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Modeling of the influence of coarsening on


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DOI: 10.1016/j.msea.2012.07.096

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Materials Science & Engineering A 559 (2013) 4048

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Materials Science & Engineering A


journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/msea

Modeling of the inuence of coarsening on viscoplastic behavior of a 319


foundry aluminum alloy
R. Martinez a,b,c,n, V. Russier a, J.P. Couzinie a, I. Guillot a,1, G. Cailletaud b
a
Universite Paris-Est Creteil, Institut de Chimie et de Materiaux Paris-Est, CNRS UMR7182, 2-8 rue Henri Dunant, 94320 Thiais, France
b
Mines ParisTech, Centre des Materiaux, CNRS UMR7633, BP 87, 91003 Evry Cedex, France
c
Renault SA, Technocentre, Direction de lingenierie et des materiaux, 1 avenue du Golf, 78288 Guyancourt, France

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Both metallurgical and mechanical behaviors of a 319 foundry aluminum alloy have been modeled by
Received 22 May 2012 means of a multiscale approach. The nano-scale, represented by the coarsening of Al2Cu precipitates,
Received in revised form has been modeled according to the LifshitzSlyozovWagner (LSW) law in a range of temperature going
18 July 2012
from 23 1C to 300 1C up to 1000 h aging time. Results were then compared to transmission electron
Accepted 23 July 2012
microscope (TEM) observations and are in good agreement with the experimental measurements. The
Available online 31 July 2012
model allows us to know the critical radius, the volume fraction and the number of particles per mm3 in
Keywords: a a-phase representative volume element (RVE). The increase in yield stress generated by the
319 Foundry aluminum alloy interaction of dislocations with precipitates, lattice and solid solution, is modeled on the microscale.
Multiscale modeling
The yield stress becomes thus a function of the precipitation state, and is time/temperature dependent.
Al2Cu coarsening
These two models were then combined into a mechanical macroscale model in order to represent the
Yield stress
Low cycle fatigue behavior Low Cycle Fatigue (LCF) behavior of the material. An elasto-viscoplastic law has been used and all the
Transmission electron microscope material parameters were experimentally determined with LCF stress/strain loops for the rst cycle and
for the mechanical steady state. The simulation results are in good agreement with the experiments.
& 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction properties. It enables hardening precipitation of Mg2Si particles


during aging. However, this hardening system is considered less
Foundry aluminum alloys with precipitation hardening are efcient at high temperature ( 4 200 1C), and better mechanical
widely adopted to minimize the weight of engines. Indeed, these properties could be obtained with copper-containing 319 alloys.
alloys are particularly interesting in the automotive industry due They display high strength in F or T5 temper and can even be T7
to their low melting point, low density and excellent thermal treated in order to further improve their mechanical properties,
conductivity. Moreover, they present good mechanical properties especially yield stress up to high temperatures.
due to precipitate hardening. All these features are helpful in the In this case, particle precipitation starts with the nucleation of
process of engine downsizing that induces higher thermal and coherent copper-rich GuinierPreston zones (GP zones) and their
00
mechanical loads on the components. For instance, the tempera- growth, to become y particles (GP2 zones) [15]. The formation
ture at the intervalve zone of a Diesel engine head was below of GP zones in an aluminumcopper alloy has been modeled by
170 1C 20 years ago. Nowadays, this temperature can reach 250 1C Lochte et al. [6], Wang et al. [7], and their composition has been
00
leading thus to intervalve zones cracking because of low cycle investigated by Karlik et al. [5,8,9]. The subsequent growth of y
0
fatigue. to semi-coherent Al2Cu (y ) precipitates [1015] could be accom-
Low price secondary alloys are suitable to manufacture head panied at high temperatures by a local heterogeneous nucleation
0
cylinders even if they contain iron (0.5 wt%). Some manufacturers of y [16]. Their coarsening to non-coherent Al2Cu y particles
employ A356 foundry aluminum alloys, which are T7 treated [12,17] is controlled by copper diffusion in the aluminum matrix
(solutionizingquenchaging) to improve their mechanical [14,18,19] and driven by the reduction in the interfacial energy of
the particle. The modeling of coarsening has been carried out by
Myhr et al. [20] who proposed a model based on the discretiza-
n
Corresponding author at: Universite Paris-Est Creteil, Institut de Chimie et de tion of the distribution of precipitates coupled with an equation
Materiaux Paris-Est, CNRS UMR7182, 2-8 rue Henri Dunant, 94320 Thiais, France. describing the particle ux. Another modeling approach was used
Tel.: 33 160763133; fax: 33 149781166.
E-mail addresses: remi.martinez@ensmp.fr (R. Martinez),
by Vaithyanathan et al. [21] who proposed a novel combination of
vincent.russier@icmpe.cnrs.fr (V. Russier), ivan.guillot@icmpe.cnrs.fr (I. Guillot). a mesoscale phase-eld method with atomistic approaches and a
1
Tel.: 33 156703055. mixed-space cluster expansion coupled with Monte Carlo

