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CHAPTER1

INTRODUCTION
Civil engineering is a strategically principal profession for each developed and setting up
countries. With creativity and technical knowledge, civil engineers plan, design construct,
preserve and operate infrastructure facilities essential to modern-day life, ranging from bridges
and highways to water and wastewater medication services and constructions. Civil engineering
is a wide discipline that spans a number of branches together with topics such as Structural
Engineering, Water assets Engineering, Environmental Engineering, Transportation Engineering
and Geotechnical Engineering. As international locations increase, and their populaces broaden,
and as environmental issues mount, civil engineering knowledge will probably be increasingly
wanted throughout the sector. Meeting the challenges of supplying housing and constructions,
infrastructure to control pollution, transportation hyperlinks, ingesting water and vigor wishes,
urban redevelopment and group planning are few examples of the problems civil engineers
resolve. Civil engineering presents huge career selections, starting from design, development,
study, planning, instructing, to administration. The department of structural engineering is
involved with the structural design and evaluation of structures, bridges, and different
constructions. This entails calculating the stresses and forces that act upon or arise within a
structure, and designing the structure to efficiently face up to those forces and stresses.
Resistance to wind and seismic loadings, mainly efficiency close resonant frequencies, which
influence the total balance of a constitution are important design issues. Different explanations
reminiscent of sturdiness and cost are additionally regarded. Moreover to design of latest
constructions, structural engineers could design a seismic retrofit for an present constitution to
mitigate undesirable efficiency in the course of earthquakes. Most civil and structural engineers
today take care of power plants, bridges, roads, railways, buildings, water supply, irrigation, the
natural atmosphere, sewer, flood manage, transportation and visitors. Civil and structural
engineering pursuits to improve and preserve the constructed and typical atmosphere with
excellent use of resources to increase the best of life for gift and future generations. Those
coming into the civil engineering subject are increasingly required to proceed their education
lengthy after bachelors graduation and are required to broaden their talents base to remain
competitive

1
1.1 Definition of a Flyover

In Civil Engineering it is also called as overpass means an intersection of two roads at which one
is carried over the other with the aid of a bridge (Aeronautics) the USA identify for fly-earlier
An overpass (referred to as a flyover in the United Kingdom and most Commonwealth nations)
is a bridge, road, railway or identical constitution that crosses over another road or railway. An
overpass and underpass together type a grade separation.[1]Stack interchanges are made from
many overpasses.

The flyover-bridge intersection is an intersection that has a designated bridge constructed over an
at-grade intersection to enable for the free float in two instructions on some of the main road to
develop capability of site visitors drift and scale down the traffic congestion in both of those
instructions, however underneath of the bridge, the prevailing traffic signalization continues to
be used to manipulate visitors because the quandary earlier than (Fig. 1). This model is used for
increasing traffic ability at a better intersection in suburb subject, there are 29 flyover
intersections in Thailand (apart from Bangkok and its vicinity) . On this study 5 present flyovers
have been selected covering all regions of Thailand.
According to the recommendations for controlling visitors at an intersection, it used traffic
quantity as standards to pick a style of junction, for traffic volume about 25,000 to 45,000
vehicles/day, two stages of control must be used. The flyover simplest enables site visitors flows
in the directions of the bridge, however the infrastructure are not able to wholly clear up the
entire issues notably on the secondary street. This study grants issues that still exist on the
flyover intersection and recommend upgrades to the problems

Fig. 1.1 The layout of an at-grade intersection converted to a flyover-bridge intersection.

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1.2 History

Overpass in Washington, D.C.

The world's first railroad overpass was once developed in 1843 through the London and Croydon
Railway at Norwood Junction railway station to hold its atmospheric railway autos over the
Brighton important Line.

The first overpass in India was once opened on 14 April 1965 at Kemps corner in Mumbai. The
48 ft (15 m) lengthy bridge used to be built in about seven months by Shirish Patel at a cost
US$970,000 in 2015).

1.3 Best Intra-City Expressways and Elevated Roads of


India
Thane Flyovers -Mumbai: Mumbai referred to as the town in no way Sleep has 44 present
flyovers and 16 new flyovers has already been proposed to return to diminish visitors at distinct
place of the dream city. These flyovers provide as a minimum some relief to the Mumbaikers.
One of the vital quality flyover in Mumbai is thane flyover. Mumbai also has one of the best
bridge in India that's bandra-worli sea-hyperlink.

Fig 1.2 Thane Flyover

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Hebbal Flyover -Bangalore: Bangalore The outside city of India has one of the most
exceptional flyovers. Bangalore electronic town flyover is the largest flyover in India. Hebbal
Flyover connects connects the Outer Ring road and Bellary road and is among the quality double
avenue flyover

Fig 1.3 Hebbal Flyover

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Visweswarayya Flyovers -Hyderabad: The twins cities Hyderabad and Secunderabad has just
lately registered its identify within the guide of documents for having the longest flyover in the
nation. It's eleven.6 km long and Indias longest flyover and the street would be the Indias
longest limited-access highway.

Fig 1.4 Hyderabad Flyover

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Varachha Flyover -Surat: Flyover in Surat were a excellent success story in decongesting site
visitors movement. Varachha flyover was once the longest flyover in India.

Fig 1.5 Surat Flyover

AIIMS Flyover-Delhi: The Capital city of India, Delhi is using cutting-edge technologies for its
flyover tasks to lower construction activity at busy intersections. Commonwealth games traveller
will recall Delhi as the golf green metropolis of lovely flyovers.

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Fig 1.5 AIIMS Flyover

AJC Bose Flyovers -Kolkata: APC street & AJC Bose avenue taken together is the longest
street in Kolkata. AJC Bose street flyover is 1.8 km in size and one of the crucial major and
longest flyover in Kolkata.

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Fig 1.6 Kolkata Flyover

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Lucas Flyover -Chennai: Chennai is often referred to as the town of flyovers. It has
maximum quantity of flyovers in India, few of them are Anna Flyover, Chennai Airport Flyover
and Lucas Flyover. The famous and grand flyover kathipara Junction a cloverleaf shaped
flyover is new face of Chennai.

