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Biology Notes of First Year
Introduction
CHAPTER 1
DEFINITION OF BIOLOGY
Biology is the study of living organisms. It is derived from Greek words.
CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANIZATION
According to the modern classification given by R.H.Whittaker in 1969, living

organisms are divided into five major kingdoms, which are:
KINGDOM MONERA
It includes all prokaryotes, unicellular organisms. For example Bacteria and Cyan
bacteria.
KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA(PROTISTA)
It includes unicellular Eukaryotic organisms, which are in between plants and

animals. e.g. Chlamydomonas, Euglena, Paramecium. etc
1. KINGDOM FUNGI
It includes non-chlorophyllus multi-cellular, thallophytic organisms having cell wall.
For example all types of fungi, unicellular to multi-cellular like Mushrooms and Yeast
etc.
2. KINGDOM PLANTAE
It includes all chlorophyllus multi-cellular Eukaryotic living organisms having
cellulose cell wall. For example apple, red wood etc.
3. KINGDOM ANIMALIA
It includes all Eukaryotic multi-cellular, non-chlorophyllus organisms having no cell
wall. For example Hydra, Earthworm, Human Beings etc.
EUKARYOTIC ORGANISMS
Those organisms, which have true membranous structure in their cells, like
mitochondria, golgi bodies, endoplasmic reticulum. e.g. All plants, Higher animals.
PROKARYOTES
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Those living organisms, which do not have true membranous structure in their cells.
e.g. Bacteria, Blue green algae.
PHYLETIC LINEAGE
All living organisms of today belong to a common ancestor and each specie of
organism arranged no ancestor to descendent order with rest of the group evolved
from one that immediately preceded.
BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY
1. MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
It is a recent branch of biological science that deals with the structure and function
of the molecules that form structure of cell and organelles that take part in the
biological processes of a living organism (Nucleic acid Protein molecule)
2. MICRO BIOLOGY
It deals with the study of micro-organisms (viruses, bacteria, protozoan etc)
3. ENVIRONMENTAL BIOLOGY
It deals with the study of environment and its effect on organisms.
4. MARINE BIOLOGY
It deals with the study of organisms inhabiting the sea an ocean, and the physical
and chemical characteristics of their environment.
5. FRESH WATER BIOLOGY

It deals with the life dwelling in fresh waters, physical and chemical characteristics
of fresh water bodies affecting it.
6. PARASITOLOGY
It deals with the study of parasitic organisms, their life cycles, mode of transmission
and interaction with their hosts.
7. HUMAN BIOLOGY
The branch of biology deals with all biological aspects of man regarding evolution,
anatomy physiology, health, inheritance etc.
8. SOCIAL BIOLOGY
Social biology is concerned with the social interactions with in a population of a
given species, especially in human beings focuses on such issue as whether certain
behavior are inherited or culturally induced.
9. BIOTECHNOLOGY
This is a very recent branch introduce in biological sciences. It deals with the use of
data and techniques of engineering and technology for the study and solution of
problems concerning living organisms particularly the human beings.
BIOLOGICAL METHOD
In order to solve the biological problems (any animal or plant disease or

environmental hazard), following steps are necessary.
1. HYPOTHESIS
An educated guess or fact regarding the biological problem.
INDUCTIVE REASONING
Isolated facts to reach a general idea that explain the biological problem.
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
Accurate experimentation, true conclusions or results regarding the biological
problems.
2. OBSERVATION/EXPERIMENTS
The given hypothesis is checked with the help of observation and experiments and
then on the basis of it a theory or rule is established.
3. THEORY
If observations and experiments come true then hypothesis is taken true, other wise
it is rejected. Only on the basis of true hypothesis a theory is established.
4. LAW/PRINCIPLE
When theory is proved to be true under all tested circumstances then it is accepted
as a law.
MALARIA
Malaria means disease cause by bad air.

