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Steven Errede
LECTURE NOTES 2
CONSERVATION LAWS (continued)
Conservation of Linear Momentum p
Newtons 3rd Law in Electrodynamics Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.
Consider a point charge +q traveling along the z -axis with constant speed v v vz .
Because the electric charge is moving (relative to the laboratory frame of reference), its electric
field is not given perfectly/mathematically precisely as described by Coulombs Law,
1 q
i.e. E r , t r .
4 o r 2
Nevertheless, E r , t does still point radially outward from its instantaneous position,
the location of the electric charge q r , t . {n.b. when we get to Griffiths Ch. 10 (relativistic
electrodynamics, we will learn what the fully-correct form of E r , t is for a moving charge..}
E B
q q
v v
z z
n.b. The E -field lines of a moving electric charge are compressed in the transverse direction!
Technically speaking, a moving single point electric charge does not constitute a steady/DC
electrical current (as we have previously discussed in P435 Lecture Notes 13 & 14). Thus, the
magnetic field associated with a moving point charge is not precisely mathematically
correctly/properly given as described by the Biot-Savart Law. Nevertheless, B r , t still points
in the azimuthal (i.e. -) direction. (Again, we will discuss this further when we get to Griffiths
Ch. 10 on relativistic electrodynamics)
Let us now consider what happens when a point electric charge q1 traveling with constant
velocity v1 v1 z encounters a second point electric charge q2 , e.g. traveling with constant
velocity v2 v2 x as shown in the figure below:
elect x
F12
r2 , t B1 r2 , t
mag
q2 F12
r2 , t
mag
F21
r1 , t
v2
v1 q1
z
elect
B2 r1 , t F21
r1 , t
y
The two like electric charges obviously will repel each other (i.e. at the microscopic level,
they will scatter off of each other via exchange of one (or more) virtual photons).
As time progresses, the electromagnetic forces acting between them will drive them off of
their initial axes as they repel / scatter off of each other. For simplicitys sake (here) let us
assume that (by magic) the electric charges are mounted on straight tracks that prevent the
electric charges from deviating from their initial directions.
Obviously, the electric force between the two electric charges (which acts on the line joining
them together see above figure) is repulsive and also manifestly obeys Newtons 3rd law:
elect
F12
r2 , t F21elect
r1 , t
Is the magnetic force acting between the two charges also repulsive??
By the right-hand rule:
The magnetic field of q1 at the position-location of q2 points into the page: B1 r2 , t y
The magnetic field of q2 at the position-location of q1 points out of the page: B2 r1 , t y
mag
Thus, the magnetic force F12 r2 , t q2v2 r2 , t B1 r2 , t z due to the effect of charge q1s
B -field B1 r2 , t at charge q2s position r2 points in the z direction (i.e. to the right in the above figure).
mag
However the magnetic force F21 r1 , t q1v1 r1 , t B2 r1 , t x due to the effect of charge
q2s B -field B2 r1 , t at charge q1s position r1 points in the x direction (i.e. upward in the
mag
above figure). Thus we see that F12 r2 , t z F21mag
r1 , t x !!!
The electromagnetic force of q1 acting on q2 is equal in magnitude to, but is not opposite to the
electromagnetic force of q2 acting on q1, in {apparent} violation of Newtons 3rd Law of Motion!
Specifically, it is the magnetic interaction between two charges with relative motion between
them that is responsible for this {apparent} violation of Newtons 3rd Law of Motion:
elect mag
F12
r2 , t F21elect
r1 , t but: F12
r2 , t F21mag
r1 , t
elect mag
But: F12
r2 , t F21elect
r1 , t and: F12
r2 , t F21mag
r1 , t
EMtot EMtot
Then: F12
r2 , t F12elect
r2 , t F12mag
r2 , t F21
r1 , t F21elect
r1 , t F21mag
r1 , t
EMtot EMtot
F12
r2 , t F21EMtot
r1 , t but: F12
r2 , t F21EMtot
r1 , t
n.b. In electrostatics and in magnetostatics, Newtons 3rd Law of Motion always holds.