Fig 1.7 Chennai Flyover

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Memnagar Junction Flyover -Ahmedabad: Ahmedabad is one of the beautiful city in Gujarat,
it is equipped to fly over these congested metropolis roads. After Ahmadabad being developed as
science metropolis, its essential focal point is to fortify its infrastructure.

Fig 1.8 Ahmedabad Hyderabad Flyover

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Chiriyatand Flyovers-Patna : Flyovers in Patna are very worthy to lower the surging visitors
strain on its boring street. Patna is without doubt one of the pleasant metropolis in Bihar and
probably the most oldest dwelling metropolis in India. Mahatma Gandhi Setu on river Gange is
the longest river bridge in India.

Fig 1.9 Patna Flyover

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University Flyovers -Pune: Pune, some of the famous metropolis for its greenery, usual beauty,
surrounded mountains and for romantic weather. Pune thegreen metropolis has excellent
diversions to handle the traffic and university circle flyover is the fine example.Tuition flyover is
the longest and satisfactory flyover in pune.

Fig 1.10 Pune Flyover

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1.4 HIGHWAY AND ROAD

In North American utilization, a flyover is a excessive-measure overpass, built above


predominant overpass lanes, or a bridge developed over what had been an at-grade intersection.
Web page viewers engineers mainly check with the latter as a grade separation. A flyover can
also be an extra ramp introduced to an present interchange, each altering an gift cloverleaf loop
(or being developed in function of 1) with a higher, rapid ramp that eventually bears left,
however can also be developed as a proper or left exit.

A cloverleaf or partial cloverleaf involves some 270 degree loops, which is competent to gradual
visitors and can be intricate to assemble with a few lanes. The place all such turns are modified
with flyovers (in all probability with some underpasses) best ninety degree turns are wanted, and
there is also four or extra specified stages of viewers. Relying upon design, web site visitors
could float in all educational substances at or close open avenue speeds (when not congested).
For extra examples see restrained-entry highway interchange.

PEDESTRIAN
A pedestrian overpass allows for pedestrians safe crossing over busy roads without impacting
traffic.

RAILWAY
Railway overpasses are used to exchange degree crossings (at-grade crossings) as a safer
alternative. Utilising overpasses permits for unobstructed rail visitors to go with the flow with
out conflicting with vehicular and pedestrian traffic. Speedy transit programs use complete grade
separation of their rights of strategy to hinder site visitors interference with ordinary and
nontoxic service.
Railroads also use balloon loops and flying junctions as a substitute of flat junctions, so to
reverse path and to prevent trains conflicting with these on different tracks.

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1.5 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN "BRIDGE" AND "FLYOVER"

The difference between Bridge and Flyover is based on the purpose of its usage and the location
where it is built.

Bridges

Bridges are built to connect two points separated by a naturally occuring region like valley, river,
sea or any other water bodies, etc.

They are usually lengthy depending upon the width of the valley or river.

Construction over river is tedious since foundation has to be carried out on the river bed.

Bridges are usually built for trains, buses and cars.

Fig 1.11 Typical Structure of a Bridge

Flyovers

It is a structure which joints two or more points which are separated by an accessible route/s or a
man made structure to cut the traffic for faster mode of travelling.

They are usually made over road junctions, roads, streets, etc.

The name itself suggests that you are flying over a traffic zone.

They are usually built for road vehicles.

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Fig 1.12 Typical Structure of a Flyover

Items Disadvantages Advantages


Traffic control
- Traffic signalization still - Reducing time for waiting
makes use of the constant- at the intersection (by
time control plans as the adjusting a new cycle time
previous main issue of at- for flyover situation)
grade intersection, which
does now not totally make
use of the benefits of having
a flyov
Road Safety
- Within the flyover field, the - Cut down visitors clash
hazard zone is unfold to more features at the junction
zones, peculiarly on the - decreasing rear-end
drawing near and exiting collisions
zones of the bridge
Cost and benefit
- For the duration of building, - The flyover is an essential
street accidents and part of the highest type of
automobile time lengthen highway, the expressway or
incurred extra costs freeway. It has cheaper
- higher maintenance charges construction cost than other
types of grade separations.
- No land needs to be

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expropriated.

In the 2d half of the 19th century, extended industrial progress in the East end of London led to a requirement
for a brand new river crossing downstream of London Bridge. A ordinary constant bridge at avenue degree
might no longer be developed because it would reduce off access via sailing ships to the port facilities in the
Pool of London, between London Bridge and the Tower of London.

A detailed Bridge or Subway Committee used to be formed in 1877, chaired via Sir Albert Joseph Altman, to
find a solution to the river crossing situation. It opened the design of the crossing to public competition. Over
50 designs have been submitted, including one from civil engineer Sir Joseph Bazalgette. The analysis of the
designs was surrounded via controversy, and it used to be no longer unless 1884 that a design submitted with
the aid of Sir Horace Jones, the town Architect (who was once also one of the vital judges), was authorized.

Jones' engineer, Sir John Wolfe Barry, devised the suggestion of a bascule bridge with two bridge towers
developed on piers. The valuable span used to be break up into two equal bascules or leaves, which might be
raised to allow river traffic to go. The 2 aspect-spans were suspension bridges, with the suspension rods
anchored both on the abutments and by means of rods contained within the bridge's upper walkways.

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CHAPTER2
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
2.1 LOAD CALCULATIONS AND SECTIONAL DETAILS OF NOISE BARRIER

Wind pressure in Bhubaneswar region = 150 kg/m2


Maximum bending moment due to wind load
= 150 x 1.67 x 1 x 1.67 x
= 210 kg-m
Total moment = 210 kg-m
Total horizontal force, pH = 150 x 1.67
= 250 kg
Check for spacing between two angles
M/Z =f
M = 210 kg-m
Z = I/y = Lt2/6 = L x 0.0062/6
Fperm = 107 N /mm2

10.7 x 106 kg/m2


210/(L x 0.0062/6) = 10.7 x 106
L = 3.27 m
Hence, a spacing of 3.27m between two angle sections.