Actual Causative agent is plasmodium (Vector Female, Anopheles Mosquito)
Leveran first discover plasmodium in human R.B.C.
Ronald Ross discovered plasmodium in the stomach of female Anopheles
Mosquito.
Grassi discover the complete life cycle of Plasmodium in human being and
mosquito.
ANTIBIOTICS
Substances or chemicals, which are required in small quantity to inhibit the growth
of Microorganisms. The first antibiotic was penicillin discovered by Fleming. Other
examples are: Erythocin, Rythocin, Gentamycin, Ampicillin etc.
CHEMOTHERAPY
Treatment with drug or chemical.
RADIOTHERAPY
Treatment with radiations, like , , or X-rays.
HYDROPONICS
It is the science of terrestrial plants growing in aerated solutions (add CO2 under
pressure, in any liquid also known as aerated water). This technique is also known
as soil less or water culture.
ADVANTAGES
1. Control weeds and soil disease problems.

2. Area required for cultivation is minimum.
3. Can be applied on any part of the world.
4. Main purpose is to fulfill the food requirements of rapidly increasing world
population.
CLONING
Production of duplicate copies of genetic material, cells or entire multicellular living

organisms, occurring naturally in plants or animals. Duplicate copies are known as
clones.
NATURAL CLONING
Identical twin, triplet in humans.

Asexual reproduction in plants and animal.
Regeneration and wound healing.
Growth of tumor cells or cancers.
ARTIFICIAL CLONING
Cloning of human cells such as liver cells, skin cells, blood cells are quite
helpful to develop human organs in laboratories.
There are also enormous advantages of cloning in the field of medicine and
agriculture. Examples are vegetative reproduction of fruits and nuts by
grafting.
Artificial cloning is also used for treating disease, production of medically
significant substances such as Insulin, growth hormones, interferon and anti-
thrombin etc.
LEVEL OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION
Life is built on chemical foundation and the life of all living organisms emerges on
the level of cell. The foundation of cell is based on elements. Atoms of different
elements unite to form molecules. Living organism usually form extremely large and
complex molecules by living matter which is present in their bodies. The molecules
of living organisms are mostly composed of carbon and provide building blocks of
living matter. Mostly living matter of an organism is composed of organic molecules
along with inorganic compounds (minerals) are also associated for e.g. Human
blood.theme.
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fatty acids, amino acids, purine and pyramidines. Similar types of cells form-tissues,
similar tissues form organs, different organs coordinating with each other form
system and different systems combine to form a living organism.
Cell Tissues organs System An Individual
Biological organization can be divided into the following levels:
SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES
Particles that make up an atom are called sub-atomic particles.
For e.g. electron, proton and Neutron.
ATOM
The smallest particle of an element that retains the property of that element.For
example: Hydrogen, carbon and oxygen etc.
MOLECULE
The combination of similar and different atoms are called molecules.
For example Hydrogen and oxygen combines to form water molecules.
ORGANELLE
A structure with in a cell that performs a specific function.
For example: Mitochondria, chloroplast etc.
CELL
The smallest structural and functional unit of life.
For example: A nerve cell
TISSUE
A group of similar cells that performs a specific function.
For example: Nervous tissue.
ORGAN
A structure with in an organism usually compose of several tissue types that forms
a functional unit.For example: The brain
ORGAN SYSTEM
Two or more organs working together in the execution of a specific bodily
function.For example: The nervous system.
MULTICELLULAR ORGANISM
An individual living thing composed of many cells are called Multicellular
organisms.For example: Pronghom antelope.
SPECIE
A group of very similar inter breeding organisms constitutes a species.For
example Herd of pronghom antelope.
POPULATION
Members of same species inhabiting the same area are considered as
population.For example: Herd of pronghom antelope.
COMMUNITY
Population of several species living and interacting in the same area form a
community.For example: Snake, antelope and hawk.
ECO-SYSTEM
A community with its environment including land, water and atmosphere,
constitute an eco-system.
BIOSPHERE
The part of earth inhibited by living organisms, both living and non-living
components.
Biological Molecules
CHAPTER 2
BIOCHEMISRTY
Biochemistry is a branch of biology, which deals with the study of

chemical components and chemical processes in living organisms.
WATER (H2O)
MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER
Chemically it is Dihydrogen oxide

