported conglomerate clasts
as bedload. The sandy portions of these flows
bypassed the site of conglomerate deposition or
were eroded and remobilized by subsequent
turbidity currents. These tractional flows pro-
duced inverse grading and clast imbrication within
the conglomerates. Inverse-grading, nearly always
at the scale of 1015 clast diameters in the MRS,
may be produced as a moving bedload layer is
sheared and grain-to-grain interactions generate
sufficient dispersive pressure to displace larger
clasts upwards (Bagnold, 1954; Lowe, 1982).
Several lines of evidence suggest that the con-
glomerates were deposited within a single- or
multiple-channelled braidplain. First, low-angle
stratification and small-scale interfingering of con-
glomeratic stringers in massive sandstone (Fig. 5)
are highly suggestive of barforms encountered
in many braided fluvial settings (Miall, 1992;
Collinson, 1996). Secondly, thick intervals of con-
glomerate show pervasive, multidirectional imbri-
cation (Fig. 7 and Table 1), also characteristic of
coarse-grained braid bars (Schlee, 1957; Byrne,
1963). Thirdly, the multiplicity of small-scale,
high width:depth ratio, nearly symmetric sand-
filled channels within the conglomerate (Table 1)
are very similar to those formed by relatively
straight channels in braided fluvial systems
(Galloway & Hobday, 1983). If these were highly
sinuous or meandering channels, lower width:depth
ratios and more asymmetry would be expected.

2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 335362
Basal, stepped contacts of the IIIcg element
suggest a relatively short time lag between erosion
and deposition, where the underlying, presumably
soft and less stable fine-grained material, did not
have sufficient time to be smoothed through
processes of slumping and the passage of subse-
quent currents (Morris & Busby-Spera, 1990). The
lack of a mud drape also suggests that there was
insufficient time to accumulate a thick cap of
hemipelagic sediments over the contact.
Characteristics of fourth-order elements
Fourth-order architectural elements are char-
acterized by regular associations of third-order
elements. The MRS contains three fourth-order
elements termed IV1, IV2 and IV3 (Fig. 11).
These elements are defined as fining-upward
sequences of third-order elements, typically
showing an erosional base. Each varies consid-
erably in character along strike.
The lowest of these elements, IV1, shows a
vertical succession of IIIcg, overlain by IIIss,
followed by IIIss/md near the middle part of the
MRS (Fig. 12). This fourth-order element loses the
IIIss/md element 300 m towards the north-west
and amalgamates into a single IIIss/md element
about 50 m towards the south-east (Fig. 11). Sec-
ond-order bounding surfaces within the IIIss/md
element seem to be in slight angular discordance
with underlying thin-bedded sandstones of the
IIImd element, suggesting a minor south-easterly
dip component. Second-order bounding surfaces
within the conglomerate appear to dip slightly
towards the basal contact, suggesting a very low
amplitude, progradational barform geometry
(Fig. 5E). It is not possible to ascertain whether
this dip is real or an artifact of scale distortions on
the oblique aerial photomosaics.
Element IV2 is less conglomeratic than IV1,
with a single, 25-m-thick IIIcg element at its base
that is subsequently overlain by a thick (75 m)
IIIss unit. This latter element contains a few, 2- to
3-m-thick conglomerate beds but, as sand-
stone completely dominates this element, it is
assigned a IIIss classification. This element, as
with IV1, amalgamates into a single IIIss/md
element towards the south-east.
The IV3 package was not investigated in detail
because of extensive vegetation cover and extre-
mely steep slopes. Where exposed, however, this
element is composed of the same third-order
elements as IV1, in the same vertical sequence
(IIIcgIIIssIIIss/md). The major difference between
IV1 and IV3 is the thickness of the IIIss element
 A