0921-5093/$ - see front matter & 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2012.07.096
R. Martinez et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 559 (2013) 4048 41

0
simulations to represent growth and coarsening of y to y in According to Silcock et al. [10], articial aging allows plate
0
aluminumcopper alloys. shaped Al2Cu (y ) precipitates to grow following epitaxial rela-
General models, i.e. models coupling precipitation kinetics and tionships with the matrix: 100y0 J100Al and 001y0 J001Al .
0
mechanical behavior, have also been investigated in recent years. Thereby, y precipitates grow in the {001} a-phases plans accord-
Interaction between dislocations and precipitates has been intro- ing to the well known timetemperature dependent kinetics: GP
00 0 0
duced to determine the stress increase generated by shearing or zone -y -y -y (Al2Cu). y precipitates have a tetragonal
bypassing of the precipitates in order to predict the yield stress of crystallographic structure with parameters a 0.404 nm and
the alloy. Deschamps et al. [22] used a model based on thermo- c0.580 nm [1015]. During aging, plate shaped semi-coherent
dynamics to describe both growth and coarsening of precipitates of y0 precipitates will coarsen and loose their coherency to reach a
an AlZnMg alloy. The yield stress was calculated by estimating the pseudo-spherical shape.
average obstacle strength (mean square of shearing and bypassing
contribution), the contribution of dislocation hardening and the 2.2. TEM specimen preparation
solid solution hardening. These models were then used by Simar
et al. [23] on friction stir welded 6005A-T6 aluminum alloy, by Over-aged samples were obtained by articial annealing of
Gallais et al. [24] on friction stir welded AA106 aluminum alloy and initially 319-T7 samples. Three millimeter carrots were then
by Myhr et al. [25,26] on AlMgSi alloys. Gandin et al. [27] obtained, sliced into discs of 1002120 mm thick and thinned by
introduced in this approach the physical metallurgy of solidication twin-jet electropolishing for observations in a JEOL 2000EX
in order to obtain a global model, going from solidication to aging. 0
transmission electron microscope. Platelets y were observed in
Nicouleau-Bourles et al. [28,29] used an internal variable to dark eld and the two dimensions (length and thickness) in the
introduce aging in an elasto-viscoplastic model of a 319-T5 alloy. /001SAl were measured close to this axis (Fig. 2a). Incoherent y
This parameter was then developed and generalized to other precipitates were observed in bright eld from a zero degree tilt
thermal treatments and alloys by Barlas et al. [30,31]. These angle (Fig. 2b). In both cases, TEM micrographs were scanned at
models are based on experiments to calibrate all the material 600 dpi for image analysis.
parameters in the elasto-viscoplastic constitutive equations.
Nevertheless, in both cases, the aging model remains phenomen-
ological, so that it can be hardly extended to new thermomecha- 3. Metallurgical model
nical conditions or chemical compositions.
The aim of this paper is to develop a theoretical multiscale 3.1. Characterization of the precipitate morphology at T7 initial
model. Starting from a T7 temper, thermodynamics [19] was used state
to model Al2Cu coarsening as a function of aging time and aging
temperature. The results were then compared to TEM observa- The phenomena of nucleation and growth are not taken into
tions to verify the accuracy and the robustness of the coarsening account in the modeling process. Only coarsening is modeled
model. A micro-mechanical model, taking into account the because the industrial T7 treatment creates overaging. The super-
average interaction of dislocations with precipitates, solid solu- saturation of copper was determined by assuming that the water
tion atoms and lattice friction has been coupled to the coarsening quench is instantaneous and by subtracting the solubility of
model. As a consequence, the yield stress is sensitive to aging. copper in aluminum at the aging temperature to the solubility at
Both models were implemented in the Zset software [32] to
model the LCF behavior of a 319-T7 alloy from 23 1C to 300 1C.

