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Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan: Mysore's Eighteenth-

century Rulers in Transition

Kaveh Yazdani

Itinerario / Volume 38 / Issue 02 / August 2014, pp 101 - 120

DOI: 10.1017/S0165115314000370, Published online: 26 September 2014

Link to this article: http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0165115314000370

How to cite this article:

Kaveh Yazdani (2014). Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan: Mysore's Eighteenth-century Rulers
in Transition. Itinerario, 38, pp 101-120 doi:10.1017/S0165115314000370

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 101

Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan

Mysores Eighteenth-century Rulers in Transition

KAVEH YAZDANI*

Introduction

According to biographer Narendra Krishna Sinha, Haidar was not an innovative

ruler. He generally followed the established practices and also respected the local
customs and laws of each region under his sway.1 Nonetheless, Haidar was not
devoid of innovative measures: he initiated the proto-modernisation of the military
establishment.2 In Confronting Colonialism: Resistance and Modernization Under
Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan, Irfan Habib underlines that Haidars regime was
untouched by any other efforts to develop technology and commerce on modern
lines, let alone obtain an opening to science or enlightenment.3 In contrast to
Habib, some historians exaggerate Tipu Sultans modern characteristics. Mohibbul
Hasan writes that Tipu was an enlightened and tolerant ruler and in Asok Sens
view Tipu was free from Eastern conservatism.4 Sheik Ali commends Tipus flair
for modernization and believes: If Tipu had not been disturbed by wars he would
have perhaps brought about an industrial revolution to Mysore.5 Other historians
overemphasise Tipus pre-modern traits. Kate Brittlebank argues that, Innovations
and reforms were not so much the result of caprice or the actions of a modern
thinker, but, rather, part of the expected role of the king as defined by the cultural
traditions of the region.6 Irfan Habibs opinion is that, Tipus intellectual horizons
remained restricted to the old inherited learning. Here his innovations ran either
on traditional linesor into eccentricitiesTipu and his Mysore were, therefore, still
far away from a real opening to modern civilization, despite his own bold and rest-
less endeavours.7 How can historians chart a middle course between such oppos-
ing views? This paper argues that Haidar and, later, his son Tipu were transitional
figures who were neither predominantly modern nor pre-modern.

Haidar Ali
Haidar Ali was born between 1717 and 1722. He had three older half-brothers and
an elder brother by the name of Shahbaz or Ismael Sahib. Haidars ancestors
reached India by sea before the end of the sixteenth century. Few facts are known
about Haidars ancestors.8 Barun De maintains that Haidars lineage was of Sufi

Itinerario volume XXXVIII, issue 2, 2014 doi:10.1017/S0165115314000370

102 KAVEH YAZDANI

plebeian social origin.9 However, it is certain that Haidars father, Fath Mohammad,
was a professional soldier in the service of nawab (Muslim governor) Saadatullah
Khan of Arcot during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Mohammad Shah
(171948). At Arcot, Fath Mohammad commanded 600 foot, 500 horse and 50
rocket men. For unknown reasons, he left his employment in the service of
Saadatullah Khan and joined the Raja (ruler) of Mysorefrom whom he obtained
the title of naik (corporal). He did not stay long owing to discord among the vari-
ous chiefs in Mysore. He went to Sira (Karnataka) and became a Mughal faujdar
(military official)this time in the service of the nawab Dargah Quli Khanwhere
he commanded 400 foot soldiers and 200 horsemen.10
When Fath Mohammad died (c. 1728), Haidar may have been as young as five
and his brother Ismael eight. Fath Mohammad was in debt and some sources
reported that Dargah Quli Khans grandson Abbas captured and tortured the boys
after he took remaining belongings of the family.11 Fath Mohammads widow
informed her husbands nephew, Haidar Sahib, about their plight and obtained their
release through help from the subahdar (provincial governor) of Sira and Devraj
(Commander-in-Chief and brother of the powerful Mysore finance minister
Nanjaraj), who invited them to Srirangapatna. In the capital of Mysore, Haidar Sahib
treated the two boys like his own sons and taught them the art of fighting and cav-
alry. Nevertheless, we know very little about the environment in which Haidar was
raised, nor how old he was when he entered the army. Haidar Alis elder brother,
succeeded Haidar Sahib after his death. Haidar Ali was initially attached to his
brothers detachment. His courage, especially during the siege of Devanhalli (near
Bangalore) in 1749, convinced Nanjaraj to award him with the title of Khan and
the separate command of 200 foot soldiers and 50 horsemen.12
In 1750, Haidar and his Bedar peons (irregular infantry) captured a portion of the
treasure of the assassinated Nasir Jang, the Nizam of Hyderabad. He was thus able
to increase the number of soldiers at his command. He also recruited French
deserters to train his troops. He impressed Nanjaraj, again, during the Trichinopoly
Campaign and, on returning to Mysore, was appointed as the faujdar of Dindigul
(c. 1755). He further enlarged his troops and employed French engineers to organ-
ise his regular artillery, arsenal and laboratory.13
After the death of his brother (c. 1756), Haidar succeeded him because Ismail
Sahib had no male children. In his new position, he commanded 15,000 soldiers
including 200 Europeans and 3000 cavalry.14 However, starting in the mid-1750s,
Srirangapatna became very unstable. The relationship between the powerless Raja
of Mysore and the two brothers Devraj and Nanjaraj was getting bad. Devraj and
Nanjaraj were in such dispute regarding their policies towards the Raja that the for-
mer resigned his government position in 1757. War expenses and invasions by the
Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas had concurrently emptied the state treas-
ury.15 Troops who had not been paid for months decided to block the delivery of
water and provisions to Nanjarajs house. However, Haidar proved capable of pla-
cating the ministers as well as paying off the troops.16 As a consequence, the Raja
of Mysore appointed him Commander-in-Chief when the Marathas invaded Mysore
in 1758. He succeeded in obtaining advantageous peace terms with the Marathas.
When Nanjaraj decided to retire, Haidar seized power. After he successfully thwart-
ed a conspiracy by his divan (finance minister) Khande Rao and the Raja, no one
HAIDAR ALI AND TIPU SULTAN 103

