PROJECT REPORT

ON
HEAT TREATMENT AND METALLURGICAL
STUDY OF ION NITRIDING ON GEAR

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

MR. MANOJ KUMAR GUNJAN
MANAGER(LAB-SED)

SUBMITTED BY:-

DIVYADUTTA BEHURA
VT No:-9518

PROJECT DURATION:1st JUNE TO 30th JUNE 2017

METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS ENGINEERING

NIT DURGAPUR
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to thank Mr.P.Nataraj,Manager(HR-Training) and Mr. For

providing all the necessary facilities and allowing us for taking the
training.

My sincere thanks and gratitude to my project guide Mr.M.KGunjan,

Sr.Manager(Lab,SED) for all his assistance and guidance, which came
forward at the advent of my difficulties and problems. Without his
guidance and help and his positive approach, it would not have been
possible on my part to successfully complete this project.

I would also like to thank Mr ArunKumar Behera and the whole

engineering staff of Heat Treatment and Electroplating department for
their help and assistance in working on this project.

Last but not the least, I extend my gratitude to all those who directly
or indirectly helped me in completing the project.

Yours sincerely

Miss Divyadutta Behura

VT No:9518
Metallurgical & Materials Engineering
NIT DURGAPUR
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Miss Divyadutta Behura, a student of
Metallurgical and Materials Engineering,NIT Durgapur has successfully
completed her Vocational Training at HINDUSTAN
AERONAUTICS LIMITED,SUNABEDA,KORAPUT DIVISION from 1st June
to 30th June 2017.

The project report submitted on Heat Treatment Processes And

Metallurgical Analysis Of Ion Nitriding On Gear embodies the original
work done by Miss DivyaduttaBehura during the above vocational
training.

She has taken keen interest in learning various technologies like Heat
Treatment,Electroplating,NDT,Forge and Foundry Technology.She was
sincere and hardworking during the training.Her conduct during the
training period has been found satisfactory.

We wish her success in her future endeavour.

Mr.M K Gunjan Mr.P. Nataraj

Manager( Lab-SED) Manager( HR-Training)
SUKHOI-30 DIVISION KORAPUT DIVISION
 Abstract

Heat treating is a group of industrial and metalworking processesused to alter

the physical, and sometimes chemical, properties of a material. The most common
application is metallurgical. Heat treatments are also used in the manufacture of
many other materials, such as glass. Heat treatment involves the use of heating or
chilling, normally to extreme temperatures, to achieve a desired result such as
hardening or softening of a material. Heat treatment techniques
include annealing, case hardening, precipitation strengthening, tempering,
normalizing and quenching. It is noteworthy that while the term heat
treatment applies only to processes where the heating and cooling are done for
the specific purpose of altering properties intentionally, heating and cooling often
occur incidentally during other manufacturing processes such as hot forming or
welding.

Metallic materials consist of a microstructure of small crystals called "grains"

or crystallites. The nature of the grains (i.e. grain size and composition) is one of
the most effective factors that can determine the overall mechanical behavior of
the metal. Heat treatment provides an efficient way to manipulate the properties
of the metal by controlling the rate ofdiffusion and the rate of cooling within the
microstructure. Heat treating is often used to alter the mechanical properties of a
metallic alloy, manipulating properties such as
the hardness, strength, toughness, ductility, and elasticity.

There are two mechanisms that may change an alloy's properties during heat
treatment: the formation of martensite causes the crystals to deform intrinsically,
and the diffusion mechanism causes changes in the homogeneity of the alloy.

The crystal structure consists of atoms that are grouped in a very specific
arrangement, called a lattice. In most elements, this order will rearrange itself,
depending on conditions like temperature and pressure. This rearrangement,
called allotropy or polymorphism, may occur several times, at many different
temperatures for a particular metal. In alloys, this rearrangement may cause an
element that will not normally dissolve into the base metal to suddenly
become soluble, while a reversal of the allotropy will make the elements either
partially or completely insoluble.

When in the soluble state, the process of diffusion causes the atoms of the
dissolved element to spread out, attempting to form a homogenous distribution
within the crystals of the base metal. If the alloy is cooled to an insoluble state, the
atoms of the dissolved constituents (solutes) may migrate out of the solution. This
type of diffusion, called precipitation, leads to nucleation, where the migrating
atoms group together at the grain-boundaries. This forms a microstructure
generally consisting of two or more distinct phases. Steel that has been cooled
slowly, for instance, forms a laminated structure composed of alternating layers
of ferrite and cementite, becoming soft pearlite. After heating the steel to the
austenite phase and then quenching it in water, the microstructure will be in the
martensitic phase. This is due to the fact that the steel will change from the
austenite phase to the martensite phase after quenching. It should be noted that
some pearlite or ferrite may be present if the quench did not rapidly cool off all
the steel.

Unlike iron-based alloys, most heat treatable alloys do not experience a ferrite
transformation. In these alloys, the nucleation at the grain-boundaries often
reinforces the structure of the crystal matrix. These metals harden by
precipitation. Typically a slow process, depending on temperature, this is often
referred to as "age hardening".[6]

Many metals and non-metals exhibit a martensite transformation when cooled

quickly(with external media like oil,polymer,water etc.). When a metal is cooled
very quickly, the insoluble atoms may not be able to migrate out of the solution in
time. This is called a "diffusionless transformation." When the crystal matrix
changes to its low temperature arrangement, the atoms of the solute become
trapped within the lattice. The trapped atoms prevent the crystal matrix from
completely changing into its low temperature allotrope, creating shearing stresses
within the lattice. When some alloys are cooled quickly, such as steel, the
martensite transformation hardens the metal, while in others, like aluminum, the
alloy becomes softer.
 CONTENTS

HINDUSTAN AERONAUTICS LIMITED

History
Basic Objectives
Products
Locations
HEAT TREATMENT
Purposes
Hardening
Annealing
Tempering
Normalizing
Nitriding
Carburizing
Alphatizing
Alitizing
Ion Nitriding
LABS
Non destructive Testing
Ultrasonic Testing
X ray
Magnetic Inspection
Dye Penetration Test
Pyrometry
Destructive Testing
Vibration Fatigue Testing
Mechanical Testing
Metallography
ION NITRIDING ON GEAR
Chemical composition
Project Work
Microstructural Examination of ion nitrided Gear
Advantages

Conclusion
 HINDUSTAN AERONAUTICS LIMITED

History:
The beginning of HAL can be traced to the year 1940 when a far sighted
industrialist, the late Seth WalchandHirachand, set up a company called Hindustan
Aircraft Limited at Bangalore with the object of establishing an aviation industry
that can manufacture, assemble and overhaul aircraft. Initially aircraft like Curtiss
Hawk, Vulture Bomber and Harlow Trainer was taken up for manufacture and
overhaul in collaboration with Inter Continental Aircraft Company of the USA.