2. Materials and experimental procedure

2.1. Materials

The material used is a 319 foundry aluminum alloy submitted


to a T7 thermal treatment. Gravity foundry is used to cast the
alloy in a water cooled mold with internal sand cores. The
composition of the alloy is given in Table 1. The thermal treat-
ment consists in a 5 h495 1C solutionizing, followed by a water
quench and 3 h articial aging at 230 1C.
Fig. 1 shows the T7 microstructure of the alloy which is mainly
composed of a dendritical proeutectic aluminum a-phase (sec-
ondary dendritic arm spacing of 25 mm). Due to solutionizing the
eutectic silicon displays a globular shape, and all the interdendritic
Al2Cu particles are dissolved in the a-phase. Interdendritic spaces
also exhibit two iron-containing phases: a-Al15 (Fe,Mn)3Si2 (chi-
nese scripts) [31,33] and b-Al5 FeSi (plate shaped) [31,33]. Meyer
et al. [34] mentioned that a Fe/Mn ratio of 2/1 favors the crystal-
lization of chinese scripts and improves mechanical properties. Fig. 1. Microstructure of the 319 foundry aluminum alloy.

Table 1
Chemical composition of the 319 foundry aluminum alloy used in this study.

Elements % Fe % Si % Cu % Zn % Mg % Mn % Ni % Pb % Sn % Ti

wt% o 0:70 7.08.5 2.83.5 o 0:80 0.250.40 0.100.60 o 0:30 o 0:10 o 0:10 0.100.20
42 R. Martinez et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 559 (2013) 4048

Fig. 2. (a) Dark eld micrograph of semi-coherent plate shaped Al2Cu precipitates, T7 temper. The diffraction pattern is in the inset and the zone axis is /001SAl ; (b) Bright
eld micrograph of non-coherent Al2Cu precipitates, T7 300 h at 300 1C temper.

the solutionizing temperature. If the particles are assumed to be following result:


spherical (for semi-coherent particles, spheres are assumed to  1=3
have the same volume to the platelets), TEM observations on T7 12
rct K ss t 3
treated samples provided an average radius of 28 nm for the initial 27
Al2Cu precipitation state. The initial number of particles per mm3
of a-phase is determined by a classic thermodynamical approach.
Combining these two parameters with Al2Cu lattice parameters
0
gives a theoretical number of 386y precipitates per mm3 . 3.3. Particles ux management

The particle ux management could be governed in two ways.


3.2. Coarsening theory According to Myhr et al. [20] and Serriere et al. [37], if the
distribution is assumed to be a Gaussian distribution, it could be
Ostwald ripening due to solubility changes has been consid- discretized in equivalence classes. Once the class including the
ered to model the coarsening of precipitates. The Lifshitz critical radius is determined, the ux management is easy. All the
SlyozovWagner [11,35] (LSW) theory was used to determine particles smaller than the critical radius have a negative coarsen-
the asymptotic shape of a precipitate distribution, particularly the ing rate, so that they dissolve. On the contrary, all the particles
evolution of the average radius (r t ) during aging. bigger than the critical radius have a positive coarsening rate.
In a closed system, the coarsening of b particles in a a matrix is Because of the closed system, the particles from the smallest class
driven by the reduction in the b=a interface surface energy. In this dissolve and go in the biggest class in order to accelerate the
system, the classical coarsening theory denes the particles coarsening. The main issue of this approach is the long calculation
growth rate as follows: time due to the management of the coarsening rate for each class.
! The particle ux could also be analyzed in one dimension by
a,eq
dr D xB xaB focusing on a precipitate class with a mean radius r, and two
vt r 1
dt rt xb xa
B B bounds, rdr=2 and r dr=2, as presented in Fig. 3.
In three dimensions, the particles ux could be considered as
with D D0 expEa =RT being the diffusion coefcient of copper ux in the sense of uid mechanics, i.e. proportional to a number
solute (B) in proeutectic Al-a matrix, rt the radius at a given time t, of particles per unit volume multiplied by the perpendicular
xaB,eq the equilibrium B solute concentration in the matrix a at surface to the ux and by the rate. Hence, combining Eq. (2) with
temperature T given by a thermodynamics software, xaB the solute the Gaussian equation, dened by rt r in Eq. (4), the three-
concentration at the interface a=b, and xbB the solute concentra- dimensional particle ux Jt could be written, at t, as
tion of B in b.  
Greenwood equation [36] denes the conditions for growth 1 1 rm2
rt r p exp 4
and dissolution of a particle introducing a critical radius rct which s 2p 2 s
is equal to the average radius r t . If r t 4 rct , then vt(r) is positive
and the particles grow. If r t orct , then vt(r) is negative and the  
particles dissolve. GibbsThomson equation [19] allows one to K ss r
Jt Nt r 2
1 5
introduce the coarsening rate of a particle as a function of the r rct
critical radius of the distribution as follows:
with Nt(r) being the number of particles at t per RVE and [35]:
    R rmax
dr 2DV m sxaB,eq r K ss r r rt r dr
1 2
1 2 r
rct R min 6
dt xbB  RTr 2 rct r rct rmax
r min rt r dr