2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 335362

Fig. 11. (A) Fourth-order architectural elements superimposed on third-order architecture. Thicknesses on the two north-western sections were estimated
from outcrop photographs. The leftmost section is derived from an outcrop 300 m north-west of the main part of the Maloney Ranch Section (area 2 in
Fig. 1B), whereas the middle section corresponds to the left edge of the mapped area. Note the rapid lateral lithofacies changes within each of the elements. (B)
Outcrop photograph of the north-westernmost section in (A). (C) Third-order elements superimposed on the photograph in (B).
Architecture of a submarine fan channellevee complex
351
352 T. A. Hickson and D. R. Lowe

Fig. 12. Representative lithostratigraphic section through IIIss/md, IIIcg and IIIss units. This section is located at the
south-eastern edge of the lowest IIIcg element (measured section 5, Fig. 6). IIIss/md units (A) are erosionally truncated
by a IIIcg (B) bounding surface. Thick-bedded, mostly massive IIIss units abruptly overlie the conglomeratic unit and
show thin, laterally discontinuous mud layers (C) with thinner bedded turbidites encased within mudstone.
The scale of these thick-bedded sandstones decreases upwards (D) and, eventually thins to turbidites showing
soft-sediment deformation (E) and thin, Bouma Tc turbidites (F).

above the conglomerate. Where State Highway
198 crosses the outcrop belt (Fig. 1B), the IIIcg
element of IV3 is <3 m thick, whereas the over-
lying IIIss element may be as much as 130 m
thick. Although this thickness may be somewhat
overestimated on account of repetition of section
from faulting, it appears to be reasonable based on
mapping (Fig. 6). This IIIss element, in turn,
grades rapidly over 23 m to a succession of
IIIss/md, followed by a rapid vertical transition
into the Upper Waltham Shale (Fig. 2).
DISCUSSION
Interpretation of fourth-order elements
The fining-upward succession of the fourth-order
elements implies a decrease in the energy of the
local depositional system. The vertical sequence
of the three fourth-order elements, all with

2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 335362
similar characteristics and lateral facies relation-
ships, suggests that there were at least three
cycles of waning energy. The upward-thinning
and -fining succession at the top of IV3 suggests a
decrease in energy of the entire JRC system as a
result of either (1) an increase in relative water
depth and backstepping of the system; or (2)
lateral movement of the sediment feed system
away from this location. The best-exposed and
most accessible fourth-order element is IV1. This
element is interpreted as a channellevee
sequence based on the two-dimensional geometry
of third-order elements, facies relationships
between third-order elements, palaeocurrents
within third-order elements, deformation features
within the IIIss/md element and bed geometries
within IIIss/md elements.
The geometry of the IIIcg element within IV1
indicates that it was deposited within a channel
(Figs 1 and 6). The element is lenticular, and its
base lies in erosional contact with the under-
 Architecture of a submarine fan channellevee complex 353