It is the most abundant component in living cell.
Its amount varies approximately from 70 to 90% and life activities
occur in the cell due to the presence of water.
It is a polar molecule, means that it has a very slightly negative end
(the oxygen atom) and a very slightly positive end (the hydrogen
atom).
Due to its polarity, H2O molecules form hydrogen bonds.
IMPORTANT BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER
(1) BEST SOLVENT
Water is an excellent solvent for polar substances, when ionic

substances dissolved in water, dissociate into positive and
negative ions.
Non-ionic substances, having charged groups in their molecules,
are dispersed in water.
Because of solvent property of water, almost all reactions in cells
occur in aqueous media.
(2) HIGH HEAT CAPACITY
Water has great ability of absorbing heat due to its high specific
heat capacity.
The specific heat capacity of water is the number of calories

required to raise the temperature of 1g water through 1C.
The thermal stability plays an important role in water based
protoplasm of individuals metabolic activities.
(3) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION
Liquid water requires higher amount of heat energy to change into

vapours due to hydrogen bonding which holds the water molecules
together.
It provides cooling effect to plants when water is transpired, or to
animals when water is respired.
(4) ACT AS AMPHOTERIC MOLECULE
Water molecule acts both as acid and a base. As acid, it gives up

electron to form H+ ion, while as a base, it gains electron to form
OH ions.
H2O H+ + OH-
It acts as buffer and prevents changes in the pH of living body.
(5) PROTECTION
Water is an effective lubricant that provides protection against

damage resulting from friction.
It also forms a fluid cushion around organs that helps to protect
them from trauma.
(6) AS REAGENT /TURGIDITY
Water acts as a reagent in many processes such as photosynthesis

and hydrolysis reactions.
It also provides turgidity to the cells.
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Those compounds containing carbon (other than carbonates) are called

organic compounds. E.g: carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids and Nucleic
acid.
INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Those compounds, which are without carbon, are called inorganic

compounds. E.g: water, carbondioxide, acids , bases and salts.
MACROMOLECULES
Huge and highly organized molecules which form the structure and
carry out the activities of cells are called Macromolecules
Macromolecules can be divided into four major groups.
Proteins
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Nucleic acids.
MONOMERS
Macromolecules are composed of large number of low molecular weight

building blocks or subunits called Monomers E.g: Amino-acids
(Protein).
CONDENSATION
The process by which two monomers are joined is called

Condensation.
In this process two monomers join together when a hydroxyl(OH) group
is removed from one monomer and a hydrogen (-H) is removed from
other monomer.
This type of condensation is called Dehydration Synthesis because
water is removed (dehydration ) and a bond is made (synthesis).
HYDROLYSIS
A process during which polymers are broken dawn into their subunits
(monomers) by the addition of H2O called Hydrolysis . It is just
reverse of the condensation.
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
These are particular group of atoms that behave as a unit and give
organic molecules their physical, chemical properties and solubility in
aqueous solution. E.g
Methyl group (CH3-)

Hydroxyl or Alcohol group (OH-)
Carboxylic acid or Organic-acid group (COOH-)
Amino or Amine group (NH2-)
Carbonyl group (CO=)
Sulfhydryl group (SH-)
PROTEINS
These are the complex organic compounds having C, H,O and N as

elements but sometimes they contain P and S also. Due the presence of
N they are called Nitrogenous Compounds Proteins constitute more
than 50% of dry weight of cell. They are present in all types of cells and
in all parts of the cell.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF PROTEINS
Proteins are polymers of amino-acids and number of amino-acids varies

from a few to 3000 or even more in different proteins.
These amino-acids are linked together by specialized bond or linkage
called peptide linkage
Each proteins has a unique sequence of amino-acids that gives the
unique properties to molecules.
AMINO ACID
It is the basic structural unit of proteins and all amino-acids have an

Amino group (NH2-) and a Carboxyl group (COOH-) attached to the
same carbon atom, also known as Alpha carbon. The have the general
formula as:
1. A hydrogen atom.
2. An amino (NH2) group.
3. A carboxyl group (COOH)
4. Something else this is the R group.
R

H2N C COOH
(Amino group) (Carboxylic group)
H
R may be a H as in glycine, or CH3 as in alanine, or any other group.
So amino acids mainly differ in the R-group.
POLYPEPTIDES
Amino Acids are linked together to from polypeptides of proteins. The

amino group of one amino acids may react with the carboxyl group of
another releasing a molecule of water. E.g: Glycine and analine may
combine to form a dipeptiede
PEPTIDE LINKAGE/ BOND
The linkage between the hydroxyle group of carboxyl group of one

amino-acid and the hydrogen of amino-group of another amino-acid
release H2O and C-N link to form a bond called Peptide bond.
TYPES OF PROTEINS ON THE BASIS OF STRUCTURE
There are four basic structural levels of proteins.
(A) PRIMARY STRUCTURE
A polypeptide chain having a linear sequence of amino-acids.