with rt being the radius of the particle, s the surface energy of At time t dt, Nt dt r can be estimated according to
Al2Cu particles, t the aging time, Vm the molar volume of the     
particle, and R the perfect gas constant. After integration of Eq. dr dr
Nt dt r N t r Jt r J t r dt 7
(2), LSW theory gives, at constant temperature, the well known 2 2
R. Martinez et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 559 (2013) 4048 43

which is equivalent to:


X
rn i Di,j rn 1 j 17
j

with Dij being the terms of a tridiagonal matrix dened by:


Fig. 3. Representative scheme of the ux management in a particle of the class
8
[rdr=2 : r dr=2].
> Ui Ui
>
> 1 Wi dt di,j di 1,j  d for i A 2,n 1
>
>
> 2 dr 2 dr i1,j
>
< Ui dt

Ui dt
with J t rdr=2 being the entering ux and J t r dr=2 the 1 Wi dt di,j di 1,j for i 1 18
> dr dr
>
> 
exiting ux. >
> Ui dt Ui dt
>
>
As the ux is assumed to be unidimensional, it thus becomes : 1 Wi dt di,j  di1,j for i n
dr dr
proportional to a number of particles per unit length multiplied
by the rate and thus could be dened at t as rt  vt , and a rst It turns out that rn 1 j can be obtained by inversion of Dij
order Taylors development of rt rdr=2, rt r dr=2, vt rdr=2, [38,39].
and of vt r dr=2 allows us to write:
  
dN t r dr drt r dr dvt r
rt r vt r 4. Micromechanical modeling
dt 2 dr 2 dr
  
dr drt r dr dvt r The micro-yield stress sy of a 319 aluminum alloy is assumed
 rt r vt r 8
2 dr 2 dr to be close to the yield stress of the dendritic a-phase
The simplication of Eq. (8) leads to: [2224,26,27,4045]. It is thus coupled with the evolution of
the critical radius of the precipitates and involves the following
dN t r dvt r dr r hardening modes:
rt r dr vt r dr t 9
dt dr dr
Using Nt r rt r dr it turns out that Eq. (9) is equivalent to:  Orowan interaction, soro ;
Nt dt rN t r dvt r dN t r  Peierls interaction, slattice ; and
N t r vt r dr 10  solid solution hardening, sss .
dt dr dr
Finally, using the following factorization dNt rvt r=dr
The resulting yield stress can be written as
Nt r dvt r=drvt r dr dN t r=dr, we have
  sy soro slattice sss 19
dN t rvt r
Nt dt r Nt r dt 11 In this work, forest dislocations are not taken into account
dr
because the density of dislocations is assumed to be small
Assuming to work with a density of particles and no more with compared to the density of precipitates. Hence, the stress incre-
a number of particles: ment generated by work hardening is assumed to be negligible at
Z r dr=2 the yield stress level compared to the Orowan increment.
SNt dt rNt r rt dt srt s ds  rt dt rrt r dr
rdr=2

12 4.1. Determination of the Orowan stress soro

Eq. (7) could be re-written with an explicit formulation, i.e. Semi-coherent and incoherent particles are bypassed by dis-
with drt r=dr written, at t, as locations, according to Orowans looping mechanism. In the case


