Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
COMPLEX
ANALYSIS
Universitext: Tracts in Mathematics
Editorial Board
(North America):
S. Axler
F.W. Gehring
P.R. Halmos
Springer
New York
Berlin
Heidelberg
Barcelona
Budapest
Hong Kong
London
Milan
Paris
Santa Clara
Singapore
Tokyo
Universitext
Editors (North America): S. Axler, F.W. Gehring, and P.R. Halmos
Topics in
Complex Analysis
Springer
Mats Andersson
Department of Mathematics
Chalmers University of Technology
Goteborg University
S-412 96 Goteborg
Sweden
With 4 figures.
ever, most standard tools from harmonic analysis are beyond the scope of
this book, and therefore, the LP-boundedness of the Hilbert transform and
the Hr-space theory, for instance, are treated with complex analytic meth-
ods. Carleson's inequality is proved by an elementary argument due to B.
Berndtsson, rather than using the LP-estimate for the maximal function,
and Carleson's interpolation theorem is proved using the beautiful and ex-
plicit construction of the interpolating function due to P. Jones from the
1980s. However, a proof based on the 86-equation is indicated in an exer-
cise.
Necessary prerequisites for the reader are basic courses in integration
theory and functional analysis. In the text, I sometimes refer to distribution
theory, but this is merely for illustration and can be skipped over with no
serious loss of understanding. The reader whose memory of an elementary
(undergraduate) course in complex analysis is not so strong is advised to
consult an appropriate text for supplementary reading.
As usual, the exercises can be divided into two categories: those that
merely test the reader's understanding of or shed light on definitions and
theorems (these are sometimes interposed in the text) and those that ask
the reader to apply the theory or to develop it further. I think that for
optimal results a good deal of the time reserved for the study of this subject
should be devoted to grappling with the exercises. The exercises follow the
approximate order of topics in the corresponding chapters, and thus, the
degree of difficulty can vary greatly. For some of the exercises, I have
supplied hints and answers.
At the end of each chapter, I have included references to the main results,
usually to some more encyclopedic treatment of the subject in question, but
sometimes to original papers. If references do not always appear, this is
solely for the sake of expediency and does not imply any claim of origi-
nality on my part. My contribution consists mainly in the disposition and
adaptation of some material and proofs, previously found only in papers
or encyclopedic texts addressed to experts, into a form that hopefully will
be accessible to students.
Finally, I would like to take this opportunity to express my apprecia-
tion to all of the students and colleagues who have pointed out errors and
obscurities in various earlier versions of the manuscript and made valu-
able suggestions for improvements. For their help with the final version,
I would like to thank in particular Lars Alexandersson, Bo Berndtsson,
Hasse Carlsson, Niklas Lindholm, and Jeffrey Steif.
Preface v
Preliminaries 1
1. Notation ......................................................................... 1
2. Some Facts .................................................................... 2
7. HP Spaces 112
1. Factorization in IF Spaces ............................................ 112
2. Invariant Subspaces of H2 ............................................ 116
3. Interpolation of H ....................................................... 118
4. Carleson Measures ......................................................... 121
Bibliography 151
1. Notation
Throughout this book the letters 12 and K always will denote open and
compact sets, respectively, in 1R2, and w will denote a bounded open set
with (when necessary) piecewise C' boundary 8w, which is always supposed
to be positively oriented; i.e., one has w on the left-hand side when passing
along Ow. The notation w CC St means that the closure of w is a compact
subset of St, and d(K, E) denotes the distance between the sets K and
E. Moreover, D(a, r) is the open disk with center at a and radius r,
and U denotes the unit disk, i.e., U = D(0, 1), and T is its boundary
aU = {z; Izj = 1}. The closure of a set E E 1R2 is denoted by E and its
interior is denoted by int E.
The space of k times (real) differentiable (complex valued) functions in
St is denoted by Ck(Sl) (however, we write C(1) rather than CO(Q)) and
C(S2) = nCk(Sl). Moreover, &(D) is the subspace of functions in Ck(S2)
whose derivatives up to the kth order have continuous extensions to St, and
Co (St) is the subspace of functions in Ck(c) that have compact support
in Q. Lebesgue measure in 1R2 is denoted by dA, whereas do, denotes arc
length along curves. We use the standard abbreviation a.e. for "almost
every(where)." We also use u.c. for "uniformly on compact sets." If f, q5
are functions, then "f = O(0) when x -+ a" means that f/0 is bounded
in a neighborhood of a and "f = o(O) when x -p a" means that f /0 0
when x a. Sometimes we also use the notation f N g, which means that
f is less than or equal to some constant times g. Moreover, f - g stands
for f N g and f ? g.
We will use standard facts from basic courses in integration theory and
functional analysis. Sometimes we also refer to distribution theory (mainly
in remarks), but these comments are meant merely for illustration and
always can be passed over with no loss of continuity. In the next section
we have assembled some facts that will be used frequently in the text. In the
first chapters we refer to them explicitly but later on often only implicitly.
2 Preliminaries
If Pdx +Qdyl
< f IPI2 + IQI2da < Irl sup IPI2 + IQ12.
Green's formula (Stokes' theorem) states that if P, Q E C' (e)), then
f Pdx + Qdy = j(Qz -
d
On some occasions we also refer to the inverse function theorem, see, e.g.,
[Ho]: If f: S2 -+ R2 is C1 and its derivauive Df 1a at a E f2 is nonsingular,
then locally f has a C' inverse g.
B. Existence of test functions. There are "plenty" of functions in
Co (0), namely,
(i) for any K C 1 there is a 0 E Co (SZ) such that = 1 in a neighborhood
of Kand 0<0<1.
(ii) if f E L' (0) and fn OfdA = 0 for all cb E Co (S2), then f = 0 a.e.
(iii) if f is continuous on K C 1 and e > 0, there is a 0 E Co (52) such that
SUPK 10 - f J < e.
(iv) if USIa = 0, then there is a smooth partition of unity subordinate to the
open cover IL, i.e., there are 0k E Co (SL k) such that 0 < k <_ 1,
locally only a finite number of Ok are nonvanishing and >k Ok =_ 1 in R.
and hence
b
h(t)dt = J (f (x, b) - f (x, a)) dp(x) = g(b) - g(a)
1n
a 1 a a
az-2(ax-iay) and
a =2 ax + i ay
so that
df = Lx dx + y dy Lz dz + aj dz. (1.1)
exists if and only if (af/az)Ia = 0; and in that case, the limit equals
(af/az)Ia.
The limit (if it exists) is denoted by [(a).
f(a+z)-f(a)=zaf 1a+za-Ia+o(IzI)
6 1. Some Basic Properties of Analytic Functions
(identify the real and imaginary parts in the equation (a/ax + i&/(9y)(u +
iv) = 0).
The proof appears later on! In most cases, it is advantageous to write the
Cauchy-Riemann equation in the complex form (9f /c)2 = 0, rather than as
(1.3). For instance, clearly the product rules
a a _ of ag
az(f9) az9+fa9
and
az (f 9) az 9 + f az
hold; thus, if f,g E A(S2), one immediately finds that fg c A(S2) and
(f g)' = f'g + f g'. Suppose that h(t) is C' on an interval I C R and that
f is C1 in a neighborhood of the image of h in C. Then by (1.1),
d(f o h) dt = d(f o h) = Of dh +
8f dh = off dh
dt + Of dh dt,
dt az 8z az dt az Wt
and therefore we have the chain rule
dfoh_Ofdh afdh
dt ozdt+azdt
In the same way, if h(C) is C' in some domain in C, then
ofoh afdh ofah and afoh_afah Ofah
Or oz Or + aZ or aT -Oz aT + 54 aT
Thus, if f, g are analytic, then f o g is analytic and (f o g)' = f'(g)g'.
1. Definition and Integral Representation 7
Here are some other simple consequences of the product rule and the
chain rule (and the definition).
(a) If f, g E A(1l) and a, /3 E C, then f g E A(Sl) and a f +,3g E A(Sl).
(b) z -4 z'^, m being a natural number, is analytic in C.
(c) If f E A(1), then 1/ f E A(Sl \ f f = 0}). (First show that 1/z E
A(C \ {0}) !)
(d) z e' =def e' (cosy + i sin y) is analytic in C.
(e) ((9/az)zm = mz'-', (a/az)e= = ez, (a/az)(1/f) = -f'/f2.
Exercise 1. Show that
(a) of/az = of/49z.
(b) if f E A(Sl), then z ,--+ f (z) is analytic in {z; z E 1}.
(c) if f E A(1) and f is real, then f is (locally) constant.
(d) if f E A(Sl) and If I is constant, then f is (locally) constant.
If the curve I is given by r(t) = rl (t) + ir2(t), a < t < b, then, see A in
the preliminaries,
ffdz
=jb
V.
f' If(r(t))IIr'(t)Idt= f rIfIdo
so that (Idzl = do)
w
2iJ (dA(z),
/
f,g E Cw). (1.5)
(-z
Proof. Take z c w. For a so small that {C; K - z( < E} C w, (1.5) (with
f replaced by f(()/(( - z)) gives that
2i
Of da(() = _ ( fdI fd( (1.6)
w\{IC-z1} a(( - z w (- z IC-zl=f C- z
since ( - 1/(( - z) is analytic in w \ {1( - zl < ell. By (1.5) again, we get
fdC 1
_zl=f ( - C-zl=c
lic IZ E
f (f() + (- fda(()
2i
WE2
27ri
j
IC-zI<E
-zl<c
(f (z) + O(j( - zj)) dA(() = 21rif (z) + O(e).
f (z) = 2a f
0
2ir
f (z + re't)dt.
To see this, one simply makes the substitution ( = z + re", 0 < t < 21r
(so that d( = ire`tdt = i(C - z)dt) in the formula
f (z) = 1
27ri
J 1(-zlsrf C(C)d(
-z
(e) If f is analytic and we differentate under the integral sign in Cauchy's
formula, we find that f is C, f (m) is analytic, and
f(m)(z) = mt j f(C)d(
27x2 ((- z)m+1 m = 0,1,2,.... (1.8)
f(-)(Z)
-TILE
7r f 04' f(()d)(()
a( ((- z)m+1'
z E K.
10 1. Some Basic Properties of Analytic Functions
f 9(z)V5(z) 7 f z"(Z) f
i f z (z))) f (o + JS 4
aS
_- (_.:'
f (z)) f (C)
z
The first of these integrals vanishes by the assumption on f, since
l - 1 fZ (z)
z-
+
= f o(C)+G(C)f(C) = f(c)f()
1. Definition and Integral Representation 11
since supp i1' C (0 = 11, and thus we have showed that f gp = f f V) for
all z/) E Co(w). This implies that f = g a.e. in w.
Proof. The hypothesis in (a) implies the one in (b). To prove (b), observe
that f satisfies (1.10) and therefore f = g a.e. for some g c A(S2). Then
apply Proposition 1.8 to fj - g.
One also can easily verify Proposition 1.10 directly from Proposition 1.8
by locally representing fk by formula (1.9) and taking limits.
1.11 Morera's Theorem. If f E C(ft) and fao fdz = 0 for all triangles
A C S2, then f E A(SZ).
which together with (1.11) implies that I < ElaooI2. Thus, I = 0 and the
desired conclusion follows from Morera's theorem.
1.12 The Maximum (Modulus) Principle. If Il is connected, f E
A(Il), and If (a) I = supra If I for some a E II, then f is constant.
Proof. From the mean value property, cf. 1.7 (d), we get
f2r
If (a) l 5? f (a + re't) l dt < M= sup I f 1,
2,r I
n
with equality in the last inequality if and only if if I = M on the circle
IC - aI = r. Hence, if I f (a) I = M, then I f I = M in a neighborhood of a.
Therefore, the set A = {z e 11; If (z)l = M} is open and closed in 0. Since
A # 0, A = S2 and therefore If I, and hence f, is constant.
One can replace this closed-open argument, and others in what follows,
by a more conceptual "chain of circles" argument.
By the uniqueness theorem (Theorem 2.6 below) it follows that f is
constant as long as If I has a local maximum.
1.13 Corollary. If f E C(i) n A(1l) and S2 is compact, then supra IfI =
supan If I.
and 1/R, where 0 < R < oo. Then the power series
00
f(z) = : Cnzn (2.1)
n=0
converges uniformly in each domain D(0, r) (the disk with center 0 and
radius r), r < R, and diverges if IzI > R (exercise!).
2.1 Proposition. Suppose that f is given by (2.1). Then f is analytic in
D(0, R), f'(z) = EO 1 in D(0, R), and
ncnzn-1
n! f(C)d( r < R.
n!cn = f (") (0) = (2.2)
2ni J ICI=* ( n+1 ,
z
n=0 - 1C1=r
Sn+1 z
n=0
z .
Since
2.5 Proposition. If f E A(D(a, r)) and f is not identically zero, then for
some integer m, f (z) = (z - a)mh(z), where h # 0 in a neighborhood of a.
One then says that f (z) has a zero of order or multiplicity m at a.
f(z) _ 00 Cn z"
_,
that converges u.c. in Q. The coefficients cn are given by
1 f(()d(
, n E Z, 0 < r < R. (2.3)
cn = 21ri fCI =*
I
C+i
Exercise 2. Show that the big Picard theorem implies the little Picard
theorem: Each entire nonconstant function attains all values with one pos-
sible exception.
Res(f, a) = 1
1)! d
11 a(z - a)'f(z);
(m
2. Power Series Expansions and Residues 17
J f d - j-1 f ail-E
f d(.
f a _ 1: fm-1 m-1
ds
r k-0 rk
= E
k=O
(1ogk+1 I (tk+1) - logk F(tk))
Indr (a) = -2
Indr (b) = 1
Indr (c) = 0
FIGURE 1
Hence, Proposition 2.13 implies that the number of zeros minus the number
of poles equals the number of times that f o -y(t) turns around the origin,
if y(t) is a parametrization of 8w. This sometimes is called the principle
of argument. We leave it as an exercise to supply a similar geometrical
interpretation of Rouche's theorem.
Definition. We say that a cycle r in fl is null-homologous with respect
to SZ if Indr(a) = 0 for all a 0 H. Two cycles r'1 and r2 are homologous if
r1 - r2 is null-homologous.
Notice that if w cc f?, then 8w is null-homologous in Cl.
3.3 Cauchy's (Homology) Theorem and Formula. Suppose that f E
A(C) and r is a null-homologous cycle in Cl. Then
f(C)d( = 0 (a)
Jr
and
z
f(z) Indr(z) Z E fl\ r. (b)
r '
Proof of (a). Let H be the union of r and the support of Indr. As Indr
is locally constant in C \ r (cf. Exercise 4 above) it must vanish on each
component that intersects C\Sl. However, Indr vanishes on the unbounded
3. Global Cauchy Theorems 21
27ri
f (z)dz = 7r
f aT'f (T) Indr(()dA(() = 0
since Indr is supported on H and 80/8c = 0 there.
3.4 Remark. The preceding proof can be interpreted in the sense of dis-
tributions in the following way. Let the distribution (measure) u be defined
by u(q) _ (i/2) fl, q5dS' for 0 E CO. Then u has compact support in Sl and
(8/8() Indr = u, cf. 1.7 (c). The assumption on r implies as before that
Indr is compactly supported in Q. Thus,
Jr fdC = u(f) = as r
(f) = - Indr
) = 0-
Suppose that yo and yi are two continuous closed curves in S2, i.e., con-
tinuous mappings [0, 11 IZ such that y;(0) = yj (1). They are homo-
topic if there is a continuous mapping H: [0, 1] x [0, 1) - 0 such that
H(s, 0) = yo(s), H(s, 1) = yi (s), and H(0, t) = H(1, t) for t E [0,1]. In-
tuitively this means that the curve yo can be continuously deformed to y,
within Sl, and vice versa.
