2.

8 Heat treatment of base materials and welded

joints

Dr Murugaiyan Amirthalingam

Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering,

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

1 / 15
urnaces, although at times, the transformation to or from austenite. The peratures Ac1, Ac3, and Accm (denoted with a
ion heating is also done equilibrium critical temperatures depicted on suffix c for the French word chauffage) are
s an effective method (such the binary iron-carbon phase diagram (Fig. 2) higher than the corresponding equilibrium tem-
Steels heat treatment
after drawing). are A1 and A3 for hypoeutectoid steel and A1
and Acm for the hypereutectoid steel (Ref 1).
peratures. Various alloying elements markedly
affect these critical temperatures. For example,
rinciples
n carbon steels, annealing
e-pearlite microstructure
y be annealed to facilitate
machining, to improve
ical properties, or to pro-
ability.
binary phase diagram
sed to better understand
(Ref 1). Although no
ver achieves true equilib-
can closely parallel these

d 1040 steel showing a ferrite-

structure. Etched in 4% picral Fig. 2 Iron-carbon binary phase diagram with superimposed full annealing, process annealing, and spheroidizing
Original magnification: 500! treatments. Source: Ref 1

2 / 15
 ! The piece being treated be uniformly heated In addition to the refinement of the prior aus- product form, depending on the thermal and
to a temperature high enough to cause com- tenite grains, there is a reduction in the size of mechanical history of the product. The func-

Normalising
plete transformation of ferrite to austenite
! It remain at this temperature long enough to ach-
ieve uniform temperature throughout its mass
! It be permitted to cool in still air or in a con-
trolled manner (such as a tunnel with cool-
ing fans) to produce desired microstructure.
Normalizing also is described in terms of
microstructure. Normalizing is used to convert
the primary ferrite grains. This is due to the
effect of the temperature of formation on the
nucleation rate of these crystals. The nucleation
rate of primary ferrite crystals formed isother-
mally is shown schematically in Fig. 2(a). In
the higher temperature range, the lower the
transformation temperature, the higher the
nucleation rate. Figure 2(b) shows that this pro-
duces finer ferrite grains on air cooling. In
tions of normalizing may overlap with (or be
confused with) those of annealing, hardening,
and stress relieving. Improved machinability,
grain-structure refinement, homogenization,
and modification of residual stresses are among
the reasons normalizing is done. Homogeniza-
tion of castings by normalizing may be done to
break up or refine the dendritic structure and
facilitate a more even response to subsequent

Fig. 1 Microstructures showing the refinement of primary ferrite grains by normalizing of a 0.5% C steel. (a) Air cooled from hot working range (e.g., 1200 " C, or 2190 " F).
(b) Normalized after treatment in (a). Source: Ref 1

* Revised from T. Ruglic, Normalizing of Steel, Heat Treating, Vol 4, ASM Handbook, ASM International, 1991, p 3541

3 / 15
 Normalising

ate of
ize of

4 / 15
 normalization can help reduce banded grain work is heate
structure due to hot rolling, as well as large grain For normalizing, austenitizing is carried out in 55 ! C (100 !
Normalising
size or mixed large and small grain size due to
forging practice.
a temperature range slightly higher than that nor-
mally used for hardening for water quenching, to
the iron-iron
Fig. 4; that is,
and above A
properly clas
heating porti
homogeneous
Figure 5 com
of normalizin
normalizing
steels are giv
Uniform c
air around ea
in which th
accelerated. R
alter the ope
annealing tre
The coolin
effect of ma
still air for c
to 270 mm (
mary of coo
Fig. 7. Cooli
are plotted in

Fig. 2 Effect of normalizing process on primary ferrite formation. (a) Effect of temperature on the nucleation rate of
Fine equi-axed grains
primary ferrite at the grain boundaries of austenite. (b) Effect of cooling rate from austenite on the grain size of
the primary ferrite crystals. Source: Ref 1

5 / 15
 annealing process ever achieves true equilib-
Annealingrium conditions, it can closely parallel these