of a homogeneous precipitation, we assume that one dislocation
drt r d rt rvt r
 13 has to pass over all the obstacles contained in the slip plane.
dt dr
According to Deschamps et al. [22], a dislocation can overpass a
Using an implicit scheme, i.e. writing drt r=dr in Eq. (13) at homogeneous particle distribution at a critical stress sp
t dt, and approaching the value of drt dt r=dr by a centered Z
nite differences scheme brings to the following equation: MF M 1
sp rrFr dr 20
  bL bL 0
dt
rt r rt dt r1 Wr rt dt r dr Ur with M being the average ratio between the macroscopic tensile
2dr
  stress and the resolved shear stress on the active slip systems.
dt
rt dt rdr Ur 14 Two assumptions can be considered to choose M value. On the
2dr
one hand, the static Sachs model assumes that all the grains have
with U K ss =2r 2 drr=rct 1 and W K ss =r 3 1r=2rct . the same stress: it gives M 2.14 in texture-free FCC materials. On
If a discrete population is assumed and if t n n dt and r i i dr: the other hand, Taylors model assumes that all the grains have
8 the same plastic strain and provides M 3.07. Following the study
>
> rt r rn i
>
> of Barlas et al. [46] on a 319 alloy, a value of M 2.5 will be used
< rt dt r rn 1 i
15 in this study. F represents the mean obstacle strength, b the
>
> rt dt r dr rn 1 i 1 modulus of the Burgers vector, L the average spacing between
>
>
:r
t dt rdr rn 1 i1 two particles, rr the function representing the precipitate size
R rmax
distribution (with rmin rr dr 1) and nally F(r) the obstacle
Eq. (14) can be written as
  strength of a precipitate of radius r.
X X dt In the case of bypassing, F(r) can be considered as a constant
rn i di,j rn 1 j1 Wi di 1,j rn 1 j Ui 2
j j
2dr [22]: F 2bmb , with b being a material parameter and m the
X   shear modulus of the alloy. Moreover, the average spacing L
dt
 di1,j rn 1 j Ui 16 between two particles could be calculated by considering two
j
2dr
models [22]: Friedels statistics (if the particles are low obstacles
44 R. Martinez et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 559 (2013) 4048

strength) or Kocks statistics. Both approaches involve the critical with ryFy dy being the number of interactions between a
radius rc and the particle volume fraction fv: dislocation and atoms located at a distance y in the slip plane.
"  # Therefore, without taking into account the temperature, and
p 1=2 following Labusch, the increase in yield stress snss generated by
L rc 2 21
fv the solid solution is
The values of rc and fv taken from the coarsening model can c2=3 F 4=3
max z
1=3

then be used to evaluate the average stress increase generated by snss 1=3
24
a4=3 T E 24I1=3
the bypassing of the distribution of precipitates
with c being the solute concentration, Fmax the maximum applied
2bmb
soro M " 1=2 # 22 force, z the material parameter, a the atom section on the slip
p plane of the dislocation, TE the line tension of the dislocation and I
rc 2
fv the parameter calculated in Ref. [50].
Finally, once the temperature is taken into account, sss could
with b being a parameter close to 0.5 at low temperatures
be expressed as in Eq. (23) [55]:
[2226,45,46]. At room temperatures, cross slip of dislocations  
operates as a consequence of the high stacking fault energy k  T n0  z
sss T snss  exp  2 ln snss  expK  T 25
(200 mJ/m 2 ) of aluminum atoms [47]. At elevated temperatures, E0 V0
i.e. in the range of 200250 1C, this mechanism is favored by with E0 being Youngs modulus of the solid solution, T being the
thermal agitation making the bypassing [48] easier. When a temperature, n0 being the jump frequency of a dislocation on a
dislocation encounters a particle in its slip plane, it can easily solute atom at temperature T, V0 being the initial speed of the
pass over it by changing of slip plane. The consequence of this dislocation and k being the material constant.
conservative phenomenon is a decrease in the stress needed to
move the dislocation over the particle. An easy way to take it into
account is to diminish the value of b from 0.5 to 0.3 in this range 5. Effect of the microstructure on the macroscopic
of temperature and to consider it close to 0.15 at 300 1C in order viscoplastic model
to decrease the average value of soro .
The elasto-viscoplastic model used in this section is an exten-
4.2. Determination of Peierls stress slattice sion of a classical unied viscoplastic model for cyclic loading
[56,57]. In a small perturbation framework, the strain is the sum
Both the nature of the atoms in the lattice and the structure of of a thermoelastic strain and an inelastic strain e e e e p . The
  
dislocation core drive the values of slattice [4851]. In FCC crystals, introduction of isotropic and kinematic hardening leads to the
the energy needed to move a dislocation is constant and does not following denition of the elastic domain:
depend on temperature in the range of 23200 1C. According to f r , X ,R r0 26
 
different studies [2224,42,44,52], a value of 10 MPa for slattice
has been used. Over this range, the effect of the lattice strength is where X is a non-linear kinematic hardening variable, R an