3.7 Proposition. If yo and -yl are homotopic closed curves, then they are
homologous.
FIGURE 2
Supplementary Exercises
Exercise 5. Suppose that f is C' in a neighborhood of the origin. Show
that
f(z)=f(0)+
k=1
kIr
j=0 j
k-72j_a
aZjlO+
Exercise 6. Show that an open set S2 in C is connected if and only if
it is pathwise connected (i.e., each pair of points can be connected by a
(piecewise C') curve in SZ).
Exercise 7. Try to show a variant of Morera's theorem where the triangles
are replaced by circles. (Hint: First assume that f is C1.)
Exercise 8. Assume that f and g are entire functions and that If (z)I <
jg(z)I for all z. What can be said about f and g?
Exercise 9. Find all of the zeros of sin z and cos z.
Exercise 10. Assume that f is analytic in the annulus 52 = {r < Izi <
R}. Show that f has a Laurent series expansion f (z) _ E 00 c,iz" that
converges u.c. in 11.
Exercise 11. Assume that f has an isolated singularity at 0. Show that
(a) if f(z) = o(1/IzI), then the singularity is removable.
(b) if f = o(1/IzI-0+')), then f has a pole of order at most N.
(c) if f(z) = o(IzIN), N _> 0, then the singularity is removable and f has a
zero of order at least N + 1.
Exercise 12. Compute f .(1 +x2)`1 exp(ixt)dx for t E R.
24 1. Some Basic Properties of Analytic Functions
Note that t2 -
2ixt - x2 = -(x + it)2.
Exercise 16. Compute
h(z) = - 1
it f CI<1
(( - z)-ld)(C)
for various z E C,
(a) using polar coordinates and solving the "B-integral" by the calculus of
residues.
(b) by first computing (8/8z)h(z) outside the unit circle and noting that at
least h(z) is continuous over the circle.
(c) by expanding the integrand in approriate power series.
Exercise 17. Compute F_'(1 + k2)-1 by integrating g(z) = n(1 +
z2)-1 cot 7rz over the curves r, which are the rectangles with corners at
(n + 1/2)(1, i). Also compute Ei k-2.
Exercise 18. Suppose that f E A(il), I f (z) = lim fn(z)
exists for all z E Q. Show that f - f u.c.
Exercise 19. Suppose that f,, E A(Q) and that f -+ f in LP r(Q) for
some p > 1. Show that there is a g E A(il) such that f = g a.e. and f -+ g
U.C.
2iri
1 f f'(()d(
C=F f (S) - w
for w near 0.
Supplementary Exercises 25
(b) Suppose in addition that f'(0) # 0. Show that f has a local inverse g(w)
near 0.
(c) Show that g(w) is in fact analytic. Hint: For w near 0,
g(w) = 1j
27ri
f'(()cd(
<1= PO - w
Exercise 24. Suppose that f and g are nonvanishing analytic functions
in U such that (f'/ f)(1/n) = (g'/g)(1/n), n = 1,2,3,.... What is the
relation between f and g?
Exercise 25. Suppose that 1 is connected, f E A(SZ) are nonvanishing
in Sl, and that f,, -+ f u.c. Show that if f is not identically zero, then f is
also nonvanishing in 0.
Exercise 26. Suppose that ) is connected, f,, E A(SZ), and fn(Q) c SZ'
for some open n'. Show that if f -+ f u.c., then either f is constant or
f(S1) c S2'.
Exercise 27. Suppose that f E A(U) nC(U) and I f (z) I < 1 when Izi = 1.
How many solutions does the equation f (z) = z have in U?
Exercise 28. Suppose that f E A(U) fl C(U), If (z) I > 1 when IzI = 1 and
f (0) = 1. Must f have a zero in U?
Exercise 29. How many zeros does f (z) = z5 + 4z2 + 2z + 1 have in the
unit disk?
Exercise 30. Suppose that f is analytic and f (z) _ >o akzk + o(I zI -)
Determine ak.
Exercise 31. Suppose that f E A(l) and a0,.. , a,n E w CC I. Show
.
that
f
1
)dC
p(z) = f (z) - (fl:) C-z zE ,
Exercise 34. Suppose that f E A(I) and w CC 11. Show that if log If I <
Re g on Ow for some g c A(1), then log if I < Re g in w. Hint: Consider
f exp(-g).
Exercise 35. Let ft = {x + iy; IxI < it/2}. Show that f (z) = exp(expiz)
is unbounded in ft but supan If I = 1.
Exercises 36-38 exemplify the Phragmen-Lindelof method, which per-
mits certain extensions of the maximum principle to unbounded domains.
As an application, examples of complex interpolation then are given in
Exercises 39 and 40.
Exercise 36. Suppose that S2 = {x + iy; Ixi < n/2}, f E A(ft) n C(O),
If (z)I < exp(A exp alyl) for some a < 1, A < oo, and that if I < 1 on aft.
Show that If I < 1 in Q. Hint:
(a) Let h, (z) = exp(-2e cos,i3z), where a < ,3 < 1. Show that Ih, I < 1 on S2.
(b) Show that
if (z)h, (z)I < exp (AeIvl - e6(e'311 + e3))
on n for b = cos 87r/2.
(c) Show by the maximum principle that If hE I < 1 on some large rectangle
with corners at :En/2 t iyo.
(d) Conclude that If I < 1 in ft.
Exercise 37. Let ft = {z; I arg zI < a}, f E A(ft) n C(St). Find a
boundedness assumption on f which implies that If I < 1 in l if supon If I <
1.
Exercise 38. Suppose that ft = {x + iy; a < x < b}, f E A(ft) n C(O),
and that if I < C in 1. Let M(x) = supYER if (x + iy)I. Show that
Mb-a(x) < M(a)b-xM(b)2-2, a < x < b.
Hint:
(a) First suppose that M(a) = M(b) = 1 and verify the statement in this
case.
(b) Let g(z) = M(a) z M(b) s - and apply (a) to f (z)/g(z).
Exercise 39. Suppose that p and A are (reasonable) positive measures on
two measurable spaces, and suppose that T is a linear operator L1(p)
L(A),andL2() L2(A) such that llTfIL <- MIIfII1andIITfII2 S IIfII2
Then T: LP(p) -+ L'(A) for 1 < p < 2 and IIT f IIq < Mp If Ilp (if q is the
dual index). Hint:
(a) It is enough to show:
I f(Tf)gdAl < MP V simple f,g with IIfII, = IIgIIp = 1. (*)
(A function is simple if it is a finite sum F_cajXE;, where Ej are mea-
surable and have finite measures.)
Notes 27
Notes
Most of the material in this chapter is classical. For historical remarks
about the notion of analytic function, see [Hi].
Notice that the homology variant of Cauchy's theorem (Theorem 3.3)
follows from Cauchy's formula and hence in turn from Green's formula in
a trivial case.
Exercises 12-17 exemplify the calculus of residues. For hints and further
examples, see an elementary book on complex analysis.
The formula in Exercise 31 is called Hermite's formula, and it is funda-
mental in complex approximation theory.
The technique used in Exercise 39 is called complex interpolation. More
about this can be found in [S-W].
2
Properties of Analytic Mappings
1. Conformal Mappings
We now will concentrate on the aspect of analytic functions as mappings
from domains in 1R2 into 1R2. For an arbitrary C1 mapping the relation
and
If'(0)1 s 1. (1.3)
If equality holds in (1.3) or for some z in (1.2), then f (z) _ Az for some
A E T.
Proof. Set fr(z) = f (rz) for r < 1. Then fr(z)/z is in A(U) fl C(U), and
by the maximum principle
1fr(z)/z1 < sup Ifr(()/(I <t 1, z E U,
ICI=1
i.e., 1f,_(z)1 < 1z1. Letting r tend to 1 we get (1.2) and thereby (1.3).
Observe that g(z) = f(z)/z (g(0) = f'(0)) is in A(U) and that 1s(z)1 < 1.
If 1g(z)1 = 1 for some z E U, then g(z) = A for some A E T, again according
to the maximum principle.
Exercise 1. Suppose that f E A(U), If (z) I < 1, and that f (z) has a
zero of order m at 0. Show that 1 f (z)1 < 1zIm. What happens if there is
equality?
A bijective conformal mapping of 1 onto itself is called an automorphism.
The set of automorphisms of ft is a group under composition.
restrictive and accept subsequences that tend to oc u.c. For our purposes
one can adopt either definition.
1.7 Proposition. If 4) C A(Q) and 4) is uniformly bounded on compacts,
then it is a normal family.
Proof. It follows from Proposition 1.8 of Ch. 1 that the gradients of the
functions in 4) are uniformly bounded on compacts and hence 4) is equicon-
tinuous on compacts. The conclusion then follows from the Arzela-Ascoli
theorem.
1.8 Lemma. If S2 is connected, f,, E A(S2), f , f u.c., all f" are injec-
tive, and f is not constant, then f is also injective.
Proof. Take a E S2 and observe that are nonvan-
ishing in S2 \ {a} and that g --i f - f (a) - g u.c. Since g is nonconstant
and S2 \ {a} is connected, g is also nonvanishing in 11 \ {a} (this follows for
instance from the maximum theorem or Rouche's theorem; cf. Exercise 25
of Ch. 1) and hence g(z) # g(a) if z 54 a.
1.9 Proposition. If 0 is simply connected, then each f E A(Q) has a
primitive, and hence each non vanishing f E A(12) has a logarithm.
then it has an isolated singularity at oc; but since f is injective and open,
it follows that there is some punctured neighborhood of oo where f avoids
the open set f (U). Thus, it follows from Proposition 2.10 in Ch. 1 that
the singularity is a pole (or removable). By Louiville's theorem then f is a
polynomial and hence linear because of its injectivity.
3. Univalent Functions
Suppose that f is analytic in U, f (0) = 0, and f'(0) = 1. Then we
know from Proposition 1.1 that f (U) contains a neighborhood of the ori-
gin. Is there a constant r such that rU C f (U) for all such f? With-
out further restrictions on f the answer is no. For instance, the function
ff(z) = e(exp(z/e) - 1) satisfies these requirements, but the point -e is not
contained in f f (U). However, if we impose the extra condition that f be
injective, or univalent, then the situation is different. The principal result
is Koebe's theorem.
Notice that if h is as in the theorem and avoids the value a, then 1/(h(z)-
a) E S. Conversely, if f E S, then h = 1/f satisfies the hypothesis of the
theorem.
0 < A,. = . 2
1
T
- O
nIcni2r2
Notice that equality in the area theorem means that the intersection of
the sets V, is a zero set, i.e., h attains almost all values. The theorem
implies in particular that 1c1 J < 1. If we have Icl J = 1, then ck = 0 for
k > 1 and hence
h(z) = 1 + co + e0z.
z
This function is actually injective (verify!) and maps {0 < JzJ < 1} onto
the complement of the line segment between the points -2eie/2 + co and
2ei812 + cp. (Since h is continuous on U and h(U) is open, it is enough to
verify that h maps T onto this segment.) In particular, if we choose cl = 1
and co = 2, then h(z) avoids the interval [0, 4] and hence f = 1/h E S
avoids the set [1/4, oo), which shows that the constant 1/4 in Koebe's
theorem is the best possible.
4 Picard's Theorems
Picard's theorem states that if an entire function omits two distinct val-
ues, then it is constant; and, more generally, that if an analytic function
omits two distinct values in some punctured neighborhood of an isolated
singularity, then the singularity is either a pole or removable. The latter
statement is usually called the big Picard theorem. The proof presented
here proceeds via a classical result called Schottky's theorem. The main
tool is Bloch's theorem, which states that there is an absolute constant
f such that if f E A(U) and f'(0) = 1, then f (U) contains a disk with
radius e. It should be pointed out that in general this disk will not be cen-
tered at f (0); cf. the example at the beginning of the preceding paragraph.
However, if one also imposes a boundedness condition, then in fact f (U)
contains D(f (0), r) for some fixed r.
and therefore 1 + r2/41w12 < 1 + M/IwI, i.e., Iwl > r2/4M. Letting r -+ 1,
we get the desired result.
Then w(t) is continuous for 0 < t < 1, w(0) = 0, and w(1) = 1, and
therefore there is a least to > 0 such that w(to) = 1. Choose a such that
Ial < 1 - to and I f'(a)I = 1/to. In D(a, to/2), I f'I < 2/to since D(a, t0/2) C
D(0, 1 - to/2) and in the latter domain sup l f'I < 1/(to/2) = 2/to. Now
is analytic in z E D(a, to/2), Ig'(a)I = 11t0, and Ig(z)I < t0/2.2/to = 1, and
therefore g(D(a, t0/2)) contains the disk D(0, 1/16), i.e., f(U) contains the
disk D(f (a), 1/16).
We now can conclude the little Picard theorem. With no loss of generality
we may assume that f is an entire function that omits the values 0 and
1. Since C is simply connected, there is some function log f in U and
furthermore some function
log f log f
g(x) =log
2iri 27ri
Proof. Assume that f E A(U) and avoids the values 0 and 1. Since U
is simply connected, there is a function g E A(U) such that (4.1) holds.
Moreover, we can choose g by first determining the value g(0) so that
Ig(0) I <- C'(a, Q) if 0 < a < If (0) I < Q. (4.2)
If IzI = r < 1, then the function
g(z + (1 - r)()
(S) =
(1 - r)g'(z)
is analytic in the unit disk and 0'(0) = 1. By Bloch's theorem, therefore, its
image contains a disk with radius e, i.e., some disk with radius (1-r)Ig'(z)It
is contained in g(U). However, since g avoids the set E, we must have that
Proof. We have to prove that if f is analytic for (z( > 1/2 and avoids
0 and 1, then either f is bounded or has a pole at infinity. If not, the
image of f on each set IzI > R is dense according to Proposition 2.10 in
Ch. 1, and therefore there are An oo such that 1/2 < If (A,,) 1 :5 1. Set
fn(z) = f(Anz). Then fn is analytic in Iz( > 1/2 and 1/2 < lfn(1)I < 1,
and therefore Schottky's inequality yields that
c < I fn(z)I < C, z E D(1, 1/4).
For a E TnD(1, 1/4) we can repeat the argument and hence get constants
c' and C' such that
c' < If-WI < C', z E D(a, 1/4).
After a finite number of steps we have covered the entire unit circle, and
hence there are constants k and K such that
k<Ifn(z)(<K, zET,
i.e., (f(< K on Iz( = A, . By the maximum principle
Supplementary Exercises
Exercise 7. Show that the maximum modulus principle follows from the
open mapping theorem.
Exercise 8. Show that the determinant of the linear mapping z az is
(a(2.
Exercise 9. Complete the proof of Proposition 1.3, i.e., show that if
df(a # 0 and f preserves angles at a, then (8f/8z)1n = 0.
Exercise 10. Given S2 C C, find an exhausting sequence of compacts
... K C Kn+i .... i.e., such that any compact K C 92 is contained in
some Kn. Find an increasing sequence of compacts Kn such that UKn = S2
which is not exhausting.
Exercise 11. Let 4iP = If E A(U); f t,,, If (dA < exp(1 - Is D a
normal family?
Exercise 12. Show that the function t from P (the extended plane) to
S2 is indeed a homeomorphism. Include a drawing.