With the escalation of the Second World War the government of

India took over the management of the company in 1942 and handed it over to US
Air force for repair and overhaul of various aircraft. The main activity for the next
few years after the war was reconditioning and conversion of war surplus aircraft
for the use of IAF and Civil Operators.

To fulfill the fresh mandate of the post independent India and to

meet the challenges of open market economy of recent times the mission of the
company has been redefined as:

To become a globally competitive aerospace industry while working

as instrument for achieving self reliance in design, manufacture and maintenance
of aerospace defense equipment and diversifying to related areas, managing the
business on commercial lines in a climate of growing professional competence.

In the six decades, HAL has spread its wings to cover various activities
in the areas of design, development, manufacture and maintenance. Today HAL
has 14 production divisions spread over at Bangalore, Nasik, Koraput, Kanpur, Luck
now, Korowai, Hyderabad and Barrack pore. These divisions are fully backed by 9
design centers, which are co-located with the productive divisions. These centers
are engaged in the design and development of combat aircraft, helicopter, aero
engine, engine test beds, aircraft communication and navigation systems and
accessories of mechanical and fuel systems and instruments.

BASIC OBJECTIVES:
To serve as an instrument of the national policy to achieve self-reliance in
the design, development and production aircraft and aeronautical
equipment to meet the counter changing and growing needs, with special
emphasis on millet requirement.
In fulfilment of these objectives, the company shall regard its fundamentally
responsible for design and development, rely however, upon such relevant
facilities as are available in to national institutions, but always holding itself
 basic a responsible for the growth and furtherance of the counter
aeronautics capability.
To so conduct its business economically and efficiently it can contribute its
due share to the national effort achieving a self-reliant and self-generating
economy.
Towards this end, to develop and maintain an organisation which will readily
respond to and adopt the changing matrix of soc techno-economic
relationship and where in a climate of grow professional competence, self-
discipline, mutual understand deep commitment and a sense of belonging
will be fostered each employee will be encouraged to grow in accordance
with potential for the furtherance of the organisation.
The recommendations of the review were subsequently approved by the
board of Directors in September 1972 and forwarded government, who
informed the company in May 1973 that they may adopt these objectives.
These objectives remain essential unchanged to date except that they have
been amplified in 1983 through the medium of MDs dated 14th 1983
emphasizing the following:

a) That our products are of the highest quality and reliability.

b) That our products are fully supported after sale to customer.

c)That capacity utilization is optimized, restoring which is necessary to

diversification and export.

d)Greater thrust towards indigenisation of materials and product to improve

self-reliance.

Products in Current Manufacturing Range

SU 30 MKI:

Twin-seater, Multi-role, Long

range Fighter / Bomber / Air
Superiority Aircraft

MIG 27M:

Single-seater Tactical Fighter /

Bomber with variable sweep
wings
 MIG 21 variants:

Single-seater Front line Tactical

Interceptor / Fighter Aircraft

Products in Current Manufacturing Range(Engine

division,Koraput):
The Engine Division at Koraput, a unit of HAL's vast network, has the unique
distinction of being one amongst the few Aero Engine manufacturers in the
world.

The spectrum of manufacturing facilities extends literally from the production

of nuts and bolts to discs, shafts, blades, forgings and castings - all that are
required to make an Aero Engine right from the Raw materials.This spectrum
is further enlarged to include overhaul of Aero Engines for the MiG family and
supply of spares required during service.

AL-31 FP engine:

AL-31FP is a high temperature turbojet by-

pass engine of modular design. A specific
feature of AL-31FP is an axi-symmetric
vectoring nozzle with a thrust vector angle of
15 in the vertical plane providing super
maneuverability of the aircraft. The vectoring
nozzle control is integrated with the engine
control system. AL-31FP engines ensure stable operation in all available
evolutions of the aircraft in super manoeuvrability modes. AL-31FP engines
power advanced multi-purpose Su-30 MKI fighters of the 4+ generation.

R25 engine:

This is a Twin Spool, Axial Flow, Turbojet

Engine fitted with after burner and a variable
area Jet nozzle. It powers the MiG-21 BiS
multi-role Fighter Aircraft. The Engine has
provision for an emergency After-burner
thrust boost, which can be selected below
4.5 KM altitude.

R-29B engine:

This Engine is a Twin spool, axial flow

Turbojet Engine incorporating After-burner
system and variable area Jet nozzle of
convergent-divergent type. The Engine is equipped with automatic Fuel
regulation system, Turbo-starter, Anti-surge system, Temperature controller,
Constant speed drive for AC Generator and Two speed drive for Hydraulic
Pump. R-29B Engine powers MiG-27 M, a Multi-role Ground attack / Air
combat Aircraft.

Now there are seven divisions of HAL in India. Divisions are

1. Bangalore Division (Karnataka)

Barakpur Division (West Bengal): It is a branch of Bangalore Division.

2. Nasik Division (Maharastra)

3. Koraput Division (Odisha)
4. Hyderabad Division (Andhra Pradesh)
5. Lucknow Division (Uttar Pradesh)
6. Kanpur Division (Uttar Pradesh)
7. Korwa Division (Uttar Pradesh)
HAL has four main complexes in India:

1. Bangalore complex.
2. MiG complex.
3. Accessories complex.
4. Design complex.
 HEAT TREATMENT
Heat treatment may be defined as an operation or combination of operations that
involves the heating of a solid metal or alloy to a particular temperature,holding
for sometime and then water cooling or air cooling or oil quenching for the
purpose of obtaining certain desirable conditions or properties(both physical and
mechanical properties).It is usually desired to preserve the form, dimensions and
surface of the piece being treated.Engineering properties are modified by heat
treatment processes so that structural components are able withstand specified
operating conditions and have desired useful life. It is very important
manufacturing processes that can not only help manufacturing process but can
also improve product, its performance, and its characteristics in many ways.