challenged his power.17 The key to Haidars success was courage, determination,
diplomatic and military skills, as well as the might of his semi-modern army. While
Haidar always remained, in title, subordinate to the Hindu Raja of Mysore, he had
full command. He also obtained the title of Khan and the office of faujdar of Sira
in 1761. Haidar appointed a successor to Chik Krishna Raja when he died in 1766.
Over time, Haidar grew more powerful and considerably enlarged the territory of
Mysore. He annexed Bednur, Sira, Sonda, Baramahal, Palaghat, areas of Malabar
and Maratha territories in Karnataka. Under Haidar, Mysore grew more powerful. In
spite of all this, Ali Khan, the Nizam of Hyderabad, regarded Haidar to be nothing
more than a mere zamindar.18 Ishtiaq Husain Qureshi argues that the Nizam: Felt
justified in planning the destruction of Haidar Ali because he considered him to be
a mere usurper with no right to his territories.19
Haidar usually went to bed after midnight and woke up about six oclock in the
morning.20 He fluently spoke Hindustani, Kannada, Marathi, Telugu, and Tamil.21
But he could not read or write and the only formal education that he had was as a
soldier. Nonetheless, the German Protestant missionary Christian Friedrich
Schwartz wrote that he had an excellent memory and French sources portrayed him
as administrating his darbar (court) better than any other prince of Asia.22 Maistre
de la Tour, an employee in Haidars army, relaid that, There is no sovereign more
easy of access to every one that has business with him, whether strangers or sub-
jects; and the former whatever may be their quality, are always sure to be introduced
into his presence, by demanding an audience, by a Soutahdar, or macebearer, of
which there is always a sufficient number at the gate of his palace.23 Accounts by
Schwartz, Maistre de la Tour and others also suggest that Haidar possessed a
strong sense of justice and he did not shy away from punishing officials (e.g., horse-
keepers and tax collectors) who mistreated the poor and powerless. He even
punished officials of high rank in public.24 His sons and sons-in-law were also
flogged if they had done something wrong.25 Schwartz observed that Haidar pro-
tected abandoned boys and assembled a battalion consisting exclusively of
orphans. He fed and clothed the boys, to whom Haidar gave little wooden muskets
to practice military training. State-owned orphanages had the purpose of recruiting
abandoned boys into his army. Schwartz was so impressed by Haidars care for
orphans that he believed that the British should follow his example. Haidar gave
Schwartz a sum of 300 rupees to sponsor the building of such an orphanage.26
With regard to Haidars administration, Schwartz and Wilks observed that, he
orders one man to write a letter and read it to him; then he calls another to read
it again. If the writer has in the least deviated from his orders, his head pays for it.27
Schwartz affirmed that fear was one of Haidars most important means of rule;
whereas, he also rewarded good behaviour.28 To be respected, prevent treason,
increase the efficiency of his administration and, ultimately, sustain his rule, Haidar
felt obliged to pursue a policy of reward and punishment.
The German historian Mathias Christian Sprengel (17461803) wrote that Haidar
was the first Indian prince, after emperor Aurengzeb and the Maratha ruler Shivaji
(c.162780), to attract European attention.29 In 1781, the French Compagnie des
Indes praised that Haidar played an incredibly important role in Indian affairs.30 In
part due to such praise, the British and Haidar began to regard each other as arch-
enemies. Haidar became increasingly aware of the danger that the British posed to
104 KAVEH YAZDANI

the sovereignty of Indian rulers like himself. Haidars hostility towards the British
increased as a result of his own experiences with the East Indian Company (EIC).
Despite the fact that it was agreed upon in a 1769 treaty, the EIC did not give him
assistance when the Marathas attacked him in 1770.31 He wrote that, Another thing
they assured me [was that] they were not going to Mahe Bunder, yet they went in a
manner unknown to me.32 Schwartz also confirmed that EIC did not keep its word
and that it was unwilling to peacefully coexist with Mysore. He reported that the
British governor of Madras was not interested in peace because he engaged an
agent to collect money from him. It should not come as a surprise that Haidar
angrily sent the British agent away and took preparatory military measures to
defend Mysore from the EIC.33 Haidar noted that, The English first try to secure a
footing in other territories by outward professions of friendship and then gradually
they bring them under their full sway.34
Haidars rule can be characterised as generally autocratic and centralistic.
Nevertheless, he was pragmatic and respected by the local population. Twenty years
after his death, the Scottish physician and naturalist Francis Buchanan
(17621829) observed that, On account of his justice, wisdom, and moderation,
his memory is greatly respected by the natives of all descriptions.35 Father Schwartz
even compared Haidar favorably to the Prussian King Frederick the Great
(171286): In his accuracy, in his astuteness against the violators of his orders, in
his efforts to regulate and improve his army, in the daily and strictest reply of letters
that he receives, there are some traits of sameness. But the astonishing difference
between them is that your king [Frederick] is an erudite prince, whereas Haidar can-
not read. Nonetheless, no one is able to deceive him.36 Innes Munro similarly wrote
in mid-1780 that, Many have compared the military genius and character of Hyder
Ally to those of the renowned Frederick the Second, king of Prussia; and indeed,
when we consider the distinguished abilities of that prince amongst his contempo-
raries in this country, and the intrepid manner by which he has established himself
upon the throne of Misore, and extended his dominions, one cannot but allow the
simile to be exceedingly just.37
In 1782, Haidar finally succumbed to a cancer, from which he had been suffer-
ing for a long time.38 Before he died, Haidar allegedly bequeathed a letter to his son
Tipu. In this letter, Haidar outlined a lucid political and strategic analysis that was
clearly patriotic and anti-colonial:

India since the death of Aurangzeb, has lost her rank among the empires of
Asia. This fair land is parceled out into provinces which make war against
the other; the people divided into a multitude of sects, have lost their love
of the country. The Hindusare little able to defend their country, which
has become the prey of strangersThe greatest obstacle you have to con-
quer is jealousy of the Europeans. The English are today all powerful in
India. It is necessary to weaken them by war. The resources of Hindustan
do not suffice to expel them from the lands they have invaded. Put the
nations of Europe one against the other. It is by the aid of the French that
you could conquer the British armies which are better trained than the
Indian. The Europeans have surer tactics; always use against them their
own weapons.39
HAIDAR ALI AND TIPU SULTAN 105

Tipu Sultan

After Haidars first wife became paralysed while giving birth to a daughter, he mar-
ried Fatima or Fakhr-un-Nissa, the daughter of Mir Muin-ud-din the governor of
Cuddapah. Tipu Sultan was the firstborn son of Haidar Ali and Fakhr-un-Nissa.
Tipu Sultan was also called Fath Ali, after his grandfather Fath Mohammad.40
Tipu was an educated ruler, who, from an early age was inducted into the art of
war. Tipu was taught riding, shooting, fencing, etc. He also received instruction in
the science of tactics and learning about European military practices when joined
his father in reviews and maneuvers.41 He was in violent battles and wars from a very
young age, and around the age of seventeen, he obtained his first nominal com-
mand.42 According to James Achilles Kirkpatrick (17641805), Tipu was: Born and
bred in camp, and tutored in the science of war under a great master [i.e., his father
Haidar Ali] possesses all the characteristic valour and hardiness of the soldier while
his achievements in the Fields of Mars are far from discrediting the precepts incul-
cated by his fatherhis whole reign having been one continued state of military
preparations or actual warfare.43
Haidar also engaged learned tutors in order to provide an education to Tipu.44
Charles Stewart confirmed that Haidar had procured for his son the most able
masters in all the sciences cultivated by the Mohammedans, and enforced, by strict
discipline, the attendance of the youth to his studies.45 The names of his teachers
remain obscured and, by reason of the turbulent times, his education was likely
interrupted time and again. Nevertheless, we know that Tipu not only possessed
books on Islamic theology, law, Sufism, arts and crafts, the natural sciences,
medicine, agriculture and military maneuvers, but was also familiar with the knowl-
edge and resources of the Mughal elite and the political developments of West
Asia.46 He knew about the French Revolution of 1789 and, in 1797, went as far as
initiating a Jacobin assembly in the capital city of Srirangapatna.47 This was done
basically on strategic grounds so as to be assisted by revolutionary France against
the bone-crushing British threat.
An anonymous soldier was so impressed by the quantity of Tipus books that he
wrote that his library promises on the whole the greatest acquisition ever gained to
Europe of Oriental History & literature.48 Charles Stewart, who had written a
descriptive catalogue of his library, noted that theology or Sufism was Tipus favorite
subject of study. He added that the Sultan was ambitious of being an Author,
while not less than forty-five books, on different subjects, were either composed or
translated from other languages, under his immediate patronage.49 Indeed, apart
from numerous letters and hukmnamahs (written orders),50 Tipu also wrote down
his dreams (Khab Namah). They were set down in his own handwriting and date
from 1785 to 1798.51 Moreover, he wrote his own memoirs (Tuzak-i Tipu), a book
on astrology (Zabarjad) and a treatise on the preparation of perfumes, the arts of
dyeing and cleaning, etc.52 Significantly, Tipu also seems to have written the first
useful manual on the handgun (Risalah dar Adab-i Tufang).53 Among the books
Tipu had commissioned, there was a compilation of a treatise on the art of dyeing
cloth and of blending perfumes (Mujmua al Senayi), a work on medicine (Bahr al-
Manafi), a Persian grammar book54 (Kitab Amukhtan), a compendium of theology,
law and the art of government (Fakhr ash-Shiukh), an account of Tipus emissaries
106 KAVEH YAZDANI