lying sediments, in this case IIImd and IIIss/md
elements. The apparent south-west dip of second-
order bounding surfaces within the conglomerate
suggests a very low amplitude, progradational
or laterally accreting bar-like geometry (Fig. 5E).
If this dip exists, it suggests that the channel
filled from the north-west to the south-east. If
the bounding surfaces do not dip towards
the basal contact, then the channel filled aggrada-
tionally.
Erosional relief is of the order of 5080 m near
the south-eastern margin of the lowest conglom-
erate (Fig. 6). The north-western channel margin
is not exposed, but the lowest conglomeratic lens
can be traced for at least 4 km to the north-west
on air photos. This geometry indicates a channel
with vertical dimensions of the order of 100 m
and lateral dimensions of at least 34 km, leading
to channel aspect ratios of the order of 3040. A
number of ancient, deep-water, conglomerate-
filled channels show similar geometries, inclu-
ding those found in the Cretaceous Rosario
Formation (aspect ratio 24325; Morris et al.,
1989; Morris & Busby-Spera, 1990), Ordovician
Silurian Caban Conglomerate (aspect ratio 20
37; Davies & Waters, 1995), Cretaceous Cerro Toro
Formation (aspect ratio 2932; Winn & Dott,
1979), JurassicCretaceous Fossil Bluff Group
(aspect ratio 32; Macdonald et al., 1995) and
the Cretaceous Wheeler Gorge sequence (thick-
ness 100 m; Walker, 1985).
The JRC channel dimensions are also consis-
tent with channels in modern channellevee
systems such as the Cascadia (aspect ratio 34),
Astoria (aspect ratio 18), Grand Banks (aspect
ratio 20) and Baltimore/Washington channels
(aspect ratio 33) (Clark & Pickering, 1996).
Furthermore, an estimate can be made of the
planform geometry of the JRC channels based on
the geometry of modern systems. Data from Clark
& Pickering (1996 and Fig. 13) demonstrate that
there is a negative power-law correlation between
channel width and sinuosity (r2 066, RMS
error 007; Fig. 13) of the form:
sinuosity 919width04
The relationship between sinuosity and channel
depth, although weaker (r2 030, RMS error
011), has a similar power-law form:
sinuosity 316depth015
Using representative width and depth values for
the JRC of 3500 m and 100 m, respectively, leads
to estimated sinuosities between 13 and 16, both
relatively low values, suggesting that the chan-
nels were straight to moderately sinuous.

Fig. 13. Width and depth of modern submarine channels, plotted vs. their maximum sinuosity (ratio of stream length
to valley length; Schumm, 1963). Data are from Clark & Pickering (1996). A power-law best-fit curve is also shown.
P, Porcupine; IA, Indus A; GBW, Grand Banks West.

2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 335362

354 T. A. Hickson and D. R. Lowe
Field mapping indicates that the thick-bedded
sands (IIIss) that overlie the lower conglomerate
onlap the erosional base of the channel (Fig. 6). In
a partially covered interval between measured
sections 5 and 6, a distance of only 1012 m, a
45-m-thick sandstone element (611 m on the
section in Fig. 12) vanishes completely, suggest-
ing an onlap relationship with the channel
margin. These relationships imply that the
flows that deposited the IIIss elements were at
least partially confined by a channel, although
overspill (sensu Peakall et al., 2000) into over-
bank areas was likely.
The transition from this thick-bedded sand-
stone to the overlying IIIss/md element is grada-
tional (Fig. 12). The 03- to 05-m-thick sandstone
beds that overlie the thick-bedded sandstone
(1214 m on the section in Fig. 12) can be traced
between sections 5 and 6, but not to section 7
(Fig. 8), suggesting that they too may onlap the
channel margin. Cover between sections 6 and 7,
however, makes this relationship less certain,
and an alternative possibility is that these thin-
ner beds overlap the margin, thinning into the
laterally associated IIIss/md package. Indeed, the
medium-bedded sandstones of the overlying
IIIss/md element (1418 m on the section in
Fig. 12) seem to thin laterally, although bed-
by-bed correlation is not possible because of cover.
The intimate lateral association between the
IIIcg and IIIss/md elements implies a genetic link
between them, with the conglomerates occupying
channels and the interbedded sandstones and
mudstones comprising a laterally related over-
bank facies. A similar relationship exists between
the IIIss and IIIss/md elements, with the thick-
bedded sandstones occupying a broader channel
that has mostly been filled by the underlying
conglomerate.
When comparing laterally equivalent IIIcg and
IIIss/md elements, palaeocurrent indicators
suggest that overbank flows exiting the channel-
lized portions of the IIIcg element diverged at
high angles relative to the flow within the
channel (Fig. 7). The flows appear to have
turned gradually parallel to the regional slope
direction (south-west) further away from the
channel margin. Furthermore, slumping and
soft-sediment deformation within the IIIss/md
elements suggests that they accumulated on a
slope, with subsequent failure leading to folding
(Morris & Busby-Spera, 1990). Palaeocurrent
indicators and evidence for a local slope there-
fore also partially support a levee interpretation
of the IIIss/md element.