Disulphide (S-S) bond is other important characteristic of the
primary protein.
E.g: Insulin Polypeptide chain.
B) SECONDARY STRUCTURE
In this type polypeptide chain of amino-acids become spirally

coiled.
This coiling results in the formation of a rigid and tubular structure
called Helix
C) TERTIARY STRUCTURE
Polypeptide chain bends and folds upon it self forming a globular

shape.
It is maintained by three types of bonds. Namely ionic, hydrogen
and disulfide (S-S).
(D) QUATERNARY STRUCTURE
This type is usually present in highly complex proteins in which

polypeptide tertiary chains are aggregated and held together by
hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen and ionic bonds.
E.g: Haemoglobin molecule.
FUNCTIONS OF PROTEIN
They Build many Structures of the cell E.G: Plasma Membrane.

All enzymes are proteins and in this way they control the whole
metabolism of the cell.
Skin, nails, hair, feather, horn etc. contain portion called keratin.
Casein is the milk portion and ovalbumin is the egg white protein.
Collagen present in bones, cartilage, etc. is the most abundant
protein in higher vertebrates.
Protein acts as antibodies, antigens and fibrin etc.
CARBOHYDRATES
It is a group of organic compounds having carbon, oxygen and

hydrogen, in which hydrogen and oxygen are mostly found in the same
ratio as in water i.e. 2:1 and thus called Hydrated carbons They are
found about 1% by weight and generally called Sugars or saccharides
due to their sweet taste except polysaccharides.
CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
The carbohydrates can be classified into following groups on the basis

of number of monomers.
1. Monosaccharide
2. Oligosaccharides
3. Polysaccharides.
(1) MONOSACCHARIDES
These are called Simple Sugars, because they can not be

hydrolysed further into simple sugars.
Their general formula is Cn H2n On
They are white crystalline solids with sweet taste and soluble in
water.
They are present in various fruits and vegetables.
E.g: Glucose, Galactose, Fructose and Ribose etc. Monosaccharide can

be sub-classified according to umber of carbon atom present in each
molecule. They may be triose, (Glycerose), tetrose (erythrose), pentose,
(ribose), hexone (glucose) or heptose (Glucoheptose) having 3,4,5 ,6
and 7theme.
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(2) OLIGOSACCHARIDES
These carbohydrates yield 2to 10 monosaccharides mnolecules on

hydrolysis
Disaccharides are the most common and abundant carbohydrates
of oligosaccharides.
These sugars are comparatively less sweet in taste, and less
soluble in water.
E.g: Maltose, Sucrose and lactose etc.
(3) POLYSACCHARIDES
These are the most complex and most abundant carbohydrates in

nature.
They are of high molecular weight carbohydrate which on
hydrolysis yield mainly monosaccarides or products related to
monosaccharide.
These sugars are formed by the condensation of hundreds of
thousands of monosaccharide units.
They are tasteless and only sparingly souble in H2O.
E.g: Strach, cellulose Glycogen , Dextrin Agar, pectin and Chitin etc.
FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are the potential source of energy.

They act as storage food molecules and also work as an excellent
building, protective and supporting structure.
They also form complex conjugated molecules.
They are needed to synthesize lubricants and are also needed to
prepare the nectar in some flowers.
LIPIDS
These are naturally occurring compounds, which are insoluble in water

but soluble in organic solvents. They contain carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen like carbohydrates rate but in much lesser ratio of oxygen than
carbohydrates. These biomolecules are widely distributed among plants
and animals.
CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
Following are the important groups of lipids.

1. Acylglycerol (fats and oil)
2. Waxes
3. Phospholipids.
4. Terpenoids.
(1) ACYLGLYCEROL (FATS AND OIL)
These are found in animals and plants, provide energy for different
metabolic activates and are very rich in chemical energy.
They are composed of glycerol and fatty acids. The most widely
spread acylglycerol is triacyl glycerol, also called triglycerides or
natural lipids.
There are two types of acylgycerol
(A) SATURATED ACYLGLYCEROL
They contain no double bond.