In electrodynamics, Newtons 3rd Law of Motion does not hold for the apparent relative motion of
two electric charges! (n.b. Isaac Newton could not have forseen this {from an apple falling on his
head} because gravito-magnetic forces associated with a falling apple are so vastly much feebler than
the gravito-electric force (the normal gravity we know & love about in the everyday world).
Since Newtons 3rd Law is intimately connected/related to conservation of linear momentum,
on the surface of this issue, it would seem that electrodynamical phenomena would then also
seem to violate conservation of linear momentum eeeeeEEEEKKKK!!!
If one considers only the relative motion of the (visible) electric charges (here q1 and q2) then,
yes, it would indeed appear that linear momentum is not conserved!
However, the correct picture / correct reality is that the EM field(s) accompanying the
(moving) charged particles also carry linear momentum p (as well as energy, E)!!!
Thus, in electrodynamics, the electric charges and/or electric currents plus the electromagnetic
fields accompanying the electric charges/currents together conserve total linear momentum p .
Thus, Newtons 3rd Law is not violated after all, when this broader / larger perspective on the
nature of electrodynamics is properly/fully understood!!!
Microscopically, the virtual (and/or real) photons associated with the macroscopic / mean field
electric and magnetic fields E1 r2 , t , E2 r1 , t and B1 r2 , t , B2 r1 , t do indeed carry / have
associated with them linear momentum (and {kinetic} energy) {as well as angular momentum..}!!!
In the above example of two like-charged particles scattering off of each other, whatever
momentum lost by the charged particles is gained by the EM field(s) associated with them!
Thus, Newtons 3rd Law is obeyed - total linear momentum is conserved when we consider
the true total linear momentum of this system:
ptot pmechanical pEM p1mech p2mech p1EM p2EM
m1v1 m2 v2 p1EM p2EM
Note that in the above example of two moving electrically-charged particles there is an
interesting, special/limiting case when the two charged particles are moving parallel to each
other, e.g. with equal constant velocities v1 v2 vz relative to a fixed origin in the lab frame:
elect
x
F12 r2 x
B2 q
2
v2 v2 z vz
mag
r2
F12
mag 2
r x
q1 F21 r1 x
r1 v1 v1 z vz
elect z
F
21
r1 x
B1
y
We can easily see here that the electric force on the two electrically-charged particles acts on
the line joining the two charged particles is repulsive (due to the like-charges, here) and is such
elect
that F12
r2 F21elect
r1 x . Similarly, because the two like-charged particles are also
traveling parallel to each other, the magnetic Lorentz force F mag qv Bext on the two charged
particles also acts along this same line joining the two charged particles and, by the right-hand
mag
rule is such that F12 r2 F21mag
r1 x .
Thus, we also see that:
EMtot
F12
r2 F12elect
r2 F12mag
r2
EMtot
F21
r1 F21elect
r1 F21mag
r1
Thus, here, for this special case, Newtons 3rd law is obeyed simply by the mechanical linear
momentum associated with this system the linear momentum carried by the EM field(s) in this
special-case situation is zero.
Note that this special-case situation is related to the case of parallel electric currents attracting
each other e.g. two parallel conducting wires carrying steady currents I1 and I 2 . It must be
remembered that current-carrying wires remain overall electrically neutral, because real currents
in real conducting wires are carried by negatively-charged free conduction electrons that are
embedded in a three-dimensional lattice of positive-charged atoms. The positively-charged
atoms screen out / cancel the electric fields associated with the free conduction electrons,
thus only the (attractive) magnetic Lorentz force remains!
Yet another interesting aspect of this special-case situation is to go into the rest frame of the
two electric charges, where for identical lab velocities v1 v2 vz , in the rest frame of the
charges, the magnetic field(s) both vanish i.e. an observer in the rest frame of the two charges
sees no magnetic Lorentz force(s) acting on the like-charged particles!
Maxwells Stress Tensor T
EM
Let us use the Lorentz force law to calculate the total electromagnetic force FTot t due to the
totality of the electric charges contained within a (source) volume v :
EM
FTot
t v fTotEM r , t d v E r , t v r , t B r , t r , t d
EM
where: fTot r , t = EM force per unit volume (aka force density) (SI units: N/m3),
and: J r , t r , t v r , t electric volume current density (SI units: A/m2).