2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 335362
Medium-bedded sandstone units (2040 cm)
within the IIIss/md element are commonly lenti-
cular, whereas thinner sand beds are tabular
(Fig. 4). This bed geometry suggests aspects of
both channellized and sheet-like flow within this
element. Sheet-like flows are probably the prod-
uct of flows overspilling the channel margins over
broad areas without significant erosion (Peakall
et al., 2000) or through flow-stripping at channel
bends (Normark & Piper, 1992). The channellized
sandbodies point toward at least local erosion of
the levee and, by analogy with fluvial systems,
may represent small-scale crevasse channel fills
and point sources for some of the distal levee
sandstones.
Vertical sandstone bed thickness and sand-
stone percentage trends (Fig. 9) are consistent
with observations of fine-grained levees on the
Amazon Fan (Manley et al., 1997) and in ancient
leveed channels. The Amazon levees coarsen
abruptly, then fine upwards towards the next
channel or levee package where another abrupt
coarsening occurs. Manley et al. (1997) attributed
this grain-size trend to channel avulsion and
overspill processes (Hiscott et al., 1997; Peakall
et al., 2000). In the autocyclic model described by
Manley et al. (1997), avulsion into an interchan-
nel area leads to the establishment of a new
channel with low relief, which subsequently
confines turbidity currents poorly, thus leading
to overspill of the lower and coarser fractions of
the sediment load. As the channel begins to
establish higher levees, channel relief increases
and turbidity current overspill becomes restricted
to progressively higher and finer grained portions
of the flow, leading to finer grained overbank
deposition. It is likely that vertical trends in sand
bed thickness and sand:mud ratios are controlled
by a similar process. Overspilling flows that tap
the lower portions of the main flow are thicker,
more energetic and longer lived than those that
are drawn from the dilute tops of turbidity
currents. The former flows should lead to the
deposition of thicker beds and more sand than the
more confined latter flows.
Piper & Deptuck (1997) explained their obser-
vations of lateral grain-size change on the Ama-
zon Fan using the same levee growth model
outlined above (Manley et al., 1997). Overspil-
ling flows are unconfined and, therefore, their
velocity decreases abruptly away from the chan-
nel. These flows drop most of their coarse load
on the levee flanks, which leads to a concentra-
tion of sand deposition near the channel,
whereas silt and mud deposition is restricted to
 Architecture of a submarine fan channellevee complex
more distal interchannel environments. How-
ever, this model fails to explain the initial
increase in sandstone:mudstone ratio and mean
sandstone bed thickness encountered at the
MRS.
One possible interpretation of the lateral sand-
stone and mudstone trends in the MRS is that
both sides of the levee are preserved and the
peaks encountered in Fig. 10 represent the levee
crest. Field relationships fail to support this
interpretation because stratal dips are negligible
to very slightly dipping away from the channel
margin. There is no stratal evidence that the levee
crest is preserved. An alternative hypothesis, in
which numerous, small and mud-rich flows
deposit more fine sediment on the proximal levee
flanks, might explain these trends.
Levee deposition derives from some combina-
tion of large and small turbidity currents that
deposit beds of variable thickness; even the
smallest flows are likely to have a dilute, turbu-
lent, muddy cloud above them that is capable of
depositing some mud on the levee crest and
adjacent outer flank. Although the magnitude/
frequency relationships for turbidity currents are
largely unknown, it is reasonable to assume that
the system experiences far more small events than
large ones, by analogy with subaerial flood
frequency distributions. This implies that numer-
ous, small, muddy flows will deposit most of their
load on portions of the levee nearest the channel;
these flows do not have sufficient density contrast
to travel further. Such conditions could lead to
the deposition of more mud in the proximal
portions of the levee. Less frequent, large events
will deposit their coarsest load on the levee
flanks, but they will also be capable of transport-
ing coarser load further, particularly if they result
from channellization associated with crevassing,
resulting in a zone of coarser grained deposition
slightly away from the proximal levee. From this
point on, levee construction behaves much in the
way outlined by Piper & Deptuck (1997).
It should be noted that the Amazon Fan and
the JRC are not directly comparable systems,
although their mechanisms of levee growth may
be similar. These systems are profoundly differ-
ent in terms of scale, channel geometry, grain size
and, possibly, sinuosity. The Amazon Fan is a
mud-rich system, whereas the JRC is mud poor.
The former tends to produce larger, better devel-
oped levees than the latter (Reading & Richards,
1994). Even with these apparent disparities, the
internal characteristics of the levees are remark-
ably similar.