Design of steel angles


Steel angles are chosen to hold the plastic sheet
M/z =
= bending stress (compressive or tensile) at a point at a distance of y from neutral
axis
= 0.66 fy

Where,
fy = yield stress of steel = 2500 kg/cm2
= 0.66 x 2500
= 1650 kg/cm2
21000 / z required = 1650
Z required = 21000 / 1650
= 12.73 cm3
Choosing from steel tables ISA 80 x80 x 10
mm having
Zxx = 15.5 cm3
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Weight of angles = 11.8 x 1.67= 19.7kg
Vertical force, Pv = 2x19.7 +16= 55.4kg
Considering all other gravity forces,
Total vertical force acting on noise barrier = 200 kg

Summary of loading calculations are shown in below Table . Structural design task was
completed to develop a barrier structure which confirms with safety norms and practices.

Table 3 : Load on crash barrier (per metre width of barrier)


S/N Force/Moment Quantity
1 Bending moment 210 Kg-m
2 Horizontal force 250 Kg
3 Vertical force 200 Kg

Placement details of noise barrier over flyover are shown in Fig.2.4. Noise barrier colour and
pattern was decided by use of visualization software. The adopted design is given in Fig. 2.5

Fig.5 : Cross section of noise barrier

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Fig. 6 : Connection details of noise barrier

Materials Used in Reinforced Earth Wall

Backfill

Table - 1 Salient features of Reinforced Earth Wall


Length of Reinforced wall 305 m (Rajmahal site)257 m (Kalpana side)
Height 5 m (max.)
Width 22.5 m
Allowable bearing capacity of 170 kN/sq.m
subsoil
Reinforcement Friction ties made of high tenacity polyester
yarns
Facing panel 180mm thick precast RCC panel

The friction ties which were used as reinforcements were tested for their tensile strength, creep
resistance, pull out strength, and installation resistance as per ASTM standards. The brief details
of the same are given below:

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2.2 Tensile strength

Table 2 Tensile strength of friction ties


Property/Type KT30 KT50
Tensile Strength (kN/m) 35.0 56.6
Elongation (%) 10.4 11.2

a) External wall height 1m to 4.6 m


b) Batter of wall face 90
c) Slope angle of soil surface 0
d) External traffic loads 24 kN/sq.m
e) Type of facia Precast RCC panels
f) Vertical spacing of reinforcement, S v 0.575 m
g) Width of approach 25.50 m
h) Cohesion of the backfill material 0
i) Angle of internal friction of the backfill material 31
j) Unit weight of backfill 11 kN/m 2

k) Bearing capacity of subsoil 170 kN/m 2

l) Partial factor for pull out resistance 1.3


m) Reinforcing Material Geosynthetic friction
ties
n) Ultimate Tensile Strength of tie 50 kN/m 2

o) Coefficient of friction between reinforcing material 0.80


and fill
p) Width of reinforcing strip 0.09 m

2.3 Partial factors

Symbol Description Value


ffs Partial load factor for safety 1.50
fq Partial load factor for traffic loading 1.30
fm Partial material factor 1.20
fms Partial material factor
f xf xf xf
m11 m12 m21 m22

Where, 1.0
f = A factor to cover the possible reductions in the capacity of the
m11

materials as a
whole compared with the characteristics value derived from the control
test.
f = Extrapolation of test data to take account of the confidence of the
m12 1.0
long term
capacity assessment.
f = Susceptibility to damage to take account of damage during
m21 1.2
construction.
f = Environment factor to take account of different rates of degradation
m22 1.05

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f = Economic ramification factor
n 1.10
f = Material creep partial factor
mc 1.35
Reinforced Earth Wall was designed considering the external and internal stability
which have been explained below:

Rupture/long-term design strength


T = T /( f f f )
d ult mc m n

Where f = material creep partial factor (1.35)


mc

f =f f f f
m m11 m12 m21 m22

= 1.0 1.0 1.20 1.05 = 1.26

f = 1.1
n

T = 50 / (1.35 1.26 1.1) = 26.72 t


d50

T = 30 / (1.35 1.26 1.1) = 16.03 t


d30

Reinforcement length
The reinforcement length of the tie should be at least equal to 0.7H i.e. 0.7 x 4.6 = 3.22
m, however, from conservative consideration, a length of 4.6 m was adopted at a height
of 4.6 m.

Force, F in a specific layer at depth Z can be calculated as


z

F = K (f .g.Z + f .W ).S
z req fs q s v

Where,

W , External traffic load and S , Spacing between the reinforcement


s v

K = 0.32, the estimated value of F = 19.71 t


req z

For Ultimate Limit State,

F Td i.e. 19.71 < 26.72, Hence safe


z

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2.4 Check for adherence
T Long-term design strength
j

Coefficient of friction between fill and reinforcing element.

f , f , f , f Partial load factors as already explained.


fs f p n

a Adhesion coefficient between soil and reinforcement


bc

c Cohesion of soil

f Partial material factor applied to c


ms

Calculation for Lej


L can be calculated by equation
ej

L = L - hjtan (45 / 2)
ej

Let us consider a height of 4.6 m, h 4.6 m


J

L = 4.6 4.6tan (45 31/2) = 2.3, substituting all the values to get Pj
ej

P 0.0879
j

But P = 0.09 + 0.09 = 0.18 m (Two-way friction)


j

Since 0.18 m > 0.0879 m

Adhesion criterion is satisfied.

Check for safety against sliding


Factor of safety against sliding = Resisting force / Sliding force

Calculation of sliding force


Total design uniform surcharge/live loads(q) = 24 kN/m 2

Friction coefficient = tan 31 = 0.6008

Reinforcement length, L = 4.6 m

22
Coefficient of lateral earth pressure K = 0.32 a

S = Sliding force due to live load = F x K , = K .q. H


1 1 a a

= 0.320 24 4.6 = 35.328 kN

S = Sliding force due to self wt. of soil = 0.5 K .. H


2 a
2

= 0.5 0.320 11 4.6 4.6 = 37.24 kN

Calculation of resisting force


W = Self weight of reinforced zone

= .H.L= 11 4.6 4.6 = 232.76 kN

F.S slinding = Resisting moment about toe / Overturning moment about toe

2.5 Bearing pressure


The typical bearing pressure imposed by a reinforced earth structure on the foundation strata. For
design, bearing pressure is calculated as per Meyerhoff equation.