EM
Thus: FTot
t r , t E r , t J r , t B r , t d
v
EM
fTot r , t = EM force per unit volume = r , t E r , t J r , t B r , t
EM
n.b. If we talk about fTot r , t in isolation (i.e. we do not have to do the integral), then, for
transparencys sake of these lecture notes, we will (temporarily) suppress the r , t arguments
however it is very important for the reader to keep this in mind (at all times) that these arguments
are there in order to actually (properly/correctly) do any calculation!!!
EM
Thus: fTot E J B
Maxwells equations (in differential form) can now be used to eliminate and J :
Coulombs Law: E o o E
Without changing the physics in any way, we can add the term B B to the above expression
since B 0 (i.e. there exist no isolated N/S magnetic charges/magnetic monopoles in nature).
EM
Then fTot becomes more symmetric between the E and B fields (which is aesthetically pleasing):
EM 1
fTot
o E E E E
B B B B o
t
EB
o
Now: E 2 2 E E 2 E E Using Griffiths Product Rule #4
Or:
E E 12 E 2 E E {n.b. is also applied similarly for B }
Thus:
EM 1 1 1 2
fTot
o E E E E
B B B B o E 2
2 B o
o t
EB
o
We now introduce Maxwells stress tensor T (a 3 3 matrix), the nine elements of which are
defined as:
1
Tij o Ei E j 12 ij E 2 Bi B j 12 ij B 2
o
Note that from the above definition of the elements of T , we see that T is symmetric under the
interchange of the indices i j (with indices i, j = 1, 2, 3 = spatial x, y, z) , i.e. one of the
symmetry properties of Maxwells stress tensor is: Tij T ji
We say that T is a symmetric rank-2 tensor (i.e. symmetric 3 3 matrix) because: Tij T ji .
Thus, Maxwells stress tensor T actually has only six (6) independent components, not nine!!!
Note also that the 9 elements of T are actually double vectors, e.g. Tij i j , Txy xy
, Tzz zz
, etc.
The six independent elements of the symmetric Maxwells stress tensor are:
1 1
T11 Txx o Ex2 E y2 Ez2 Bx2 By2 Bz2
2 2 o
1 1
T22 Tyy o E y2 Ez2 Ex2 By2 Bz2 Bx2 generate by cyclic permutation
2 2 o
1 1
T33 Tzz o Ez2 Ex2 E y2 Bz2 Bx2 By2 generate by cyclic permutation
2 2o
1
T12 T21 Txy Tyx o Ex E y B B
o x y
1
T13 T31 Txz Tzx o Ex Ez Bx Bz generate by cyclic permutation
o
1
T23 T32 Tyz Tzy o E y Ez B B generate by cyclic permutation
o y z
Note also that T contains no E B (etc.) type cross-terms!!
Because T is a rank-2 tensor, it is represented by a 2-dimensional, 33 matrix.
{Higher rank tensors: e.g. Tijk (= rank-3 / 3-D matrix), Aijkl (= rank-4 / 4-D matrix), etc.}
We can take the dot product of a vector a with a tensor T to obtain (another) vector b : b a T
aT
3
b j a T i ij aiTij
j
i 1
3
c T a : ci T a Tij a j Tij a j n.b. summation is over index j (i.e. columns in T )!!
i
j 1
n.b. Additional info is given on tensors/tensor properties at the end of these lecture notes
Now if the vector a in the dot product b a T happens to be a , then if:
1 1 1
Tij o Ei E j ij E 2 Bi B j ij B 2
2 o 2
1
j
1
2 o
1
2
T o E E j E E j j E 2 B B j B B j j B 2
Thus, we see that the total electromagnetic force per unit volume (aka force density) can be
written (much) more compactly (and elegantly) as:
EM S
fTot T o o
t
N m3 ,
1 1 1
Maxwells stress tensor: Tij o Ei E j ij E 2 Bi B j ij B 2
2 o 2
1
Poyntings vector: S
o
EB
The total EM force acting on the charges contained within the (source) volume v is given by:
EM EM S
FTot fTot d T o o d
v v
t
EM d EM d
FTot T da o o Sd i.e. FTot t T r , t da o o S r , t d
S dt v S dt v
Note the following important aspects/points about the physical nature of this result:
1.) In the static case (i.e. whenever T r , t , S r , t fcns t ), the second term on the RHS in
the above equation vanishes then the total EM force acting on the charge configuration
contained within the (source) volume v can be expressed entirely in terms of Maxwells
stress tensor at the boundary of the volume v , i.e. on the enclosing surface S :
EM
FTot T r da fcn t
S
2.) Physically, T r , t da = net force (SI units: Newtons) acting on the enclosing surface S .