PURPOSE OF HEAT TREATMENT

To relieve internal stresses resulting from
forming,welding,brazing,forging,casting and various machining operations.
To improve machinabilty.
To provide hard surface on a ductile interior.
To produce uniform and stress free grains in castings and forgings.
To increase resistance to heat,water and corrosion.
To improve mechanical properties like tensile
strength,hardness,ductility,shock resistance etc
To improve thermal and electrical properties.
To obtain fine and proper grain size.

Various Heat Treatment Processes include:

Hardening
Hardening is applied to cutting tools and machine parts where high hardness and
wear resistance is desirable. It involves heating of steel, keeping it at an
appropriate temperature until all pearlite is transformed into austenite, and then
quenching it rapidly in water or oil. The temperature at which austentizing rapidly
takes place depends upon the carbon content in the steel used. The purposes of
hardening followed by tempering are:

To develop high hardness,wear resistance and ability to cut other materials.

To improve strength and toughness.

Tempering
Tempering involves heating steel that has been quenched and hardened for an
adequate period of time so that the metal can be equilibrated. The hardness and
strength obtained depend upon the temperature at which tempering is carried
out. Higher temperatures will result into high ductility, but low strength and
hardness. Low tempering temperatures will produce low ductility, but high
strength and hardness. In practice, appropriate tempering temperatures are
selected that will produce the desired level of hardness and strength.

Annealing
Annealing involves treating steel up to a high temperature,holding this
temperature for a considerable period and then cooling it very slowly to room
temperature, so that the resulting microstructure will possess high ductility and
toughness, but low hardness. Annealing is performed by heating a component to
the appropriate temperature, soaking it at that temperature, and then shutting off
the furnace while the piece is in it.The purposes of Annealing are:

Improve machinability,ductility and toughness.

Relieve internal stresses.
Refine grain structure
Enable the metal to undergo large strains without failure.

Normalizing
Normalizing involves heating steel, and then keeping it at that temperature for a
period of time, and then cooling it in air. The resulting microstructure is a mixture
of ferrite and cementite which has a higher strength and hardness, but lower
ductility. Normalizing is performed on structures and structural components that
will be subjected to machining, because it improves the machinability of carbon
steels.

Aging
Some metals are classified as precipitation hardening materials.When a
precipitation hardening alloy is quenched,its alloying elements will be trapped in
solution,resulting in a soft metal.Aging a solutionized metal will allow the
alloying elements to diffuse through the microstructure and form intermetallic
particles.These intermetallic particles will nucleate and fall out of solution and act
as a reinforcing phase,thereby increasing the strength of the alloy.Alloys may age
naturally meaning that the precipitates form at room temperature,or they may
age artificially when precipitates only form at elevated temperatures.

Nitriding
Nitriding essentially consists of heating the steel in an atmosphere of ammonia gas
at a temperature of 480C to 700C without further treatment.In gas nitriding the
donor is a nitrogen rich gas, usually ammonia (NH3), which is why it is sometimes
known as ammonia nitriding. When ammonia comes into contact with the heated
work piece,it dissociates into nitrogen and hydrogen. The nitrogen then diffuses
onto the surface of the material creating a hard nitride layer.
The advantages of gas nitriding are:

Precise control of chemical potential of nitrogen in the nitriding atmosphere

by controlling gas flow rate of nitrogen and oxygen.
All round nitriding effect (can be a disadvantage in some cases, compared
with plasma nitriding)
Large batch sizes possible - the limiting factor being furnace size and gas
flow
With modern computer control of the atmosphere,thenitriding results can
be closely controlled
Relatively low equipment cost - especially compared with plasma

Carburizing
It is a heat treatment process in which steel or iron is heated to a temperature,
below the melting point, in the presence of a liquid, solid, or gaseous material
which decomposes so as to release carbon when heated to the temperature used.
The outer case or surface will have higher carbon content than the primary
material. When the steel or iron is rapidly cooled by quenching, the higher carbon
content on the outer surface becomes hard, while the core remains tough and
soft.Time of heating is as per the depth of the carbon required for parts of
different types.

Alphatizing
To improve the wear resistance,the Titanium alloysnare subjected to a treatment
to form an oxide layer or alpha case(Ti0),which is a tetragonal rutile crystal
structure.By heating Ti alloys at 850C for 6-10 hours at controlled vacuum
level(0.05 to 0.09mm of Hg),we can get our desired thickness of oxide
layer.Titanium reacts with oxygen and forms around 50 to 100 microns of Ti0
layer,this treatment is known as Alphatizing.It improves hardness almost 7 times
and decreases the wear rate almost by 60,000 times by decreasing the coefficient
of friction.

Alitizing
Alitizing is a process in which surface region of steels is enriched with aluminium
by thermo chemical treatment.During this treatment aluminium atoms diffuse at
temperatures between 900C and 1000C into the surface of the work pieces.The
prime significance for the protectiveness of a coating is its resistance to hot
corrosion and oxidation in the temperature range of 600C to 1200C.Coating
resistance to hot corrosion and oxidation is directly proportional to the thickness
of coating used.
There are two types of alitizing process in use:

A) Pack Alitizing
In this process,the part is covered in a premixed powder of Ferro Aluminium
and Ammonium Chloride in the ratio of 98:2 in a box.Powder is sintered and
sieved.The box along with the part is then annealed at temperature of 900-
950C.In the process,the Aluminium atoms get diffused into the surface of
work piece to a depth of 20-80 microns.
B) Paint Alitizing

In this process,the part is painted with prepared paint at areas where

coatings are required by spray or by brush method.The painted part is then
diffusion annealed at temperature 950-1000C.In the process,the Aluminium
atoms get diffused into the surface of work piece to a depth of 20-80
microns.Paint is prepared by adding predetermined amount of pure Aluminium
powder in binder.