2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 335362
355
Based on their coarse grain size, it is tempting
to interpret the conglomerates as a very proximal,
submarine canyon fill. However, three lines of
evidence suggest that these conglomerates were
more likely deposited in proximal to medial
positions in a deep-water fan channel. First, they
are intimately associated, both laterally and
vertically, with distal mudstones of the IIImd
element that were probably deposited in a distal
environment well downstream of the point at
which the canyon debouched onto the sea floor.
Secondly, they are laterally linked with more
proximal levee sandstones of the IIIss/md element
(Fig. 6) that tend to form on the proximal to
medial portions of modern submarine fans, rather
than within the submarine canyon itself (e.g.
Astoria and Monterey Fan channels described by
Clark & Pickering, 1996). Thirdly, the position of
the TuronianCenomanian shelf break at the
latitude of Coalinga, although poorly constrained,
lies between 20 and 50 km east of the position of
the JRC (Ingersoll, 1976), which places the JRC
near the base of the continental slope and not
embedded within it.
The upper IV2 and IV3 elements, although not
investigated in detail, are similar to IV1. IV2, in
particular, shows similar facies changes along
strike to those found in IV1 (Figs 6 and 11), but
these facies are shifted towards the north-west.
IV3 comprises the same third-order elements as
IV1, but the sandy portion of the system is
volumetrically more significant than in the other
fourth-order elements, representing an extended
period of channel stability and thick-bedded
sandstone deposition.
Evolution of the JRC depositional system
Within a sequence stratigraphic framework, allo-
cyclic forcing mechanisms, such as changes in
relative sea level, have been called upon to
explain the genetic evolution of many deep-
water sequences (Posamentier & Vail, 1988; King
et al., 1994). Contrary to this view is the hypo-
thesis that autocyclic processes, such as avul-
sion, thalweg migration and lobe switching, are
responsible for creating the facies architecture of
these sequences (Davies & Walker, 1974; Hein &
Walker, 1982). Ultimately, it cannot be shown
conclusively which mechanism is dominant
without very precise temporal and geometric
control. Such controls are typically absent in
rocks as old as the JRC. The following discussion
outlines a model that calls upon the autocyclic
process of channel thalweg migration or avulsion
356 T. A. Hickson and D. R. Lowe
to describe the deposition and resultant archi-
tecture of the lowest fourth-order element (IV1)
at the MRS (Figs 14 and 15). This type of model
is favoured based on broader scale stratigraphic
relationships. Figure 1A shows a thick conglom-
erate package to the north-west of the study area
that is laterally equivalent to the conglomerates
exposed at the MRS. This package appears to be
the principal locus of conglomerate deposition
and, most likely, the zone of maximum flow
energy in the JRC. The rocks of the MRS, at the
margin of this larger system, appear to be a
sensitive recorder of subtle lateral shifts in this
locus of deposition.
Deposition of IIImd (Fig. 14A). The initial phase
of deposition was characterized by low-density
turbidity currents in either distal downslope or
interchannel areas. These flows deposited thin-
bedded turbidites and turbiditic mud, mainly as
Bouma Tcd sequences. Sedimentation rates were
relatively low. These IIImd elements were prob-
ably deposited near the distal fringe of a fan and
may represent the deep-marine component of the
highstand systems tract.
Erosion of the channel and deposition of IIIss/md
(Fig. 14B). A drop in relative sea level or
avulsion of the primary feeder channel caused
high-energy turbidity currents to become the
dominant sediment transport mechanism. These
flows were erosive, and most of the sediment
bypassed the channel in the vicinity of the MRS.
The sediment that was deposited within the
channel was either not preserved (eroded by
subsequent flows) or deposited only along the
lateral margins of the channel and sporadically
preserved. It is likely that these erosive flows
were not completely contained within the chan-
nel scour and that some overbank sedimentation
occurred. However, the within-channel and cres-
tal portions of these first levee deposits were
probably consumed by subsequent limited lateral
migration or widening of the channel. Initial
levee formation therefore probably began while
the channel was actively eroding and had
relatively low relief. Levee-forming flows
were low-density turbidity currents, leaving
Bouma Tabcd and Tbcd sequences of the IIIss/md
element.
Observations of the basal contact of the lowest
IIIcg element suggest that conglomerate depos-
ition came soon after erosion, suggesting that the
flows that eroded the channels were actively
transporting conglomerate as bedload. If the
erosional flows were long-lived, hyperpycnal
turbidity currents (Kneller & Branney, 1995;