very low [48,49] because the thermal vibration of the line makes isotropic hardening non-linear scalar and J the second invariant
its glide possible at small stresses. In consequence, slattice will be of the deviatoric effective stress, denoted by r  X d :
 
assumed to linearly decrease from 10 MPa at 200 1C to 0 at 300 1C. r
3 d d
J r  X rX : rX 27
  2    
4.3. Determination of the solid solution stress sss
The viscoplastic potential O of this model is dened by:
 n 1
At room temperature, the presence of B(Cu) solute atoms in K f
O 28
solid solution in the a matrix creates local perturbations [53]: n1 K
The plastic ow is determined by the normality rule
 The expansion of the lattice and the creation of an isotropic
geometrical mist generating an elastic strain eld. @O @O @f
e_ p p_ n 29
 A modication of the interatomic forces generating a modulus  @r @f @ r 
 
mist.
 An atomic and chemical segregation creating clusters of B(Cu) where p_ is nothing but the cumulated viscoplastic strain rate:
atoms acting as obstacles for the glide of dislocations. r *f r , X ,R+n
2 p
 Electrostatic interactions known as Friedels oscillations _p e_ : e_ p  
30
3  K
[50,53].
Two state variables are dened, a for the kinematic hardening

The stress increment generated by interactions between dis- and q for the isotropic hardening:
locations and solid solution could be calculated by considering
3D
two assumptions. First, Fleischer [54] assumes that the interac- a_ e_ p  X p_ 31
  2C 
tions between atoms and dislocations are not considered statis-
tically, the temperature is 0 K and the atoms around the
dislocation are supposed to control its glide. Second, Labusch q_ 1bqp_ 32
[55] introduces a force distribution rFdF around the disloca-
Hence, the hardening variables could be deduced:
tion in order to obtain the number of interactions between the
dislocation and the neighboring atoms at a known stress s. Thus, 2
X Ca 33
the equilibrium condition for a stress s o sss is given by:  3 
Z
sb rFyFy dy 23
R bQq 34
R. Martinez et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 559 (2013) 4048 45

The advanced versions of this type of model use to introduce aging, the distribution is totally asymmetric and spread over r.
several Xs. For the sake of CPU efciency, we restrict ourselves to The total number of particles decreases meanwhile the radius
two Xs only. In such a case, the simplied shape of the model for increases. Table 2 and Fig. 5 summarize the comparison between
pure tension can be written as the simulated values of the average radius and the TEM experi-
C1 C2 mental counterparts for a series of temperature and aging time.
p p p
s sy Ke_ p 1=n Q 1ebe 1eD1 e 1eD2 e The general agreement is very good at 200 1C and 250 1C, and for
D1 D2
long time periods at 300 1C.
35
At 200 1C, an incubation period is observed until 300 h of aging
In the following, the model is seen as a microstructure and the critical radius remains constant at 28 nm. From an aging
informed expression, whose parameters depend on the output period of 300 h, particles start growing, and the average radius
of the metallurgical model. The variable sy is the result of the reaches 41.2 nm after 1000 h. This evolution is well represented
theoretical model computing, at each step of time, the value of by the model, particularly the 200 h incubation period. At 250 1C,
the critical radius as a function of (t,T) and coupling it to a as a consequence of the transition of Al2Cu precipitates from a
micromechanical model. All the parameters are temperature semi-coherent to an incoherent state, all the radii cannot be
dependent. accurately measured. Indeed, TEM images are over-contrasted
and too many precipitates are overlapping thus leading to
difcult discrimination and imprecise measures at intermediate
6. Results and discussion aging times. Above all, the model respects the incubation period,
which is smaller (100 h) than for 200 1C, and is consistent with
6.1. Coarsening of the precipitates the long time TEM measurements. Finally, at 300 1C coarsening
starts quite immediately and the critical radius quickly reaches a
The numerical simulation of the critical radius evolution has high value (58.1 nm at 300 h) to stand at an asymptotic value of
been performed, at 200 1C, 250 1C and 300 1C, with the following 86.4 nm. The t between the experimental points and the model
parameters: curve is not very precise until 600 h of aging. At such a high
0
temperature, the almost instantaneous y -y transition forces the
 D0 5.88  10  5 m2 s  1 [6,18,5862]; TEM observations to be in bright eld. In addition, as the
 Ea  1.2606 T2 1522.02 T 322,225 [18,6065]; transformation is not complete, little semi-coherent remaining
 s 500 mJ mol1 [21,66,67];
 xaB,eq exp5761=T 3341 (result of a multicomponent
s
simulation using the Thermocalc software); Table 2
6 3 1
 Vm 9.9068  10 m mol ; Comparison between the TEM measured and the simu-
 xbB 0:33. lated average radius of the distribution.