S
Then {here} T is the net force per unit area (SI units: Newtons/m2) acting on the surface S
i.e. T corresponds to an {electromagnetically-induced} pressure (!!!) or a stress acting on
the enclosing surface S .
3.) More precisely: physically, Tij represents the force per unit area (Newtons/m2) in the ith
direction acting on an element of the enclosing surface S that is oriented in the jth direction.
Thus, the diagonal elements of T (i = j): Tii = Txx, Tyy, Tzz physically represent pressures.
The off-diagonal elements of T (i j): Tij = Txy, Tyz, Tzx physically represent shears.
Griffiths Example 8.2: Use / Application of Maxwells Stress Tensor T
Determine the net / total EM force acting on the upper (northern) hemisphere of a uniformly
electrically-charged solid non-conducting sphere (i.e. uniform/constant electric charge volume
density Q 43 R 3 ) of radius R and net electric charge Q using Maxwells Stress Tensor T
(c.f. with Griffiths Problem 2.43, p. 107).
z
nsphere r Sphere of radius R
R
y
ndisk z Disk of radius R
x lying in x-y plane
n.b. Please work through the details of this problem on your own, as an exercise!!!
EM
First, note that this problem is static/time-independent, thus (here): FTot T r da
S
1
Note also that (here) B r 0 and thus (here): Tij o Ei E j ij E 2 {only}.
2
The boundary surface S of the northern hemisphere consists of two parts a hemispherical
bowl of radius R and a circular disk lying in the x-y plane (i.e. 2 ), also of radius R.
a.) For the hemispherical bowl portion of S , note that: da R 2 d cos d r R 2 sin d d r
1 Q
The electric field at/on the surface of the charged sphere is: E r r
r R 4 o R 2
In Cartesian coordinates: r sin cos x sin sin y cos z
Thus:
1 Q
E r Ex r r R x E y r y Ez r r R z r
rR r R 4 o R 2
1 Q
sin cos x sin sin y cos z
4 o R 2
2
Q
Thus: Tzx r R Txz rR o Ez Ex o 2
sin cos cos
4 o R
2
Q
Tzy rR Tyz rR o Ez E y o 2
sin cos sin
4 o R
2
1 1 Q
Tzz rR o Ez2 Ex2 E y2 o 2
cos 2 sin 2
2 2 4 o R
The net / total force (due to the symmetry associated with this problem) is obviously only in the
z -direction, thus we only need to calculate:
T da r R Tzx dax Tzy da y Tzz daz r R
z
Now: da R 2 sin d d r and r sin cos x sin sin y cos z
Q
2
Then: T da z r R
o
4 o R 2
sin cos cos R sin d d sin cos
2
Q
2
o
4 o R 2
2
sin cos sin R sin d d sin sin
1 Q
2
o
2 4 o R 2
2
2
cos sin R sin d d cos
2
T da z rR
=1
2
Q 1
o sin cos cos sin cos sin cos sin cos sin d d
2 2 2 2 2 2
4 o R 2
2
Q
o 1
sin cos cos sin cos sin d d
4 o R
2
2
2 2
2
Q 1 1
o sin cos cos cos sin d d
2 2
4 o R 2 2
2 = 1
Q 1
o cos sin d d
4 o R 2
2
1 Q
o cos sin d d
2 4 o R
2
EM 1 Q
1 Q2
Fbowl T da o 2 0 4 o 8R 2 z
2
cos sin d
z
rR bowl z rR 2 4 o R
u 1
1 1 1
udu u 2
0 2 u 0 2
EM 1 Q2
Fbowl z
r R 4 o 8 R 2
b.) For the equatorial disk (i.e. the underside) portion of the northern hemisphere:
da disk rdrd z n.b. outward unit normal for equatorial disk (lying in x-y plane)
rdrd z points in z direction on this portion of the bounding surface S
daz z
And since we are now inside the charged sphere (on the x-y plane/at 2 ):
1 Q 1 Q r
EDisk r
2 4 o R 3 2 4 o R 2 R 2
1 Q
r sin
cos x r sin
sin y r cos
z
4 o R 3 1 1 0 2
1 Q
r cos x sin y
4 o R 3
Then for the equatorial, flat disk lying in the x-y plane:
2
1 Q 2
z
1
T da Tzz daz where: Tzz o Ez Ex E y o
2
2 2 2
r
2 4 o R 3
1 Q 2 1 Q 3
2
Thus: T da z
Tzz daz o 3
2 4 o R
2
rdrd z o
r zz
r drd z
2 4 o R 3
The EM force acting on the disk portion of the northern hemisphere is therefore:
2
EM 1 Q 1 Q2
R
Fdisk T da o 2 0 r dr z
3
z
disk z 2 2 4 o R 3 4 o 16 R 2
EM 1 Q2
Fdisk z
4 o 16 R 2
EM EM EM 1 Q2 1 Q2 1 3Q 2
FTOT Fbowl Fdisk
z
z z
4 o 8 R 2 4 o 16 R 2 4 o 16 R 2
EM d
Note that in applying FTOT T r , t da o o S r , t d that any volume v that
S dt v
encloses all of the electric charge will suffice. Thus in above problem, we could equally-well
have instead chosen to use e.g. the whole half-region z > 0 i.e. the disk consisting of the
entire x-y plane and the upper hemisphere (at r = ), but note that since E 0 at r = , this
latter surface would contribute nothing to the total EM force!!!
2
Q 1
Then for the outer portion of the whole x-y plane (i.e. r > R): Tzz o
2 4 o r 4
2
Q 1
Then for this outer portion of the x-y plane (r > R): T da z
Tzz daz o
2 4 o r 3
drd
The corresponding EM force on this outer portion of the x-y plane (for r > R) is:
2
EM 1 Q 1 1 Q2
Fdisk r R o 2 R 3 dr z z
2 4 o r 4 o 8R 2
EM EM EM 1 Q2 1 Q2 1 3Q 2
Thus: FTOT Fdisk r R Fdisk r R
z
z z
4 o 16 R 2 4 o 8 R 2 4 o 16 R 2
n.b. this is precisely the same result as obtained above via first method!!!
Even though the uniformly charged sphere was a solid object not a hollow sphere the use
of Maxwells Stress Tensor allowed us to calculate the net EM force acting on the northern
hemisphere via a surface integral over the bounding surface S enclosing the volume v
containing the uniform electric charge volume density Q 43 R 3 . Thats pretty amazing!!
Further Discussion of the Conservation of Linear Momentum p
We started out this lecture talking ~ somewhat qualitatively about conservation of linear
momentum in electrodynamics; we are now in a position to quantitatively discuss this subject.
Newtons 2nd Law of Motion F t ma t m dv t dt d mv t dt dpmech t dt
The total {instantaneous} force F t acting on an object = {instantaneous} time rate of change of
dpmech t
its mechanical linear momentum dp t dt i.e. F t . But from above, we know that:
dt
EM dpmech t d
FTot t T r , t da o o S r , t d **
dt S dt v
where pmech t = total {instantaneous} mechanical linear momentum of the particles contained
in the (source) volume v . (SI units: kg-m/sec)
1
We define: pEM t o o v S r , t d 2 v S r , t d {since c 2 1 o o in free space}
c
where pEM t = total {instantaneous} linear momentum carried by / stored in the (macroscopic)
electromagnetic fields ( E and B ) (SI units: kg-m/sec). At the microscopic level linear momentum
is carried by the virtual {and/or real} photons associated with the macroscopic E and B fields!
We can also define an {instantaneous} EM field linear momentum density (SI Units: kg/m2-sec):
1
EM r , t o o S r , t 2 S r , t = instantaneous EM field linear momentum per unit volume
c
Thus, we see that the total {instantaneous} EM field linear momentum pEM t vEM r , t d
Note that the surface integral in ** above, T r , t da physically corresponds to the total
S
{instantaneous} EM field linear momentum per unit time flowing inwards through the surface S .