42 2. Properties of Analytic Mappings
Exercise 24. Let A(1, R) = {z; I < IzI < R}. Show that if A(1, R) is
conformally equivalent to A(1, R'), then R = R' by filling out the details
in the following arguments. Let f: A(1, R) -+ A(1, R') be analytic and
bijective. First show that I f (z,) I 1 when Izj 1 and I f (zj) I --* R'
when Izj I R, or vice versa. In that case, replace f by R'/f. Then show
that
R'
logIf(z)1 =log logIzI
log R
and conclude that R = R'. Hint:
u(z) = log if (z)I - (log R'/ log R) log IzI
is harmonic in A(1, R) and vanishes on the boundary, and hence it vanishes
identically; see Ch. 4.
Exercise 25. Find all automorphisms of A(1, R).
Supplementary Exercises 43
(1 + / )2M > 6M
1
G=
44 2. Properties of Analytic Mappings
Actually, X(z, w) _> 0 and X(z, w) = 0 if and only if z = w and the triangle
inequality holds, i.e., X(z, w) < X(z, u) + X(u, w). Moreover, X(z, w) < 1
with equality if and only if w = -1/z. The metric X is invariant under the
subgroup U of M, that arises from the group of unitary matrices G, i.e.,
such that G*G = I. The subgroup U is (also) transitive, i.e., for any pair
of points z, w E P there is some ?k E U mapping z on w.
Exercise 34. Each "circle" on IP is of the form {z; X(z, w) = r}.
Exercise 35. There is a unique normalized measure dp on IP that is
invariant under U, i.e., such that p(E) = p( rl,(E)) for all (measurable) E
and 0 E U. Since
X(z + h, z) _ 1
lim
IhI 1 + Iz12'
it follows that
dp(z) _ dA(z)
(1 + IzI2)2
7r
Exercise 36. Show that if P is identified with the sphere S2 via the
mapping 4), then X corresponds to half the cordial distance between points
on S2. Moreover, show that the measure du corresponds to the normalized
surface measure on S2. Also show that a "circle" on P corresponds to a
circle on S2.
Notes
The first complete proof of the Riemann mapping theorem is from the
end of the nineteenth century. The proof presented here depends heavily
on normal families. A more constructive proof was obtained by Koebe.
Notes 45
For the history of the R.iemann mapping theorem and its connection to
Dirichlet's problem, see [Hi].
Any doubly connected domain (such that the complement has two com-
ponents) with reasonable boundary is conformally equivalent to an annulus
A(1, R) (for a unique R in view of Exercise 24). See [Al] and [A2] for fur-
ther results about multiply connected domains.
Koebe proved in 1907 that there exists some constant k such that f (U) D
D(0, k) for each f E S. The optimal value k = 1/4 was determined by
Bieberbach in 1916. Bieberbach also made the conjecture that n
for all n. de Brange's proof of the conjecture is published in Acta Math.,
vol. 154 (1985).
Picard proved the theorem bearing his name in 1879. The proof pre-
sented here is due to Bloch (1924). The result in Exercise 31, as well as
Theorem 4.2, is due to Bloch. The best constant in Theorem 4.2 is called
Landau's constant L, whereas the best constant in Exercise 31 is called
Bloch's constant B. Their exact values still are not determined, but it is
known that 0.4330... < B < 1/2 < L < 0.5433... ; see Liu and Minda,
Tans. Amer. Math. Soc., vol. 333 (1992), 325-338.
3
Analytic Approximation
and Continuation
Kz-(
h(C) = f dp(z) CEP \ K.
f = ql + E(qn+l - qn - r'n)
1
For fixed N,
N-1 00
f = qN - rn + E(qn+l - qn - rn),
1 N
2. Mittag-Leffer's Theorem and the Inhomogenous Cauchy-Riemann ... 49
is a C'
u(z)
f 1
u = u1 + F_(un+1 - un - rn)
1
1
50 3. Analytic Approximation and Continuation
u(z) = _ 1 f (S)dA(()
IT r S-z
provides a solution to (2.2). [To see this, let X be a cut-off function in Cl that
is identically 1 in some neighborhood of K C Cl and write f = X f +(I - X) f .
This gives rise to two terms: the first one solves (2.2) on K (cf. (2.1)), and
the second one is analytic near K.) It is also possible to construct such
formulas that will work for a larger class of f:
solves (2.2) if f(1 - I S I2) I f I < oo _ In fact, one can just apply the arguments
above to the function
S_ (1_cl2)
-(f(S)
and let z = w. In this formula, f is thus allowed to grow somewhat at the
boundary. However, this solution also has a certain minimality property.
Let B(U) be the subset of analytic functions in U that belong to L2(U).
From Proposition 1.10 of Ch. 1 it follows that B(U) is a closed subspace
3. Analytic Continuation 51
of L2(U). Let
Pu(z) = 1 u(()d\(2)
lr U (1 - Cz)
One can verify (see Exercise 9) that P is a bounded operator from L2(U)
to B(U). Furthermore, one can check that
K(Ou/8z) = u - Pu (2.3)
for u E C'(U). Since, for instance, the analytic polynomials are dense
in B(U) (Exercise.9), (2.3) shows that Pu = u if u E B(U) is analytic,
i.e., P is a projection. Moreover, it is indeed the orthogonal projection
P: L2(U) B(U) since its kernel (1 - (z)-2/7r is hermitian (which in
turn implies that P is self-adjoint). The operator P is called the Bergman
projection in U and B(U) the Bergman space. Now, if (2.2) has a solution
u in for example L2(U) n C1(U), it follows from (2.3) that Kf is the one
with minimal norm in L2(U) since it is orthogonal to B(U).
Further examples of integral representation of solutions will be given in
the exercises.
3. Analytic Continuation
In Ch. 1 we found that the logarithm function could be defined along any
curve in the plane that avoids the origin. This is an instance of analytic
continuation, a notion that we now shall make precise. A function element
is an ordered pair (f, D), where D is an open disk and f E A(D). Suppose
that y: [0, 1) - fZ is a curve and we are given fo E A(D(y(0), ro)). We say
that fo (or more precisely (fo, D(y(0), ro))) can be continued along y if there
are numbers 0 = so < s1 < . . < s = 1 and function elements (fj, Dj)
.
such that -y(O) is the center of Do, y(1) is the center of Dn, y([sj,sj+lj) C
Dj, and fj = fj+i in Dj n Djt1 (which by the assumption is nonempty).
Note that if g is a continuation of f along y, then f is a continuation of g
along -y.
3.1 Proposition. Any two continuations of fo along -y coincide, i.e., if we
have 0 = so < sl < < sn = 1, 0 = ao < a1 < . < a,, = 1, and
corresponding function elements (f j, Dj) and (9k, Dk), then fn = g n in
DnnDm.
Hence, we can talk about the continuation of fo along -y.
Proof. Assume the contrary. Then there are i and j such that [si, si+1) n
[aj, aj+1) 0, fi gj on DinDJ, and i+j is minimal. We also may assume
that si > aj. Then i > 1 and s, E [aj, aj+1). Thus, 'y(si) E D;_1 n Di n D1.
52 3. Analytic Approximation and Continuation
f (z) _ z".
1
We claim that (f, U) can be continued along any curve from U that avoids
the points 1 and 0 sic!. To begin with, as fo exp(-nt2)dt = 7r/n/2, one
finds that f (z) coincides with
2 00 z
F(z) =
7r o e, -z dt (3.1)
in the unit disk, and therefore the formula (3.1) provides a continuation of
f along any curve that does not intersect the half-axis (I, oe). Let F_ (z)
denote F(z) below [1, oo) and F+(z) above. We claim that F_ (z) can be
continued across any point in (1, oo). To see this, use Cauchy's theorem and
move the path of integration in (3.1) from, say, 1/R to R a little bit into the
upper half-plane. If the modified path is sufficiently near the positive real
axis, then its image under rr --4 exp(-r2) will run in the upper half-plane,
and hence the resulting integral will provide a continuation of F_ across
the real axis between exp(1/R2) and exp(R2). In the same way, F+ can he
continued a little bit below (1,oo). By Exercise 23
1
-.o
F(x + ie) - F(x - ie) = (3.2)
og
C
4. Simply Connected Domains 53
3.5 Remark. What we in fact proved was: If (f, D) can be continued along
any curve in 9 that starts at the center of D, then the continuation along a
closed null-homotopic curve must be f itself. Incidentally, by considering,
e.g., og z in 0 = C \ {0, 1}, this proves that the curve in Example 3.8 in
Ch. 1 is not null-homotopic.
Note that a '/e( has its support in Q. (Intuitively, one should think of
8.o/8C as a curve in S2 with index 1 at o. Then (4.1) immediately contra-
dicts (h).) If (i) holds, there is an analytic f in 0 such that f' (z - a)-i,
and hence
f a"f'(()dA(C)
I.
2" f(()da(C) = f 8 8f-d)(C) = 0,
-49
which is a contradiction.
4.3 Remark. In the proof we used the fact that a compact set K in
the plane is connected if and only if it has no nontrivial clopen (relatively
closed and open) subset. It is not true that each component of K is clopen;
for example, a Cantor set is totally disconnected, i.e., each component
consists of just one single point. However, for each a E K the component
of K containing a is the intersection of all clopen subsets of K that contain
a.
p(f) = f0 f(z)dz
is carried by any reasonable curve joining 0 and 1. For another example,
let e be analytic in P\ K. Take a cut-off function X that is identically 1 in a
56 3. Analytic Approximation and Continuation
q5(z) = lL (z 1 =
) f
dp(()
,
Recall that a compact set K C C is convex if its intersection with each line
is connected. If K is convex, then
K = {z; RezS < HK((), (E C). (5.3)
This follows from the Hahn-Banach theorem since any real linear functional
on 1R2 has the form z '--f Re (z; see also Exercise 36.
An entire function h(z) that satisfies jh(z) 1 < Cexp(CIzl) is said to be of
exponential type. Hence, the Fourier-Laplace transform of each p E A'(C)
is of exponential type. However, the converse is also true. More precisely,
we have
Bf(z) =z
1
If (A/z)e-ada.
and
f ( ) = foo
00 ff (t)e-'`fdt = Bof (e + it) - B,.f (-e + i.),
6. Mergelyan's Theorem
Let K be a compact set in the plane and suppose that f is a complex
function on K that can be uniformly approximated by analytic polynomials
on K. It then follows that f is continuous on K and analytic in the
interior. If any such f can be approximated uniformly by polynomials,
then the complement of K must be connected; cf. the discussion after
Runge's theorem.
it follows that
If (z) - DI < w(6). (6.2)
Moreover,
and
jr((, z) I <-
and by C6z/I( - z13 when I( - zI > 6. In any case, we get the estimate
Cw(b) where C is independent of 6. In combination with (6.2) we get that
If (z) - F(z)I < Cw(b) on K, and since F is analytic in a neighborhood
of K, we can apply Runge's theorem and obtain a polynomial p such that
(6.1) holds.
It remains to prove Proposition 6.2, and to this end we need yet another
result.
The latter condition means that g(oo) = 0 and that its derivative at oo is
I with respect to the coordinate w = 1/z. It follows from the Riemann
mapping theorem and its proof that such functions exist, and that if g(z)
is such a function with minimal sup norm, then g(z) is in fact a bijection
onto some disk D(0, t). Now Proposition 3.5 in Ch. 2 applies to the inverse
of the function z '--b g(z/t)/t, and hence the diameter of the set tE is less
than 4; so t < 4 and thus lg(z)l < 4.
For fixed ( E U and 1z -- (I > 2 we have
Q2(()
9(z) x+(z-()2+C 1z(13
If we define
r((,z) = g(z) - a2(()g2(z), (6.7)
then
r((,z) - 1 = C
z- (1z 1Ci3)
when z -+ oo. Now
a2(0 = 1 JzJ=R
27ri
(z - ()g(z)dz = b - (,
Z- (Z-O' (r((, z) - z 1 (
is analytic in P \ E (it is bounded when z - oo and hence it has removable
singularity at oo), and it is bounded by some constant C in U \ E that is
independent of ( E U; therefore, by the maximum principle it is bounded
by the same constant in P \ E. Thus (6.4) holds. O
6.4 Remark. Essentially the same proof also gives the following more
general result: Suppose that K C P is compact and P \ K has a finite
number of components. Choose one point aj from each component. Then
any f E C(K)flA(int(K)) can be uniformly approximated by rationals with
poles only at the points aj.
Supplementary Exercises
Exercise 1. Show that if S2 C C is bounded, then P \ Il is connected if
and only if C \ S2 is. Give a counterexample when S2 is unbounded.
Exercise 2. Let S1 = {z; IzI < 1, 12z - lI > 1} and f E A(S2). Show that
there are polynomials p,n such that p - f u.c. in P. What can be said
about f if p - f uniformly in S2?
Exercise 3. Show that there are polynomials p,, such that limp, = 0 in
C\{0}
Exercise 4. Do polynomials p exist such that is equal to 1
when Imz > 0, 0 when Imz = 0, and -1 when Imz < 0?
Exercise 5. For a compact K C C, define the polynomially convex hull
K = {z E C; Ip(z)I < SUPK IPI for all polynomials p}. Note that K D K.
A compact set K is said to be polynomially convex if k = K. Show that
K is polynomially convex if and only if C \ K is connected.
Exercise 6. Supply the details in the following constructive proof of
Runge's theorem. First consider the set A = {a E C \ K; the functions
z '-- (z - a)-k, k = 1, 2 .... can be uniformly approximated on K by
rationals with poles in {aj} }. A is trivially relatively closed in C \ K. Take
aEA. For /3near a
z-b O (z-a)k+l
with uniform convergence on K. Hence (z - 0) -1 can be approximated on
K by our rationals and hence also (z for k > 1. Thus A is open.
Since A intersects each component of C \ K, it follows that A = C \ K. If f
is analytic in a neighborhood of K, as usual one can express f as a Cauchy
integral where the integration is performed outside K, and this integral
then can be approximated uniformly on K by a finite Riemann sum in
which the terms are functions of the type z - (z - a)-1 for a E C \ K.
Exercise 7. Use Theorem 2.3 to prove the statement in Remark 2.2. Hint:
Let Oj be a locally finite partition of unity subordinate to the open cover nk
(i.e., locally all but a finite number of the qj vanish, E Oj = 1, and to each
j there is an nj such that O j E Co (c,,, )). Let gk = >(fk - )j. Then
Supplementary Exercises 63
Exercise 14. Use the operators K,,, to show that there is a solution to
(2.2) in U with Iu(z)I < C(1 - IzI)-r if I f(()I < (1 - I(I)-r-1, r > 0.
64 3. Analytic Approximation and Continuation
Exercise 15. For a > 0, let L' be L2 in U with respect to the weight
(1 - I(I2)a-1dA((). Let B,, = A(U) r1 LQ and
u (1 -x(12) (zu(()dA(()
P,u(z) _ 7r
Show that f (a) is analytic for Re a > 0 and show that f can be continued
to a meromorphic function in the whole plane with (possible) poles only
at a = -1, -2, .... In particular, it has a removable singularity at a = 0.
Show that if 0 is holomorphic, then f (a) is constantly equal to 0(0).
Exercise 23. Verify the limit (3.2). Hint: Let f (t) be a locally integrable
function on R such that f. I f(t)Idt/(l + t2) < oc and define the Poisson
integral
yf (t)dt y>0
P f (y, x) = 1
7f J y2 + (x - t)2
Then P f (y, x) --* f (x) when y 0 if f (t) is continuous at t = x.
Supplementary Exercises 65
for large Izi. Use this to prove directly that E;e = f if (P = Bf and (5.1)
holds.
Exercise 31. Suppose that E A'(C) is carried by K. Show that in each
open w 3 K there is a sequence of points aj E w and numbers cj such that
/L = ECjAQ,.