LABS
Labs are classified into two categories:

1.NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

ULTRASONIC TESTING

Principles of ultrasonic testing are:

A probe sends a sound wave into test material. There are two indications,
one from the initial pulse of the probe, and the second due to the back wall
echo.
A defect creates a third indication and simultaneously reduces the
amplitude of the back wall indication.
The depth of the defect is determined by the ratio D/Ep.

In ultrasonic testing (UT), very short ultrasonic pulse waves with centre
frequencies ranging from 0.1-15 MHz and occasionally up to 50 MHz are
transmitted into materials to detect internal flaws or to characterize materials. A
common example is the thickness of the test object, for example, to monitor pipe
work corrosion.

An ultrasound transducer connected to a diagnostic machine is passed over the

object being inspected. The transducer is typically separated from the test object
by a couplant (such as oil) or by water, as in immersion testing. However, when
ultrasonic testing is conducted with an Electromagnetic Acoustic transducer, the
use of couplant is not required.
ADVANTAGES
High penetrating power, which allows the detection of flaws deep in the
part.
High sensitivity, permitting the detection of extremely small flaws.
Only one surface needs to be accessible.
Greater accuracy than other non destructive methods in determining the
depth of internal flaws and the thickness of parts with parallel surfaces.
Some capability of estimating the size, orientation, shape and nature of
defects.

X-RAY IMAGING

X-ray is an imaging technique that uses electromagnetic radiation other than

visible light, especially x-rays, to view the internal structure of a non uniform
composed and opaque object i.e. a non transparent object of verifying density and
composition.

To create a image, a heterogeneous beam of x-ray is produced by an x-ray

generator and is projected toward the object. A certain amount of x-ray is
absorbed by the object, which is dependent on the particular density and
composition of that object. The x-rays that pass through the object are captured
behind the object by a detector (x-ray film).

The x-ray source and detector move to blur out structure not in the focal plane.

Various characteristics of X ray imaging include:

X-RAY FILM Made up of silver chromites

APPLIED MILIAMPERE Depends upon the thickness of materials

LEAD COAT Used to cover the x-ray film to protect from illumination from lights

PENETRAMETER Image quality indicator

DARKROOM X-ray film is examined in darkroom because of illumination. X-ray film

is drown in developing bath for about five minutes after that it is washed in film
washing water. To get permanent gelatine of x-ray film washed in fixing bath after
washing in film washing water.

FILM DRIER Film is dried in the film drier

PURPOSE To check welding, brazing, castings & forging, internal defects, porosity,
crack, gas void, slag inclusion, excess penetration

PANOROMA To detect defects present in the circular sections .

DYE PENETRATION TEST

Penetrant dye processes are used mainly for the detection of flaws in non-ferrous
& non-magnetic ferrous alloys but may also be used for ferrous parts where
magnetic flow detection techniques are not specified or are not possible. The
processes can be divided into two main groups. One group involves the use of
penetrants containing an emulsifying agent (water washable process) whilst in the
other group a dye solvent has to be applied separately after the penetration time
has elapsed if the surplus dye is to be removed by water wash operation. Basically,
this process consist of applying a red penetrant dye to the surface of the part to be
tested, removing after the predetermined time the dye which remains on the
surface and then applying a developer, the purpose of which is to draw to the
surface the dye that has entered into defects, the resultant stains indicating the
position of the defects.

Surface preparation is most important for this method of NDT. The surface to be
tested must be free from oil, grease paint, rust, scale, welding flux and carbon
deposit etc. The penetrant dye can be applied to the surface by dipping, spraying
or brushing; the method used depending largely on the size, shape and of quantity
of parts to be examined. The dye penetration time is normally in the range of 5
minutes to 1 hour, the smaller the defect the longer the time necessary. Any dye
remaining on the surfaces of the parts after expiry of penetration time should be
removed as thoroughly as possible but without disturbing the dye which would
have found its way into any defects present. The developer is usually very fine
absorbent white powder suspended in volatile carrier liquid which rapidly
evaporates and the action of absorbent powder is to draw out the dye from the
surface defects, thus indicating their position by the resulting stain. Normally, the
position of defects will be indicated by red marks appearing on the whitened
surface.All parts with non-absorbing surfaces (forging, weldments and castings)
can be subjected to this NDT inspection for detecting defects open to the surface
in solids and essentially non porous materials.

PYROMETRY

Pyrometer generally refers to the measurement of temperature through

thermocouple which is connected to the measuring instrument.

THERMOCOUPLE

Two metallic wires made up different components, composition & different co-
efficient of expansion whose one end is joined and another is free is known as
thermocouple.In a thermocouple,insulation(ceramic powder) is provided to avoid
short circuit.Thermocouple is of three types:-

1. K-type Nickel(+ve) and Chromium(-ve) (upto 1350 C)

2. R-type- Platinum(+ve) and Rhodium(-ve)(upto 1650C)

K type and R type are generally used in Vaccum Chamber.

3.T-type-Copper(+ve) and Constatum(-ve)(upto -600 C )

T type is used in Deep freezer.

CALIBRATION

Two types of calibration is generally adopted:-

1. Dynamic Calibration-All the furnace calibrations goes under Dynamic

Calibration.

Periodicity-6 months

2. Static calibration All the instrument calibrations(recorders,controllers)

goes under Static Calibration.

Periodicity-1 year

FURNACES

Furnace Heating element

Chamber furnace Kanthole (inner element)

Pit furnaces Kanthole

Vacuum furnaces Molybdenum

MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

This NDT process is normally applied to homogeneous ferromagnetic materials

which can be easily magnetized. This NDT method is suitable for detecting surface
and subsurface cracks.

If a component is subjected to a magnetic flux, any discontinuity in the

material will distort the magnetic field and cause local leakage fields at the surface.
Particles of magnetic material applied to the surface of the magnetized
component will be attracted to the flux leakage areas and reveal the presence of
the discontinuity. The sensitivity of magnetic flaw detection depends largely on
the orientation of the defect in relation to the magnetic flux and is highest when
the defect is at 900 to the flux path. Sensitivity is considerably reduced when the
angle between the defect and the flux path is less than 450 so that two tests are
normally required with each component, the flux path in first test being at 900 to
the flux path in the second test. Components of complex shape may require tests
in several different directions.
 A component may be magnetized either by passing a current through it or
by placing it in the magnetic circuit of a permanent magnet or electromagnet. The
magnetic particles used to reveal defects are either in the form of a dry powder or
suspended in a suitable liquid. They may be applied by spray, pouring or
immersion depending on the type of component. Fluorescent inks are also used
where high sensitivity is required. Inspection of the component, to which
fluorescent inks has been applied, should be carried out under ultraviolet light.