Thus, any instantaneous increase in the total linear momentum (mechanical and EM field)
= the linear momentum brought in by the EM fields themselves through the bounding surface S .
dpmech t dpEM t 1
Thus: T r , t da where: pEM t o o v S r , t d 2 v S r , t d
dt dt S c
dpmech t dpEM t
Or: T r , t da
dt dt S
But: pTot t pmech t pEM t
dpTot t dpmech t dpEM t Expresses conservation of linear
T r , t da
dt dt dt S momentum in electrodynamics
Note that the integral formula expressing conservation of linear momentum in electrodynamics is
similar to that of the integral form of Poyntings theorem, expressing conservation of energy in
electrodynamics and also to that of the integral form of the Continuity Equation, expressing
conservation of electric charge in electrodynamics:
free r , t Continuity Equation: Electric
v t d v J free r , t d
Charge Conservation:
Note further that if the volume v = all space, then no linear momentum can flow into / out of v
through the bounding surface S. Thus, in this situation:
pTot t pmech t pEM t = constant
dpTot t dpmech t dpEM t dpmech t dpEM t
and: T r , t da 0
dt dt dt S dt dt
We can also express conservation of linear momentum via a differential equation, just as we
have done in the cases for electric charge and energy conservation. Define:
mech r , t {instantaneous} mechanical linear momentum density (SI Units: kg/m2-sec)
EM r , t {instantaneous} EM field linear momentum density (SI Units: kg/m2-sec)
1
EM r , t o o S r , t 2 S r , t
c
Tot r , t {instantaneous} total linear momentum density (SI Units: kg/m2-sec)
Tot r , t mech r , t EM r , t
Then:
pmech t mech r , t d and pEM t EM r , t d , thus:
v v
pTot t Tot r , t d r , t EM r , t d pTot t pmech t pEM t
v v mech
dpTOT t dpmech t dpEM t
Then: T r , t da
dt dt dt S
Using the divergence theorem on the RHS of this relation, this can also be written as:
d d d
v T r , t d
dt v dt v dt v
Tot r , t d mech r , t d EM r , t d
mech r , t EM r , t
Thus: v T r , t d 0
t t
This relation must hold for any volume v , and for all points & times r , t within the volume v :
mech r , t EM r , t Differential form of conservation
T r , t
t t of linear momentum
mech r , t EM r , t
T r , t (Linear momentum conservation)
t t
Continuity Equation: r , t J r , t (Electric charge conservation)
t
Poyntings Theorem:
t
umech r , t uEM r , t S r , t (Energy conservation)
Thus, we see that the negative of Maxwells stress tensor, T r , t physically represents linear
momentum flux density, analogous to electric current density J r , t which physically represents
the electric charge flux density in the continuity equation, and analogous to Poyntings vector
S r , t which physically represents the energy flux density in Poyntings theorem.
mech r , t EM r , t
Note also that relation T r , t , while mathematically
t t
describing the how of linear momentum conservation, says nothing about the nature/origin of
why linear momentum is conserved, just as in case(s) of the Continuity Equation (electric charge
conservation) and Poyntings Theorem (energy conservation).
Since T r , t physically represents the instantaneous linear momentum flux density (aka
momentum flow = momentum current density) at the space-time point r , t , the 9 elements of
{the negative of} Maxwells Stress Tensor, Tij are physically interpreted as the instantaneous
EM field linear momentum flow in the ith direction through a surface oriented in the jth direction.
Note further that because Tij T ji , this is also equal to the instantaneous EM field linear
momentum flow in the jth direction through a surface oriented in the ith direction!
mech r , t EM r , t
From the equation T r , t , noting that the del-operator
t t
x y z has SI units of m1, we see that the 9 elements of T r , t
x y z
{= linear momentum flux densities = linear momentum flows} have SI units of:
length linear momentum density/unit time = linear momentum density length/unit time
= linear momentum density (length/unit time) = linear momentum density velocity
= {(kg-m/s)/m3} (m/s) = kg/m-s2
Earlier (p. 9 of these lect. notes), we also said that the 9 elements of T r , t have SI units of
pressure, p (Pascals = Newtons/m2 = (kg-m/s2)/m2 = kg/m-s2). Note further that the SI units of
pressure are also that of energy density, u (Joules/m3 = (Newton-m)/m3 = Newtons/m2 = kg/m-s2)!