to the Ottoman Empire (Waqai Manazil-i Rum),55 a number of writings on military

rules and regulations (Fath al-Mujahidin; Dabita-i Sawari), on official decorum,
royal insignia, decorations, medals, banners, etc. (Muntakhab-i Dawabit-i Sultani;
Risalah-i Padkha) and especially on religious matters concerning the different
chapters of the Quran (Fihrist Suraha-i Kitab Allah), marriage and its different
religious and moral advantages (Risalah dar Nikah), prayers (Taat Saniya), funda-
mental principles of Islam (Khulasa-i Sultani), date of the death of the Prophet,
sacred persons and important Islamic figures (Sahifat al-Aras), etc.56 Tipus library
further revealed that he was also interested in art as illustrated by his patronage of
two books on the music of Mysore (Mufarrih-ul-Qulub completed in 1785; Jalwa
Namah) as well as a Persian treatise on those rules of calligraphy (Risalah dar
Khatt-i Tarz-i Mohammadi) that he himself invented.57 The contemporary transla-
tor and editor of Tipus writings, William Kirkpatrick (17541812), observed that the
library contained about 2,000 volumes, including Qurans, Shahnamahs (The book
of Kings) and Divans (collection of poems). This was affirmed by Charles Stewart.
His descriptive catalogue shows that the library consisted of Arabic, Persian and a
few Hindi, Dekhani and Turkish manuscripts. The library included 118 books on
history; 115 books on Sufism; 24 books on ethics; 190 books on Poetry; 19 books
on arts and sciences; 7 books on arithmetic and mathematics, including a transla-
tion of Euclids Elements; 20 books on astronomy; 62 books on physics; 45 books
on philology; 29 lexicographies; 46 books on theology; 95 books on jurisprudence
and 44 Qurans.58 Significantly, Tipu Sultan not only continued his fathers custom
of engaging European mercenaries in his army, but, he reportedly demanded help
in compiling and translating the above-mentioned 45 new books from his British
prisoners. Just to name a few examples, Tipus library contained a translation of the
Complete London Dispensatory, a work which supposedly was the Result of the
united Efforts of all the Learned (Physicians) of Europe;59 an English treatise on
electrical and medical experiments; a translation of Dr. Cockburnes treatise on the
twist of the intestines and a treatise on botany and natural history translated from
French and English books.60 This manifests that he realised both the importance of
European knowledge and grasped the relevance of studying European books.
Interestingly, the translations of Persian papers found in the palace of the Sultan
revealed that he had at least some knowledge of the history of Great Britain:
Names of the three Islands belonging to the EnglishIreland, Gernsey, Jersey. On
the English Island there was once the Rajah of a tribe called Cooseea [Scotland] a
hundred years ago, the English Rajah put the Rajah of the Coosseeas to death, and
took possession of his country.61
Tipu was also aware of the American War of Independence and reportedly
uttered, Every blow that is struck in the cause of American liberty throughout the
world, in France, India and elsewhere and so long as a single insolent and savage
tyrant remains, the struggle shall continue.62 There is even some evidence that
Tipu was acquainted with several European languages, in addition to Kanarese,
Hindustani, and Persian.63
Tipu not only sent envoys to West Asia and Europe to forge alliances but also
established and consolidated trade relations to procure foreign innovations.64 His
interest in books and general knowledge, as well as a fascination with European
innovations likely stimulated his positive attitudes vis--vis science and technology.
HAIDAR ALI AND TIPU SULTAN 107

George Basalla writes that, The Muslim tradition innovation or novelty is automat-
ically assumed to be evil until it can be proven otherwise and applies to innovations
made by believers of Islam as well as those imported from other cultures.65 This
claim does not seem to be applicable to Tipu, who was a devout Muslim and avid
about European technology. He possessed a number of European articles, like the
watch he kept in his pocket.66 When Tipu was around eighteen, he visited Madras
and came across a microscope that belonged to one of Haidars friends. He desired
to possess it and a European merchant named Mr. Debonnaire arranged for Tipu
to have it as a present.67 When the British plundered Tipus palace in 1799, they
encountered telescopes, and optical glasses of every size and sight, with looking
glasses and pictures in unbounded profusion; while of china and glass ware there
was sufficient to form a large mercantile magazine.68 In 1792, Major Dirom found
a case of mathematical instruments from London in Tipus tent. He concluded that
this gave probability to accounts we have received that the Sultan has turned his
attention to the science of fortification and that he had been his own engineer.69
Buchanan observed that a French artist helped Tipu to construct a water-powered
machine for boring cannons. He mocked Tipu for having removed the water wheel
and replacing it with bullocks.70 In defense of Tipu, Irfan Habib assumed that he
probably employed bullocks because the waterwheels did not work well. He points
out that attaching bullocks to the engine necessitated a supplementary iron geared
mechanism which must have required a creditable level of craftsmanship.71 The
incident hardly supports Buchanans statement that Tipu was little sensible of the
value of machines.72 On the contrary, Tipu showed a profound interest in mechan-
ical devices. A 17-year-old Englishman and native of India, William Smith, gave
evidence of Tipus enthusiasm for technology. Smith attended Tipus embassy in
1794, when the EIC released his sons as hostages.73 Smith presumed Tipu detained
the embassy for 19 days in order to instruct two of his arz begs (lords of requests)
in the use of anapparatus, presented to him [Tipu] by the government of
Madras.74 In a letter to Andrew Bell, Smith revealingly wrote: I exhibited the follow-
ing experiments, viz. head and wig, dancing images, electric stool, cotton fired,
small receiver and stand, hemispheres, Archimedess screw, siphon, Tantaluss cup,
water-pump, condensing engine, &c. Captain Doveton was present, and explained,
as I went on, to the Sultaun, who was giving an instance of his being acquainted
with some of these experiments. He has shewn us a condensing engine made by
himself, which spouted water higher than ours.75
Tipu set high value on transmitting European technological innovations. More
than once, he asked Smith to teach a man, who professed several mechanic arts,
the doctrine of the siphon, Archimedess screw, and the water-pump.76 Tipus pen-
chant for technology steadily grew. His efforts to enhance local sites of production
and state manufactures reflected this penchant.77 Tipu also appreciated the value of
a French education. Although it never came to fruition, he was willing to send one
of his sons to go to school in France.78
When Haidar died in late 1782, Tipu assumed power without any obstacles
because the military considered his younger brother to be of little experience and
good sense.79 This event marked a new phase in Tipus life and, he detached him-
self from the shadow of his father. Tipus newly gained autonomy permitted him to
put his idiosyncratic ideas and hukm namahs into practice. Tipu terminated his offi-
108 KAVEH YAZDANI