Exercise 32. It is clear tnat {z; HK(1/z) < 1} C P\K. For which convex
K is the inclusion strict?
66 3. Analytic Approximation and Continuation
Exercise 33. Use Cauchy's theorem to show that all of the BB(z) in
Section 5 coincide on their overlaps.
Exercise 34. Verify the statement in Remark 6.4.
Exercise 35. Give an elementary proof of Mergelyan's theorem when K
is the closed unit disk (one cannot use the Taylor polynomials directly).
Exercise 36. Assume that K C C is convex. Show that through each
point p c C \ K there is some line that does not intersect K. Use this
result to conclude (5.3). Hint: Assume that 0 V- K and that each line
through 0 intersects K. For each real 0, the line t '-+ eiet intersects K
either for some positive or some negative t but not both. Show that the
set of 0 for which the intersection occurs for positive t is both open and
closed. Deduce a contradiction.
Notes
Runge's theorem was published in 1885. The Poisson integral in Exer-
cise 23 solves Dirichlet's problem in the upper half-plane; in Ch. 4, the
corresponding integral in the unit disk is studied.
Polya's theorem (Theorem 5.1) is from 1929; see [B] for references and
further results about functions of exponential type.
Mergelyan's theorem is from 1952; see AMS Translations 101 (1954). For
a different proof see Carleson, Math. Scand., vol. 15 (1964).
4
Harmonic and Subharmonic
Functions
1. Harmonic Functions
A function u E CZ(SZ) is harmonic in Sl if Du = 0. If u, v are harmonic
and a, /3 E C, then au + /3v is harmonic. If f E A(SZ), then f, f, Ref , and
Im f are harmonic in Q. If, in addition, f is nonvanishing, then log If is
harmonic. If Il = C \ {0}, then log IzI is harmonic in 11, but there is no
f E A(Sl) such that log I z I = Ref. However, we have
i.e., u has the mean value property. Again we may assume that u is real,
and then (1.1) follows from Proposition 1.1 and the mean value property for
analytic functions. From (1.1) and the uniqueness property it follows that a
real harmonic u has no local maxima or minima unless it is locally constant.
Analogously to Corollary 1.13 in Ch. 1, we also have the following.
68 4. Harmonic and Subharmonic Functions
(replace reie with e't in (1.2), plug it into the integral above, and use the
fact that f e'mtdt = 0 for nonzero integers m), so that
Pr(B - t) =>rknlein(O-t) = Re
(eu +z\
(\ eat - z/}
1 - r2 1 - 1z12 1 - +z12
1 -2rcos(B-t)+r2 11-Cz12 1C-z12
Verify the equalities! The second one reveals that the Poisson kernel is a
harmonic function of z = re'0 for fixed eat.
1.5 Theorem. Suppose that u E C(i2) and that, for each z E 0, (1.1)
holds for small r > 0. Then u is harmonic in Q.
f2+flw (why?). Since g is real on L, its power series at points on L has real
coefficients, and therefore g(i) = g(z). Let F(z) = f (i) in f2 \ (S2+ U L)
and F = f in 52+. Then F is analytic in 1 \ L, but F = g in w \ L, and
hence F extends to an analytic function in f2.
2. Subharmonic Functions
Subharmonicity is a fundamental concept in complex analysis. Many im-
portant properties of analytic functions depend simply on the fact that the
logarithms of their modulii are subharmonic. Subharmonic functions are
related to harmonic functions in much the same way as convex functions
(in one or several real variables) are related to linear functions.
Definition. A function u in fl with values in [-oo, oc) is subharmonic,
u E SH(11), if
(a) u is upper semicontinuous.
(b) for each K C Sl and h E C(K) that is harmonic in int(K) and > u on
OK one has that h > u on K.
Sometimes one excludes u - -oo from the definition. It is clear that real
harmonic functions are subharmonic. Note that if u is upper semicontinu-
ous on a compact set K, then SUPK u is finite and attained at some point
on K. Hence, if u E SH(fl) and K C fl, then supK u is attained on OK
(why?).
o u(z) <_ 0 (2 Io
u(z + reie)dO
/ <_ 2x I
o
0 o u(z + rese)d6,
where the first inequality holds because 0 is increasing and the second
one follows from Jensen's inequality. Now the proposition follows from
Theorem 2.1. 0
2.4 Example. If f E A(fl), then not only is log If I subharmonic but, e.g.,
log' If 1: = max(log If 1, 0) and if 4 a > 0 also are. This follows immedi-
ately from Proposition 2.3 by taking O(x) = max(x, 0) and O(x) = exp(ax),
respectively.
2.5 Proposition.
(a) If u E SH(f2), u = sups u0, < oo, and u is upper semicontinuous (e.g.,
if {a} is finite), then u E SH(f2).
(b) If uj E SH(fl), then ul + U2 E SH(Q) and cut c- SH(Q) if c > 0.
(c) If uj \, u and u, E SH(]), then u E SH(fl).
2. Subharmonic Functions 73
Proof. (a) and (b) immediately follow (e.g., from Theorem 2.1). For (c),
first note that {u <a I = Uj{uj <a I is open and therefore u is upper semi-
continuous. Then (c) follows by monotone convergence (and Theorem 2.1).
r -+ m(r) = -J r2ir
0
u(z + re'B)d8, 0<r<R
is increasing and m(r) \ u(z) when r \ 0.
In fact, m(r) is continuous for r < R; see Exercise 32.
Proof. Take rl < r2 and continuous h.; \ u on 8D(z, r2), and let H; be
the harmonic extensions. Then u < H1 on D(z,rl) and hence
2i
-
2w
m(rl) < 1
r Hj (z + rleie)dO = Hj(z) = JO hj(z + r2e4a)d9;
but the right-hand side tends to m(r2) by monotone convergence, and thus
r .-+ m(r) is increasing. If u(z) < a, then u(z + reie) < a for small r > 0
because of the semicontinuity, and thus lim sup,,,o m(r) < u(z). Since
u(z) < m(r), the theorem follows.
fOdl=land
u, = u *?P, = J u(z - e()'+l)(()dA(()
is in C(II ), where 1 C = {z E 52; d(z, c9Q) > e}.
1 27r
2J uE(reie)dO,
f,
G((, z) = 27r
log ! 1 - Sz 1
.
lim 1
r71 27r
fp
2,r
gp(re`e)dO = 0.
Later on it will turn out that this decomposition holds for all subharmonic
functions satisfying (2.8).
We conclude this section with Jensen's formula, which expresses the con-
nection between the growth of the mean values m(r) and the size of Du
for a subharmonic function u.
Supplementary Exercises 77
Proof. Let a = 0 and assume first that it is C2. Green's identity applied
to the domain {e < IzI < r} yields
log
r Du(z)dA(z)
c<IzI<r zI
2'
J u(re'B)dO + J u(ee`e)dO + O(e loge),
0 0
which gives (2.7) when e \, 0. For a general subharmonic it, let u f = u * 1/i,
as before. Since (2.7) holds for each uE, we just have to ensure that we can
take limits. If g(z) = log(r/lzJ) is defined as zero outside {IzI < r}, then g
is continuous except at the origin. Now observe that
f g(z)ouE(z) = J g(z) E * Du(z) = / g *'pE(z)Au(z).
However, g * ip, --+ g uniformly outside a neighborhood of the origin (see
Exercise 27) and g * i(iE / g in a neighborhood of the origin (since -g is
subharmonic there); therefore, f giu. - f gOu. Since the convergence of
the other terms in (2.7) is obvious, Jensen's formula is proved.
Supplementary Exercises
Exercise 3. Suppose that it E C2(Sl). Show directly that Du = 0 if (1.1)
holds for small r > 0.
Exercise 4. Suppose that Sl is connected. Show that if each real harmonic
u is the real part of some analytic function in Il, then 0 must be simply
78 4. Harmonic and Subharmonic Functions
Exercise 34. Show that each countable set is polar. Also show that any
polar set has measure zero, and supply a counterexample for the converse.
Exercise 35. Suppose that u, E SH(ft), sup,, u,, < M, where M is locally
bounded in 52, and lim sup,,-,,,, u,2 < 0 at each point in 52. Show that for
each compact K C S2 and e > 0 there is an N such that u < e on K for
n > N.
Exercise 36. Show the three-circle theorem: If f c A(A(1, R)), then
log If(z)1 S
log ll
log b/a logm(a) + tolog IIQa
z/ logm(b),
if 1 < a < Izl < b < R and m(r) = sup,z,_,. l f (z) I.
Notes
In 1R2, harmonic functions can be considered either as real parts (locally)
of analytic functions, or as homogeneous solutions to a real elliptic equa-
tion (the Laplace equation). I have tried to shed light on both aspects,
and consequently some facts are proved (at least implicitly) twice. For
instance, the maximum principle is derived from the mean value property
(1.1) (which in turn follows from the mean value property for analytic func-
tions, as well as from Jensen's formula (2.7)), and also directly from the
Laplace equation (see Lemma 2.10).
There is a close connection between Dirichlet's problem (DP) and the
Riemann mapping theorem. For instance, the latter implies solvability
of DP in all simply connected domains (with reasonable boundary). In
Exercise 33, it is suggested how one can obtain a conformal equivalence
from a solution to DP. Solvability of DP under weak assumptions of the
regularity of the boundary is studied in Potential theory, in which the
Notes 81
Newton and Green potentials, polar sets, and capacity are basic concepts;
see [Raj for a nice introduction.
The family of functions (?GF),>o in Proposition 2.9 and Exercise 27 is
called an approximate identity (in R2). The Poisson kernel Pr(t) is an
approximate identity on the circle T. Previously we have met approximate
identities in Section 6 and Exercise 23 in Ch. 3.
5
Zeros, Growth, and
Value Distribution
1. Weierstrass' Theorem
Our first aim in this chapter is to prove that any subset of S2 C C that has
no limit point in 0 is the zero set of some f E A(fl) (Weierstrass' theorem).
To this end we have to consider infinite products.
1.1 Lemma. If z are complex numbers, then
N N
(1 + zn) - 1 <M1+IznI)-1.
1
Proof. Since
k+1 k
converges u.c. in Q. Moreover, the zeros off are the union of the zeros of
fn, counted with multiplicities.
z - Qn
has the required properties. In fact, since oo is not a limit point of {an},
f3n - an I = d(an, 812) 0 when n -p oo, and hence there is for a given
K C Il an N such that Iz - f3nI > d(K,aSZ) > 2lan - Nnl if n > N and
z E K. Thus, fan - f3nl/Iz -#,I < 1/2 if n > N and hence, by Lemma 1.3,
/(-Nn
an-0 )I<2_n' n>N,zEK.
It now follows from Proposition 1.2 that f has the desired properties.
Certainly this theorem, as well as the next two corollaries, fail if 12 = P.
1.5 Corollary. If g is meromorphic in Il C C, then g = f /h for some
f,h E A(SZ).
Proof. Take an h that has zeros where g has poles, and with the same
multiplicities. Then f = gh is analytic.
1.6 Corollary. If aj is a sequence with no limit point in SZ C C, fj is
analytic near a and mj are positive integers, then there is an f E A(12)
such that f(z) - f, (z) = O(Iz - aj +m,+1) when z - a3.
Thus, the Taylor expansion of f can be prescribed up to order mj at
each aj.
Proof. Take g E A(12), which has zeros of orders mj + 1 at aj. According
to Mittag-Leffier's theorem, there is a meromorphic h in SZ having poles
only at aj such that h - fj/g is analytic near aj. Then let f = gh.
1.7 Corollary. There is an f c A(1) that cannot be continued to any
larger domain. More precisely: If a E Il, g E A(D(a, r)), and f = g near
a, then D(a, r) C S1.
Notice that for a general domain the statement about f is stronger than:
If a E SZ, g E A(D(a, r)) and f = g in D(a, r) f1 Il, then D(a, r) C 12. For
instance, if f2 = C \ {z; Im z = 0, Re z _> 0}, then log z in SZ satisfies the
latter statement but not the one in the corollary.
Proof of Corollary 1.7. Let an be an enumeration of all points in Il with
rational coordinates such that each such point occurs an infinite number
2. Zeros and Growth 85
N(r,f) =
f(f)dR
If f (0) = 0, the expression
ss
N(r,f) - N(ro,f) = f n(s,f) r.
86 5. Zeros, Growth, and Value Distribution
is at least well defined, and its growth when r / R does not depend on the
choice of ro. If a1, a2, ... are the zeros of f (counted with multiplicities),
we claim that
r
N(r, f) = log . (2.1)
Ia,i I
Ia,i<r
In fact, if Iai I < la2l < .... we have
f(f)dS
r
=J 1
1 / Iak+l I
Iakl
n(s,f)+ f n(s,.f)s
s aMI s
M-1
r
klog lak+1l +Mlog IaMI M r
lakl log Iakl
2.1 Jensen's Formula. Let f be analytic in D(0, R), r < R, and let an
be the zeros off on D(0, r), ordered such that Ian I < Ian+11. Assume that
f (0) # 0. Then
1
f2wlogif(re'o)Id9-logif(0)I.
N(r,f) _ log IanI (2.2)
The inequality (2.3) implies that N(r, f) is bounded for each f E H. This
can be rephrased in the following way.
2.2 Theorem. If a1, a2.... are the zeros, counted with multiplicities, to
an f E H, then they satisfy the Blaschke condition
E1-Ia,I<oo.
2. Zeros and Growth 87
We now shall see that, conversely, any sequence satisfying the Blaschke
condition occurs as the zero set of some Nevanlinna function. Actually,
there is such a function that is even bounded. Let H denote the space of
bounded analytic functions in U with norm
IlfIIH- =SUP If I-
U
Clearly, H C N.
(2.4)
an
1
rj
lim 1
r71 2ir p
log IB(re'a)Id0 = 0. (2.5)
Proof. Since
z Ianl
1- 1an- -C,z (an + lanIz)(1 - Ianl) 11
< IzI < r,
an (1 - anz)an
it is clear that the product converges u.c., that B has the desired zeros, and
that 1131 < 1. For the existence of the radial limits B', see Theorem 2.2 in
Ch. 6. The limit (2.5) exists since log IBI is subharmonic and nonpositive.
If BN is the product of the N first factors in (2.4), then BN is continuous
on U and has modulus 1 on T; therefore,
1 2x
log I(B/BN)(0)I lim log I (B/BN)(Te'B)I d9
1J
f2r
= r/,'l
1. 27r
1 logB(reiO)IdO+0 < r logIB(e'e)IdG 0,
0
88 5. Zeros, Growth, and Value Distribution
where the next to last inequality follows from Fatou's lemma (keeping in
mind that log CBI < 0). Since log I (B/BN)(0)I / 0 when N oo, (2.5)
and the equality IB'I = 1 a.e. follow.
One also can construct entire functions with prescribed zeros and with
control of the growth. Let a be a sequence (with multiplicities) in C with
no limit point. Using the recipe in the proof of Weierstrass' theorem we
get the entire function
00
f(z) = H W,,, ('z/an)
1
with zeros a,,, where p = n - 1. However, if one has some control of the
sequence a,,, one can choose smaller p,,. For instance, if >2 1/janlp+l <
oo, one can take pn = p and form the product 11l which is
O(expIzIp+1) when IzI -4 oo; see Exercises 4 and 5. An entire function
that satisifies such a growth condition for some p is said to be of finite
order.
We will show that an entire function must attain all but a few exceptional
values as often as is possible in view of (3.1). In particular, the little Picard
theorem will follow.