I
b
outer 0
a I z
inner 0 R V
V
a, b
The hollow inner conductor carries uniform charge / unit length inner Qinner and a steady
DC current I Iz (i.e. flowing to the right). The hollow outer conductor has the opposite charge
and current. Calculate the EM momentum carried by the EM fields associated with this system.
Note that this problem has no time dependence associated with it, i.e. it is a static problem.
The static EM fields associated with this long coaxial cable are:
1
E x 2 y 2 in cylindrical coordinates
2 o
I
B o n.b. E and B only non-zero for a b
2
E B S
a b a b a b
I
z
1 I
Poyntings vector is: S
o
E B 4 o
2 2
2 2 z (for a b )
4 o
Even though this is a static problem (i.e. no explicit time dependence), EM energy contained
/ stored in the EM fields {n.b. only within the region a b } is flowing down the coax cable
in the z -direction, from battery to resistor!
The instantaneous EM power (= constant fcn t ) transported down the coax cable is obtained
by integrating Poyntings vector S z (= energy flux density) over a perpendicular / cross-
sectional area of A b 2 a 2 , with corresponding infinitesimal area element
da 2 d z :
I b 1 I b
P S da 2 2 d ln
4 o a 2
2 o a
b
But: V ln EM Power P V I = EM Power dissipated in the resistor!
2 o a
I
Inside the coax cable (i.e. a b ), Poyntings vector is: S z
4 2 o 2
The linear momentum associated with / carried by / stored in the EM field(s) ( a b ) is:
I b 1
pEM EM d o o S d o 2 z 2 d
v v 4 a 2
I b
pEM o ln z
2 a
b 1
Using V ln and c2 we can rewrite this expression as:
2 o a o o
b VI
pEM o o ln I z 2 z
2 o a c
The EM field(s) E and B (via S o
1
E B ) in the region a b are responsible for
transporting EM power / energy as well as linear momentum pEM down the coaxial cable!
Microscopically, EM energy and linear momentum are transported down the coax cable by the
{ensemble of} virtual photons associated with the E and B fields in the region a b .
Transport of non-zero linear momentum down the coax cable might seem bizarre at first
encounter, because macroscopically, this is a static problem we have a coax cable (at rest in the lab
frame), a battery producing a static E -field and static electric charge distribution, as well as a steady
/ DC current I and static B -field. How can there be any net macroscopic linear momentum?
The answer is: There isnt, because there exists a hidden mechanical momentum:
Microscopically, virtual photons associated with macroscopic E and B fields are emitted (and
absorbed) by electric charges (e.g. conduction / free electrons flowing as macroscopic current I
down / back along coax cable and as static charges on conducting surfaces of coax cable (with
potential difference V across coax cable). As stated before, virtual photons carry both kinetic
energy K.E. and momentum p .
In the emission (and absorption) process e.g. an electron emitting a virtual photon, again,
energy and momentum are conserved (microscopically) the electron recoils emitting a virtual
photon, analogous to a rifle firing a bullet:
e
virtual photon
electron recoil
n.b. emission / absorption of virtual photons e.g. by an isolated electron is responsible for a
phenomenon known as zitterbewegung trembling motion of the electron
The sum total of all electric charges emitting virtual photons gives a net macroscopic
mechanical linear momentum that is equal / but in the opposite direction to the net EM field
momentum. At the microscopic level, individually recoiling electrons (rapidly) interact with the
surrounding matter (atoms) making up the coax cable scattering off of them thus this (net)
recoil momentum (initially associated only with virtual photon-emitting electric charges) very
rapidly winds up being transferred (via subsequent scattering interactions with atoms) to the
whole/entire macroscopic physical system (here, the coax cable):
hidden
pmech pEM
Now imagine that the resistance R of the load resistor magically increases linearly with
time {e.g. imagine the resistor to be a linear potentiometer (a linear, knob-variable resistor), so
we can simply slowly rotate the knob on the linear potentiometer CW with time} which causes
the current I flowing in the circuit to (slowly) decrease linearly with time.