They melt at higher temperature than unsatured acylglycerols.
Lipids containing saturated acylgycerol are solid and known as
Saturated lipids.
E.g: Butter and Animal fat. etc.
(B) UNSATURATED ACYLGLYCEROL
They contain unsaturated fatty acids i.e they contain one or more
than one double bond between carbon atom(C=C-).
They are liquid at ordinary temperature .
They are found in plant also called Oil
E.g: linolin found in cotton seeds etc.
(2) WAXES
Chemically waxes are mixtures of long chain alkanes and alcohols.

Ketones and esters of long chain fathy acids
Waxes are widespread as protective coatings of fruits and leaves
some insects also secrete wax.
Waxes protect plants form water loss and abrasive damage.
They also provide water barrier for insects, birds and animals etc.
(3) PHOSPHOLIPIDS
It is most important class of lipids from biological point of view and

is similar to riacylglycerol or an oil except that one fatty acid is
replaced by phosphate group.
The molecule of phospholipids consist of two ends, which are
called hydrophilic (water loving end (head) and hydrophobic (water
fearing)end (Tail).
These are frequently associated with membranes and are related to
vital functions such as regulation of cell permeability and transport
process.
(4) TERPENOIDS
It is large and important class of lipids containing Isoprenoid unit

(C5H8).
They help in oxidation reduction process, act as components of
essential oils of plants and also found in cell membrances as
cholesterol
SUB-CLASSES OF LIPIDS
1. Terpenes
2. Steroids.
3. Carotenoids.
(1) TERPENES
This group based only on Isoprenoid unit and they are usually
volatile in nature produce special fragrance.
Derivatives of this group are found in vitamin A and are also
important constituents of chlorophyll and cholesterol biosynthesis.
They are utilized in synthesis of Rubber and Latex, and some of
these are used in perfumes.
(2) STEROIDS
This group of Terpenoids contains 17 carbon atoms ring called

steroid nucleus.
(3) CAROTENOIDS
They consist of fatty acid like carbon chain and usually found in
plants, for example carotene, xanthophylls etc.
NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic Acids Were First Isolated In 1870 By an Austrian Physician

Fridrich Micscher from the nuclei of pus cells. These bio molecules are
acidic in nature and present in the nucleus.
TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic acids are of two types.

1. Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA
2. Ribonucleic acid or RNA
CHEMICAL NATURE OF NUCLEIC ACID
Nucleic acids are complex substances. They are polymers of units

called nucleotides. DNA is made up of deoxyribonucleotides, while RNA
is composed of ribo nucleotides.
STRUCTURE OF NUCLEOTIDE
Each nucleotide is made of three subunits

a) 5-carbon monosaccharide (a pentose sugar)
b) Nitrogen containing base.
c) Phosphoric acid.
(A) PENTOSE SUGAR

Pentose sugar in RNA is ribose, while in DNA it is deoxyribose.
(B) NITROGENOUS BASE

Nitrogenous bases are of two types
(I) PYRIMIDINES (SINGLE RINGED): These are cytosine (abbreviated as
C), thymine (abbreviated as T), and uracil (abbreviated as U).

(II) PURINES (DOUBLE RINGED): These are adenine (abbreviated as A)
and guanine(abbreviated as G).
C) PHOSPHORIC ACID
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) has the ability to develop ester linkage with
OH group of pentose sugar.
FORMATION OF NUCLEOTIDE
Formation of nucleotide takes place in two steps. First the mitrogenous

base combines with pentose sugar at its first carbon to form a
Nucleoside. In second step the phosphoric acid combines with the 5th
carbon of pentose sugar to form a Nucleotide.
(A) MONONUCLEOTIDES
They exist singly in the cell or as a part of other molecules.