Where v max is the factored bearing pressure acting on the base of the wall;

R is the resultant of all factored vertical load components (load factors as applicable to each load
v

case)

L = Reinforcement length at the base of the wall

Where M and M are the resisting and overturning moments respectively


r 0

V = Surcharge load = q L = 24 4.6 = 110.4 kN


q

W = Self weight of reinforced zone = .H.L= 11 4.6 4.6 = 232.76 kN

d = (535.35 - 138.35 / 232.6 ) 1.71

e = L/2 - d = 4.6/2 - 1.71 = 0.59

v max = R / (L-2e)
v

v max = 232.76 + 110.4 / (4.6-20.59) = 100.34 < 170 kN/m 2


Hence Safe

Similarly, calculations for different heights of backfill and length of reinforcement may be
carried out.

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2.6 EQUIPMENTS USED DURING CONSTRUCTION

2.6.1 SOFTWARES
_ Autodesk 3Ds Max 2011
_ Autodesk 3Ds Max 2011
_ Autocad LT-2011
_ Autocad 2011
_ Autocad Revit
_ Autocad Civil 3D 2009
_ Autocad Civil 3D 2012
_ MIDAS CIVIL 2011
_ Window 7 STAAD Pro
_ BENTLEY MX RD SUITE
_ BENTLEY MX RAIL
_ Auto Plotter
_ ICDS
_ HDM-4
_ Revit Architecture
_ ESTA
_ MS Window s Vista
_ MS Of f ice
_ MS Window s Vista
_ MS Project Media on MS Project
_ Adobe Photoshop
_ Toshiba Portaege M500-P140
_ Design jet Plotter HP T1100PS 44
_ Design jet Plotter HP T800PS 44
_ Design jet Plotter HP T650PS 44
_ HP Color Laserjet 2600n
_ HP Of f icejet Pro K850
_ Scanjet HP G4010
_ 1020 Laser Jet Printer
_ 1015 Laser Jet Printer
_ 1007 Laser Jet Printer
_ 1320 Laser Jet Printer
_ Toshiba A4 Scan Jet G4010
_ Vidar Scaner (A0)
_ HP 610 Plotter
_ HP Of f ice Jet K7108
_ HP 2600 Colour Laser Jet
_ Konica Minolta(7440)
_ HP 1200 Plotter
_ HP 1100 Plotter
_ Canon LBP2009B
_ HCL-Core2Duo : 45 nos.
_ Compaq-Corei3 : 5 nos.

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_ Dell Core2Duo : 13 nos.

2.6.2 HARDWARES & SYSTEMS SURVEY EQUIPMENTS


_ Dual f requency dif ferentialG.P.S (Trimble) RTK systemsub cmaccuracy
_ GPS ,Geo-xt path f inder for GIS system(sub meter accuracy)
_ Total station (SOKKIA) : 1 no.
_ Total station (LEICA) : 12 nos
_ Total station (Topcon): 12 nos
_ Total station (TRIMBLE): 1 no.
_ Theodolites
_ Theo-10b 1" reading, Carl Ziess , Germany
_ Glass arc Theodolite, w ildHeebrugg, Sw itzerland
_ Vernier Theodolite T.Cooke & sons,UK
_ Vernier Theodolite Law rence &mayo and indigenous make
_ Special target set level
_ Automatic level c-14, c32 SOKKIA, Japan
_ Digital level sokkia, Japan, Level indigenous make , Clinometer
_ Plain table set complete w ith sight rule, chain, pt level, compass etc.
_ Steel bands for precision measurements
_ Dual channel survey echo sounder w ith portable Transducer
_ Internal raven Invicta 210 l DGPS beacon receiver
_ VT-TSS hs -50 heave compensator
_ Tidal gauge
_ Pontoon balls
_ Side scanner

2.6.3 MATERIAL TESTING EQUIPMENTS


1. Cement vibrating machine w ith calibration certif icate
2. Auto clave for cement test
3. Digital balance 30 kg ,l c 1gm),(15kg lc 1gm),(12kg lc 2 gm), (10kg l c 2 gm),( 500gm
lc-0.01gm & (220 gm lc 0.001gm).
4. Rotap sieve shaker- w ith timer electric operated
5. Wet sieve shaker
6. Aggregate impact valve test apparatus w ith counter
7. Thickness gauge
8. Length gauge
9. Hot air oven
10. Hot air oven (digital)
11. Electronic compression testing machines with three gauge & electronic panel
capacity : 3000 KN w ith brick testing attachment
12. Slump test apparatus IS : 7320-1974
13. Variable f low type air permeability apparatus
14. Electronic Universal Testing Machine (60 Ton capacity)
15. Los angles abrasion
16. High speed stirrer
17. Vee Bee consist meter

25
18. Concrete vibrating table
19. Platform w eighing machine (cap. 100kg.-l.c. 10 gm. digital)
20. Aggregate polishing machine.
21. Hardness tester
22. Concrete Beam f lexure Apparatus (10 T CAP)
23. Aggregate crussing value apparatus set.
24. Concrete permeability apparatus
25. Compaction factor apparatus
26. Tile Abrasion Apparatus (Electronic)
27. Tile Flexure Apparatus (Electronic)

2.6.4 SOIL TESTING EQUIPMENTS

1. Cone penetrometer
2. Triaxial testing equipment
3. Proctor mould - 1000 cc & 2250 cc w ith rammer 4.89 kg. 2.6 kg.
4. Core cutter w ith steel dolly & rammer
5. Liquid limit device - motorised w ith revolution counter
6. Standard pentrometer w ith cone
7. CBR testing Apparatus
8. Laboratory vane shear app.
9. Permeability apparatus.
10. Consolidation app.
11. Shrinkage limit set complete w ith mercury
12. Direct shear apparatus
13. Unconf ined compression testing machine
14. Hydrometer
15. Wet sieve shaker
16. Relative density
17. Sw elling pressure apparatus for soil
1. Ductility test
2. Marshall stability app. complete
3. Ball & ring app. (Ring & Ball Apparatus for sof tening point)
4. Standard viscometer
5. Flash & f ire point apparatus.
6. Loss on heating apparatus
7. Bsu tube modif ied f low viscometer
8. Bitumen extractor electrical operated
9. Asphalt institute vacuum viscometer
10. Specif ic gravity bottle
11. Penetro meter
12. Stripping value apparatus
13. Mastic Asphalt hardness Test apparatus