We first notice that one can get uniform estimates from estimates of
the characteristic function. Without loss of generality we may assume
that f (0) = 0; otherwise, we can replace f with f - f (0). Since u(z) _
log 1 + If (z)12 is subharmonic,
f (O,r)
uda < T (r, f)7rrz (3.2)
Proof. First suppose that rn = 0. Then the condition implies that T(rj, f) <
E log rj for some sequence rj -- oo. Hence, by (3.3),
sup if(z)I < rye,
IzI<ri/2
and thus f is constant; cf. the proof of Liouville's theorem. Now one can
proceed by induction, noting that T(r, (f (z) - f (0))/z) < T(r, f (z) - f (0))-
logr+0(1) = T(r, f) - logy+0(1). 0
For a nonconstant entire function f, the defect with respect to the value
a is defined as
N(r, f, a)
6(f, a) = 1 - lim sup
r- 00 T(-7-,f )
so that the defect 6(f, a) is a number between 0 and 1 that measures to
what extent f fails to attain the value a as often as it possibly can in view
of (3.1).
3.2 Example. Consider f(z) = exp(zk) for some positive integer k. Since
f (z) has no zeros, N(r, f, 0) = 0 and hence 6(f, 0) = 1. On the other hand,
zn
T(r, f) = 2 fo log' exp(rk cos(kO))d9 + 0(1),
90 5. Zeros, Growth, and Value Distribution
and therefore lim, T(r, f)/rk = 1/ir. Since n(r, f, 1) - krk/7r, we have
that N(r, f, 1) - rk/ir and hence b(f, 1) = 0. In the same way one can
verify that b(f, a) = 0 for all a # 0.
This example illustrates a general phenomenon.
In particular, the defect must be zero for all but a countable set of
values. If f totally avoids some value, then the defect is zero for all other
values, i.e., the little Picard theorem follows. Moreover, if f attains some
value a only a finite number of times, then N(r, f, a) = m log r + 0(1),
and therefore the defect with respect to a is 1 unless f is a polynomial of
degree m (cf. Lemma 3.1). Hence, any entire f that is not a polynomial
attains all values, with one possible exception, infinitely many times. If f
is a polynomial, then the defect b(f, a) = 0 for all values a, and thus we
have strict inequality in the defect relation.
3.4 Remark. One also can define characteristic function and defect for
meromorphic functions; the corresponding result then is that for a noncon-
stant meromorphic f no sum of defects can exceed 2. Since an analytic
function is just a meromorphic one that avoids oo, this statement immedi-
ately implies Theorem 3.3.
The rest of this chapter is devoted to the proof of Theorem 3.3. Even
though we restrict ourselves to the case when f avoids the value oo, it is
natural to adopt an invariant view of P. If it is parametrized by z E C as
usual, then the measure
1 dA(z)
dA(z) = 'r (1 + Iz12)2
is invariant with respect to the unitary linear fractional transformations of
IP (cf. Exercises 33-36 in Ch. 2), i.e., the measure of a given (measurable)
set is not changed if it is moved by such a mapping. Moreover, we have
the invariant distance
Iz - wi
X(z, w) = V1_+ ,
VF + Iz12 Iwi2
X(z, w) = 0 if and only if z = w, and X(z, w) < 1 with equality if and only
if z and w are antipodal on P.
3. Value Distribution of Entire Functions 91
m(r, f, a) = 1
27r Jo
2a
log 1 dA - log
X(f(0),a)
X(f(re`B), a)
It measures how close to a the values off are on the circle I z I = r. Jensen's
formula can be rephrased as (check!)
Note that (3.4) is exact, i.e., not modulo 0(1). By the invariance of dil
and X it follows (Exercise 17) that fP m(r, f, a)d(a) = 0 and hence
fp
n(r, f, a)p(a)d1L(a) = - J +a 2)2 = f r AP(t)tdt,
where the integral in the middle is over(1the multivalued image of D(0, r)
under the mapping f. Hence, in view of Lemma 3.6 we get
r ds
.P(t)tdt
rf s fo
(3.7)
Let E' be the set where )P(s) > (L(s))2/s. If rl is such that L(rl) > 0,
then
sAP(s)ds dL(s) I
E niry oo)
ds <
r, L(s)2 r, L(s)2 < L(rl < oo.
-f
2w
log tp(f(reie))(1+fIf(Te)I)I2)2)dO <logAP(r,f)-log 2,
27r l
Supplementary Exercises 93
and hence
o
logX(f(re''),
(slog a?
1 ) dB<ClogT(r,f)+O(1),
and hence by Lemma 3.7 we get
k
m(r, f, aj) < 2T (r, f) + log r + Clog T(r, f) + 0(1) (3.9)
0 2
for r outside E. Since we already know that the theorem holds for polyno-
mials, in view of Lemma 3.1 we may assume that
lim sup log r
r-.oo T(r, f)
.0.
Letting ao = oo we now obtain Theorem 3.3 from (3.9) since
N(r, f, a) m(r, f, a)
6(f, a) = 1 - lim sup = lim inf
r-oo
r-.oo T(r,f) T(r, f )
(if f(0) # a) and 6(f, ao) = 1.
Supplementary Exercises
Exercise 1. Suppose that f c A(U). One says that a E T is a regular
point for f if there are r > 0 and g E A(D(a,r)) such that f = g on
U n D(a, r). Show that if .f = E and lim sup la.1'1' = 1, then some
point on T is singular (i.e., nonregular).
Exercise 2. Let aj be points in the upper half-plane. Find a condition on
{aj } so that fl(z - aj)/(z - a3) defines an analytic function there.
94 5. Zeros, Growth, and Value Distribution
component of P \ Sl. Show that there are real numbers aj with Ian 7r
and a function f (z) with the same zeros as h(z) such that
-
I f(z)I < eu(z)nmIz - b3I
Hint: Determine aj such that u-log Ihi- E aj log Iz-b3 i has a well-defined
harmonic conjugate modulo 27r.
Exercise 12. Show that
2
T(r, f) < J Ilogif(re'B)IIdO+O(1) < 2T(r, f)+O(1)
27r 0
when r / R. Hint: Use the fact that u = log If I is subharmonic, so that
-00 < 2- f
2x u(Tpe:e)
< 2 r2x u+(reie)d8 -
0
1f
T, r
u(reo)d8
0
for ro < r < R.
Exercise 13. Verify the claims in Example 3.2.
Exercise 14. Show that if f is meromorphic in D(0, R) and f (0) # a, b E
P, then
m(r, f, a) + N(r, f, a) = m(r, f, b) + N(r, f, b), r < R.
Exercise 15. Let f be an entire function that attains each value at most
m times. Show that f must be a polynomial of degree at most m.
Exercise 16. Define the potflog
ntial of p as
P(w) = X(w, a)
p(a)dFu(a),
Note that A(r, f) is the area (counted with multiplicities) of the image of
the set {IzI < r} under the mapping z H f (z).
Exercise 20. Show that
logIf (reie) I dO - logIf (0) I + N(r, f, ese)dO
f21T ,
o
Notes
A thorough treatment of the relationships between zeros, growth, and Tay-
lor coefficients of entire functions can be found in [B].
The value distribution theory was developed by Nevanlinna in the begin-
ning of the 1920s. Proposition 3.5 is called the first fundamental (or main)
theorem, and formula (3.9) is called the second fundamental (or main) the-
orem. The proof given here is due to Ahlfors. A thorough discussion of
these matters, including the more general result for meromorphic functions
and further references, can be found in [Hi].
Since we assume that f is analytic and not merely meromorphic, we
easily get (3.8), which in turn simplifies the proof of (3.9).
The converse of the result in Exercise 9 is also true; see, e.g., [Rul] for a
proof. This characterization is called the Miintz-Szasz theorem.
6
Harmonic Functions and
Fourier Series
IIAII = - f dljl.
2 -7r T
It is convenient to identify measures (and functions) on T with 2ir periodic
measures (and functions) on R, so that, e.g.,
jr 2,f
2 (t)dp(t),
2 J
where the integration is to be performed over, e.g., (0, 21r). For p E M(T)
we define the Poisson integral of p as
1.1 Theorem.
(a) If f E LP(T), 1 < p < oo, then Pf E hp and IIPf!IhP = IIfIILP- If
1 < p < oo, then
1 f1 I I(Pf)r - f(ILP = 0.
(b) M14 E M(T), then Pp E h', IIPllh3 = Ilpll, and (Pp), --* p weak', i.e.,
f(Pz)rc -+ J Ldp for all E C(T).
Proof. First notice that (c) follows from (the proof of) Proposition 1.4 in
Ch. 4. To prove (b) notice that if p E .M (T), then
12,
Pp(re'B)I < Pr(B - t)dlpl (t);
I 21r
and if we integrate this inequality and use Fubini's theorem, we get that
IIP,IIh= < IIpi. Then take 0 E C(T). By Fubini's theorem,
f0
2ir fzA Pr(9
=2zr f
1
0
zn(P4')r(e")dp(t);
- t)dp(t)(e'9)d9
0
= 27r
but since (PO), --+ 0 uniformly according to (c), the right-hand side tends
to 2" Odp/2ir. Finally (cf. Exercise 4),),
1 f27r 1 2T
Illiil = sup Odu = sup lim q(Pp)r
Iml_:5I 1
27r I0151 r 27r 0
1 2n
< lim I(Pp),I =
r 2i
and thus (b) is proved. For (a), notice that (Jensen's inequality)
Ii. j27r Pr (e - t)f(ee)dtf Pr(t)
`f(et(e-tl)rdt
0
for 1 < p < oo. Integrating this inequality we get II Pf II hP <_ II f II LP Take
e > 0 and 0 E C(T) such that IIf - tIILP < E. Then
II(Pf)r - fIILP <- II(P(f - O))rlI LP + II(PO)r - .IILP
1.2 Theorem. If u E hp, 1 < p < oo, there is a unique f E LP(T) such
that u = Pf. If u E h1, there is a unique p E .M(T) such that u = Pp.
Thus, we have a one-to-one correspondence (in fact, an isometric isomor-
phism) between hp and LP(T) for p > 1 and between h' and M(T). In one
direction the correspondence is given by the Poisson integral, p -+ Pp, and
in the other direction by u --+ limr u, in the sense described in Theorem 1.1.
Note that Theorem 1.2 differs from Theorem 1.1 in the sense that it is an
existence theorem; it states that an object with certain properties exists.
The key is the Banach-Alaoglu theorem, a proof of which is outlined in
Exercise 5.
for all 46 E C(T). Then the proof is concluded analogously to the case
p>1. 0
If we combine Theorem 1.1 with the observations about the Green po-
tential Gp in Remark 2.14 in Ch. 4, we get the following decomposition
of a subharmonic function u. The special case when u = log If I for some
analytic function f will be fundamental in subsequent chapters.
1.5 Theorem (The Riesz Decomposition). Let u be a subharmonic
function such that
1 2n
sup -J
r<1 2rr
u+(re'B)dO < oo.
o
Then
Proof. According to Corollary 2.16 and Remark 2.14 about the Green
potential, G(Au) is subharmonic and its Laplacian is equal to Au. It
follows (see Exercise 31) that u - G(Du) is harmonic in U. In view of
Exercise 22 in Ch. 4, it is in fact in h1, and by Theorem 1.2 it is therefore
the Poisson integral of a measure p on T. 0
We now are going to study pointwise convergence of the Poisson integral.
To this end we first recall the Lebesgue-Radon-Nikodym decomposition of
a measure into an absolutely continuous and a singular part,
A =Ua+I2o,
i.e., where pt, is concentrated on a null set (with respect to dB) and pa = fd9
for some f E L' (T). If
i.e., the mean values over small intervals around e'8 tend to f (e'') for a.e.
0 when the lengths tend to zero. If dp = f dO and f E C(T), this is trivial
and can be rephrased as Lt (s) --, 6 weak' as measures when t \ 0. We
1. Boundary Values of Harmonic Functions 101
now will consider instead the mean values (1/27x) j Pr(s - B)dp(s) of p
when r / 1. Also, P,.(t)/27r - S weak' as measures when r / 1. One
can think of Pr(t) as regularized characteristic functions. Figure 1 below
shows Pr(t) for r = 1/2, r = 3/4, and r = 7/8.
-1 0 1 2 3
t
FIGURE 1
One may guess that the analogue of (1.1) holds for P,./27r.
Proof. We first recall that the standard proof of (1.1) depends on only
two facts: that (1.1) holds for continuous f and that one has the weak type
(1,1)-estimate,
Since we know (1.2) for continuous functions, we just have to show the
analogue (1.3)' of (1.3), where My is replaced by the new maximal function
Mll(8) = sup
r<1 27r
1 f2l Pr(B -
We shall reduce (1.3)' to (1.3), and we begin with representing Pr(s)/27r
as a superposition of the functions Lt(s),
2_Pr(s) = Pr(ir)L.,,(s) + 2 if0
-Pr(t)2tLt(s)dt. (1.4)
olflp = p2If'I2lflp-2;
therefore,
p
AlfI" < 1
AuP (1.5)
(keep in mind that 1 < p < 2). Notice that Green's formula (see A in the
preliminaries) gives that
rf -OdO
0 or = J ISI<r
From (1.5) we then get
f2, p
f2r
If(reie)IPd8 < u(reB)IPdO;
dr 1 dr
but v(0) = 0, and thus
f21T
If(reie)IPd9 < p p l f zn
Iu(re`9)IPdG
for r = 0 and hence for any r < 1. Thus IIGuflhP < CpIlullhP if 0 < u E
hP, since (by the maximum principle) a nonnegative harmonic function is
strictly positive unless it is identically 0. If u E hP, then u' is in LP(T) and
hence so are u'+ and u'-. Now u = Pu'+ - Pu", where both terms are
nonnegative and in hP. Moreover, Gu = GPu'+ - GPu"-, and therefore
we get that
IIGullhp < CpIIPu*+IlhP +CpIIPu' IIhl S 2CPIIuIIhp.
This proves the theorem for 1 < p < 2 with AP = 2Cp = 2p/(p - 1).
Now suppose that 2 < p < oo and let p-1 + q-1 = 1. Take an arbitrary
real trigonometric polynomial a = Re g, where Im g = /3 and /3(0) = 0.
For such a g, Nur + avr = Im gfr is harmonic and vanishes at the ori-
gin, and therefore f u(reie)/3(e`B)dO = - f v(reie)a(eie)dO. Thus, Holder's
inequality gives
1 z, 1 f2,
I2 f 0VradOl = 121
ur/3dO IIurIILPIIaIILQ < AgllurIILpIIaIILQ,
where we have applied the theorem to a and /3. The (real) trigonometric
polynomials a are dense in (real) Lq(T) (see below), and thus it follows
that IIVrIILP < AgIIurIILP and so IIVIIhP S Agllullhp 0
104 6. Harmonic Functions and Fourier Series
By virtue of Theorems 1.1, 1.2, and 1.7 we can define a bounded operator,
the Hilbert transform,
H: LP(T) 1 < p < oo,
LP(T),
in the following way: For a real 0 in LP(T) we let HO be the boundary
values of the unique harmonic conjugate to PO that vanishes at the origin.
The operator so defined is certainly real linear, and it then is extended to
complex-valued functions by linearity.
2. Fourier Series
For p E M(T) we define the Fourier coefficients
2x e_intdp(t),
_77p(n) = !i(n) = 2rr J n E Z.
0
Note that I!l(n)I < IIpII, and so we have a bounded operator
Y: M I' (Z).
Moreover,
f E C1(T); see Exercise 13. Since C2(T) is dense in LP(T) (use, e.g., The-
orem 1.1), it follows that the space of trigonometric polynomials is dense
in LP(T). In particular, this implies that {e"91 is a complete ON-system
in L2(T), and therefore we have Parseval's equality
00
(f, 9) = E f (n)9(n), (2.4)
where
1 2ir
(f, 9) =
fo 2-7r
f (e")9(e't)dt, (2.5)
2- f Ei (n)O(n) = 2-
-N
fdu(e) (2.6)
for p E M(T), from which it follows that .FNP - p at least in the weak
sense that
fO
0
zn
NU- f o
2n
Oda, 0EC2(T).