These are not the part of DNA or RNA and some of these have extra
phosphate groups e.g ATP.
B) DINCULEOTIDES
These nucleotides are covalently bounded together and usually act

as co-enzymes
E.g NAD (Nicotinamide dinucleotide ).
(C) POLYNUCLEOTIDES
Nucleotides are found in the nucleic acid as Polynucleotide and

they have a variety of role in living organisms.
They usually perform the function of transmitters of genetic
information.
CONJUGATED MOLECULES
Two different molecules, belonging to different categories, usually

combine together to form Conjugated molecules.
These conjugated molecules are not only of structural, but also are
of functional significance.
They play an important role in regulation of gene expression.
(A) GLYCOPROTEIN AND GLYCOLIPIDS
Carbolydrates may combine with proteins to form glycoprotein or with

lipids to form glycolipid.
FUNCTIONS
a) Most of cellular secretions are glycoproteins in nature.
b)Both glycoproteins and glycolipids are integral structural components
of plasma membranes.
(B) LIPOPROTEINS
Combination of lipids and proteins form lipoproteins.
FUNCTION
They are basic structural framework of all types of membranes in the
cells.
(C) NUCLEOPROTEINS
Nucleic acids have special affinity for basic proteins . they are
combined together to form nucleoproteins.
FUNCTIONS
The nucleoproteins (Histone) are present in chromosomes.
THINGS TO BE REMEMBER
Proteins-Berzelius and G.J murlder.

Lipids-Bloor in 1943.
DNA Hereditary material.
RNA- carrier of genetic information.
rRNA (Ribosomal RNA)- Double stranded.
Transcription- Formation of mRNA.
Translation Formation of Proteins by ribosmes.
Enzymes
CHAPTER 3
ENZYMES(BIO-CATALYSTS)
Enzymes are bio-catalyst which speed up the chemical reactions by

lowering Energy of activation.
ENERGY OF ACTIVATION
Amount of energy which is required to start a chemical reaction. OR
Energy required to break a (particular covalent) bond present in
reactant.
NOMENCLATURE OF ENZYMES
Enzyme is a Greek word means-En(in) and Zyme(yeast).
DISCOVERY OF ENZYME
Term Enzyme was coined by F.W Kuhne in 1978.
NATURE OF ENZYME
Almost all enzymes are protein in nature except few which are
nitrogenous acids like RNA-DNA(Ribozymes). Ribozymes catalyze
reactions in genetic informations.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ENZYMES
Protein in nature and are formed by living cells.

May be intracellular or extra cellular.
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Speed up the rate of reaction by decreasing energy of action.

Specific in their nature.
Heat sensitive and act on particular (optimum) temp.
Each has specific substrate pH for its activity.
Action can be alter by activators and inhibitors.
CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYME (ON THE BASIS OF STRUCTURE)
Pure or Simple Enzyme consist of only protein (e.g.Amylase and

Pepsin) Conjugated or Holoenzymes: May contain a non-protein part
Prosthetic group as well (e.g. Phosphatase and Peptidase)
Holoenzyme = Apoenzyme + Prosthetic group
.(Protein part).(Non-protein part)
CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYME (ON THE BASIS OF FUNCTIONS)
(1) OXIDOREDUCTASE
Catalyze reactions in which one substrate is oxidized while other is
reduced. Sub classes are:
Dehydrogenases(convert single bond to double bond)

Oxidases (use oxygen as oxidant)
Peroxidases (use H202 as oxidant)
Hydroxylases (introduce hydroxyl group)
Oxygenases (introduce mol. Oxygen in place of double bond).
(2) TRANSFERASES
Transfer one carbon group (e.g. methyl) from one substrate to another
substrate.
(3) HYDROLASES
Catalyze hydrolytic cleavage of C-O, C-N, C-C and P-O bonds and other
single bonds (e.g. Peptidases, Esterases, Glycosidases and
Phosphatidases).
(4) LYASES
Catalyze Elimination reactions to form double bond and reversible
reaction by adding groups across double bond (e.g. Decarboxlases,
Aldolases and Dehydratases).
(5) ISOMERASES
They alter the structure but not the atomic composition by moving a
group from one position to another in one molecule (e.g. Epimerases,
Mutases).
(6) LIGASES
Catalyze reaction in which two molecules are joined. They are also
known as synthtases.
ROLE OF ENZYME
The enzyme react with (energy rich or energy poor) molecules and
forms an intermediate complex that breaks into,
(a) Product
(b) Enzyme
(i) Substrate + Enzyme = Complex
(ii) Complex = Product + Enzyme
The equilibrium is achieved if the ratio of conc of reactants (substrate)
and product remains same.
Rate of reaction 1/ Energy of activation
MODE OF ACTION OF ENZYMES
1- The action of enzyme depends on its chemical structure. A typical

enzyme molecule, has 3D structure.
2- Has depression or pit for substrate (to fit in) known as Active site.
3- Any other site other than active site is called Allosteric site
There are two theories in respect of enzyme action, which are as
follows.
LOCK AND KEY MODEL
Proposed by Fischer (1898) and modified by Paul Filder and D.D Woods
according to this model,
The active site of enzyme has distinct shape.