26
2.6.5 FIELD INVESTIGATION EQUIPMENTS
1. Automatic drilling machine volt 90 complete set for drilling up to 250 mt
2. Automatic drilling machine includes drill bit, mud pump, SPT etc, up to 60 mt. depth.
3. Wash boring equipment- includes derrick / tripod, pump, SPT etc
4. Percussion drilling-
5. Static cone penetration test equipment.
6. Vane shears test equipment
7. Electrical resistivity test equipment
8. Sand pouring cylinder 200 mm, 100 mm dia complete
9. Hydraulic jack
10. Plate load test, K value test apparatus/ Pile load Test
11. Benkelman beam apparatus
12. Joist for loading up to 700 ton capacity
13. Core drilling machine
14. Nuclear gauge
15. Field CBR apparatus
16. Seismic ref raction, ref lection, up-hole, dow n hole and cross hole test apparatus
2.6.6 NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING EQUIPMENTS

1. Ultrasonic pulse velocity


2. Ultrasonic thickness Gauge
3. Non destruction hammer ( computerised)
4. High sensitive proving ring for calibration of utm & ctm.
5. Humidity & temp. meter
6. Alco meter
7. Digital slide calipers
8. Rougho meter
9. Corrosion meter
10. Profometer
11. Core cutter (Motorised)

2.6.7 MATERIAL TESTING EQUIPMENTS

1. Digital spectrophotometer.
2. Ion meter ( Systonics ) H+(conc) , Hg, F- ,CN -,
3. Nephelometer (turbidity meter) Elico type.
4. Flame Photo meter (Na, K, Ca f ilters), Gas Cylinder.
5. Digital Conductivity Meter
6. PH meter w ith combined glass electrode
7. Turbidity Meter
8. BOD incubator

27
9. Digital electronics balance (0.001gm)
10. Centrifuge
11. Filtration pump
12. Muf f le furnace
13. Water distillation assembly
14. COD digestion assembly
15. Stack monitoring Kit (12000 C Collection)
16. High volume sampler w ith gas monitoring facility
17. Wind speed & w ind direction recorder
18. Sulphur & Carbon analyser
19. Rain gauge (self )
20. Desiccators (300 mm TARSON)
21. Noise meter

It is also assumed that during the testing, construction, and transportation (to the competition)
process of any test samples or bridge components, there will be no amount of precipitation or
condensation present in enough quantities to be noteworthy. While contact with glue will be a
major part of the construction process, it is assumed that any local expansion caused by the
introduction of moisture will merely help the joint fit together better, if it has any effect at all.

2.7 WARPING

While no warping will occur because of post-production shrinkage, the drying process prior to
packaging has left sticks in varying degrees of warpage, primarily bowing and twisting. During
stick selection for the test samples, sticks were selected for their ability to perform primarily in
the axial direction, and less so in flexure, so sticks with a slight bow or twist were used. During
stick selection for the final model, members will be exposed to small amounts of flexure due to
the design chosen (detailed below), so sticks will undergo a more discriminating selection. Only
sticks that show no signs of cupping and almost no signs of twisting will be used. Sticks with
bowing may be used if the bending isnt detrimental to its context in the structure.

28
Loading Condition Factors

All loading factors are as per the wood code CSA-086-01.

Load Duration Factor (KD)

In checking out the bridge, it's loaded with a steady factor load over the span of some minutes
until failure. While this would outcomes in a brief time period loading , the constitution is being
loaded to failure and as such, it not being designed to accommodate an accelerated existence.
Due to the fact that of this, the KD component for this bridge is 1.0.

Service Condition Factor (KS)

It's assumed that the bridge is designed and can operate under dry carrier stipulations. Given that
of this, the KS factor for this bridge is 1.0.

Treatment Factor (KT)

As advertised on the companys website1, the wood used for these sticks has no treatment of any
kind. Because of this, the KT factor for this bridge is 1.0.

System Factor (KH)

The system factor for tension and compression parallel to grain in a built up beam is 1.00,
therefore the KH factor for this bridge is 1.0.

29
Lateral Stability Factor (KL)

While the body has no bearing point lateral balance, the piers provide a wide stance. This idea
was once confirmed in previous years bridges and the result used to be found to be that it had a
tremendous influence on lateral stability of the bridge, such that there used to be a negligible
threat of the bridge failing to both facet. Considering that of this, the KL factor for this bridge is
1.0.

30
2.8 MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Accepted Material Properties

Forster the company that produces the sticks we're utilizing, has claimed on their website that all
craft sticks they produce are comprised of 100% birch wood which has now not been dealt with
in the construction system. Even as it's used for furniture and small fabrications, birch shouldn't
be a average development wood, and as such stock values for it weren't easily on hand. Study
online offered the values below from the American Hardwood knowledge Centre

(all units converted from Psi) Moisture Content


Green 12%
Modulus of Rupture (MPa) 44.1 116.5
Modulus of Elasticity (MPa) 8066.9 14961.6
Compression Parallel to Grain (MPa) 16.3 58.9
Compression Perp. to Grain (MPa) 1.9 7.4
Shear Parallel to Grain (MPa) 5.8 15.4
Tension Perp. To Grain (MPa) --- 6.6
Figure 3.1

a) results of checks on small clear specimens within the inexperienced and air-dried conditions.
Definition of properties: compression parallel to grain is also referred to as maximum crushing
force; compression perpendicular to grain is fiber stress at proportional limit; shear is maximum
shearing strength; tension is highest tensile strength; and part hardness is hardness measured
when load is perpendicular to grain.

B) Modulus of elasticity measured from a with no trouble supported, center-loaded beam, on


span depth ratio of 14/1. To correct for shear deflection, modulus can be elevated by way of
10%.

31
Material evaluation and Interpretation

After trying out of the axial houses of the popsicle sticks in more than a few configurations
(special in part 4.0), I was once in a position to acquire approximate strength values for the
popsicle sticks. Unluckily, there is no published file of the moisture content of the packaged
sticks. I can anticipate, however, that the properties differ on a linear proportionality.
Headquartered on this assumption, i can use the values i have calculated to approximate where
the sticks lie on the moisture curve and estimate the material homes that I was unable to derive
instantly through checking out.