2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 335362
Fig. 14. Genetic evolution of the lowest fourth-order
element, IV1. Sandstone stipple pattern schematically
depicts an active sediment-gravity flow; circles with
dots depict sediment-gravity flow direction out of the
plane of the paper (towards the viewer). IIImd elements
are deposited by dilute, low-energy turbidity currents
in (A) on a low-relief distal submarine fan surface. A
channel is eroded into the IIImd element by high-en-
ergy, sand-rich turbidity currents in (B). As the channel
widened or migrated towards the south-east (C), IIImd
and IIIss/md elements were consumed by bank erosion.
As the thalweg shifted to the north-west, or as the
system was temporarily abandoned in this area (D),
the principal locus of coarse-grained (conglomeratic)
deposition shifted, allowing for the deposition of thick-
bedded, structureless sandstone along the lateral edges
of flows. With further north-westward migration or
abandonment (E), thick-bedded sandstone deposition
gave way to the deposition of thinner bedded, IIIss/md
elements. Finally (F), IIIss/md deposition ceases, and
IIIss elements are deposited along the channel margin
as in (D). This last episode of IIIss deposition corres-
ponds to the basal units of the next, stratigraphically
higher fourth-order element.
Mulder & Syvitski, 1995), individual flows may
have been capable of transporting clasts from
areas near the shelf/slope break, 2050 km east
of the study area, to the MRS locality and
beyond. Alternatively, the flows may have been
short-lived, collapsing turbidity currents (sensu
Lowe, 1982) and would have transported con-
glomerate in pulses. In this case, conglomerate
may have arrived at the MRS locality as a kind of
wave.
Initial channel widening or local thalweg shift-
ing (Fig. 14C). The lateral extent of erosion of the
north-western edge of the levee sequence (Figs 5B
and 8) appears to have been somewhat limited,
suggesting that the channel may have widened
somewhat or experienced a local shift in the
thalweg position. At this time, conglomerate
deposition may already have begun in the north-
west, as suggested by the overall thickening of the
conglomerate towards the north-west (Fig. 1A). It
is thought that the channel fill is the product of a
single- or multiple-channel braidplain, with the
channel thalweg(s) migrating over the width of
the confined portion of the system. Turbidity
currents are often highly stratified flows, the
lower layer having a higher concentration than
the dilute upper layer (Peakall et al., 2000). Such
flows may be capable of forming multiple, high-
velocity thalwegs within their high-concentration
lower parts, while essentially occupying the
entire primary channel with the overlying, lower
density flow.
 Architecture of a submarine fan channellevee complex 357

2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 335362

358 T. A. Hickson and D. R. Lowe

Fig. 15. Schematic representation of the evolution of the JRC at the Maloney Ranch Section at the scale of
fourth-order elements. The architecture of the system can be partially explained by the lateral shifting of a channel
overbank system in (AC). In (D), the uppermost sequence most probably records the abandonment of the
depositional system and a return to fine-grained, mud-dominated sedimentation.