Particles of magnetic ink are attracted to flux leakage fields and these may occur at
defects, brazed joints and heat affected zone in welds. Cracks are revealed as
sharply defined lines on the surface of the specimen, the magnetic particles often
building up into a ridge. So if a discontinuity is present at or near the surface, the
magnetic field is deflected and forms a leakage field. Detection of this field by
particle application forms the basis of this inspection. Finally, the tested
component must be demagnetized after this NDT method is completed. This
method is used for determining surface and subsurface cracks, seams, porosity
and inclusions. It is extremely sensitive for locating small tight cracks of
ferromagnetic materials, bars forging, weldments and extrusions.

2.DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Mechanical Testing
There exists a large number of tests under Mechanical Testing many of which are
standardized, to determine the various mechanical properties of materials. In
general, such tests set out to obtain geometry-independent properties; i.e. those
intrinsic to the bulk material. In practice this is not always feasible, since even in
tensile tests, certain properties can be influenced by specimen size and/or
geometry. Here is a listing of some of the most common tests:
Hardness Tests-
a) Brinell Hardness
The Brinell hardness test consistsof indenting the metal surface with a 10-mm-
diameter steel ball ata load of 3,000 kg. For soft metals the load is reduced to 500
kg toavoid too deep an impression, and for very hard metals a tungsten carbide
ball is used to minimize distortion of the indenter. The load isapplied for a
standard time, usually 30 sec, and the diameter of the indentation is measured
with a low-power microscope after removal of the load.The average of two
readings of the diameter of the impression at rightangles should be made. The
surface on which the indentation is madeshould be relatively smooth and free
from dirt or scale. The Brinellhardness number (BHN) is expressed as the load P
divided by the surfacearea of the indentation. This is expressed by the formula

=
( 2 ) [ ( + )( )]

where P = applied load, kg

D = diameter of ball, mm

d = diameter of indentation, mm

It will be noticed that the units of the BHN are kilograms per squaremillimeter.
However, the BHN is not a satisfactory physical concept since it does not give the
mean pressure over the surface of the indentation.

In general, the Brinell hardness number of a material is constant onlyfor one

applied load and diameter of ball. It has been shown that inorder to obtain the
same Brinell hardness number at a nonstandard load,geometrical similitude must
be maintained. This requires that the ratioof the indentation to the indenter, d/ D,
remains constant. To a firstapproximation this can be attained when P/D2 is kept
constant.The greatest error in Brinell hardness measurements occurs in
measuringthe diameter of the impression. It is assumed that the diameter ofthe
indentation is the same as the diameter when the ball was in contact with the
metal.

b)Rockwell Hardness
This test utilizes the depth of indentation, under constant load, as a measure of
hardness. A minor load of 10 kg is first applied to seat the specimen. This
minimizes the amount of surface preparation needed and reduces the tendency
forridging or sinking in by the indenter. The major load is then applied, and the
depth of indentation is automatically recorded on a dial gage in terms of arbitrary
hardness numbers. The dial contains 100 divisions, each division representing a
penetration of 0.00008 in. The dial isreversed so that a high hardness, which
corresponds to a small penetration,results in a high hardness number. This is in
agreement with the other hardness numbers described previously, but unlike the
Brinelland Vickers hardness designations, which have units of kilograms per
squaremlliimeter, the Rockwell hardness numbers are purely arbitrary.

One combination of load and indenter will not produce satisfactory results for
materials with a wide range of hardness A 120 diamond cone with a slightly
rounded point, called a Brale indenter, and 1/16 inch and 1/8inch in diameter steel
balls are generally used as indenters. Major loadsof 60, 100, and 150 kg are used.
Hardened steel is tested on the C scale with the diamond indenter and a 150-kg
major load. The useful range for this scale is from about Re 20 to Re 70. Softer
materials are usually tested on the B scale with a 1/16inch diameter steel ball and
a 100-kg major load. The range of this scale is from Rb 0 to Rb 100. The A
scale(diamond penetrator, 60-kg major load) provides the most extended Rockwell
hardness scale, which is usable for materials from annealed brass to cemented
carbides. Most of the points listed below apply equally well to the other hardness
tests:

The indenter and anvil should be clean and well seated.

The surface to be tested should be clean, dry, smooth, and free from oxide.
A rough-ground surface is usually adequate for the Rockwell test.
The surface should be flat and perpendicular to the indenter.
Tests on cylindrical surfaces will give low readings, the error depending on
the curvature, load, indenter, and hardness of the material. Theoretical and
empirical corrections for this effect have been published.
The thickness of the specimen should be such that a mark or bulge is not
produced on the reverse side of the piece. It is recommended that the
thickness be at least ten times the depth of the indentation. Testsshould be
made on only a single thickness of material.
The spacing between indentations should be three to five times the
diameter of the indentation.
The speed of application of the load should be standardized. This is done by
adjusting the dashpot on the Rockwell tester. Variations in hardness can be
appreciable in very soft materials unless the rate of load application is
carefully controlled. For such materials the operating handle of the
Rockwell tester should be brought back as soon as the major load has been
fully applied.
c) Vickers Hardness

The Vickers hardness test uses a square-base diamond pyramid as the indenter.
The included angle between opposite faces of the pyramid is 136. This angle was
chosen because it approximates the most desirable ratio of indentation diameter
to ball diameter in the Brinell hardness test.Because of the shape of the indenter
this is frequently called the diamondpyramidhardness test. The diamond-pyramid
hardness number (DPH),or Vickers hardness number (VHN, or VPH), is defined as
the load divided by the surface area of the indentation. In practice, this area is
calculated from microscopic measurements of the lengths of the diagonals of the
impression. The DPH may be determined from the following equation,
2/2 1.854
= =
2 2

Where P = applied load, kg

L = average length of diagonals, mm

= angle between opposite faces of diamond = 136"

Because the impressions made by the pyramid indenter are geometrically similar
no matter what their size, the DPH should be independent of load.
Tensile test:-A standard specimen is subjected to an gradually increasing load
(force) until failure occurs. The resultant load-displacement behaviour is used to
determine a stressstrain curve,from which a number of mechanical properties
such as Young modulus, yield (or proof) stress, tensile stress and % elongation to
failurecan be measured.