Between green and 12% conditions, the ratio of tensile strength parallel to the grain to the shear
strength parallel to the grain differs by using handiest 0.Ninety seven%. From this i will
accumulate that the woodens resistance to tensile failure in each fiber snap and shear out modes
nearly increases linearly because it dries. Understanding the tensile force of the timber from
assessments, i will be able to estimate the shear strength inside an affordable subject.

Between green and 12% stipulations, the ratio of the compressive force parallel to the grain and
perpendicular to the grain range by means of about 9.5%. At the same time this price is better
than I would prefer, it still indicated an affordable tight correlation. From this i will be able to
accumulate that the woodens compressive force raises at a regular rate because it dries, but the
perpendicular strength progressively gets stronger in relation to the parallel strength. To err on
the safe facet, i will count on the same ratio in green stipulations the entire manner through
resulting in a moderately decrease (but now not vastly so) design value at decrease moisture
contents.

32
Between green and 12% conditions, the ratio of the compressive strength parallel to the grain and
tensile force parallel to the grain fluctuate by about 27%. It is a very excessive number and can
partly be accounted for due to the ratios being fairly small (2.7 and a pair of.Zero respectively).
This suggests that because the wooden dries, the force obtain in compression slows relative to
the force reap in anxiety. I also know that because the timber goes from inexperienced to 12%
stipulations, the ratio of the parallel compressive strength to parallel shear strength differs with
the aid of 35.7% (increasing from 2.8 to three.Eight). Utilising these two relationship curves,
and the tight correlation between anxiety and shear, i will approximate compressive force with
the aid of assuming that (a) the ratio change is linear through the drying process and (b) the
average of the two estimates reflects the most accurate compressive strength.

On the 12% moisture level, i will see that the perpendicular tensile capacity is the weakest
loading configuration and has a just about non-existent capability within the greencondition.
From this i will be able to anticipate that it's in no way a good notion to situation birch wood in
suc h an orientation and that I will have to make sure no sticks are exposed to perpendicular
tensile loading as they'd guarantee to be the failure point within the member. This also signifies
that sticks must be examined to make sure that the reduce of the stick aligns with the orientation
of the grain. Some sticks are cut across the grain when you consider that they are marketed as
craft sticks and no longer design to be exposed to such loading. These sticks have got to be
discarded. In the ultimate design, all sticks used might be inspected and any sticks with the grain
orientation exceeding 10 degrees deviation will likely be discarded. Sticks with grain orientation
virtually parallel with be used for sections below tensile loading and the relaxation might be used
for sections beneath compressive loading.

All that mentioned, the assessments indicated that the tensile capability used to be well under the
released strength values for green stipulations, having a median tensile stress of 25.7 MPa at
failure averaged between the three raw tension checks. This indicates that the sticks have been
on usual the same force, and that the testing computer was once accurate in its readings. The
change within the 5% strengths used to be due to the way in which each pattern type carried the
loading. The single sticks, being only a single stick to no glue or load sharing, mirror the real

33
strength of the sticks. The built up members experienced load sharing (the entire length glue
contributing fairly more) and for this reason had bigger 5% force values. Whilst the developed
up participants are a greater illustration of the stipulations in the bridge individuals, taking the
tensile capability from experiment 1 offers probably the most conservative outcomes.

At the same time it was impossible to experiment the compressive ability of the sticks, the
closest calculation could be to estimate making use of the ratios mentioned above. If I take the
ratio between tensile and compressive parallel capacity as 3.0, a conservatively scaled price of its
inexperienced price, then i can estimate the compressive force of the sticks as being roughly
four.085 MPa.

Authorised WORKING VALUES

whilst scale down than the published values, accredited strength values for the sticks have been
located from material assessments to be 12.Three MPa tensile and 4.1 MPa compressive. The
modulus of elasticity was once discovered to be 1700 MPa.

34
2.9 MATERIAL TESTS

Under is a discussion of all trying out completed to this point, and nonetheless to be carried out.
It involves diagrams, discovered results (if accomplished), failure mode dialogue, and
observations on how the samples behaved in a different way from expected. For each and every
subsection, the scan number proven in parenthesis indicates the corresponding scan outcome
within the appendices.

For all assessments, results are located in the appendix with the corresponding scan quantity.
Base anxiety assessments

This run had three distinctive sets of samples: A single stick which had its centre narrowed, a
suite of three sticks with the suggestions glued, however the centres dry, and a set of three sticks
with their whole lengths glued. The three units have been all run with the intention of finding
the tensile capacity of the popsicle sticks.

Eventually, this batch of test samples behaved almost exactly like I anticipated. Below the
loading, the samples had a notably higher 5% strength, but the imply capacity used to be very
virtually scan 1s. The located failure mode was once most often having all three sticks expertise
stress except one or two of them gave and snapped. The remainder would most often keep up
the stress for a second or two longer earlier than snapping. This shows that for a constructed up
part, when one aspect broke, its share of the burden can be carried over to the remainder sticks,
however it could wreck soon-after. Accordingly, for any bridge participants, this experiment
demonstrates that i will estimate with fair walk in the park that there is a linear relationship
between subject and capacity. My hypothesis concerning the effects of the jaw crushing the
sample were additionally established, as lots of the samples fractured in the centre with no need
the failure strains strategy or enter the jaws.

Figure 2.7 indicates the sample setup and loading configuration. Potential was once calculated
as P / A where A was once the cross-sectional discipline of three sticks. This used to be divided
by way of three to get the approximate potential per stick.

35
Triple Stick Glued experiment

This experiment was supposed to calculate the tensile capability of three sticks under axial
loading to peer if the character stick capability could be taken as a easy a couple of when
evaluating the ability of a built up part. Three sticks have been glued along their entire size to
create a built up glued member. This experiment would see if, even when glued, the constructed
up member might still be simplified because the sum of its components.

After seeing how the first two exams ended, i thought that this experiment would proceed in a
equivalent trend. The member would have a potential of roughly three times experiment 1 and
spoil in a shear out mode.