cial subordination to the previous Wodeyar Dynasty and declared independence in

1783. This was a potentially perilous political step since the Mughal Emperor, or
shahanshah (king of kings), was still largely considered the God-given legal and
religious leader of all Indian Muslims and also principal authority for successor
states in India until up to the early nineteenth century.80 This decision also provoked
the Nizam of Hyderabad and the nawab Walajah, who were both under British influ-
ence and were looking for an excuse to attack Tipu. When Tipu tried to obtain the
status of a legal prince via the Mughal court in 1783, he did not get an approval.
He was even denied the khilat (Robe of Honor),81 owing to the considerable degree
of influence that Mysores arch-enemy the British already exercised in Delhi. In reac-
tion, Tipu symbolically omitted the name and title of the Mughal Emperor from his
coins and started to call himself Padshah (or Emperor) in 1786. The assumption of
this title represented the second shift in Tipu Sultans life after his takeover of
Mysore. In 1786, he issued The Mysorean Revenue Regulations or Regulations for
the Management of his Country (i.e., the Regulations) which covered almost all
aspects of daily life from agriculture to peoples mores. He forged a new identity for
himself by changing the calendar, currencies, weights, measurements, renaming
towns and changing the words of command, names of firearms, titles of military
officials, etc. into Persian.82 The Regulations also marked a transition to an Islamic
theocracy.83 Tipus neighbouring enemies kept a jealous watch over him and were
reluctant to accept his authority. It was only after the victorious war against the
Marathas and the Nizam (178487) that both these forces acceded to call him Tipu
Sultan instead of Fath Ali Khan. Only outside potentates, such as the Persian King
Karim Khan Zand (r. 176579) and the Afghan ruler Zaman Shah Abdali (r.
17931800), accepted Haidar and Tipu as equal monarchs.84
According to the French merchant, banker, writer, politician and sea captain
Pierre-Antoine Monneron (17471801), Tipu regularly worked six hours per day. For
the remainder of the day, he rested or dedicated his time to the practice of Islam
to which he was strongly attached.85 It is more probable that he worked sixteen
hours from morning until evening, as Mohibbul Hasan suggests. Another European
who worked in Mysore, confirmed that Tipu was a diligent worker who rarely occu-
pied himself with pleasures, although he sometimes enjoyed the art of dancing. He
had breakfast and dinner simply with two or three of his sons and some principal
officers. In the evening, a qazi (Muslim judge) and his principal munshi (secretary)
were equally present at dinner. Tipus biographer, Hasan, describes that during the
meal, Tipu discussed on learned and religious subjects with those who were
present. He also sometimes recited passages and verses from the works of great
historians and poets.86 Monneron was of the opinion that Tipus main passion was
neither for conquest nor wealth but to preserve the country he inherited from his
father and to make a historical mark which would live on after his death.87 Evidence
suggests that he was proud, vain and imperious. He was also forgiving and par-
doned his brother Abdul Karim, his ministers Mir Sadiq and Purniah and his General
Qamar ud-din Khan. He remained loyal to his friends and allies. One of his most
striking characteristics was his ambition and determination to struggle until the
bitter end without much disposition towards compromise in order not to become a
vassal of foreign forces and lose independence.88
While Tipu consulted his chief civil and military officers on significant issues, he
HAIDAR ALI AND TIPU SULTAN 109

was an undisputed autocrat: he determined Mysores foreign policy, he was its

military leader and personally dictated important letters.89 According to Captain
Taylor, Tipus intelligence is an object of particular considerationHe does not
depend on the word of a single Individual, but employs several on the same occa-
sion, examines them apart & whether they agree or differ in their Tale they are all
detained close prisoners till the truth is disclosed, and to the man who is found in
an error, no lenity is shown.90 Tipus autocratic rule was pervasive as he adminis-
tered every possible detail such as fixing the wages of the lower classes (e.g. the
earnings of a sweeper).91
Most existing European documents, most notably travel accounts and the
records of the EIC and French East India Companies, described Tipu in an unflat-
tering manner. The EIC civil servant George Forster stated that, He is said to be
violent, cruel and so insufferably arrogant that he has disgusted most of his Fathers
old servants and adherents. His treatment of his Troops has been so oppressive and
severe, that it is the received opinion in his Durbar that more Men have been lost
by desertion than by the casualties of the late War.92 In a similar vein, the French
Governor of Pondicherry, Cossigny, wrote in 1786: His cruelty, due to his greed and
ill-intent; I am always afraid that at the moment of combat, the enemies will clean
up a total defection of his troops as he has mistreated so many of them.93 Besides
the fact that Cossignys statement about Tipus supposed greed is inconsistent with
those of Monneron, there is further evidence that contradicts the statements by
Forster and Cossigny. Throughout Tipus reign, the Mysore army was loyal to him
and possessed a favourable opinion of his intentions and capabilities. According to
Major Dirom, Tipus troops remained faithful in the field until their last overthrow.94
Most of the European accounts of Tipu produce biased images and depict him as
a one-dimensional oriental despot. In 1788, J. Moodie writes that Tipu may be said
to be a living example of Eastern barbarity, even his father, the implacable Hyder Ali
Khan, has been exceeded by him in acts of the most unparalleled cruelty; his sav-
age manners yielding only to the baseness and malignity of his heart.95 European
accounts of Tipu Sultan must be taken with a grain of salt, since orientalist senti-
ments generally distorted the picture.96 Few European accounts exist that contradict
the one-sided and one-dimensional depiction of Tipu as a cruel and violent ruler.
Such accounts serve well to correct portrayals of Tipu as imbued with prejudices.
Edward Moor was one of the few EIC officers who was favourable toward Tipu.97 He
served as Captain of a contingent during the Third AngloMysore War and
observed: Thosewho do not choose to be carried away by the torrent of popu-
lar opinion, but, in preference to thinking by proxy, venture to think for themselves,
can find the same excuse for the restlessness of Tippoo, as for that of any other
ambitious sovereign; and on the subject of his cruelties, venture to express a doubt
whether they may not possibly have been exaggerated.98 In 1792, Major Dirom
observed that Tipus government, though strict and arbitrary, was the despotism of
a political able sovereign, who nourishes, not oppresses, the subjects who are to be
the means of his future aggrandizement: and his cruelties were, in general, inflict-
ed only on those whom he considered as his enemies.99
With the exception of certain groups (e.g., uncompromising poligars100 and
wealthy merchants, children of prostitutes, prisoners of war and forced labourers)
and religious minorities (local Christians), Tipu acted toward his subjects like a
110 KAVEH YAZDANI

benevolent autocrat. The fact that Tipu appears to have attached importance to the
adequate attendance to wounded soldiers by paying them a fixed compensation,
support Moor and Diroms assumptions about Tipu.101 In 1798, according to
Colonel Wilks, Tipu recorded that, To the widow and children of every man who
shall fall in the battle, a maintenance equal to a fourth of the share so accruing, and
a pay of the deceased martyr had to be paid. In addition to this payment, the
widows and children of men who merely die on service, one quarter of gold fanam
daily (about two and a half Rupees a month) was due.102 Tipu was also concerned
about the benevolent treatment of peasants.103 Tipu additionally proved his concern
for disabled subjects in his Regulations of 1786: He intended to employ the blind
and lame for blowing the Bellows of Iron Works and the amil or amildar was
ordered to give them something for their travelling charges. Tipu took rudimen-
tary steps towards the abolition of slavery when he prohibited the sale of abandoned
girls, eunuchs, orphans, and sex slaves. The amil had to endow those categories
of people and former prostitutes (who were made to quit their occupation) with daily
portions of money and rice.104 In the face of such benevolence, the violence of
Tipus despotism cannot be ignored. He committed war crimes against rebellious
Muslim and Hindu subjects and massacred local Christians. He abused his prison-
ers of war and foreign artisans, tortured or assassinated undesirable persons and
marginalised a number of other subjects.105
Despite Tipus expansion of Mysore by adding the territories of Adoni, Sanore,
Koorke, Anagundi, Karpah, Kurnul, and Imtiazgur to it, his loss in the Third Anglo
Mysore War was a great watershed for him. The EIC pressed him into the Treaty of
Seringapatam in 1792. Under the treaty, Tipu ceded half his territory (including the
fertile lands of the Raichur Doab, spice-rich Malabar and the ports of Calicut and
Cannanore) and paid an enormous amount in reparations. The burden of the
British was very heavy from 1792 on. Tipus leadership became more and more
repressive in order to raise the necessary taxes to pay off the EIC and prepare for
future war. Tipus dreams dealt with his wars against the EIC and their allies.106 Tipu
shared his fathers animosity towards the EIC and he wrote to the Compagnie des
Indes that, Our enemies (the English) are enemies of all the people of this coun-
try: there would be no regard for rights or justice: and if given the chance, they will
seize everything, followed with a steadfast focus on their same intent to promise the
same system of usurpation and aggrandizement.107
French sources state that Tipu desired maintaining his fathers alliance with
France until the British were forced out of India.108 While the rulers of other
provinces were caught up in short-term considerations, Haidar and Tipu antici-
pated and realised the long-term dangers that emanated from the EIC. Tipus
dreams bear witness to this danger and reveal that times of peace were the excep-
tion rather than the rule. A nearly continuous state of war accompanied him until
British soldiers under the command of General George Harris on 4 May 1799 killed
him while defending the fort of his capital.109
In the face of so much uninterrupted warfare, it is legitimate to ask how Haidar
and Tipu managed to sustain power for nearly 40 years? The power basis on which
Haidar and Tipu both stood was the military. Their deposing of the Wodeyar
Dynasty, weakening the rural potentates, monopolising important trade commodi-
ties and debilitating powerful local merchants, along with a careful policy towards
HAIDAR ALI AND TIPU SULTAN 111