It allows few substrate to fit in (like a particular lock allows
particular key to fit in)
Enzyme breaks substrate to product
FIGURE From Text Book 3.3 page #46 (The cycle of Enzyme substrate
Interaction)
INDUCE FIT MODEL

Proposed by koshland (1959), it states that
Enzyme binds with a substrate

This binding induce changes in enzyme structure
Due to this change enzyme acts and forms product
FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY
The activity of enzymes depend on following factors,
1. SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION
Increases with increase in substrate concentration (up to a limit)

At very high concentration, activity again decreases due to
saturation of enzyme with substrate and saturation of product i.e.
higher concentration of product.
2. TEMPERATURE
Increases with in temperature(up to limits)

Maximum activity at optimum temperature.
Highly active at 37C and destroyed at 100C
At 0C minimum activity.
3. PH
Enzymes are pH specific i.e. work in specific pH(because of protein can
act both in acidic and basic medium.
4. WATER
Enzyme activity is usually maximum (up to limits) but decrease after
limits (dilution of enzyme)
5. RADIATIONS
Enzymes become inactive due to radiations (including Alpha, Beta,
Gamma rays).
6. CO-ENZYME AND ACTIVATORS

Induce the enzyme activity.
THINGS TO BE REMEMBER
INHIBITORS
Substances which decreases the activity of enzymes.
COMPETITIVE INHIBITORS
Inhibitor molecules which resemble the normal substrate molecule and
compete for admission into the active site. They block the substrate
from entering active site.
NON-COMPETITIVE INHIBITORS
Inhibitors bind to a part of the enzymes away from the active site
(Allosteric site). This binding cause change in the enzyme molecule
shape and decrease in enzyme activity.
FEED BACK INHIBITION

Common biological control mechanism of brain in order to regulate
enzyme activity.
PROSTHETIC GROUP
Non-protein part of enzyme (Co-enzyme or Co-factor)
CO-ENZYME
When prosthetic group consist of organic molecules (like FAD/NAD)
CO-FACTORS/ACTIVATORS
When prosthetic group consist of inorganic molecules (like Ca++, Na+
etc).
APOENZYME
Protein part of enzyme.
The Cell
CHAPTER 4
CELL
It is the basic structural and functional unit of life, which is able to carry
out all the life processes.
CELL THEORY
The cell theory was collectively proposed by Schleiden(1838),

Schawnn(1839) and Virchow (1858).
IMPORTANT POSTULATES
The fundamental points of the cell theory are:
(a) The cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organism.
(b) All organisms are composed of one or more cells.
(c) New cells can arise only by division of pre-existing cells.
Thus cell theory established the concept that the function of an
organism is the result of activities and interaction of the cell units.
MICROSCOPE
DEFINITION
An instrument with the help of which we see small, tiny and minute
objects which cant be observe by naked human eye.
TYPES OF MICROSCOPE
There are three main types of microscope.
1. LIGHT MICRO SCOPE

In this microscope visible light is used as source of illumination.
2. X-RAY MICROSCOPE
X-Rays are used as source of illumination.
3. ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
Electron beam is used as source of illumination.
There are further two sub-types of electron microscope which are:
(A)TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

In this type resultant image is obtained on a fluorescent screen or
photographic film.
(B)SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

In this type resultant image is obtained on a television screen.
MAGNIFICATION OF MICROSCOPE
Ability of microscope to increase the shape and size of the objects

image. It can be calculated by multiplying the power of its eye pieces
with its magnifying power of its objective.
RESOLUTION OF MICROSCOPE
The capacity of microscope to separate adjacent forms or object. Also

known as Minimum Resolved Distance.
CONTRAST
It is important to distinguishing one part of cell from another.
(Difference between light and electron microscope From Text page

#57)
Prokaryotes and eukaryotes From Text page #58)
CELL MEMBRANE
Each cell is covered by an asymmetrical, porous, thin, semi permeable

sheet called cell membrane or plasmalemma.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CELL MEMBRANE
Living part of the cell, consist of lipid + protein.
1.5 micron in thickness.