Then, the slowly linearly-decreasing current will correspondingly have associated with it a
slowly linearly-decreasing magnetic field; thus the linearly changing magnetic field will induce
dB d
an electric field - via Faradays Law - using either E or E d Bda :
dt C dt S
dI t
E ind , t o ln K z {where K = a constant of integration}
2 dt
This induced E -field exerts a net force Fabind t Faind a, t Fbind b, t on the
charges residing on the inner/outer cylinders of the coax cable {where Fi ind Qi Eiind , i = a,b} of:
dI t dI t dI t b {n.b. points in
Fabind t o ln a K z o ln b K z o ln z
2 dt 2 dt 2 dt a the z -direction}
The total/net mechanical linear momentum imparted to the coax cable as the current slowly
decreases from I t 0 I to I t t final 0 , using d pmech t F t dt is:
mech mech
final t t final p final t 0 p final t t final
p mech
final t t final
pmech d pmech t p mech
final t 0 0
p mech
0
t t final t t final dI t b
Fabind t dt o dt ln z
t 0 2
t 0 dt a
b I b VI
o dI t ln z o
I ( t t final ) 0
ln z 2 z
2 I ( t 0) I a 2 a c
I b VI
which is precisely equal to the original EM field momentum t 0 : pEM o ln z 2 z .
2 a c
Note that the coax cable will not recoil, because the equal, but opposite impulse is delivered
to the coax cable by the hidden momentum, microscopically (and macroscopically), in just the
same way as described above.
Note further that energy and momentum are able to be transported down the coax cable
because there exists a non-zero Poyntings vector S 1o E B 0 and a non-zero linear
momentum density EM S r , t c 2 due to the {radial} electric field E in the region a b ,
arising from the presence of static electric charges on the surfaces of the inner & outer cylinders,
in conjunction with the {azimuthal} magnetic field B associated with the steady current I
flowing down the coax cable. If either E or B were zero, or their cross-product E B were zero,
there would be no transport of EM energy & linear momentum down the cable.
Recall that the capacitance C of an electrical device is associated with the ability to store
energy in the electric field E of that device, and that the {self-} inductance L of an electrical
device is associated with the ability to store energy in the magnetic field B of that device.
We thus realize that:
S
associated with the azimuthal magnetic field B for the in the region a b resulting from
the flow of electrical current I down the inner conductor. The energy stored in the magnetic
field B of the coax cable is U M 12 LI 2 8o I 2 ln b a (Joules).
The total EM energy stored in the coax cable {using the principle of linear superposition}
is the sum of these two electric-only and magnetic-only energies:
U Tot U E U M 12 C V 2 12 LI 2 1
4 o
o
o
2 ln b a 8 I 2 ln b a 41 2 12 I c ln b a
2
EM power transport in a electrical device occurs via the electromagnetic field and necessarily
requires S 1o E B 0 (i.e. both E and B must be non-zero, and must be such that they
also have non-zero cross-product E B ).
EM power transport in a electrical device necessarily requires the utilization of both the
capacitance C and the {self-}inductance L of the device in order to do so!
The EM power transported from the battery down the coax cable to the resistor (where it is
ultimately dissipated as heat/thermal energy) is: P 21 o I ln b a V * I (Watts = J/sec)
{n.b. the EM power is proportional to the product of the charge {per unit length} and the
current I }. But V Q C and I M L ; from Gauss Law E E da Qencl o
S
we see that P 1
2 o I ln b a V * I Q M CL o E M CL ,
i.e. EM power transport in/through an electrical device manifestly involves:
a.) the product of the electric and magnetic fluxes: E M and
b.) the product of the devices capacitance and its inductance: CL !!!
The matrix representation of vector a a1 a2 a3 = (13) row vector, and also vector
b b1 b2 b3 = (13) row vector. Thus, b a T can thus be written in matrix form as:
a1
Here, the matrix representation of vector a a2 = (31) column vector, and also vector
a
3
c1
c c2 = (31) column vector. Thus, c T a can thus be written in matrix form as:
c
3
Note that if T is a symmetric tensor, i.e. Tij T ji , then c T a can be equivalently written in
matrix form as:
But c a T written in matrix form is:
T T T T T T T T T
xx yx zx xy yy zy xz yz zz
x y
z x y z x
y z
13
T
x
T
y
T
z
13