the Hindu majority, ensured that Haidar and, especially, Tipu upheld power.110 The
military also helped being the backbone of Haidars and Tipus rule. This is appar-
ent from a letter the former prepared for the latter before he died: My sonI leave
you an Empire which I have not received from my ancestors. A sceptre acquired by
violence is always fragile; meanwhile you will not find any obstacles in your family;
you have no rivals among the Chiefs of the army. I do not leave you any enemies
among my subjects. You have nothing to fear as regards the internal affairs of your
state. But it is necessary to carry your vision very far.111 Despite often chaotic polit-
ical circumstances, Tipu carried this vision far by improving agriculture, administra-
tion, foreign relations, the military establishment, infrastructure, commerce and
manufacture in Mysore. Along with this vision, Tipu Sultan had a determination to
maintain independence at any cost: In this world I would rather live two days like a
tiger, than two hundred years like a sheep.112

Conclusion
Tipu had clear pre-modern characteristics. He was a patriarch who possessed a
harem with servants, eunuchs, and 333 women.113 He showed prejudice against the
children of prostitutes and ran an Islamic theocracy that discriminated against non-
Muslims in the administration, army, and taxation. He prohibited drinking alcohol
and smoking tobacco or cannabis.114 Tipu neglected to modernise Mysores tradi-
tional education system. He established no universities, military and engineering
schools during his reign. He was neither interested nor capable of modernising the
political and judicial system according to principles such as equality before the law,
the rule of law, principles of democracy and citizens rights. At the same time, he
was very aware of the need to modernise the military, economic and technological
structure of the country. He successfully continued his fathers proto-modernisation
of the military establishment along European lines.115 He realised the importance of
mechanical engineering and introduced boring machines.116 Tipu even appears to
have built a condensing engine himself.117 He ordered the purchase of barometers,
thermometers, spectacles, clocks, and a printer of books (chhapasaz) as well as
printers who could print Arabic letters.118 Tipu thought that he could obtain miner-
al coal in the Ottoman domain and instructed officials to bring large quantities of
stone coal (sang-i angisht) and ordered his embassies in Turkey and France to
engage four experts who were willing to come to Mysore in order to explore the
presence of coal ores.119 Watches seem to have played a practical purpose for time
management of government officials.120 Tipu engaged 30 or 32 French experts in
order to foster mechanical knowledge and as already mentioned, he demanded
help in compiling and translating 45 new books from his British prisoners.121 All this
suggests that Tipu Sultan was neither pre-modern nor modern, but a person who,
like his father Haidar, reflected the contradictions of a society in transition.
112 KAVEH YAZDANI