Aging Mean measured Modeled


Due to this evolution, the shape of the distribution is time radius (nm) radius (nm)
temperature dependent. During aging, the critical radius increases
T7 28.0 28.0
and there is a shift of the size distribution toward high radius
T7 24 h at 200 1C 28.5 28.0
values as shown in Fig. 4. As rr depends on dr and on dt (Eq. T7 48 h at 200 1C 28.7 28.0
(14)), the evolution of the distribution takes into consideration T7 96 h at 200 1C 27.7 28.0
complex temperatures histories, and could be plotted at any time. T7 300 h at 200 1C 29.9 29.8
At the rst stages of the computation, the implemented distribu- T7 600 h at 200 1C 34.2 34.4
T7 1000 h at 200 1C 40.5 41.2
tion was a Gaussian, but the shape quickly changes from the early
rst steps of aging. This evolution is particularly perceptible T7 24 h at 250 1C 28.1 28.0
T7 96 h at 250 1C 28.5 28.0
during the rst increments of computation, this is why the
T7 1000 h at 250 1C 46.7 48.4
distribution at t 0 presented in Fig. 4 is already no more a
purely Gaussian and tends to be asymmetric. This evolution is T7 48 h at 300 1C 59.6 30.6
T7 300 h at 300 1C 75.0 58.1
strong at high temperatures, as shown in Fig. 4b, which is in good T7 1000 h at 300 1C 85.2 86.4
agreement with the literature [11,35,68,69]. At the last stage of

8e+07 4e+07
200? C - t=0 300? C - t=20h
200? C - t=500h 300? C - t=50h
7e+07 200? C - t=1000h 3.5e+07 300? C - t=100h

6e+07 3e+07

5e+07 2.5e+07
r,,
R,,

4e+07 2e+07

3e+07 1.5e+07

2e+07 1e+07

1e+07 5e+06

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
r ( nm) r ( nm)

Fig. 4. Evolution of the particle size distribution during aging at (a) 200 1C and (b) 300 1C.
46 R. Martinez et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 559 (2013) 4048

 M 2.5 [46] the average ratio between the macroscopic tensile


100
200C exp 200C 20-150C stress and the resolved shear stress;
90
250C exp 250C  b 0:42 between 23 1C and 200 1C [2226,45,46];
80 300C exp 300C  b 0:3 at 250 1C and 0.15 at 300 1C [48]; and
70  b 2:86  1010 m.
60
The evolution of the yield stress during aging is shown in Fig. 6.
rc (nm)

50
The simulations are in quite good agreement with the experimental
results. At 200 1C, the model predicts 114 MPa (experimental:
115 MPa), 90 MPa at 250 1C (experimental: 95 MPa) and 57 MPa
40 at 300 1C (experimental: 50 MPa). With aging, sy decreases due to
precipitate coarsening. Nevertheless, at 200 1C and at 250 1C the
initial incubation period delays sy variation. After 1000 h aging,
30 precipitates are big and separated from each other, so that they no
longer produce any signicant hardening.
1 10 100 1000
t (h)
6.3. Extension of the temperature range
400
Both coarsening and yield stress models were developed at three
350 200C 250C 300C temperatures: 200 1C, 250 1C and 300 1C. This range of temperature
may not fully cover the working temperature range of a cylinder
300 head and models have been extended to a range of 23200 1C.
Hence, the activation energy Ea for Cu diffusion in Al and the
250 parameter b become temperature dependent following values found
in the literature [18,2224,42,44,52,6065], as shown in Fig. 7.
tot.nb.