Finally, this scan behaved almost identically to test 2, with one key difference. Since the sticks
had been glued together, compressed, and cured, they behaved as a single member, and shear
planes would traverse all three sticks wherever possible at failure. Failure would intent all three
sticks to break at the same time. This suggests that all the glue managed to do used to be keep
the member collectively, and that the superb capacity was once nonetheless dependant on the
sticks, no longer the glue.

The pattern setup and loading configuration. Capacity was calculated as P / A the place A used
to be measured because the usual cross sectional field of the participants on the centre. This used
to be divided via three to get the approximate potential per stick. In view that the glue would
broaden the move-sectional field by means of a marginal quantity, I determined to take an usual
of 10 samples to peer how so much larger the pass sectional discipline was as a consequence of
the glue. I located that the one of a kind was once a negligible four mm2. This used to be
possible due with no trouble to dimension inaccuracy.

36
CHAPTER 3
DESIGN DETAILS FOR AND SIMULATION RESULTS

Figure
Stiffness Matrix
displ =

1.000000000000000 -0.000000000000000
2.000000000000000 -0.000000000000000
3.000000000000000 0.000003200000000
4.000000000000000 -0.000015700000000
5.000000000000000 0.000008650000000
6.000000000000000 -0.000015700000000
7.000000000000000 0.000006400000000
8.000000000000000 -0.000022866666667
9.000000000000000 0.000005450000000
10.000000000000000 -0.000020166666667
11.000000000000000 0.000011200000000
12.000000000000000 0

stresses =

1.0e+005 *

0.000010000000000 1.599999999999998
0.000020000000000 -0.999999999999995
0.000030000000000 0
0.000040000000000 1.599999999999998
0.000050000000000 1.000000000000001
0.000060000000000 -1.599999999999996
0.000070000000000 1.799999999999998
0.000080000000000 2.399999999999997
0.000090000000000 -2.999999999999996

stresses1 =

1.0e+005 *

0.000010000000000 1.599999999999998
0.000020000000000 -0.999999999999995
0.000030000000000 0
0.000040000000000 1.599999999999998
0.000050000000000 1.000000000000000
0.000060000000000 -1.599999999999996
0.000070000000000 1.799999999999998
0.000080000000000 2.399999999999997
0.000090000000000 -2.999999999999996

stresses2 =

37
1.0e+005 *

0.000010000000000 1.599999999999998
0.000020000000000 0.999999999999995
0.000030000000000 0.000000000000000
0.000040000000000 1.599999999999998
0.000050000000000 1.000000000000001
0.000060000000000 1.599999999999997
0.000070000000000 1.800000000000000
0.000080000000000 2.399999999999997
0.000090000000000 2.999999999999996

straines =

1.000000000000000 0.000000800000000
2.000000000000000 -0.000000500000000
3.000000000000000 0
4.000000000000000 0.000000800000000
5.000000000000000 0.000000500000000
6.000000000000000 -0.000000800000000
7.000000000000000 0.000000900000000
8.000000000000000 0.000001200000000
9.000000000000000 -0.000001500000000

straines1 =

1.000000000000000 0.000000800000000
2.000000000000000 -0.000000500000000
3.000000000000000 0
4.000000000000000 0.000000800000000
5.000000000000000 0.000000500000000
6.000000000000000 -0.000000800000000
7.000000000000000 0.000000900000000
8.000000000000000 0.000001200000000
9.000000000000000 -0.000001500000000

straines2 =

1.000000000000000 0.000000800000000
2.000000000000000 -0.000000500000000
3.000000000000000 0.000000000000000
4.000000000000000 0.000000800000000
5.000000000000000 0.000000500000000
6.000000000000000 -0.000000800000000
7.000000000000000 0.000000900000000
8.000000000000000 0.000001200000000
9.000000000000000 -0.000001500000000

displ =

1.000000000000000 -0.000000000000000

38
2.000000000000000 -0.000000000000000
3.000000000000000 0.000003200000000
4.000000000000000 -0.000015700000000
5.000000000000000 0.000008650000000
6.000000000000000 -0.000015700000000
7.000000000000000 0.000006400000000
8.000000000000000 -0.000022866666667
9.000000000000000 0.000005450000000
10.000000000000000 -0.000020166666667
11.000000000000000 0.000011200000000
12.000000000000000 0

stresses =

1.0e+005 *

0.000010000000000 1.599999999999998
0.000020000000000 -0.999999999999995
0.000030000000000 0
0.000040000000000 1.599999999999998
0.000050000000000 1.000000000000001
0.000060000000000 -1.599999999999996
0.000070000000000 1.799999999999998
0.000080000000000 2.399999999999997
0.000090000000000 -2.999999999999996

stresses1 =

1.0e+005 *

0.000010000000000 1.599999999999998
0.000020000000000 -0.999999999999995
0.000030000000000 0
0.000040000000000 1.599999999999998
0.000050000000000 1.000000000000000
0.000060000000000 -1.599999999999996
0.000070000000000 1.799999999999998
0.000080000000000 2.399999999999997
0.000090000000000 -2.999999999999996

stresses2 =

1.0e+005 *

0.000010000000000 1.599999999999998
0.000020000000000 0.999999999999995
0.000030000000000 0.000000000000000
0.000040000000000 1.599999999999998
0.000050000000000 1.000000000000001
0.000060000000000 1.599999999999997
0.000070000000000 1.800000000000000
0.000080000000000 2.399999999999997
0.000090000000000 2.999999999999996

39
straines =

1.000000000000000 0.000000800000000
2.000000000000000 -0.000000500000000
3.000000000000000 0
4.000000000000000 0.000000800000000
5.000000000000000 0.000000500000000
6.000000000000000 -0.000000800000000
7.000000000000000 0.000000900000000
8.000000000000000 0.000001200000000
9.000000000000000 -0.000001500000000

straines1 =

1.000000000000000 0.000000800000000
2.000000000000000 -0.000000500000000
3.000000000000000 0
4.000000000000000 0.000000800000000
5.000000000000000 0.000000500000000
6.000000000000000 -0.000000800000000
7.000000000000000 0.000000900000000
8.000000000000000 0.000001200000000
9.000000000000000 -0.000001500000000

straines2 =

1.000000000000000 0.000000800000000
2.000000000000000 -0.000000500000000
3.000000000000000 0.000000000000000
4.000000000000000 0.000000800000000
5.000000000000000 0.000000500000000
6.000000000000000 -0.000000800000000
7.000000000000000 0.000000900000000
8.000000000000000 0.000001200000000
9.000000000000000 -0.000001500000000