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Notes
* Kaveh Yazdani received his PhD degree in
social sciences (Sozialwissenschaften) at the
University of Osnabrck in 2014. His scholar-
ly interests include the Great Divergence
debate and the history of South and West
Asia between the sixteenth and nineteenth
centuries.
1 Sinha, Haidar Ali, 233.
2 M.M.D.L.T., The History of Hyder Shah,
378; Shama Rao, Modern Mysore, vol. 1,
26; Guha, Pre-British State System, 35,
612; Habib, Introduction, xix, xx, xxii.
3 Habib, Introduction, xxii.
4 Hasan, History of Tipu, 362, 357; Sen, Pre-
British Economic Formation, 48.
5 Ali, Tipu Sultan, 68, 71.
6 Brittlebank, Tipu Sultans Search, 125.
7 Habib, Introduction, xxxivxxxv.
8 It has been claimed that Haidar descended
from the Quraish of Mecca, the same tribe as
Prophet Mohammed, but this could have well
been a fabricated pedigree to strengthen his
legitimacy. According to Bowring, Haidars
father, Fath Mohammad, married two sisters
after his first marriage. The younger sister
was supposed to have been Haidars mother,
but no mention is made of her name. It is
only indicated that the father of the sisters
was a Navayat of the race of Hashim (great-
grandfather of the Prophet Mohammed).
M.M.D.L.T, The History of Hyder Shah, 334;
Kirmani, The History of Hydur Naik, 111;
Bowring, Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan, and the
Struggle with the Musalman Powers of the
South, 123; Hasan, History of Tipu Sultan
(1951), 3. For biographical facts on Haidar
Ali, see also Sinha, Haidar Ali; Ali, English
Relations with Haidar Ali. For a summary,
see Habib, Introduction.
9 For the Sufi plebeian social origin, see
Barun De, The Ideological and Social
Background of Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan,
3. Concerning the plebeian origin, De writes,
it is certain that his more proximate forefa-
thers were dargah [shrine at a Sufi masters
tomb] servitors, then land managers, then
petty warriorsThis was a social position far
below the elite compradores of colonialism in
the eighteenth-century Indian ruling class in
Hyderabad, the Maratha Confederacy, Awadh
or Bengal. Indeed this ancestry was not even
that of service gentry, that is petty rural,
madad-i-maash grantees, prebendaries, or
the now semi-permanent taluqdars [land-
115
owner] or jagirdars. With regard to his Sufi
origin, De, for example, mentions that one of
Haidars forefathers was a wandering dervish
or that, when his wife was pregnant, they vis-
ited the tomb of the Sufi master, Tipu Mastan
Aulia, in Arcot, in order to pray for a safe
birthing and the delivery of a son (45).
10 Hasan, History (1951), 4; Kirmani, The
History of Hydur Naik, 10.
11 Hasan, History (1951), 5; Chhabra, Advance
Study in the History of Modern India, 271.
However, Hasan does not indicate how the
boys were tortured.
12 Hasan, History, 34.
13 Sinha, Haidar Ali, 17; Hasan, History (1951),
57; Kirmani, The History of Hydur Naik,
117, 201; Wilks, Historical Sketches, 167,
173.
14 M.M.D.L.T., The History of Hyder Shah,
345, 389.
15 Wilks, Historical Sketches, vol. 1, 2201,
229; Hasan, History (1951), 7.
16 Shortly after the reconciliation, Devraj died in
mid-1757.Wilks, Historical Sketches, vol. 1,
2257. According to Wilks (227), Haidar was
able to pay the troops because he seized on
all the accountants, and by threats and tor-
ture compelled them to produce the true
accounts. By these means he was enabled in
the course of a few days to discharge four
thousand horse, and a large amount of other
rabble. Furthermore, he caused all but the
most extravagant and indigent [chiefs] to be
seized after their departure as the ringleaders
of the late mutiny, and plundered of all their
property as a forfeiture to the State.
17 Wilks, Historical Sketches, vol. 1, 22832;
Hasan, History (1951), 78.
18 Designation used for a variety of different
types of landlords or petty chiefs, independ-
ent of the imperial power or provincial gov-
ernment. Zamindars had a right to the share
of peasant produce and to collect revenues
from the tenants and cultivators, while they
also paid a negotiated sum of land revenue to
the government.
19 Qureshi, Tipu Sultans Embassy to
Constantinople, 73; Habib, Introduction,
xx, xxi. For the conditions that enabled
Haidars military success and territorial
expansion, see Sen, The French in India, 20.
20 M.M.D.L.T., The History of Hyder Shah, 17.
21 Rao, History of Mysore, vol. 3, 395.
22 FSH: AFSt/M 2 E 17: 13: Reisetagebuch von
Christian Friedrich Schwartz, Tiruchirapalli
1779,. 967; AN: C/2/304: Reponse, 32 ;
C/2/162: Portrait du Prince heider-ali-kan, 34;
116
Wilks, Historical Sketches, vol. 1, 526.
23 M.M.D.L.T., The History of Hyder Shah, 17.
24 Ibid., 1921; FSH: AFSt/M 2 E 17: 13:
Reisetagebuch von Christian Friedrich
Schwartz, Tiruchirapalli 1779, 967; Wilks,
Historical Sketches, vol. 1, 525.
25 Schubert, Christian Friedrich Schwartz, der
Sendbote des Evangeliums in Indien, 65;
Wilks, Historical Sketches, vol. 1, 525.
26 It has not been indicated who the orphans
were. FSH: AFSt/M 1 B 74: 31: Reisebericht
von Christian Friedrich Schwartz an
[Unbekannt], Tanjore 1779; AFSt/M 2 E 17:
13: Reisetagebuch von Christian Friedrich
Schwartz, Tiruchirapalli 1779, 967;
Schubert, Christian Friedrich Schwartz, 67,
69; According to Wilks translation, the 300
rupees were paid to cover his travel expenses.
Wilks, Historical Sketches, vol. 1, 527.
Furthermore, Wilks argued that This strange
misapprehension is a singular example of the
good fathers credulity. The persons, whose
situation excited this eulogium on Hyders
humanity were the chelas, captive
slavesconverts, in imitation of the Turkish
Janissaries (new soldiers), which, under the
name of the chela battalions arrived at matu-
rity, and were so much augmented during the
government of his successor (527, 407).
Interestingly, when Haidars war captive
James Bristow was captured in early 1781,
he wrote that I was put to exercise a number
of Slave boys with Sticks made in the form of
wooden firelocks, on our refusing to do this at
first our Subsistance was stopped for three
days and we were threatened to be starved to
Death if we refused. FSH: AFSt/M 2 A 2: 18:
Escape from Captivity. Narrative given by
Bristow, whose escape from Tippoos,
Dominions, was mentioned in a former
Calcutta Paper and who is now there,
Calcutta Gazette 30.6.1791. See also
Bristow, A Narrative of the Sufferings of
James Bristow, 41.
27 FSH: AFSt/M 2 E 17: 13: Reisetagebuch von
Christian Friedrich Schwartz, Tiruchirapalli
1779, 967; Wilks, Historical Sketches, vol.
1, 526. See also Schubert, Christian
Friedrich Schwartz, 67.
28 FSH: AFSt/M 2 E 17: 13: Reisetagebuch von
Christian Friedrich Schwartz, Tiruchirapalli
1779, 967; Schubert, Christian Friedrich
Schwartz, 65; Wilks, Historical Sketches,
vol. 1, 525.
29 Sprengel, Leben Hyder Allys, v.
30 ADAE: Asie; Mmoire et Document; Indes
Orientales et Colonies Franaises (173884),
KAVEH YAZDANI
Vol. 7: Rflexions sur les Evnements qui
arrive[ent] dans lInde. Un seul homme est en
tat den tirer les plus grand avantages,
29.5.1781, 338.
31 As Bowring pointed out, the Madras
Government consented to a stipulation that
in case either of the contracting parties
should be attacked by other powers, mutual
assistance should be rendered to drive the
enemy out. Bowring, Haidar Ali and Tipu
Sultan, 58.
32 IOR: H/170: Translation of a Conversation
between the Nabob Hyder ally Cawn and
Shinas Row a person sent to him by Sir Eyre
Coote at his reputed request held near Dubey
Gur on the 14. and 15.7.1782, 5967.
33 FSH: AFSt/M 1 B 71: 31: Brief von Christian
Friedrich Schwartz an Johann Friedrich
Sorge, Tanjore, 09.10.1780. See also
Schubert, Christian Friedrich Schwartz, 66,
75. As Sinha affirmed, Haidar solicited the
assistance of the Company again and again.
After almost two years of war between Mysore
and the Marathas, the Madras Government
at last asked him what money and provisions
he could provide if they were to assist him.
Sinha, Mysore: Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan,
458.