2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 335362
 Architecture of a submarine fan channellevee complex
North-west thalweg migration (Fig. 14D and E).
Conglomerate deposition ceased in the vicinity
of the MRS and was replaced by sand depos-
ition along the margins of the channel, suggesting
(1) that the channel thalweg, as tracked by the
locus of coarse-grained conglomerate deposition,
either migrated laterally to the north-west, taking
with it the locus of conglomerate deposition; or (2)
that there was a complete system-wide cessation
of conglomerate deposition. The JRC becomes
almost completely conglomeratic 3 km north-
west along strike (Fig. 1A), providing support for
the former interpretation. Within the study area,
sand was deposited as broad sheets, possibly as
part of a sandy braidplain system, as suggested
by the amalgamated character of these sandstones.
Alternatively, these sheet sands may have been
deposited by rapidly expanding flows down-
stream of the mouth of a leveed channel as part
of a lobe. These sands appear to onlap the levee
first, then overlap it and thin away from the
channel axis into facies that are very similar to the
levee facies sandstones of the IIIss/md element
(Fig. 6).
An abrupt shift in the position of the IIIss to
IIIss/md lateral facies change indicates that the
locus of sand deposition migrated further to
the north-west (Fig. 14E). The relationship of
second-order bounding surfaces across this
facies change is unclear because they are inac-
cessible. The IIIss may onlap the IIIss/md, as might
be encountered at a levee margin. Alternatively,
the IIIss element may thin and gradually become
a IIIss/md element, implying that this facies
change may record the temporary abandonment
of the system within the study area. The former
interpretation is preferred because the base of
this IIIss/md element has a higher sandstone
percentage and greater bed thickness than the
IIIss/md elements immediately below it (section 5,
Figs 6 and 9) and appears to represent the
beginning of another fining-upward levee pack-
age (Manley et al., 1997).
South-east thalweg migration (Fig. 14F). A
south-eastward shift in the deposition of thick-
bedded sandstone (IIIss) reflects a similar shift
in the channel thalweg position. This IIIss
element is the base of the next fourth-order
element, IV2. Lateral facies relationships at the
south-eastern margin of this IIIss element are
unclear. These sandstones may be confined to a
very low aspect ratio channel and may onlap
the contact with the adjacent IIIss/md element, or
they may feather out gradually into a IIIss/md
element.