Creep Test:- for the mechanical behaviour of materials at high temperatures

(relative to melting point).A creep test involves a tensile specimen under a
constant load maintained at a constant temperature. Measurements of strain are
then recorded over a period of time.

VIBRATION FATIGUE TESTING

Vibration fatigue is caused by forced vibration of random nature. An excited

structure responds according to its natural-dynamics modes, which results in a
dynamic stress load in the material points. The process of the excitation profile
and the response it produces. As the profile of excitation and response are
preferably analyzed in the frequency domain it is practical to use fatigue life
evaluation methods; that can operate on the data in frequency-domain, such as
power spectral density.

A crucial part of a vibration fatigue analysis is the modal analysis; that exposes the
natural modes and frequencies of the vibrating structure and enables accurate
prediction of the local stress responses for the given excitation. Only then, when
the stress responses are known, can vibration fatigue be successfully
characterized.

Vibration fatigue methods offer a more effective approach, which estimates

fatigue life based on moments of the power spectral density. Vibration fatigue
methods, to calculate fatigue life in many point s on the structure and successfully
predict where the failure will most probably occur.

Vibration fatigue methods find use wherever the structure experiences loading,
that is caused by a random process. These can be the forces that bumps on the
road extort on the car chassis, the wind blowing on the wind turbine, waves hitting
an offshore construction or a marine vessel. Such loads are first characterized
statistically, by measurement and analysis. The data is then used in the product
design process.

PURPOSE-To check the capacity of a probe (a blade used in su-30

engine)towithstand maximum vibration.

 METALLOGRAPHY TEST

It involves the following tests:-

1. CUTTING OF SAMPLE
Take the sample from incoming sample table.
Remove the cover of Abrasive cut off machine.
Clamp the sample in vice of Abrasive Cut off Machine.

NOTE:If the sample is bigger in size and difficult to clamp or if it is of Ti

alloy,send it to workshop for cutting.
Switch on the coolant pump.
Switch on the abrasive wheel.
Slowly rotate the lever to slide the sample towards abrasive wheel for
cutting.
2. MOUNTING OF SAMPLE
If the cut piece of the sample is not flat or intricate in shape it should be
mounted by Hot/Cold mounting press.
(a) Hot Mounting Press
Put the sample on the mould/cavity of the press and fill the cavity with
mounting powder.
Close the cap and apply desired hydraulic load for compacting the
powder.
Set the temperature and time of heating on the display of the
equipment.
After cooling cycle,release the load and remove the mounted specimen
from the specimen.
(b) Cold mounting press
Mix the acrylic powder with plasticizer liquid in a cup, proper mixing is
required for getting a paste like condition.
Take a ring and apply Grease/Lubricants thoroughly for easy removal
of mount from the ring.
Fill the paste in ring where sample is kept.
Wait for 5 mins,then remove the ring from mounted sample.

3. ROUGH GRINDING/POLISHING

Polishing of the sample should start with the Belt Cylinder(80 Grit size).
Subsequently the sample should be polished with
100,200,400,500,600,1000 grit size emery paper.
NOTE: The speed of the polishing disk should be in safe limit.Do not
apply high pressure on disk or belt.
4. CLOTH POLISHING

Cloth polishing should be followed after paper polishing(up to 1000

grit size).
Use Alumina powder for polishing.
After cloth polishing,the sample should have scratch free and mirror
like surface.

5.ETCHING

Sample should be etched with proper etching reagent with respect to

the material of the specimen.
Wash the sample with alcohol.
Dry the sample by hot air blower.

Chemical required Metal

Ferric chloride Nickel

Kroll or oxalic acid Titanium (hard metal)

Nital Steel

Forging

Forging is a manufacturing process involving the shaping of metal using localized

compressive forces. The blows are delivered with a hammer (often a power
hammer) or a die.Forging can produce a piece that is stronger than an
equivalent cast or machined part. As the metal is shaped during the forging
process, its internal grain deforms to follow the general shape of the part. As a
result, the grain is continuous throughout the part, giving rise to a piece with
improved strength characteristics. Additionally, forgings can target a lower total
cost when compared to a casting or fabrication.

Forging is often classified according to the temperature at which it is performed:

a)Cold forging (a type of cold working)

b)Warm forging/ hotforging (a type of hot working)

Forged parts can range in weight from less than a kg to hundreds of metric
tons.Forged parts are widely used in mechanisms and machines wherever a
component requires high strength.Such forging usually require further processing
(such as machining) to achieve a finished part. There are many different kinds of
forging processes available,however they can be grouped into three main classes:

Drawn out :length increases and cross section decreases

 Upset :length decreases and cross section increases
Squeezed in closed compression dies: produces multidirectional flow.

TEMPERATURE

All the following forging processes can be performed at various temperature.

However they are generally classified by whether the metal temperature is above
or below the recrystallization temperature. If the temperature is above the
materials recrystallization temperature it is deemed hot forging.

If the temperature is below the materialsrecrystallization temperature but above

30% of the recrystallization temperature (on an absolute scale) it is deemed warm
forging. If Below 30% Of The Recrystallization Temperature (Usually Room
Temperature) then it is deemed cold forging .

The main advantage of hot forging is that it can be done more quickly and
precisely as the metal is deformed work hardening effects are negated by the
recrystallization process. Cold forging typically results in work hardening of the
piece.

1. DROP FORGING

Drop forging is a forging process where a hammer is raised and then dropped
onto the work piece to deform it according to the shape of a die.

Common forging processes include:

2. PRESS FORGING

Press forging works by slowly applying a continuous pressure of force which differs
from the near instantaneous impact of DROP hammer forging.

3. UPSET FORGING

Upset forging increases the diameter of the work piece by compressing its
length.Upset forging is usually done in special high speed machines called crank
pressure.