34 Quoted in Qureshi, Tipu Sultans Embassy
to Constantinople, 70.
35 Buchanan, A Journey from Madras through
the Countries of Mysore, Canara and
Malabar, 300.
36 FSH: AFSt/M 1 B 71: 30: Brief von Christian
Friedrich Schwartz an Johann Friedrich
Sorge, Tanjore, 1780; AFSt/M 1 B 71: 33:
Brief von Christian Friedrich Schwartz an
Friedrich Wilhelm Pasche, Tanjore,
10.10.1780.
37 Innes Munro, A Narrative of the Military
Operations of the Coromandel Coast:
Against the combined Forces of the French,
Dutch, and Hyder Ally Cawn, From the year
1780 to the Peace in 1784, 119.
38 Irshad Husain Baqai, The Death of Haidar
Ali, 13.
39 I have encountered the earliest version of this
letter in Michaud, History of Mysore Under
Hyder Ali and Tippoo Sultan, 478.
However, it cannot be excluded that the letter
is a fabrication.
40 Stewart, A Descriptive Catalogue of the
Oriental Library of the late Tippoo Sultan of
Mysore, 43.
41 Stewart, A Descriptive Catalogue, 44.
42 Ibid.; Hasan, History (1951), 101.
43 James was the brother of William Kirkpatrick
HAIDAR ALI AND TIPU SULTAN
and at the age of 29 had already spent four-
teen years in the Companys Madras army. He
was fluent in Persian, Hindustani, Tamil and
Telugu. Dalrymple, White Mughals, 778.
Quoted in Ibid., 778. A similar statement
has been made by a French official who wrote
that Tipou-Sultan, n au milieu des armes,
qui depuis sa plus tendre enfance na cess
de faire la guerre. ADAE: Asie; Mmoire et
Document; Indes Orientales et Colonies
Francaises (16871810), vol. 4, 403.
44 Rao, Memoirs of Hyder and Tippoo, Rulers
of Seringapatam, Written in the Mahratta
Language, 33.
45 Stewart, A Descriptive Catalogue, 43.
According to Rao, Tipus education had
been perverted and did not include, as Haidar
intended, the science of politics or the art of
conquering countries and making mutually
advantageous treaties with neighbours and
enemieshe was educated under a Maulvi
[Islamic scholar] who instilled more religion
than culture into him. Rao, History of
Mysore, vol. 3, 1054.
46 Stewart, A Descriptive Catalogue, 43; Khan,
State Intervention in the Economy: Tipus
Orders to Revenue Collectors, 179297: A
Calendar, 68.
47 It was reported that the French general
Lescallier told Tipu about the events of the
French Revolution: Le Cit. Lescallierest
parvenu lui donner des ides saines de la
rvolution francaise. AN: C/2/304: Expos
de nos liason avec Tipou-Sultan, 1795, 23.
According to Hasan, the Civil Commissioner
of Pondicherry, Lescallier, deputed two
agents who explained to him the significance
of the French Revolution. Hasan, History,
283. This ritual was basically strategic so as
to be assisted by revolutionary France against
the EIC. It is interesting to mention that on
the arrival of Ripaud and other Frenchmen to
Srirangaptna, Tipu ordered a salute to be
fired and told Ripaud that By this public
acknowledgement of your national standard,
I give you a proof of my affection for it. I
declare myself its Ally, and promise you that it
shall be as firmly supported throughout my
dominions as it has ever been in those of the
Republic, my Sister. What is more, Ripaud
proposed the following oath, which was taken
by the attenders: Citizens, do you swear
hatred to all Kings, except Tippoo Sultaun the
Victorious, the Ally of the French Republic,
War against Tyrants; and Love to our Country,
and the citizen Tippoo. Official documents,
relative to the negotiations carried on by
117
Tippoo Sultaun...to which is added,
Proceedings of a Jacobin Club, formed at
Seringapatam by the French Soldiers in the
Corps commanded by M. Dompart, 1878,
1901. For a critique of the use of the term
Jacobin Club, see Boutier, Les lettres de
crances du corsair Ripaud. A number of
late eighteenth-century Indian members of
the intelligentsia were informed about the
French Revolution. Abu Taleb, for instance,
the scholar from Lucknow, gave a concise
description of the Revolution and according
to Khan sympathised with the revolutionaries.
Stewart, Travels, vol. 2, 17881; Khan,
Indian Muslim Perceptions, 47.
48 IOR: 19016; MSS Eur B 276: Anonymous let-
ter, Camp at Gariahguanelly, 2nd June
1799. However, it has to be pointed out that,
in the 1780s, the library in Lucknow had
300,000 volumes. Khan, Technology and
the Question of Elite Intervention, 265.
According to the eighteenth-century contem-
porary Abd al-Latif, the library of Lucknow
even contained 600,000 volumes. Khan,
Indian Muslim Perception, 22.
49 Stewart, A Descriptive Catalogue, v.
50 Among these hukm namahs, there was a
treatise dealing with the codes and regula-
tions for spies and the Intelligence
Department (Hukm Namah-i Jasusan), a
treatise on Tipus orders to physicians work-
ing in hospitals and a treatise on Tipus
orders to the officials in charge of Karkhanas
(workshops). Hosain, The Library of Tipu
Sultan, 154 and 156.
51 Husain (tr.), The Dreams of Tipu Sultan.
52 Hosain, The Library of Tipu Sultan, 152,
160.
53 Khan, The Awadh Scientific Renaissance,
279.
54 It was under the reign of Tipu that Persian was
introduced as the language of the court and
government. Brittlebank, Tipu Sultans
Search, 121.
55 For an analysis of this work, see Alam and
Subrahmanyam, Indo-Persian Travels, 314ff.
56 Stewart, A Descriptive Catalogue, 142, 144,
146-7, 149, 151-2.
57 Ibid., 379.
58 IOR: MSS Eur E 196 (Neg 7622): Kirkpatrick
to the Earl of Mornington, Fort St. George,
8th Aug. 1799; Stewart, A Descriptive
Catalogue, v, 100.
59 Stewart, A Descriptive Catalogue, 113.
60 Ibid., 97, 113.
61 Anonymous, Official Documents, Relative to
the Negotiations Carried on by Tippoo
118
Sultaun, 13.
62 Kausar, Secret Correspondence of Tipu
Sultan, 306.
63 Hasan, History, 379; Michaud, History of
Mysore, 48.
64 Kirkpatrick, Select Letters, 4545 ; Hasan,
History, 1234 note 7; Ali, Tipu, 137; Habib,
Introduction; Habib, State and Diplomacy
under Tipu Sultan. Documents and Essays.
65 Basalla, The Evolution of Technology, 131.
66 IOR: MSS Eur C 10: Tippoos Court.
According to Qasim, Tipu wore a fob watch.
Brittlebank, Tipu Sultans Search, 117.
67 M.M.D.L.T., The History of Hyder Shah, 199,
2023.
68 Anonymous, Narratives Sketches of the
Conquest of the Mysore, 98.
69 Dirom, A Narrative of the Campaign in India
which Terminated the War with Tipoo
Sultan in 1792, 153.
70 Buchanan, A Journey, 70.
71 Habib, Introduction, xliv.
72 Buchanan, A Journey, 70.
73 After Tipu lost the Third AngloMysore War
and signed the Treaty of Seringapatam
(1792), he had to give away two of his legiti-
mate sons (aged five and eight) as hostages
until he paid the reparations of three crores
and three lakhs.
74 Bell, The Madras School, or, Elements of
Tuition, 167, 241. Smith writes that he
taught the arz-begs every experiment that
the apparatus can admit of being performed
(236).
75 Ibid., 2345.
76 Ibid., 2356.
77 Buchanan, A Journey, vol. 13;
Regulations; Chicherov, India; Sen, A Pre-
British Economic Formation.
78 AN: C/2/187: Ruffin Monseigneur, Brest
15.11.1788, 18. The French officer, Mr.
Ruffin, explained the failure of sending the
child to France with the following argument:
Tipus emissary, Osman Khan, may have
controuv, xagr, ou simplement mani-
fest sans y avoir t autoris, le propos quil
nous a dit avoir entendu de la bouche de son
maitre? At the same time, Ruffin wrote that
he did not have any difficulty in convincing
Osman of the indecency, the countless dan-
gers and the impossibility of financing this
enterprise. Indeed, Osman a toujours vit
de prononcer quil faudroit le [Tipus son]
pousser jusques l. Cest un point obtenir
ici, du jeune Prince lui-mme et par grada-
tion. For a translation of Ruffins and other
letters, see Venkatesh, The Correspondence
KAVEH YAZDANI
of the French during the Reign of Hyder Ali
and Tipu Sultan, 1788 to 1789, vol. 3,
2006. According to Hasan, the French
approved of the idea, but expected that Tipus
son would learn how to read and write French
and also learn some calculus and arithmetic
before his arrival. Relating to the failure of
sending the boy to France, Hasan has argued
that the outbreak of the Third Anglo-Mysore