If 0 E C(T), then, by (2.2), F (n) = O(In1-M) for all M when In! -+ 00,
and therefore (2.3) converges uniformly even after an arbitrary number of
differentiations. Therefore, Pq5 E C(U), and in particular FNq 0 in
C0(T) (i.e., uniformly with all its derivatives).
2.1 Remark. Let P(Z) be the space of sequences c that are O(InJM)
for some M when In! -+ oo. For any distribution f E D'(T), let Tf (n) =
f(e-:n,). As T is compact, f has finite order, so .Ff(n) = O(Inj M) for
some M. Therefore,
.F: D'(T) --+ P(Z). (2.7)
106 6. Harmonic Functions and Fourier Series
l tiu(n), n < 0.
Notice that (2.8) and Parseval's equality (2.4) imply a very simple proof of
Theorem 1.7 for p = 2 and that the best constant A2 is 1. From (2.8) and
(2.4) it also follows that
HHf = -f + f (0) and H` = -H, (2.9)
i.e., (Hf,g) = -(f,Hg) for all f,g E L2(T).
We now introduce the spaces H' = hP rl A(U), 1 < p < no, which are
closed (why?) subspaces of h', and we first consider the case p > 1.
f(z) = (Pf')(z) = 1:
2'r
r .f'C z(()d( (2.10)
z
UIIHP = Ijf'l LP and for p < no also )If. - f'IILP - 0 when r / 1. A
function in LP(T) is f * for some f E HP if and only if its negative Fourier
coefficients vanish.
f (rz) = 1 f(rC)dC
27ri JT C-z
and since fr -* f" in L1(T), (2.10) follows. 0
Thus, for p > 1, HP may be identified with the closed subspace {u E
LP(T); u(n) = 0, n < 0} of LP(T). In particular,
H2-12(N)= {aE12(Z); an=0forn<0},
2. Fourier Series 107
Let us now take a look at the space H'. From Theorems 1.2 and 1.1
we know that if f E H1 C h', then f*(e'B) exists for a.e. 0 and f = P,
where u = M. + f'dO. Since f is analytic, we also know that (n) = 0 for
n < 0. The crucial fact is that then u. is in fact absolutely continuous and
thus equal to f'dO.
2.4 The F. & M. Riesz Theorem. If p E M(T) and u(n) = 0 for n < 0,
then p is absolutely continuous, i.e., p = gd8 for some g E L'(T).
By an obvious argument we then have the following extension of Theo-
rem 2.2.
2.5 Theorem. If f E H', then f'(e'B) = limy/, f(re") exists for a.e. 0,
f' E L1(T),
f(z) = (Pf*)(z) = 21 f(()d(
JT
7ri
Supplementary Exercises
Exercise 1. Show that hP is a Banach space, i.e., that II Ilho is a complete
norm on hp.
Exercise 2. Show that if u is harmonic and positive in U, then u E hl
and u = Pp, where u > 0.
Exercise 3. Give an example of a u E hP \ 1i if 1 < p < p' < oo.
Exercise 4. Let A3 be a sequence of elements in the dual space B' to a
Banach space B. Show that IIAil < liminf IIA,11 if A3 - A weak'.
Exercise 5. Fill in the details in the following sketch of a proof of
the Banach-Alaoglu theorem. Let D = {u1, u2, ... } be an enumeration
Supplementary Exercises 109
FN f (0) =
- Zo
f (t)DN(-t)dt/21r
110 6. Harmonic Functions and Fourier Series
and that f -+ FNf (0) is a bounded linear functional on C(T) with norm
equal to IIDNIILI. Then show that there are functions f E C(T) for which
,FN f (0) does not converge when N ---+ oo. Hint: Use the Banach-Steinhaus
theorem and the preceding exercise.
Exercise 20. Show that F: L1(T) ---+ co(Z) is not surjective. Hint: Use
Exercise 18 and the open mapping theorem for Banach spaces.
Exercise 21. Show that the partial Fourier sums TN f tend to f in LP(T)
norm for f E L'(T), 1 < p < oo. Hint: First show that the set of partial
sums is bounded in LP(T).
Exercise 22. Show that a harmonic function u in U is in hz if and only if
fu (1- I(I2)IVuI2 dA(() < coo.
Exercise 23. Show that the Szego projection is unbounded on L(T) and
L'(T).
Exercise 24. Let a E U. Show that f -+ f (')(a) is a bounded linear
functional on Hz and find the g E Hz that represents this functional. How
large can If (-)(a)l be if IIfJIH2 :5 1?
Exercise 25. Show that if p E M(T) and 11(n) = 0 for all n > N, then
is absolutely continuous.
Exercise 26. Let p be a real measure on T, and show that
rzi Jim SUP r
limsup 2x J P,.(0 - s)dp(s) < / Lt(8 - s)d/.c(s).
r/1 o C%O J
Show that P,u has radial limits at each point where the measure derivative
of p exists.
Exercise 27.
(a) Show that if p > 0 on T and
lim inf Lt(O - s)dp(s) = 0
t-0 J
for all 0 in an open interval I, then (I) = 0.
(b) Suppose that u > 0 and is harmonic and that u(re4o) -+ 0 when r / 1
for all e's # 1. Show that u(re'g) = cP,(O) for some constant c > 0.
Exercise 28. Show that u(z) = Im[(1 + z)'/(1 - z)2] has radial limits 0
for all 0. Show that u is not Pp for any measure p.
Exercise 29. Show that the Hilbert transform is an isomorphism on D'(T).
Exercise 30. Is it true that each f E A(U) is equal to g(m) for some m
and some g E Hz?
Notes 111
Notes
In this chapter as well as in the later ones we restrict ourselves to the unit
disk. Most results have analogues in the upper half-plane lI+. For instance,
h.P(II+) is the space of harmonic functions in n+ such that sup,>0 fR iu(x+
iy)IPdx < oo. There is a one-to-one correspondence between LP(R) and
hP(II+) for p > 1 and between M(R) and hl(1T+), which is given by the
Poisson integral
Pf (x, U) = n JR Y2 + (x)_t)2 ;
cf. Exercise 23 in Ch. 3.
A further discussion about weak* compactness and the Banach-Alaoglu
theorem can be found in [Ru2].
Theorem 1.6 was first proved by Fatou in 1906 for p = oo. Therefore,
results about pointwise convergence at the boundary often are referred to
as Fatou theorems. Any u E h' actually has nontangential boundary values
u': If r(o) = {re" E U; 10 - ti < 1 - r}, then
u"(e'B) = lira u(z)
r(ete)3z-.e,e
exists for a.e. 0; see, e.g., [G). See also Exercise 28 in the next chapter.
For 1 < p <- oo, there is C, > 0 such that II Mf IILP <_ CPII f IILP, f E
LP(T), i.e., M is bounded on LP(T); see, e.g., [G].
Theorem 1.7 was first proved by M. Riesz in 1927. The proof here is due
to P. Stein. The Hilbert transform is the simplest example of a singular
integral; see [S] for a thorough discussion.
Carleson proved in 1966 that FN f -+ f for a.e. 8 if f E L3(T), Acta
Math., vol 116 (1966), 135-157. It was generalized to p > 1 by Hunt, Proc.
Conf. Edwardsville, Ill. (1967), 235-255, Southern Illinios Univ. Press, Car-
bondale, Ill. (1968).
For further results about Fourier analysis and periodic distributions, see
[Ho].
The theorem of F. and M. Riesz is from 1916. For generalizations to lit",
see [S].
7
HP Spaces
1. Factorization in Hp Spaces
We extend the definition of the Hardy spaces Hp to p > 0:
r 2 1/p
Hp = ilf E A(U); If II Ho = sup
r<1
1f
21r o
if (reie) I pd9} < oo
For 0 < p < 1, the triangle inequality does not hold; but Ilf + 9IIHP <
IIf IIHP + IIgIIH,,,
and therefore Hp is at least a vector space. Moreover,
HcHP cHI cN, oo>p>s>0,
and therefore the zero set of any f E Hp satisfies the Blaschke condition.
In fact, it is possible to divide out all the zeros without affecting the norm.
lnmllf/BnIIHP = IIfIIHP,
1.2 Theorem. If f E HP, 0 < p < oo, then f ` = limrll fr exists for a.e. 8,
IIfIIHP = II.f'IILP, and for p < oo it is also the case that Ilf, - f'IILP -. 0
when r/1.
Proof. Since the case p > 1 already has been dealt with in Ch. 6, we may
assume that 0 < p < 1. Take f E HP and let B be the corresponding
Blaschke product. Then f /B is nonvanishing, and hence it is equal to 01
for some 0 E A(U). From Theorem 1.1 we get that IIOIIH, r = IIf II iiP < oc,
and so if pm > 1, then 0' = limn qr exists for a.e. 9 and II' 11 LP- = IIOIIHp-
according to Section 1 in Ch. 6. However, f = B(O', and therefore f'
exists a.e. and IIf'IILP = II B*(O*)rII LP = II0'IIi P = II0IIHmP = II fII HP.
For 0 < p < 1 , I fr I P + If * I P - I fr - f' I P > 0, and an application of Fatou's
lemma yields the last claim. O
sup 1 j"jlogI(f/B)(re'O)I1dO<oo,
r<1 27r
i.e., log If /BI is in h'. Thus, there is a real measure p on T such that
log If /BI = Pp. Now
1
/2xe't z +
f (x) = cB(z) exp J e" - z dp(t), c c T, (1.1)
a_
since both sides are analytic and have the same modulus. Conversely, if p
is a real measure and f is defined by (1.1), then it is in the Nevanlinna class
and the representation (1.1) is unique. If we make the Jordan decomposi-
tion It = p+ - p.-, we find that f = g/h, where II9IIH= 5 1, IIhhhH= < 1,
and h#0.
1.3 Theorem. If f E N and f 0 0, then the radial limits f'(eie) exist
for a.e. 8 and log If * I E L' (T). Moreover,
z,
f(z) =
1 e"+z 1
eit+z dp(t)(1.2)
cB(x)exp
J eit - z log
27r
If ' (e::)Idt exp
27r o eit -
where p is a unique real singular measure and c E T.
The class of all f E N such that p < 0 -is denoted N+. Thus the
proposition says that HP C N+.
Proof. To begin with, we may assume that f is nonvanishing, i.e., B = 1.
Then log if I = Pp, and we have to prove that the singular part of is non-
positive. After taking an mth root if necessary, we also may assume that
f E H'. Now, I log+ x - log' yI $ Ix - yI (check!), and since f,. f' in
L' (T), u+ -+ u'+ in L' (T) if u = log If 1. By the Banach-Alaoglu theorem
some subsequence tends weak' to a positive measure A when r?
Since u,, - p (Theorem 1.1 in Ch. 6), we get
u'+-A=pp=,a'-,u
By the minimality of the Jordan decomposition it now follows that p+ <
u'+. Thus, p+ is absolutely continuous and the proof is complete.
Definition. A function M E H' is an inner function if IM' I = 1 for a.e.
0.
I Q(re'B)IP = exp
2' r
0
zn
Pr(9 - t) log9dt < 2 fz P,.(9 - t)
0
'dt.
Integrating with respect to 9 and applying F'ubini's theorem, we get that
Q E HP and IIQII Hv <_ II0II L" . Conversely, if Q E HP, then IIQ' II LP =
IIQIIHP by Theorem 1.2; but log IQ'I = log 0, and therefore 0 E LP(T) and
11011D, = IIQ'IILP El
Moreover, If' I = IQ' I for a.e. 9 and f E HP if and only if Q f E HP, which
holds if and only if f' E LP(T). In that case,
IIfIIHP = IIQfIIHP = IIf'IILP.
If f E M, we have f = MfQ f/Sf = B fSfQ f/Sf, where 9f also is a
singular inner function.
Proof. The existence and uniqueness of the factorization and the equality
1f1 = (Q ' I follow from Theorem 1.3. In view of Theorem 1.7, Q f E H"
if and only if f' E LP(T). If f E HP, then f' E LP(T) by Theorem 1.2,
116 7. H Spaces
1.9 Example. Taking u as minus the point mass at e't = 1, we get the
singular inner function
l+z
S(z)=exp -1-z
One easily sees that IS*(e't)I = 1 for e't 54 1 but 0 for e't = 1. Thus,
+
f (z) = 1/S(z) = exp 1 z
is a function in N \ N+ such that I f'(e't)I = 1 for all e't # 1.
2. Invariant Subspaces of H2
We now are going to use the main theorem in Section 1 to study certain
subspaces of H2. If 0 is an inner function, then OH2 = 141f; f E H2} is
a closed subspace of H2. In fact, since II41f11HP = IIf1IHA, it is clear that
OH2 C H2. If lbfj -+ g in H2, then q5fj is a Cauchy sequence in H2; but
II fj - fk II H2 = II 41fj - 41fk II Hz . Hence, f j is a Cauchy sequence in H2, and
therefore fj -- f for some f E H2; therefore, g = Of E 0H2.
If (Sf)(z) = z f (z), then clearly
S: H2 --. H2
is a bounded operator with norm 1. If 0 is an inner function, then SgH2 C
H2, and therefore OH2 is a closed S-invariant subspace of H2. The con-
verse is also true.
Proof. Take f E V with minimal order of its zero at the origin, i.e., such
that g1 f is analytic at the origin for all g E V. Then f V zV = { zg; g E V},
and therefore zV is a proper closed subspace (for the same reasons as above)
of V. Thus, there is an element 0 E V such that 0 1 zV and II4IIH2 = 1.
However, since V is S-invariant, zV is also and hence 0 1 z"V for all
2. Invariant Subspaces of H2 117
on 12(N).
118 7. H" Spaces
3. Interpolation in HO
In Corollary 1.6 in Ch. 5 we saw that for a given sequence of points aj in U
with no limit points, and complex numbers f3j, one can find an f E A(U)
such that f (aj) = ftj . One says that aj is an interpolation sequence (for
H) if for each ft = (i30i ftl, ...) E lOD there is an f E H that interpo-
lates, i.e., such that f(aj) = f3j. It is easily verified that any interpolation
sequence must satisfy the Blaschke condition (Exercise 20). However, the
Blaschke condition is not sufficient. The points also must be sufficiently
spread out in U.
Then IIFkIIH. < M (since we can divide out the zeros without affecting
the norm), and if we let z = ak, we get
l aj - ak
111 1 -ajak > 1/M.
i#k
The hard part of Theorem 3.1 is to prove that the condition (3.1) is suf-
ficient. The proof we give here is elementary and completely constructive.
In Exercise 21 in Ch. 8, a proof is outlined where one first takes an appro-
priate smooth solution to the problem and then modifies it to an analytic
solution by solving a 8/8z-equation.
First, we reformulate condition (3.1). We say that the sequence aj is
separated if
aj - ak c>0, j#k,
1-ajak >
uniformly.