4. ROLL FORGING

Roll forging is a process where round or flat bar stock is released in thickness and
increased in length.Roll forging is performed using two cylindrical or semi
cylindrical rolls.

5. NET SHAPE OR NEAR NET SHAPE FORGING

This process is also known as precision forging. It was developed to minimize cost
and waste associated with post forging operations. Therefore the final product
from a precision forging needs little or no final machining.
6. ISOTHERMAL FORGING

It is the process by which the materials and die are heated to the same
temperature. Adiabatic heating is used to assist in the deformation of the
materials meaning the strain rates are highly controlled.

Protection coating for titanium during forging

Titanium and titanium alloys must be protected from contamination by oxygen,

nitrogen, hydrogen and carbon during heating for forging. This is most effectively
done by coating the forging slugs in a liquid glaze or glass which is allowed to dry
before heating and forging. The coating fuses at between 500 and 600 c forming a
viscous surface which protects the materials from contamination.

The proprietary liquid glass coatings have lubricating properties which assist metal
flow during forging. Some forgers have found that the addition of a liquid based
graphite to the hue surface further improves die life and metal flow.

The effect of forging temperature on microstructure

Since virtually all titanium forging alloys are double melted , they rarely contain
segregation of other materials likely to cause variations in forgeability. The initial
breakdown of titanium alloy is usually done above the beta transformation
temperature, because the body centred Crystal structure is more ductile and
forging pressure requirements are lower. However forging in tHebera temperature
range leads to the excessive grain growth and attendant low ductility.
Consequently final forging is usually done at temperature just below the beta
transformation temperature.

Contamination during forging

Despite the protection offered by the glass coating, a small amount of

contamination does occur and must be removed by grinding or chemical etching.

When forging titanium case should be taken to prevent contact with steel scale . A
thermal type reaction can occur and seriously damage a forging die. Apparently
the titanium reduced iron oxide in an exothermic reaction set off by pressure and
high temperature.

Casting

Casting is a process by which a molten metal or material in its liquid state is

poured into a mold and allowed to become solid in the shape of the mold.
The mold is then broken from around the solidified part or complex shape.

Casting is used to create more complex or detailed parts that would be

difficult to manufacture using other methods.
 The cast is built so that the inside is the shapof the part that is being
manufactured, then themolten metal or liquid material is poured into the
space provided.

Sand casting is a metal casting process characterized by using sand as

the moldmaterial.Sand castings are produced
inspecialized factoriescalled foundries. Over 70% of all metal castings are
produced via sand casting process.[1]Molds made of sand are relatively cheap, and
sufficiently refractory even for steel foundry use. In addition to the sand, a suitable
bonding agent (usually clay) is mixed or occurs with the sand. The mixture is
moistened, typically with water, but sometimes with other substances, to develop
the strength and plasticity of the clay and to make the aggregate suitable for
molding. The sand is typically contained in a system of frames or mold
boxes known as a flask. The mold cavities and gate system are created by
compacting the sand around models, or patterns, or carved directly into the sand.

There are six steps in this process:

1.Place a pattern in sand to create a mold.

2.Incorporate the pattern and sand in a gating system.

3.Remove the pattern.

4.Fill the mold cavity with molten metal.

5.Allow the metal to cool.

6.Break away the sand mold and remove the casting.

Investment casting is an industrial process based on lost-wax casting, one of the

oldest known metal-forming techniques. In its earliest forms, beeswax was used to
form patterns necessary for the casting process. Today, more advanced waxes,
refractory materials and specialist alloys are typically used for making patterns.
Investment casting is valued for its ability to produce components with accuracy,
repeatability, versatility and integrity in a variety of metals and high-performance
alloys.The fragile wax patterns must withstand forces encountered during the
mold making. Much of the wax used in investment casting can be reclaimed and
reused.

Investment casting derives its name from the pattern being invested (surrounded)
with a refractory material. Many materials are suitable for investment casting;
examples are stainless steel alloys, brass, aluminium, carbon steel and glass. The
material is poured into a cavity in a refractory material that is an exact duplicate of
the desired part. Due to the hardness of refractory materials used, investment
casting can produce products with exceptional surface qualities, which can reduce
the need for secondary machine processes.[3]
The process can be used for both small castings of a few ounces and large castings
weighing several hundred pounds. It can be more expensive than die
casting or sand casting, but per-unit costs decrease with large volumes.
Investment casting can produce complicated shapes that would be difficult or
impossible with other casting methods. It can also produce products with
exceptional surface qualities and low tolerances with minimal surface finishing or
machining required.

Advantages of investment casting

Excellent surface finish

High dimensional accuracy
Extremely intricate parts are castable
Almost any metal can be cast
No flash or parting lines

ION NITRIDING ON A GEAR SAMPLE

Ion nitriding is a high accuracy vacuum heat treatment process involving the
chemical processing under vacuum utilising the highly activated gas mix in plasma
state. Initially hydrogen content is more to break the chromium oxide layer which
prevents Nitrogen to diffuse into ferrous materials under a vacuum using low
energy plasma.This results in the formation of Nitride layer.

This process involves heating the work piece in vacuum at a required temperature
( 550 C to 620C),introducing Nitrogen and Hydrogen into the furnace which is
turned into a glow discharge maintained between the cathode(work piece) and
anode( vacuum vessel wall).When the work piece is exposed to the ionised
discharge,the Nitrogen ions formed bombard the surface of the workpiece which
becomes heated and allow nascent Nitrogen to diffuse in to form Nitrides.
 PROJECT WORK

The following steps were carried out on the gear sample after receiving it from the
machining shop:-

1.Internal Inspection

Check parts by visual inspection for absence of dents, sharp edges, traces of oil
and dirt. Check the surface finish of parts under ion nitriding.The surface of parts
should be grinded.Check the core hardness of the specimen.

2.Electrocorundum cleaning

Blow the surfaces under ion nitriding with white electrocorundum at pressure
0.08-0.1MPa in a sand blast chamber.

3.Degreasing

Degrease the parts with benzene nefras or acetone with a hair brush.Carry out
degreasing directly before ion nitriding.