500x 6 / 15
 by induction heating is also done equilibrium critical temperatures depicted on suffix c for the French word chauffage) are
id heating is an effective method (such the binary iron-carbon phase diagram (Fig. 2) higher than the corresponding equilibrium tem-
ing of wire after drawing). are A1 and A3 for hypoeutectoid steel and A1 peratures. Various alloying elements markedly
Annealing and Acm for the hypereutectoid steel (Ref 1). affect these critical temperatures. For example,
urgical Principles
lly, in plain carbon steels, annealing
a ferrite-pearlite microstructure
Steels may be annealed to facilitate
rking or machining, to improve
al or electrical properties, or to pro-
ensional stability.
ron-carbon binary phase diagram
can be used to better understand
processes (Ref 1). Although no
process ever achieves true equilib-
ditions, it can closely parallel these

ully annealed 1040 steel showing a ferrite-

pearlite microstructure. Etched in 4% picral Fig. 2 Iron-carbon binary phase diagram with superimposed full annealing, process annealing, and spheroidizing
plus 2% nital. Original magnification: 500! treatments. Source: Ref 1
Sub-critical annealing,
Inter-critical annealing and
rom Annealing of Steel and Continuous Annealing of Steel, Heat Treating, Vol 4, ASM Handbook, ASM International, 1991, p 4266

Full annealing
7 / 15
 294 / Steel Heat Treatment Processes
Annealing

Fig. 4 Spherodised
Spheroidized annealing
microstructure of 1040 steel after
21 h at 700 ! C (1290 ! F). 4% picral etch.
Fig. 5 Effect of pri
8 / 15
 grains to grow at the expense of other grains;
this is termed grain growth and results in mod-
Annealing
est decreases in strength and small (but often
significant) increases in ductility.
Most plain carbon steels are given an anneal-
ing treatment that promotes full recrystalliza-
tion, but care must be taken to avoid excessive
grain growth, which can lead to surface defects
(such as orange peel) in formed parts.
The rates at which the previously mentioned
metallurgical processes proceed are functions
of both the chemical composition and the prior
history of the steel being annealed. For
Fig. 13 A low-carbon sheet steel in the (a) as-cold-rolled unannealed condition, (b) partially recrystallized annealed condition, and (c) fully recrystallized annealed condition.
Marshalls etch. Original magnification: 1000#
(a) Cold worked material,
(b) Partial recrystallisation and
(c) Full recrystallisation
other than those for the previously mentioned
three grades.
The coiling temperature after hot rolling as
well as the heating rate during annealing have
a significant impact on r!, which is different
for batch and continuous annealing operations
(Ref 19, 20). The desired coiling and annealing
temperatures are <600 and 720 ! C (1100 and
1330 ! F) for batch annealing and >700 and
850 ! C (1290 and 1560 ! F) for continuous
annealing. The higher coiling temperature
ensures complete AlN precipitation, which
Recrystallisation annealing
coarsens during high temperature during
ing line to ensure 100% recrystallization) and
product properties. A higher coiling tempera-
ture lowers the recrystallization temperature
and, in conjunction with heavy cold reduction
("80%), results in superior forming proper-
ties. A high annealing temperature is pre-
ferred for increased grain growth and high
r!-values. The cooling rate after annealing is
not critical, and no overaging treatment is
required. Because of this, the IF steels are
ideally suited for the production of highly form-
able, continuously annealed, cold-rolled, hot-
dip-coated steels.
9 / 15
Quenching
Cooling rates
800 1200
Eutectoid temperature
1000
700
1100
900
600 1000
Full anneal
800 PAG
500 900
Normalizing
Temperature, C

Temperature, K
Oil quench
700
400 800
Critical
cooling rate
600

Temperature, C
300 Water 700
quench
Ms
500 A
200 600

M90 400
100 500
Martensite Martensite Fine Coarse Water
and pearlite pearlite pearlite 300
0
103 104 105 5x105
400
0.1 1 10 100 Ms
Time, s
300 10 / 15
 Quenching Quenching of Steel / 97

1200
emperature
1000
1100
900
1000
Full anneal
800 PAG
Oil
ing 900
Temperature, K