3.2 Lemma. The sequence aj satisfies the condition (3.1) if and only if it
is separated and there is C6 > 0 such that for all k
(1 - Ia,12)(1 -Iakl2) < C6. (3.2)
j=1
11 - ajakl
Proof. If 0 < c < x < 1, then 1 - x < - logx < C(1 - x) for some C. If
the terms in the sum in (3.2) are denoted Ajk, then
1 - A;k = Ia' . - akl2
I1-ajakl2
Ifc<1-Ajk < 1, then
EAjk < - log(I - Ajk) C
j#k 73Ek j#k
and hence the lemma follows. 0
Proof of the Sufficiency. It is enough to find Fk(z) such that
Fk(aj) = bjk (3.3)
120 7. H' Spaces
and
00
IFk(z)I < C, (3.4)
lFk(z)I <
exp C6ckexp
-Ecj
j>k
where
is
Iakl2
ck-
\I1-akzll
4. Carleson Measures 121
therefore,
cc
I:IFF(z)I < CEckexp < jCJe-`dt=C,
k k -Ecl
j>k o
and therefore Ek+1 <- cEk for some c < 1. Conversely, if this inequality
holds, then rk actually satisfies (3.1). In fact, then it is certainly separated
and since Ek < ck-jej if k > j, we have that
00 (1r2)(1-rk)\1-rk 1-rj
j=o
(1 - rjrk)2 j<k 1 - rj j>k 1 - rk
E ck-j+ r c_c<1,
j<k jL>ik
4. Carleson Measures
The interpolation condition (3.1) does not only involve the modulii of the
points ak, but also means that they are spread out in U in a certain sense.
In order to understand this further one has to introduce the concept of a
Carleson measure. If z, ( E U, then
I1-(zl--max{1-IzI+1 -I(I)+Iargz-arg(I, (4.1)
122 7. H Spaces
if the arguments are chosen so that the last term is less than or equal to
it. This simple observation will be used repeatedly in this section. Let
w(e'B, t) = {C E U; 11 - e-iezl < t}, t>0
be the so-called Carleson tents at 09. A positive measure p in U is a
Carleson measure if
p(w(e:s, t) < Ct,
uniformly for all t and 0. The infimum of all possible constants is called
the Carleson norm of p.
uniformly in z E U.
The exact shape of the tents is not important. In this context it is often
convenient to use dyadic cubes and a dyadic decomposition of U. Let
Qk,t = {re'; 2-k(t - 1) < 0/7r < 2-ke, 0 < 1 - r < 2-k} ,
where k = 0, 1, 2, ... and f= -2k + 1, -2k + 2,... - 1, 0, 1, ... , 2k. Then
each set w(e`B, t) is contained in the union of at most two dyadic cubes Qk,t
with t < C2 -k for some absolute constant C (cf. (4.1)), and therefore p is
a Carleson measure if and only if p(Qk,t) < C2 -k for all k and t. We also
introduce the sets
Bk,t = {re'B; 2-k(f - 1) < 0/7r < 2-kt, 2-(k+1) < 1 - r < 2-k
which constitute a partition of U; cf. Figure 1.
Proof of Proposition 4.1. First assume that (4.2) holds and take an
arbitrary cube Qk,t. If z E Bk,t and C E Qk,t, then 1 - Iz12 - 2-k and
11 - CzI - 2_k (cf. (4.1)), and if we restrict the integration in (4.2) to Qk,t,
we thus get that p(Qk.1) < C2-k. Conversely, fix z E U. By invariance we
may assume that z E Bko,1. If C E Qka,t, then 11 - (zj - 2-4(l + 111) by
(4.1), and hence
CZ12dp(C) (1+11)224p(Qko,t) 5 C,
FIGURE 1
aj EQkp,l
4.2 Example. Now suppose that 0 < r2 < r2 < ... < 1 and E(1 -
rj) < oo. We claim that one can choose Bj such that aj = rje:ei is an
interpolation sequence. Let Ek = {r;; 2-(k+1) _< 1 - rj < 2-k}, and let ck
be its cardinality. Then Ek 2-kCk < oo. Notice that c points always can
be distributed into two boxes so that no box contains more than c/2 + 1/2
points. Now fix a k. We can choose points aj = rjeie., rj E Ek, such that
124 7. HP Spaces
the union of all Bk,t that are contained in the same Qk',l' contains at most
2-kick + 2-` points. In fact, first arrange the points so that at most
ck/2 + 1/2 of them lie in each Qo,l,, e' = 0,1; then proceed so that at most
(ck/2 + 1/2)/2 + 1/2 points occur in each Ql,e,, and so on. Let T = E 6Q'
and u = (1 - lzl)T. If now Qko,,*o is a fixed cube, then
00
Clearly, (4.3) holds for all p > 0 if it holds for some fixed p since we
can divide out the zeros and then take arbitrary p'th roots. In view of
Theorem 1.7 in Ch. 6, it also holds for hp if p > 1 (though only with a
constant that depends on p). In Chs. 8 and 9 Carleson measures occur,
but only as measures satisfying (4.3).
Supplementary Exercises
Exercise 17. Suppose that f E N and (4.5) holds. Does it follow that
f E N+?
Exercise 18. Show Theorem 2.3 without referring to Theorem 2.1: Since
trivially P(g) C M9H2, we have to prove the opposite inclusion. Since
IIM9f - gp1IH2 = Of - Q9PIIH2, it is enough to show that P(g) = H2 if g
is outer. If h 1 P(g), then
1 2w
0, n < 0,
1 f
and therefore g"h' = k' for some k E H1. However, since g is outer,
k/g E N+ and (k/g)' = h` E L2(T), and therefore k/g E H2. It now
follows that h' is constant and hence h = 0, since otherwise g E H2 and
f g' = 0, which would imply that g were divisible by z.
Exercise 19. Show Theorem 2.3 for 1 < p < oo instead of just p = 2.
Hint: Recall Theorem 2.3 in Ch. 6.
Exercise 20. Show directly that any interpolation sequence must be the
zero set of some bounded f 0 0.
Exercise 21. Show that if a,,3 E U have given modulii, then Ia - 0I/I1 -
a/3I is minimal if and only if they lie on the same radius.
Exercise 22. Let T be the operator in the proof of the necessity part of
the interpolation theorem. Show that KerT = {gB; g E H}, where B is
the Blaschke product with zeros a3.
Exercise 23. Show that the sequence rk = 1-1/k2 is not separated. Does
it satisfy (3.2)?
Exercise 24. Suppose that aj is a sequence in U with no limit points and
0 E 1'. Show that if there is some f E H that interpolates 3 in a then
it is unique if and only if E 1 - Ia3I = oo.
Exercise 25. Show (4.1). Hint: Notice that 11 -- roe-ielr2e&O2I is the
Euclidean distance between rlr2e`(e'-e1) and the point 1.
Exercise 26. Let be a finite measure in U. Show that one can rearrange
the mass on each level {2-(k+1) < IzI < 2- k} = UtBk,t so that the new
measure is a Carleson measure.
Exercise 27. Fill in the details in the construction in Example 4.2.
Exercise 28. Let M f be Hardy-Littlewood's maximal function; see Sec-
tion 1 in Ch. 6. Use Carleson's inequality to prove that
I IMf'Ipde < CIIfIIHo (4.6)
T
for p > 0. The same holds for hp if p > 1. Hint: First prove it for
M instead of M. Choose a piecewise C' curve 0 --+ r(B)e'B such that
128 7. H' Spaces
If (r(O)e'B)J > 1/2Mf (e'B). Define a measure on this curve so that the
measure of any segment is precisely the length of its projection onto T.
Then this measure is a Carleson measure if it is considered as a measure
in U. Now Carleson's inequality implies (4.6).
The hyperbolic distance d(z, w) between the points z and w in U is defined
in the following way:
1
d(O,z) = d(z,0) = log 1 + `IZI
zl,
2
and
d(z, w) = d(0, q=(w)).
Exercise 29. Show that d(z, w) is well defined for all z, w E U, that
d(z, w) = d(w, z), and that
d(z, w) = d(t(z), O(w))
for any that is either an automorphism or the conjugate of some auto-
morphism of U.
A hyperbolic line in U is the intersection of U with a circle in C that
intersects T orthogonally. Thus, hyperbolic lines through the origin are
just ordinary lines.
Exercise 30. Show that through each disjoint pair of points there is one
and only one hyperbolic line.
Exercise 31. Show that all automorphisms and their conjugates map
(hyperbolic) lines onto (hyperbolic) lines.
Exercise 32. Show that
d(z, w) < d(z, z') + d(z', z)
with equality if and only if z, z', and w are consecutive points on the same
hyperbolic line.
Exercise 33. Show that there are constants c and C such that
d(z, w) < I _ w < Cd(z, w),
for all z, w such that d(z, w) < c.
The unit disk with this geometry provides a model for non-Euclidean
geometry. In fact, all of the Euclidean axioms hold except the axiom of
parallels.
Exercise 34. Show that through any point outside some given hyperbolic
line there are infinitely many lines that do not intersect the given line.
Notes 129
Notes
We recommend (D] and [G] for further results and references.
The key to the HP-theory here is Theorem 1.1. There is an analogous
result in the upper half-plane. Instead of Theorem 1.1, one can rely on
the fact that if 1P is subharmonic for all p > 0. There is a generalization
of the Hr-theory to the upper half-space in R"+' for p > (n - 1)/n, but
then there is no analogue to Theorem 1.1. This theory instead is based on
subharmonicity; see (S].
Theorem 1.1 is due to F. Riesz, 1923, and the main theorem (Theo-
rem 1.8) is due to Smirnoff, 1929. See [D] for more historical remarks.
Theorems 2.1 and 2.3 are due to Beurling, 1949. These theorems have
been generalized by Gamelin to p > 0; see TAMS, vol. 124 (1966), 158-167.
See also Exercise 19.
The interpolation theorem (Theorem 3.1) was proved by Carleson in
1958. The hard direction is to prove that (3.1) is sufficient. The explicit
proof given here was discovered by Jones (Acta. Math., vol. 150 (1983),
137-152).
There is a generalization of the interpolation theorem (Theorem 3.1) to
HP, p > 0; see [D].
If the sequence Ck in Example 4.2 satisfies E 42-k < oo, which is more
restrictive than the Blaschke condition, then for almost all choices of 9k (in-
terpreted in an appropriate sense) ak = rkeiek is an interpolation sequence;
see Rudowicz, Bull. London Math. Soc., vol 26 (1994), 160-164.
The proof given here of Carleson's inequality (Theorem 4.3) is due to
Berndtsson. The underlying idea that essentially all Carleson measures
are of the form (1 - I(I)o0, where 0 is a bounded subharmonic function,
is from Proc. Univ. of Maryland 1985--86, Springer-Verlag (1987). The
usual proof of Carleson's inequality proceeds via an LP(T)-estimate for the
Hardy-Littlewood maximal function. Incidentally, this estimate follows
quite easily from Carleson's inequality; see Exercise 28.
8
Ideals and the Corona Theorem
1. Ideals in A(S2)
We begin with
1.1 Theorem. If gi, ... , gn E A(Q) have no common zeros in S2, then
there are u1, ... , u, E A(1l) such that F_i gjuj = 1.
One can obtain Theorem 1.1 quite easily from Weierstrass' and Mittag-
Leffier's theorems (see Exercise 1), but we will give a proof ttlat relies on
the existence of solutions to the inhomogenous Cauchy-Riemann equation
(Theorem 2.3 in Ch. 3). The advantage is that one obtains estimates of
the solution (u1, . . . , u,) if one can solve the 8/82-equation with estimates.
This will be used in the proof of the corona theorem in the next section.
Proof of Theorem 1.1. Consider g = (gl, ... , g,) as a row matrix and
u = (ui, ... , un)t as a column matrix (thus t denotes transpose). We are
looking for an analytic u such that gu = 1. If IgI2 = Igi I2 and
9t
y
IgI2
(1.1)
2. The Corona Theorem 131
denote the ideal in A(1) generated by gi,... , gn. Theorem 1.1 then says
that [gl, , 9n] = [1] = A(S1) if (and only if) gi,... , gn have no common
zeros.
1.2 Corollary. For given hl , ... , hn E A(1Z) there is a 0 E A(S2) such that
[hl,...,hn] _ [Y'].
2.1 The Corona Theorem. Suppose that gi, ... , g,, E H and there is
a 6 > 0 such that
Igj I2 > P. (2.1)
1
132 8. Ideals and the Corona Theorem
2.2 Proposition. There is C6,,, > 0 such that if g1, .., g E HO n coo(U)
and b < lgJ < 1, then there are uj E HO with Jul < C6,,, such that
E9iu.i=1.
Proof that Proposition 2.2 Implies Theorem 2.1. In fact, we may
assume that b < IgI < 1 in the corona theorem. Then g''(z) = g(rz)
satisfies the assumptions in Proposition 2.2, and therefore we get analytic
u' with Iu'i < C6,,, and g''ur = E gju7 = 1. Since {ur},<, is a normal
family (Proposition 1.7 in Ch. 2), we can extract a-convergent subsequence
u''i - u when ri / 1. Then of course Jul < C6,,, and gu = 1, and thus the
corona theorem follows.
If f E L1(U), v E L1(T) (or v E M(T)) and (2.2) holds, one says that v
solves the 8/02 equation on the boundary and writes
8bv = f.
Note that 8b is linear, and that 8bav = of if a E A(U) n C(U) and
8bv = f. To be precise, Zibv defines an element in the quotient space
L'(U)/{g E L'(U); ghdA = 0 t1 h c A(U) n C(U)}.
u
We claim that if, for example, f E C(U) and 8bv = f, then v is the
restriction to the boundary of a unique solution V to 8V/8z = f. In fact, let
W be an arbitrary solution in C(U) to 8W/8z = f (such a solution always
exists; however, the reader may just as well assume that f is smooth in a
2. The Corona Theorem 133
Proof. Suppose that (2.3) holds; for (the restriction to T of) h E A(U) n
C(U), let
Ah = 2i fu f hdA.
U
Then iAhi < C fT. ihidO and by the Hahn-Banach theorem, A can be ex-
tended to a bounded linear functional on L'(T) with norm < C. Hence
there is an a E L(T) such that ilallL= < C and
2i f f hda - Ah = J ha dB, h E A(U) n C (U).
U T
If now v(z) _ -i2a(z), then (cf. (2.2)) abv = f. The converse is trivial and
we leave it as an exercise. 0
So far we only have made a preliminary reduction (Proposition 2.2) and
expressed it in terms of a system of ab-equations. The next theorem due
to Wolff is in fact the heart of the matter.
2.4 Theorem. There is a C > 0 such that if 0, f E C (U), 0 real, 101 < 1,
IfI2 < Aq, (2.4)
and
az :SAO, (2.5)
such that w E L(T) and Iwl < Can, where C6,,, depends only on 6
and n. If u = ry + wgt, then (as before) 8bu = 0, gu = 1 on T, and
Iu1 < 1/6 + C6,n = C6,n. However, then u is the boundary values of a
U E H'; and since IIuIIL- 5 C6,n, U is actually in H and IIUIIH- 5 C6,n.
Finally, gU - 1 since gU - 1 E H and the equality holds on T.
Thus, we have to solve 8bw = F with L (T)-control of the solution.
Note that
8ry a
= 8x 191-2g = + -2(81914)9
8z
1912,
What remains is to prove Theorem 2.4, and to this end we will apply the
following simple but useful lemma.
f
and
2 1 (1 _ I91dO. (2.8)
U 19I T
=
e"
f e'`d9<2
I e&d9,
2. The Corona Theorem 135
where we have used Green's identity in the last equality. To obtain (2.6) in
the general case, note that log(IgI2 + e) is subharmonic, then replace z/i by
+/, + (1/2) log(IgI2 +e), and finally let e \ 0. One gets (2.7) from (2.6) if 0
is replaced by /2II0IIL (U) From the computation above it also follows
that
lz e0
f(i-_ I zI2) I az <
2 fT
if 0* > 0, and (2.8) follows if one takes ?p = (1/2) log(IgP2 + f) and lets
e\ 0.