2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 335362
359
Fourth-order system evolution
The previous discussion summarizes the evolu-
tion of only the lowest fourth-order element, IV1.
Figure 15 depicts the evolution of the entire JRC
at the MRS. Above the IV1 element, many of the
facies relationships are conjectural. For example,
it is unclear whether the IIIss elements feather out
into a IIIss/md element along strike or onlap a
relatively high-angle levee margin. Some of these
IIIss to IIIss/md facies changes appear to occur over
very short lateral distances, often less than 20 or
30 m, suggesting that an onlap relationship is
more reasonable. Over such short distances, the
flows that deposited thick-bedded sandstones
probably did not evolve into the low-density,
relatively dilute flows that deposited the inter-
bedded sandstone and mudstone. Unfortunately,
much of the outcrop that could clarify these
facies relationships is covered, faulted or inac-
cessible.
Element IV3 may be interpreted as a channel
levee sequence similar to IV1. Alternatively, this
upper element may represent the deposits of a
backstepping submarine fan system. If the latter
is the case, then the JRC may be interpreted as a
channellevee complex overlain by an abandon-
ment facies association. Geologic maps record
pinch-outs of the JRC 20 km north-west and
<1 km south-east of the MRS (Fig. 1A). This
lateral variability may record the extent of the
entire channellevee complex or possibly the
limits of a single submarine fan system analogous
to the coarse-grained, high-gradient fans of the
Forties Formation, North Sea (Hill & Wood,
1980).
The depositional model for the MRS is specific
to the margin of the JRC, but it may have more
general applicability to other conglomeratic,
leveed, deep-water depositional systems. Walker
(1985) proposed a less detailed and laterally
unconstrained model to explain the stratal stack-
ing patterns encountered in the Wheeler Gorge
conglomerates. Walker (1985) relied more strongly
on channel avulsion than thalweg migration to
explain vertical facies changes, but there is no
strong evidence to prefer one mechanism over the
other. Similar processes may have played a role
in the evolution of the Kirkgecit formation of
eastern Turkey (Cronin et al., 2000) as well as in
fine-grained channelleveeoverbank systems
like the Tanqua Karoo of South Africa (Kirschner
& Bouma, 2000).
360 T. A. Hickson and D. R. Lowe
CONCLUSIONS
The Juniper Ridge Conglomerate provides a
superb example of a deep-water, channellevee
complex. The clear exposures of the lateral margin
of the channel system, critically important in
terms of understanding the two-dimensional
facies architecture and genetic evolution of the
system, provide a rare insight into this type of
coarse-grained, deep-water channel deposit. The
Juniper Ridge Conglomerate represents an episode
of coarse clastic sedimentation within the Great
Valley Supergroup and records the emplacement
and lateral migration of a channellevee complex
across a distal, outer-fan slope or basin floor.
A return to fine-grained sedimentation records the
abandonment of the channellevee complex, as a
consequence of either a major shift in the depo-
centre or a rise in relative sea level.
The MRS is composed of four principal third-
order elements: (1) IIImd, a mudstone-dominated
element that represents deposition in distal
downslope or interchannel areas; (2) IIIss/md, a
mixed sandstone and mudstone element that
represents the levee/overbank facies; (3) IIIss, a
thick-bedded sandstone element that represents
the deposits of weakly channellized, high-energy
turbidity currents; and (4) IIIcg, a dominantly
conglomeratic element representing the deposits of
bars that filled an incised, deep-water channel.
The levee sequence shows a subtle increase,
followed by a decrease, in sandstone bed thick-
ness; these transitions occur over 20 m of
stratigraphic thickness. Sandstone percentages
follow a similar, and better defined trend. The
levee growth model developed by Manley et al.
(1997) for the modern Amazon Fan may be
applied to explain these trends partially, in
which channel avulsion and overspill lead to
the construction of levees, progressive confine-
ment of sediment-gravity flows within these
levees and the ability of overspilling flows to
tap sequentially only into the higher and finer
grained portions of these flows. High-frequency,
low-volume, muddy and dilute turbidity cur-
rents may contribute more mud to the proximal
portions of the levee flank, leading to the overall
finer grain size of the levee deposits nearest the
MRS channel margin.
Purely autocyclic forcing mechanisms may
prevail at the third- and fourth-order element
scale, with avulsion or gradual migration of the
thalweg creating a stacked sequence of fourth-
order channel/overbank systems. It is possible
that, at the scale of fifth-order elements, facies

2002 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 49, 335362
architecture is controlled allocyclically by chan-
ges in relative sea level.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Will Schweller,
Kai Anderson, Steve Graham and Lisa Lamb for
their critical input to this work. Two reviewers,
Jeff Peakall and Kevin Pickering, provided
critical and very insightful comments and
improved the focus of this work immensely.
This research was funded by the Stanford
Project on Deep-water Depositional Systems
(SPODDS), the Stanford University Department
of Geological and Environmental Sciences Shell
fund, the Stanford School of Earth Sciences
Dorothea McGee fund and NASAs Minnesota
Space Grant program.
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