700 Ac3(0.4C/min)
800
Ac1(0.4C/min)
600 F 45
40
Temperature, C

700 30
20 50 P 56
15 70
500 86 80
A
600 3 68
400 1 35
500 10
Coarse Water
Fine
pearlite pearlite 0.015 0.025 0.04 0.1 0.25 .06 .22 20C/min 1.25C/min
300
3 400 B
104 105 5x105 Ms 2 15 20
3
300
on steel transformation
eutectoid steel M
200

referred to as split 100

ely slower cooling 722 682 654670430 318 278 244 228 213 174
ormalizing) results 0
1 0 1 2 3 4
pearlite, while the 10 10 10 10 10 10 105
) represents even Seconds
n the formation of 1 2 3 8 15 30 60
Minutes
f a CCT diagram in 1 2 4 8 16 24
urves for a water, Hours
Time
us polymer quench-
nability AISI 1045 Fig. 10 Cooling time-temperature curves for water, petroleum oil, and an aqueous polymer (PAG, polyalky- 11 / 15
y AISI 1045 Fig. 10 Cooling time-temperature curves for water, petroleum oil, and an aqueous polymer (PAG, polyalky-
at quenching lene glycol) quenchant superimposed on the continuous-cooling transformation curve for AISI
Quenching
hat no diffu-
nly martens-
1045 steel

hing into a
ates that are
austenite is Table 1 Effect of carbon concentration
earlite. The Effect of and martensite
carbon content on the as-quenched
content
hardness of steel
bserved with
e latent heat Hardness, HRC

on. The inter- Carbon, % 99% martensite 95% martensite 90% martensite 80% martensite 50% martensite
the aqueous 0.10 38.5 32.9 30.7 27.8 26.2
he formation 0.12 39.5 34.5 32.3 29.3 27.3
te with the 0.14 40.6 36.1 33.9 30.8 28.4
0.16 41.8 37.6 35.3 32.3 29.5
tenite. These 0.18 42.9 39.1 36.8 33.7 30.7
mentally and 0.20 44.2 40.5 38.2 35.0 31.8
e use of steel 0.22 45.4 41.9 39.6 36.3 33.0
ooling time- 0.24 46.6 43.2 40.9 37.6 34.2
0.26 47.9 44.5 42.2 38.8 35.3
nchant being 0.28 49.1 44.8 43.4 40.0 36.4
0.30 50.3 47.0 44.6 41.2 37.5
ability. The 0.32 51.5 48.2 45.8 42.3 38.5
in a steel 0.34 52.7 49.3 46.9 43.4 39.5
0.36 53.9 50.4 47.9 44.4 40.5
oid the nose 0.38 55.0 51.4 49.0 45.4 41.5
n the carbon 0.40 56.1 52.4 50.0 46.4 42.4
greater than 0.42 57.1 53.4 50.9 47.3 43.4
nable by heat 0.44 58.1 54.3 51.8 48.2 44.3
0.46 59.1 55.2 52.7 49.0 45.1
uctures. The 0.48 60.0 56.0 53.5 49.8 46.0
ercentage of 0.50 60.9 56.8 54.3 50.6 46.8
hardness is 0.52 61.7 57.5 55.0 51.3 47.7
0.54 62.5 58.2 55.7 52.0 48.5
0.56 63.2 58.9 56.3 52.6 49.3
ciency) nec- 0.58 63.8 59.5 57.0 53.2 50.0
tic structure 0.60 64.3 60.0 57.5 53.8 50.7
he steel and Source: Ref 29
rt. The term
12 / 15
 6150 0.50 58 57 53 50 46 42 40 36 31
8650 0.50 55 54 52 49 45 41 37 32 28 Normalized at 870 " C (1600 " F), oil quenched

Tempering 8750
9850
0.50
0.50
56
54
55
53
52
51
51
48
46
45
44
41
39
36
Data were obtained on 25 mm (1 in.) bars adequately quenched to develop full hardness. (a) Hardness, HRB
34
33
32
30
(15001550 " F); average dewpoint, 13 " C (5

(Ref 1) are still convenient

tempering process:

! Refrigeration, which con

and usually much, of the
to martensite
! Heating in the range of 95
400 " F), in which (depend
ature) the martensite pro
tetragonality to become c
the first precipitation of a
(not cementite)
! Heating in the range of 2
to 700 " F), within which
austenite is decomposed,
largely isothermally, to lo
the retained austenite ha
transformed to martensite
! Tempering in the range
(700 to 1000 " F), causin
cementite (Fe3C) form of
! Tempering in the range
(1000 to 1300 " F). In pla
this range of temperatur
further agglomeration of
in alloy steels containin
elements, tempering into
range causes the first f
finely dispersed alloy-rich
to take place by re-solutio
contemporaneous precipit
special alloy-bearing carb
often results in a marked
Fig. 1 Hardness of quenched and tempered plain carbon steels at various tempering temperatures. Source: Ref 1 softening processsom

13 / 15
Tempering

Stages

1 Formation of transition carbides ( and -carbides)

2 Decomposition of retained austenite
3 Formation of cementite from transition carbides and
4 Precipitation of alloy carbides

14 / 15
s, as mentioned much strength must be sacrificed. shows the range of notch-impact values that
e lack of either The tempering range of 370 to 540 ! C may be expected in quenched and tempered
s in the result- (700 to 1000 ! F) is employed almost entirely 0.40 and 0.50% C steels, of a variety of alloy
Tempering
to 370 ! C (450
chiefly by two
for the plain carbon and alloy constructional
steels (thus excluding tool steels, bearing
steels, and case-hardened steels). This tem-
contents, tested at room temperature as V-notch
Charpy tests or as Izod tests. When the Charpy
tests are keyhole instead of V-notch, lower
microstructural pering range is characterized by causing an foot-pound values than those shown are to be
ustenite (unless increase in toughness, while at the same time expected.
efrigeration) is causing a considerable decrease in hardness The curves of Fig. 4 cover a variety of alloy Fig. 2 Examples of alloying effects on resistance to softening during tempering as co
transformed to (with its accompanying decrease in strength). compositions. There is little evidence that any
om-temperature These changes in mechanical properties are a particular alloy or combination of alloys will
ng temperature result of the microstructural change: the pre- regularly furnish superior toughness at the
s are wholly cipitation and coalescence (initial spheroidi- same hardness. Rather, it is to be expected
zation) of the stable carbide. that, when testing a considerable number of
nite. The quan- Of course, the decrease in hardness covers a heats of a single (nominal) composition, there
e large in alloy broad range of hardnesses; because steels of suc- will be found such noticeable variations in
the martensite cessively higher carbon contents exhibit succes- toughness as to overlap similar variations in
m temperature. sively higher hardnesses as quenched, their most other alloy compositions, at the same
ange of 200 to hardnesses after tempering also cover a band of carbon content.
the decomposi- values, as illustrated in Fig. 1. Figure 1 may be Although toughness improves with temper-
mentite and fer- used as a rough guide of the hardnesses to be ing above 370 ! C (700 ! F) for carbon and
in an increase expected, but it should be emphasized that it is a low-alloy steels (Fig. 4), extended heating times
ustenite is pres- rough guide only; it is intended to represent only or slow cooling in the temperature range of
boundaries), the the plain carbon steels. 450 to 600 ! C (840 to 1110 ! F) can reduce
inuous array of
ance of a film

ts below 0.5%,
s less than 2%
6, for example,
d austenite in
approximately
stenite, respec-
400 ! F) and is
As the amount
the percentage

the reduction in
hness after tem-
(450 to 700 ! F)
ny decades. The
s occurs up to
C (400 ! F), but
nge of approxi-
!
F). This effect
rtensite embri-
m temper emb-
Toughness and
Given the drop
30 to 370 ! C Fig. 6 Transformation of retained austenite in 4130 and 4340 steel Fig. 3 Examples of secondary hardening during tempering with strong carbide-formi

increase in hardnessand is often desig- Tempering temper

nated secondary hardening. described in terms of
are relatively distinc
Refrigeration, as discussed in another article, microstructural
15 /chang
15