Proof of Theorem 2.4. In view of Proposition 2.3 we have to estimate
fu f h, and we first rewrite it:
If g = zh, we have
11212
-- (f(i - IzI2)vlg'I) 2
< fu (1 - IzI2)o0191 f (1
- Iz12)
111
I9II2
. (I I91)2 =
CfT
Ihi\ 2
by (2.7) and (2.8), and therefore (2.9) holds for j = 2. The estimation of
13 is left as an exercise.
136 8. Ideals and the Corona Theorem
Supplementary Exercises
Exercise 1. Here is an outline of an alternative proof of Theorem 1.1:
Suppose that it is true for n - 1 generators. Take a 0 that has exactly the
zeros that are common to gl , ... , gn_ 1. Then by the induction hypothesis
there are vj such that glv1 + ...9n_1Vn_1 = 0. Since gn is nonvanishing
at the zeros of (P, there is by Corollary 1.6 to Weierstrass' theorem a h
such that (1 - gnh)/0 = f is analytic. Hence, 1 = Of - gnh = gl fv1 +
-9nh.
Exercise 2. For N = 1, 2, 3, ... , let
00 2
91v(-)= n(1-n2).
n=N
Show that the ideal in the ring of entire functions, generated by 19N), is
not a principal ideal.
Exercise 3. Show that the solution -y = gt/Ig12 is the solution to gy = 1
that has the pointwise minimal Euclidean norm.
Exercise 4. Suppose that p is a measure on T. Show that = fdO for
some f E L2(T) if and only if (1 - ICI2)IVP(()I2 is integrable over U.
Supplementary Exercises 137
Exercise 9. Suppose that gj E HO, j = 1,... , n and egg I2 > 62. Let
z) =
- Ki2)a I9i(9i
a>0.
C11 - z /) E ()V2 JJ
Show that if E A(U) flC(U), then
O(z)
- -n f
and that z)/((' - z) E C(U x U). Give explicit u3 = TjO E
A(U) fl C(U) such that >gjuj = 0. Show that T3q E H' if E Hp,
1<p<00.
Exercise 10. Show that
u(z) f f (()dA(()
Exercise 11. Show the corona theorem in A = {1 < Iz) < 2}. Hint:
Note that the corona theorem is true in any simply connected domain, in
particular in D = {0 < Re z < log 2}. There is a one-to-one correspondence
between functions in A and functions in D such that g(z + m.2ai) = g(z).
If fj e HO(D) are periodic in this way and IfjI2 > 62, show that there
are periodic u3 E H(D) such that F_ h u3 = 1.
138 8. Ideals and the Corona Theorem
is a solution to 8bu = f.
Exercise 13. Show that if 0 E HP, 1 < p < oe, and f satisfies (2.4) and
(2.5), then
1 r zf(().O(()dA(()
(Z)
V (z) z E T,
*7r u 1 - (z
is a solution to 8bu = f o and
<CPf P.
IT T
What happens for p = 1?
Exercise 14. Prove (2.9) for j = 3. Show that
j(i - Iz12)lhI < C J T
lhldO
for holomorphic h.
Exercise 15. Suppose that f E H. Show that (1- IzI)I f'12 is a Carleson
measure.
Exercise 16. Assume that g E H2. Show that
2f (1 - Iz12)Ig'I2 < f IgI2dO. (2.10)
U T
Exercise 17. Show that for the proof of Theorem 2.4 all one needs is
(2.10). Note that 04 is actually only (a constant times) Ig'I2 for a (sum
of) bounded analytic functions.
Exercise 18. Suppose that a/' is bounded and subharmonic in U. Show
that it = (1 - K(I)o,'dA(() is a Carleson measure. Hint: Cf. (2.7).
Exercise 19. Prove Wolff's theorem as it is stated in Remark 2.6. Hint:
Use Theorem 4.3 in Ch. 7.
Exercise 20. Suppose that is a Carleson measure in U. Prove that
there is a solution v E L(T) to 8bV = .
Exercise 21. Here is an outline of a proof of Carleson's interpolation
theorem (Theorem 3.1 in Ch. 7) based on the ab equation: The separation
hypothesis ensures that we can find Xi E Co (U) with mutually disjoint
supports such that Xj = 1 when d(z, aj) < e and vanish when d(z, a3) > 2e
(d(z, w) - Iz - wI /II - 2w 1). Then 0 _ E,3IX.i is a smooth solution to the
Supplementary Exercises 139
F=j>j az'lB
is a Carleson measure (note that f JaXj/a&1 < C(1 - tajl)). Solve abv = F
and take g such that g1T = 0 - v. One can in fact assume that there
are only a finite number of points aj since the occurring constants will be
uniform. The general case then follows by a normal family argument.
Exercise 22. In Carleson's original proof of the corona theorem one of
the main steps was to find a CO solution -y to g-y = 1 such that day/azJ
is a Carleson measure. Given such a -y, complete the proof of the corona
theorem.
Exercise 23. If t4' E C2(1l) is real and A > 0, then
au
az
=f (2.11)
Notes
A thorough discussion of the history of the corona problem and various
aspects of proofs are given in [G). The best known constant (in Proposi-
O(6-2
tion 2.2), due to Uchiyama, is C6 = log 6), which is independent of
the number of generators n. For the proof and various vector-valued ver-
sions of the corona theorem, see [N] Appendix 3, and the references given
there.
The corona theorem is closely related to the interpolation theorem (Theo-
rem 3.1 in Ch. 7). Both can be reduced to the problem of finding a bounded
solution to a certain 8b-problem. In the case of the interpolation theorem,
the occurring right-hand side is a Carleson measure (cf. Exercise 21) and
is therefore readily solved by Carleson's inequality (Theorem 4.3 in Ch. 7)
and Proposition 2.3. However, in the case of the corona problem, the most
obvious right-hand side occurring from the smooth solution y = gt/[g[2
requires the more involved Theorem 2.4 to get a bounded solution. How-
ever, in Carleson's original proof a more refined -y occurs such that 8y/82
is actually a Carleson measure. By this choice of -y the corona theorem
readily follows; cf. Exercise 22.
In the paper by Jones referred to in the notes to the previous chapter,
an explicit bounded solution to 8bu = f is constructed, provided f is a
Carleson measure. No such formula is known if f satisfies the hypothesis
in Wolff's theorem.
The corona theorem holds in, e.g., multiply connected domains (a finite
number of holes), but the general case is not known; cf. Exercise 11.
The analogue question for A = A(U) fl C(U) is true, i.e., if gj E A has
no common zeros, then there are uj E A such that F_ gjuj = 1. This is a
simple result in the theory of Banach algebras; see, e.g., Ch. 18 in [Rul].
See also Exercise 25, where another proof is suggested.
Hormander's theorem (of which Theorem 2.7 is a special case) was pub-
lished in Acta Math., vol 113 (1965). This is of particular importance in
the theory of several complex variables.
If the power 3 in Exercise 7 is replaced by 1, the statement is false. The
case with power 2 is unknown; see [G] and [N].
9
H' and BMO
if f (0) is real.
(v) If functions in H1 are identified by their boundary values, then H1 is a
subspace of HR and the Szego projection maps S: HR -+ H'.
Thus, HR is a somewhat smaller space than L1(T), but with the advan-
tage that the Hilbert and Szego transforms are bounded. In some respect
HR therefore serves as an approriate surrogate for L1(T). Because of the
142 9. H1 and BMO
inclusions (1.1) the dual space of HR has to be something between L(T)
and LP(T), and the main objective in this chapter is to determine this
dual space. It should be pointed out that the HR condition is not a simple
condition on the size of if 1. In fact, if If I is in HR, then f also is, but the
converse is not true; see Exercises 6 and 7.
is finite, where the supremum runs over all intervals I on the unit circle.
1.2 Remark. BMO stands for bounded mean oscillation, and in our def-
inition we have measured this mean oscillation in the L2(T)-norm. It is
more common to define BMO with L' (T)-norms instead. This definition
is as follows: An f E L'(T) is in BMO if
f2,
slip
III J
If - flldt + 2 If Idt
The main result in this chapter is Fefferman's theorem, which states that
BMO is the dual of HR (Theorem 2.1). However, we first shall consider
some useful alternative ways to express the BMO norm (Proposition 1.3
below). To this end we need the Riesz decomposition in its simplest form
for functions that are smooth up to the boundary; cf. (2.6) in Ch. 4: If
e E C(U), then
l; (z) = P(z) + 9(0e)(z), z E U, (1.4)
where P is the Poisson integral and G the Green potential.
1.4 Corollary. The Hilbert transform maps BMO into BMO boundedly.
1.5 Remark. The function v(t) = log 11 - e'tI is in BMO since it is the
Hilbert transform of the bounded function arg(1 - e't).
144 9. H' and BMO
Proof of Proposition 1.3. First suppose that u E C(T). Then Pu E
C(U) and we therefore can apply the Riesz decomposition (1.4) to _
IPu - Pu(a)12. If we evaluate at the point z = a, we get that
-Q(IVPul2)(a) = P(lu - Pu(a)12)(a),
which shows the second part of (1.5) for smooth u. For the general case we
approximate u with u, as in Exercise 1. Then it is enough to verify that
for fixed a E U,
P(Iur - Pur(a)12)(a) -+ P(Iu - Pu(a)12)(a)
and
G(IVPurI2)(a) -+ c(IVPuI2)(a)
when r / 1. The first limit is quite trivial, and so we concentrate on the
second one. Since the Green kernel is 0(1 - I(I) for fixed z E U, it is enough
to verify that
ZpXv(t) 5 CPr(t),
It remains to show the > part of (1.5). By the variant of Lemma 1.6
where the Poisson kernel and the XP are interchanged, it is enough to find
for each a E U a number a' such that SUp0EU P(lu - a'12)(a) is dominated
by the left-most expression in (1.5). We may assume that a = r > 0. Then
we choose a' = u, = u(_p,p) (again r = 1 - p). Now
Pr(t) 5 C2pXP(t)
if Itl < p. For the last one, first note that
1 - r2 P
Pr(t) = <
I 1 - re't l2 p2 + t2 - t2
if Itl > p_ Thus, the proof is concluded with
2k
1
P f I<2kp
Iu - u2kp12 < 2B2,
2.2 Theorem.
(a) The Szego projection is a bounded map
S:BMO -* BMOA and S:HR-+H'.
(b) BMOA operates on H1 in the sense that the pairing (f, b) has a contin-
uous extension from H2 to H1 if b c BMOA. Conversely, any bounded
functional on H1 occurs in this way, and the functional norm is equiva-
lent to the BMOA norm of b.
where the last inequality follows from (2.8) in Ch. 8 and the assumption
(ii).
We now prove that (iii) implies (iv). If u satisfies (iii), then it defines a
bounded functional A on Hat, but HR can be isometrically identified with
the subspace of L1 (T) x L' (T) of elements of the form (0, HO); and so by
the Hahn-Banach theorem, A can be extended to a bounded functional on
L1(T) x L'(T). Thus, it is represented by an element (a, -b) E LOO(T) x
LOO(T), and for all (4,, H) we thus have
(0, u) = AO = (0, a) + (HO, -b) = (0, a + Hb)
for smooth 0 (cf. formula (2.9) in Ch. 6), and hence u = a + Hb. Also note
that IIaIIL. + IIbIIL= is equivalent to the functional norm of u.
The implication (iv) (i) follows from Corollary 1.4, and hence Theo-
rem 2.1 is completely proved.
Supplementary Exercises
Exercise 2. Show directly from the definition that log ItI is in BMO but
that (t/ItI) log Iti is not. Also show that log 11 - e'uI is in BMO.
Exercise 3. Show that 111f 111* 5 211f II..
Exercise 4. Suppose that f E L1(T) (or that f is in M(T)). Show that
if Hf E M(T), then f c H.
Exercise 5. Suppose that f E L'(T) (or that f is any distribution on T).
Show that f E HR if and only if I f fbI G CIIbhj. for all b E C' (T). Hint:
Use the preceding exercise.
Exercise 6. Show that If I E HR implies that f E H. Hint: Use the
preceding exercise and Exercise 3.
Exercise 7. Show that there are f E HR such that If I do not belong to
H.
Notes 149
(f, 9) = 27r
fgda.
fo
Exercise 15. Let P be the orthogonal projection P: L2(T) - H2 with
respect to ( , ). Show that P maps LP(T) onto H9, BMO onto BMOA,
and HR onto H'. Moreover, show that H9 is the dual of H9 and BMOA
is the dual of H' with respect to this pairing. Also show that P: L(T)
BMOA is surjective. Hint: Note that SP = P and PS = S, and so
S'P = S' if the star denotes adjoint with respect to ( , ). Hence P =
S' + (S" - S)P. First, assume that f is in LP(T), 2 < p < oo or in BMO.
Then Pf E L2(T).
Exercise 16. Let p be a Carleson measure in U. Show that
u(z) _ - 1 / zdjc(() z E T,
ir U 1-@z
is in BMO and that 8bu = /2.
Notes
The space BMO was introduced by John and Nirenberg in Comm. Pure
Appl. Math., 14 (1961). The John- Nirenberg theorem states that if f E
BMO (defined with L' instead of L2 norms; cf. Remark 1.2), then
I{t E I; If - frt > All < CIII exp (ifCA ) ,
- iI
see [G]. It implies that the two definitions agree; it also immediately implies
that BMO C LP(T).
Fefferman's duality theorem is from 1971; see [G].
150 9. H' and BMO
The space HR can be defined by atoms. An atom is either the function 1
or a function a(t) E L(T) that has support on some interval I and such
that fr adt = 0 and IaI < 1/III. One can prove that HR is the space of all
sums
f(t) =>2A,aj(t),
where aj are atoms and A3 Eel, and the norm of f is equivalent to the
infimum of all > IA3I over all possible representations of f. This definition
has considerable advantages; basically, many results are reduced to check-
ing its validity for a single atom; for instance, it is almost immediate that
any b E BMO defines a functional on HR, and also that usual singular
integral operators are bounded. This definition with atoms was introduced
by Coifman (Studia Math. 269-274 (1974)), and has several important gen-
eralizations to Hp spaces for p < 1 in one and several dimensions in lR'
and on spaces of homogeneous type.
In general, the operator b --+ hb is not bounded on BMO if h is only
a bounded function. There is a precise characterization (due to Stegenga,
Amer. J. Math. 98 (1976), 573-589) of the multiplicators of BMO: A
function h is a multiplicator if and only if it is in L(T) and
logIIIf Ih - hJIde<C. (2.2)
III
The condition is satisfied if h has some regularity (C1 is more than enough);
cf. Exercise 9. An analytic function h is a multiplicator on BMOA if and
only if f E H and (2.2) holds.
There is no linear operator that provides a bounded solution to i9bu =
for each Carleson measure ; however, Exercise 16 shows that the Cauchy
integral at least gives a solution in BMO.
Bibliography
[B] R.P. Boas, Entire Functions, Academic Press Inc., New York, 1954.
(D] P. Duren, Theory of H9 Spaces, Academic Press Inc., New York, 1970.
(F) G. Folland, Real Analysis, John Wiley & Sons, New York Chichester Bris-
bane Toronto Singapore, 1984.
(Hi] E. Hille, Analytic Function Theory, vols. I & 11, Ginn and Company,
Boston, 1959 & 1962.
[NJ N.K. Nikolskii, Treatise on the Shift Operator, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Hei-
delberg New York Tokyo, 1986.
[Rul] W. Rudin, Real and Complex Analysis, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill Book Com-
pany, New York, 1986.
IseH 0-387-94754-M
9
IIII III
780387"947549
ISBN 0-387-94754-X