4.Assembly

Protect the places,not subject to ion nitriding by screening with fixtures.Clearance

between the part and the fixture should not exceed 0.2mm.

5.Loading

Load the parts assembled in screening fixtures together with specimens in

chambers/stocks of furnace maintaining uniformity of their distribution.Distance
between parts should be min 20mm.

6.Mounting of thermocouple

Mount the inspection thermocouple on the different chambers of the furnace.

7.Ionnitriding

Nitride the desired surfaces to depth 0.25-0.3 mm at a temperature (55010)C for

15-19 hours.Oncompletion,cool the furnace to less than 100C.

8.Unloading and Final Inspection

Unload the parts from furnace with clean cotton gloves and send one part-
specimen from each stock of the furnace to metallography lab for checking the
depth,hardness of nitridedsurfaces,core hardness and quality of the nitride
surface.
Chemical composition of the sample

ELEMENT PERCENTAGE
Fe 93.84
Cr 2.74
Ni 1.09
W 0.97
Mo 0.43
V 0.43
Mn 0.20
Ti 0.12
Nb 0.12
Re 0.6

MICROSTRUCTURAL EXAMINATION OF ION NITRIDED GEAR SAMPLE

Principle of Optical Microscope

An optical microscope creates a magnified image of an object specimen with an

objective lens and magnifies the image further more with an eyepiece to allow the
user to observe it by the naked eye. Assuming a specimen as AB in the following
figure, primary image (magnified image) A'B' of inverted real image is created
with an objective lens.
(ob). Next, arrange the eyepiece (oc) so that primary image A'B' is located closer to
the eyepiece than the anterior focal point, then more enlarged erect virtual image
A"B" is created. Put your naked eye in the eye (pupil) position on the eyepiece
barrel to observe the enlarged image.

In short, the last image to be observed is an inverted virtual image. As described

above, this type of microscope which creates a magnified image by combining an
objective lensmaking an inverted real image and an eyepiece making an erect
virtual image is called a compound microscope. The observation optical system in
an optical microscope is commonly standardized on this compound microscope.
Meanwhile, such type of microscope that directly observes an inverted real image
magnified with an objective lens is called a single microscope. A microscopic
observation on a TV monitor, recently popularized increasingly, uses the way of
directly capturing this inverted real image with a CCD camera, thereby being
comprised of a simple microscope optical system.
Components:-

All optical microscopes share the same basic components:

The eyepiece or ocular - a cylinder containing two or more lenses to bring the
image to focus for the eye. The eyepiece is inserted into the top end of the
body tube. Eyepieces are interchangeable and many different eyepieces can be
inserted with different magnifications. Typical values for eyepieces include X5,
X10 and X20. In some high performance microscopes, the optics of the
objective and eypiece are matched to give the best possible optical
performance. This occurs most commonly with apochromatic objectives
The objective lens - a cylinder containing one or more lenses to collect light
from the sample. At the lower end of the microscope tube one or more
objective lenses are screwed into a circular nose piece which may be rotated to
select the required objective lens. Typical values of objectives are x5, x10, x20,
x40, x80 and x100. Some high performance objectives may require matched
eyepieces to deliver the best optical performance.
The stage - a platform below the objective which supports the specimen being
viewed. In the centre of the stage is a circular hole through which light shines to
illuminate the specimen. The stage usually has arms to hold slides (rectangular
glass plates with typical dimensions of 25mm by 75mm, on which the specimen
is mounted).
The illumination source - below the stage the light is provided and controlled in
a variety of ways. At its simplest, daylight is directed via a mirror. Most
microscopes, however, have their own controllable light source that is focused
through an optical device called a condenser with diaphragms and filters
available to manage the quality and intensity of the light.
Metallurgical Study:

A representative tooth from the gear was cut along the cross section
metallographicallypolished,etched with 2% Nital solution(Steel base) and observed
under an optical microscope.The microstructure of ion nitride layer on all
hardened surfaces of the gear was found satisfactory.

Case hardness and core hardness

Requirement as per technology

Case hardness = HRN > 88

Core hardness = HRC 30-40.5

Hardness found during experiment:

Case Hardness-Under a load of 15kg in a Rockwell cum Superficial Hardness

tester,the following three observations were noted:-

1. 93
2. 92.5
3. 93.3
93+92.5+93.3
Average Case Hardness HRN15= =92.93 >88
3

Core Hardness-Under a load of 150kg in a Rockwell (C-Scale )Hardness tester,the

following three observations were noted:-

1. 35.5
2. 35.8
3. 36
35.5+35.8+36
Average Core Hardness HRC150= =35.76(30-40.5)
3

Depth of the nitrided surface at the teeth of the gear(permitted ion nitriding of
cavities of teeth to depth 0.2-0.3mm)
When observed under 5X magnifying power-

At the top=0.2476mm

At the flank=0.2491mm

At the bottom=0.2238mm

Quality of the ion nitrided layer-Uniform layer throughout

Advantages of Ion Nitriding over Conventional Gas Nitriding

Shorter time duration as compared to conventional Gas Nitriding.
Better hardness profile.
Controlled depth of layer by variation of process parameters.
Insignificant white layer(10 microns max).
Ability to impact hard wear and corrosion resistance without brittleness.
No oxidation of surface and high dimensional accuracy.
Improved layer quality(microstructure) and higher process stability.
CONCLUSION

Ion Nitriding increases wear and scuffing (scoring) resistance of the tooth flanks
and bending fatigue resistance at the tooth root as well as the rolling contact
fatigue (RCF) resistance of the gear teeth surface. It also produces high resistance
to tempering i.e. increases the resistance of the steel to softening at slightly
elevated temperatures. Ion Nitrided gears made from an appropriate material can
replace carburized and carbonitrided gears. Comparison of tooth flank fatigue
strength for different types of steel showed effect of case depth, core hardness,
and microstructure on fatigue strength. The load bearing capacity at the flank and
root of the gear tooth are affected by thickness of the compound zone. Ion
Nitrided gears with a maximum of one micron compound zone thickness have the
highest load bearing capacity. Nitrided gears do not require as much case depth as
required in carburized or other case hardened gears, and tensile strength of core
material prior to Ion Nitriding should be taken into account in assessment.