War and the Treaty of Seringapatam, includ-
ing the hostage-taking of two of his sons, pre-
vented its realisation. Hasan, History, 3778.
Interestingly, according to Sridharan, Tipu
expected a French boy to come to study in
Mysore in return. M.P. Sridharan, Tipus
Drive towards Modernization: French
Evidence from the 1780s, 144.
79 Hasan, History (1951), 27.
80 Brittlebank, Tipu Sultans Search, 61.
81 It is a robe of honour, indicating social and
political acknowledgement and increased
reputation. See Gordon, Robes of Honour:
Khilat in Pre-Colonial and Colonial India.
82 Brittlebank, Tipu Sultans Search, 121; The
Mysorean Revenue Regulations, 457 (
7476). These regulations were dedicated to
the amils and serishtadars of Wamlur,
dependent on the cutchehry of Awulpatam
and contained 127 clauses. Henceforth:
Regulations (Wamlur); IOR: H/251:
Translation of Regulations of Tippoo Sultaun
for the Management of his Country: directed
to the Aumils and Serishtadars now in office
as well as those who may hereafter be
employed in the District of Raicottah subordi-
nate to the cutcherry of Bangalore (by Francis
Gladwin), dated the first of the month
Ahmedy of the year Delow, in the hand writ-
ing of Hassan Moonshy, writer to Lallah
Gobindroy, employed by the Dewan of the
royal Cutcherry. These regulations contained
125 clauses. Henceforth: Regulations
(Raicottah). These regulations are very impor-
tant, but should not be overvalued since, as
John Malcolm observed, Tippoo has varied in
many points at different periods from the
mode of management which was prescribed
in the Mysorean Revenue Regulations. Martin,
The Despatches, Minutes, and Corres-
pondance, of the Marquess Wellesley, vol. 1,
655. For Tipus new calendar, see Kirkpatrick,
Select Letters of Tippoo Sultan to Various
Public Functionaries, appendix, xxvixxxvii.
According to Hasan, he abolished the
Muslim calendar with its lunar years, because
it was administratively inconvenient, and
introduced instead, a calendar based on luni-
HAIDAR ALI AND TIPU SULTAN
solar years. Hasan, History, 377.
83 Yazdani, Modernity, ch. 2.9.
84 Qureshi, Tipu Sultans Embassy to
Constantinople, 735; Habib, Intro-
duction, xxiv. For Mysores relationship with
Afghanistan and Iran, see Yazdani,
Modernity, ch. 2.8.3.
85 Monneron did not specify what he meant by
practice of Islam, but we know that Tipu
regularly performed his prayers and read
books on religion and history before going
to sleep. Hasan, History, 370-1.
86 Hasan, History, 3701.
87 ADAE: Asie; Mmoire et Document; Indes
Orientales et Chine, Cochinchine
(178486), Vol. 18: Copie de la Lettre de M.
P. Monneron M. de Cossigny en date de
Pondichery le 14.7.1786, 2945 ; AN:
C/2/191: Mr. De Fresne, Pondichery,
4.11.1789, 105; Hasan, History, 370.
88 Hasan, History, 373, 375.
89 Ibid., 330.
90 IOR: H/436: Captain Taylor, On the state of
affairs in India, 1791, 1423.
91 Kirkpatrick, Select Letters, Appendix, 12.
92 IOR: H/685: George Forster, Account of the
principle Country Powers in Hindustan,
Charlotte Street, Portland Place 10.5.1785,
30.
93 AN: C/2/172: Cossigny: A Pondichery le
5.7.1786, 46.
94 Hasan, History (1951), 27; Hasan, History,
374; Qureshi, Tipu Sultans Embassy to
Constantinople, 71. Dirom, A Narrative of
the Campaign in India, 24950.
95 Quoted in Teltscher, India Inscribed:
European and British Writing on India
16001800, 231.
96 For the orientalist approach of British
accounts vis--vis Tipu Sultan, see
Teltscher, India Inscribed, ch. 7. See also
Stig Frster, 4. Mai 1799: Der Kampf um
Srirangapatna und der Tod des Tipu
Sultan, 11532, 1213.
97 Founded in 1600.
98 Moor, A Narrative of the Operations
against the Nawab Tippoo Sultan
Bahadur, 193.
99 Dirom, A Narrative, 250.
100 A sort of zamindar with the hereditary right
to collect revenues.
101 Kirkpatrick, Select Letters, Appendix, 133,
150, 156, 298. According to Kirkpatrick,
the zakhm-putty, or compensation to the
wounded soldiers, is a custom pretty gen-
eral in the native armies of India (151).
Hasan has confirmed that he granted
119
inams to the relatives of those soldiers who
died in battle. Hasan, History, 374.
102 Wilks, Historical Sketches, vol. 3, 306. Rs 2
were about 5 shillings. I have used the
Marteau Early 18th-Century Currency
Converter: http://www.pierre-marteau.com/
currency/converter/mog-eng.html
103 Yazdani, Modernity, ch. 2.3.2.
104 Amil or Amildar: Finance administrator of
a pargana (smallest administrative subdivi-
sion or a district). In Tipu Sultans Mysore,
he was the head of a district in charge of
justice, revenue collection, the well-being of
peasants and the supply of provisions and
military stores to the commandants of the
forts. Regulations (Raicottah), 2345,
2523; Regulations (Wamlur), 52 ( 85),
67 ( 102); Moienuddin, Sunset at Sriran-
gapatam: After the Death of Tipu Sultan,
10.
105 Yazdani, Modernity, chs. 2.8, 2.9.
106 Husain, The Dreams of Tipu Sultan. See
especially dream nos. I, III, VII, XI, XIV, XX,
XXI, XXIV, XXV, XXVIII, XXIX, XXXII, XXXVI.
Needless to say, Tipus dreams merely rep-
resented a selection of his overall dreams.
He penned 37 of them, which were written
in Persian.
107 ADAE: Asie; Mmoire et Document; Indes
Orientales et Chine, Cochinchine
(17921814), vol. 20: Lescallier (sign):
Indes affaires Politiques et Screttes, 153.
108 ADAE: Asie; Mmoire et Document; Indes
Orientales et Possessions Francaises
(17851826), vol. 11: Proposition quon dit
faites par Tipou-Sultan, la Rpublique
Francaise, 5eme Jour de la Lune de
Chaban, lan 1201 de lHgire: par hesnaly
Khan, Envoy de Tipou-Sultan, 167.
109 It has been argued that, in 1797/8, the EIC
switched to preventive imperialism.
However, neither Tipus increased anti-
British activities nor the French invasion of
Egypt posed an immediate threat to the
British possessions in India. They were
rather used as pretexts to attack the king-
dom of Mysore. Frster, Die mchtigen
Diener, 312, 3846; Ingram, Commit-
ment to Empire: Prophecies of the Great
Game in Asia, 17971800. Officially, Tipu
was survived by twelve sons and maybe up
to eight daughters. Hasan, History (2005),
372; SA: Book Nr. 1717 (335/18205/1717):
Assi Seyed Hossein Afaeneh (also known
as Seyed Hossein Monshi), Zafar Namah
Haidari, 08.03.1900, 1456. However
Martin wrote that Tipu left three legitimate
120
and seventeen illegitimate children, while
24 died before him. Martin, The British
Colonies, 383.
110 Yazdani, Modernity, chs. 2.3, and 2.4.
111 Quoted in Michaud, History of Mysore, 47.
112 Beatson, A View of the Origin, 1534.
There is also a slightly different version of
this dictum that reads as follows: One
days life of a lion is preferable to hundred
years existence of a jackal. For this ver-
sion, see Ahmad, Hundred Great Muslims,
593; Ali, Tipu Sultan: A Study in
Diplomacy and Confrontation, 5.
113 Brittlebank, Tipu Sultans Search, 24.
114 Regulations (Raicottah), 2678, 181, 233.
115 Hasan, History; Guha, Pre-British State
System; Habib, Introduction; Barua, The
State of War; Roy, War, Culture, Society.
116 Moor, A Narrative, 479.
117 Bell, The Madras School, or, Elements of
Tuition, 2345.
118 AN: C/2/174: Traduction de lOffice prsen-
t au Roi pour les ambassadeurs de Tippo-
Sultan, 30.7.1788, 255; AN: C/2/236:
KAVEH YAZDANI
Cossigny: Pondichery le 4.5.1786 , 53;
Traduction dune Lettre du Nabob Tipou
Sultan Mr. De Cossigny, Gouverneur de
Pondichery, en date du 21.10.1786, 267;
Venkatesh, Correspondence of the French,
2101, 27881; Habib, State and
Diplomacy under Tipu Sultan. Documents
and Essays, xix; Sridharan, Tipus Drive
towards Modernization: French Evidence
from the 1780s, 145; Husain, The
Diplomatic Vision of Tipu Sultan, 57 (61a);
Lafont, Indika, 168.
119 Husain, The Diplomatic Vision of Tipu
Sultan, 26, 323, 367, 42, 53 (3b, 16b,
6b, 7ab, 52b, 10b, 11b, 61b); Ali, Tipu,
137.
120 Regulations (Raicottah), 253.
121 FSH: AFSt/M 2 A 2: 18: Escape from
Captivity. Narrative given by Bristow, whose
escape from Tippoos, Dominions, was
mentioned in a former Calcutta Paper and
who is now there, Calcutta Gazette
30.6.1791; Bristow, A Narrative, 104.