200 Results of both extended models are presented in Figs. 5a and 6


and are close to the experimental values at 23 1C and 150 1C.
150

100
6.4. Elasto-viscoplastic modeling
50
The parameters of the viscoplastic model were determined
0 using isothermal LCF results at 23 1C, 150 1C, 200 1C, 250 1C and
0 200 400 600 800 1000 300 1C. These temperatures were chosen to validate the extension
t (h) of the two previous models. Except D1 and D2 in Eq. (35), all the
parameters of the viscoplastic model are temperature dependent.
Fig. 5. (a) Log  log modeling representation of rc evolution at 200 1C, 250 1C and
For unaged and 1000 h aged microstructure, the model is cali-
300 1C and (b) evolution of the number of precipitates versus time.
brated at each temperature on the rst cycle and on a dened
mechanical steady state. This allows the model to capture the
strong softening occurring at high temperature between the rst
precipitates could become out of contrast and be forgotten during and stabilized cycles, and between unaged and aged temperature
measurements. Hence, the value of the critical radius can easily be as shown in Fig. 8. Hence, the alloys behavior under monotonic
overestimated. This overestimation is more likely to occur because
bright eld observations do not allow us to discriminate between
Al2Cu and other types of particles in the a-phase (i.e. agglomerates of
Si and lath shaped Q-phase particles [14,15,65,70]). Nevertheless, for
300 1C1000 h conditions, coarsened particles are large enough
and sufciently separated from their rst neighbors to be accu-
rately measured and counted, that is why the experimental radius
(85.2 nm) is well modeled (85.4 nm).
According to the LSW theory, the number of precipitates is
decreasing with aging time (Fig. 5b). Above 300 1C, the number
quickly reaches low values (i.e. 10 precipitates=mm3 ). On the
contrary, at low temperatures, the incubation period introduces
a slow decrease in the total number of particles during the rst
hours of aging.

6.2. Evolution of sy

The numerical simulation of sy evolution has been performed,


at 200 1C, 250 1C and 300 1C, with the following parameters:

 slattice 10 MPa [2224,42,44,52] between 23 1C and 200 1C;


 slattice linearly decreasing from 10 MPa at 200 1C down to Fig. 6. Simulation of the yield stress evolution due to aging for various tempera-
0 MPa at 300 1C [48,49]; tures. The initial values are also shown.
R. Martinez et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 559 (2013) 4048 47

140 0.6 sim. cycle001 sim. cycle100 sim. cycle


Q exp. cycle001 exp. cycle100 exp. cycle

135 0.5 100

130 0.4
50
Q (kJ.mol1)

(MPa)
125 0.3

120 0.2
-50

115 0.1

-100
110 0 -0.006 -0.004 -0.002 0 0.002 0.004 0.006
293 350 400 450 500 573
Strain
T (K)

Fig. 7. Plot of the functions representing the evolution of Ea and b between 23 1C


and 300 1C.

Fig. 9. Results of the elasto-viscoplastic model at 300 1C: (a) unaged material and
(b) aged material.

model are very close to TEM measurements and respect the


Fig. 8. Evolution of the yield stress as a function of the temperature for various coarsening rule predicted by the LSW theory.
aging times.
 The volume fraction of precipitates is constant during aging
and the average radius follows a t a evolution (with a 1=3).
one-dimensional loading is precisely parametrized in the range of
temperature of [23 1C:300 1C] until 1000 h of aging.
A micro-mechanical model was used to determine the evolu-
Fig. 9 shows the simulated hysteresis loops at 300 1C without
tion of the macroscopic yield stress. It accounts for dislocation
(Fig. 9a) and with (Fig. 9b) aging (96 h at 300 1C). The t of the
bypassing of precipitates, their interaction with solid solution
model is quite accurate for the rst and the hundredth cycle. A
solute atoms and lattice friction.
strong softening is observable on Fig. 9a and well represented by
the isotropic hardening part of the model. Aging considerably
 The yield stress provided by the micro-mechanical model is in
decreases the stress level (50 MPa) and the double kinematic
good agreement with the results of tensile tests at the initial
hardening provides a good agreement between experiments and
T7 temper.
simulations during plastic ow.
 The yield stress was then introduced in the constitutive
equations involving two non-linear kinematic hardening and
7. Conclusion
one isotropic hardening in order to obtain a microstructure
informed general macroscopic model for the aging of 319-T7
In this study, a theoretical multiscale model for 319 foundry
aluminum alloy.
aluminum alloys was investigated. The proposed theoretical model is
 The multiscale model successfully reproduces softening in
founded on the coarsening modeling of Al2Cu precipitates in the a
cyclic tests.
proeutectic phase. The model has been employed in a range of
temperature going from 200 1C to 300 1C, and has been extended
from 23 1C to 200 1C. This approach is available for real components FEA computa-
The following results have been obtained: tions, to perform coupled structural calculations on engine heads.
This also allow us to predict the time to crack initiation in a
 The model accurately reproduces the incubation period at computing chain simulating the initial cooling, the heat treatment
200 1C and 250 1C. Moreover, the results provided by the and the service temperature cycles.
48 R. Martinez et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 559 (2013) 4048

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