40
2-D truss structure

NATURAL FREQUENCY OF 2-D TRUSS STRUCTURE


freqcy =

1.0e+003 *

0.001000000000000 0
0.002000000000000 0
0.003000000000000 0
0.004000000000000 0.259408929009780
0.005000000000000 0.489253860007726
0.006000000000000 0.852045113233182
0.007000000000000 1.256202866433807
0.008000000000000 1.637999074127025
0.009000000000000 2.204679688654690
0.010000000000000 2.451095301281538
0.011000000000000 2.680512067640901
0.012000000000000 2.850749142725203

41
1-D bar structure dynamic behavior

Simulation Results:Vibration Analysis

42
Simulation Results: Pressure Distribution Curve

Simulation Results: FEM RESULTS

43
44
CHAPTER 4
CONCLUSION
The recommendations has been implemented at the site by Government based based PWD. Glass
Fibre Reinforced Plastic Sheet (locally available in London) may be recommended for
construction of the barrier. Noise level measurement carried after the barrier was constructed
indicated the effectiveness of barrier in reducing noise significantly.
Residents may be interviewed to ascertain their respons towards the barrier project.They
provided positive feedback strengthening development of noise barrier as an effective
environmental mitigation strategy.

As a transport improvement, flyover is an advance tool which involves high technology and lots
of resources. As being a superstructure, it has many prerequisite to function effectively such as
extra land in the intersection, available by-pass roads etc.

45
REFERENCES

1. Henry K. Evans (1950). "Read the ebook Traffic engineering handbook by Institute of
Traffic Engineers". ENGINEERING HANDBOOK, Second Edition 1950. New Haven,
Connecticut: Institute of Traffic Engineers. Retrieved 2010-10-09.
2. Turner, J.T. Howard (1977). The London Brighton and South Coast Railway 1. Origins
and formation. London: Batsford. p. 249.ISBN 0-7134-0275-X.
3. Shaikh, Ateeq (9 April 2014). "dna exclusive: Mumbai's golden flyover hits a
milestone". DNA. DNA. Retrieved 5 May 2014.
4. Doctor, Vikram (6 April 2014). "Is it time to stop the endless building of flyovers in
India?". The Economic Times. ET Bureau. Retrieved 7 April 2014
5. Akcelik & Associates Pty Ltd., (2011) Signalized (and unsignalized) Intersection Design
and Research
6. Aid, PO Box 1075G, Greythorn, Vic 3104 AUSTRALIA, Management Systems
Registered to
7. ISO 9001: ABN 79 088 889 687.
8. Bureau of Traffic Safety, (2005). Traffic Accident on National Highways 2004.
Department of
9. Highways, Ministry of Transport, Thailand.
10. Chang, H. J., & Park, G. T. (2012). A study on traffic signal control at signalized
intersections in
11. vehicular ad hoc networks. Ad Hoc Networks.
12. Department of Highways (2011). The flyover construction project, Hatyai City,
Songkhla, .
13. Department of Land Transport (2012). Annual of vehicle increase per year in Thailand.
14. EMS of Hat Yai hospital (2010-2012). Accident statistic at the flyover area, Hatyai City,
Songkhla,

46
15. Garber, N. J., & Hoel, L. A. (2009). Traffic and highway engineering. CengageBrain.
com.
16. Goyal, S. K., Goel, S., & Tamhane, S. M. (2009). Assessment of environmental benefits
of flyover
17. construction over signalized junctions: a case study.Environmental monitoring and
18. assessment, 148(1-4), 397-408.
19. Hatyai Police Station (210-2012) Accident statistic at the flyover area, Hatyai City,
Songkhla,

20. Luophongsok. P., Cathrynchu. N., and Dithwirulh. N. (2011) Cost-Benefit Analysis of
Sanpatong-
21. Hangdong (Phase 1) Bypass Project, Chiangmai. Journal of Management Science and
22. Information Science, Volume 6, No. 2, April - September 2011.
23. Ministry of Education (2009). An average fuel economy and fuel consumption during
idling conditions of vehicles, (http://www. sahavicha.
com/?name=knowledge&file=readk nowledge&id=1623).
24. Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) (2013). Gross
Regional
25. and Provincial Product, (http://www.nesdb.go.th/Default.aspx?tabid=96)
26. PTT Pty Ltd., (2013). Fuel cost: Blue Gasohol 91 is 37.83 THB (22/1/13),
(http://www.pttplc.
27. com/th/Pages/home.aspx)
28. Vesper, A. (2011). 2nd One-Day Training: collection of traffic volume data at
intersections, at Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, TECII-Project, BUW, Germany.
29. Wall, G. T., & Hounsell, N. B. (2004). A critical review of the standards and design
processes for motorway diverges in the UK. European Journal of Transportation
Infrastructure Research, 4(2),
211-229.
30. WANG, Z., GUO, N., & LI, J. (2007). Calculating the Lengths of Auxiliary Lane and its
Channelization of Urban Expressway Exit Using Simulation. Journal of Transportation
Systems Engineering and Information Technology, 7(5), 96-101.

31. Watcharin, V. (1994). Economic highway engineering, Bangkok; physics center.


https://maps.google.co.th/maps?hl=en&tab=ll ( Flyover location in Thailand, accessed on
1 March 2012

47
REFERENCES : WEBSITES

1. http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/publicroads/98julaug/worlds.cfm
2. http://everything2.com/title/Akashi%2520Kaikyo%2520Bridge
3. http://structurae.net/structures/akashi-kaikyo-bridge
4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akashi_Kaikyo_Bridge
5. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/buildingbig/wonder/structure/akashi_kaikyo.html
6. http://www.technologystudent.com/index.htm
7. http://natgeotv.com/ca/big-bigger-biggest/videos/the-akashi-kaikyo-bridge
8. http://www.technologystudent.com/culture1/akashi1.htm
9. https://www.pinterest.com/awajicity/peal-bridge-akashi-kaikyo-bridge/
10. http://www.bridgemeister.com/pic.php?pid=996

48

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