Consist of two layers of lipid.
Lipid of plasma membrane are,
1. Phospho-lipids
2. Glycolipids
3. Sterol
4. Cholesterol.
STRUCTURE OF CELL MEMBRANE
Cell membrane made up of phospho-lipids bilayer and each layer

consists of ,
1. Head (hydrophilic end)
2. Tail (hydrophobic end)
1. HEAD (HYDROPHILIC/POLAR END)

Present towards the surface and formed of phosphates.
2. TAIL (HYDROPHOBIC/NON-POLAR END)

Present towards the center and formed of fatty acids.
The non-polar ends of phospho lipids face each other, whereas their
polar ends are in association with protein or carbohydrates between
every two phospo lipids molecule lies a molecule of Cholesterol.
FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
INTRODUCTION
The fluid mosaic, bilayer model was proposed by Singer and Nicolson
(1972).
POSTULATES OF FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
Important postulates of this model are,

(a) The cell membrane consists of lipid bilayer, in which a variety of
proteins are present.
(b) These proteins float in the fluid matrix of lipid (as ice bergs in the
sea)
(FIGURE 4.4 Page #61)
ARRANGEMENT OF PROTEINS
According to the fluid mosaic model proteins are:
1. INTRINSIC/INTEGRAL PROTEINS
These proteins peneterate the membrane surface and enter the lipid
layers (partially or wholly)
2. EXTRINSIC/PERIPHERAL PROTEINS
These are located adjacent to outer and inner surface of membrane and
float like ice-berg in the sea.
ARRANGEMENT OF LIPIDS
The non-polar end face each other while their polar ends are towards
the surface.
SIGNIFICANCE OF MODEL
Cell membrane is flexible.

Can change shape (because the protein and lipid of the membrane
can move).
FUNCTION OF MEMBRANE PROTEIN
Certain proteins themselves act as enzymes.

Some protein act as carrier for active transport.
Provide elasticity to membrane.
Pores are lined by the proteins.
FUNCTION OF LIPIDS PRESENT IN MEMBRANE
The lipids give rigidity to cell membrane.

They lower the surface tension.
FUNCTIONS OF CELL MEMBRANE
It performs the two main function.

Protection of Protoplasm.
Regulation of material (In and Out of cell) through its permeabality.
PERMEABILITY OF MEMBRANE
The permeability of membrane is regulated by two processes.

(1) Passive Transport (Osmosis and Diffusion)
(2) Active Transport (Endocytosis, Exocytosis)
1. PASSIVE TRANSPORT
Such type of molecules transport which does not require energy. It is
further divided into,
DIFFUSION
Spreading and free movement of molecules (or ions) from the region of
higher concentration to the region of lower concentration (till
equilibrium state)
SIGNIFICANCE
Movement of oxygen and digested food (glucose, amino acids, fatty

acids) into the cell.
Movement of excretory waste out of cell.
OSMOSIS
Diffusion of water by semipermeable membrane or the movement of
solvent molecules from higher to lower concentration across semi
permeable membrane.
SIGNIFICANCE
Liquids, primarily water molecules enter and leave the cell by

Osmosis.
It helps to maintain a balance (osmotic pressure) in and out of cell.
2. ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Such type of molecule transport which require energy. Or Movement of
molecules against the concentration by the expenditure of energy
through a carrier (i.e. movement of molecules from the region of lower
concentration to higher concentration by protein using ATP as energy.
SIGNIFICANCE
Absorption of excess food (glucose), ions (K+ and Na+) takes place by
Active transport.
CONDITIONS
It is unidirectional.
ATP provides energy.
Protein act as carrier.
Active transport is further subdivided into,

(1) Phagocytosis and Pinocytosis (Endocytosis).
(2) Exocytosis.
PHAGOCYTOSIS
Process of picking and ingestion of large solid particle by plasma
membrane (which can not enter by diffusion, osmosis or active
transport).
SIGNIFICANCE
Ingestion of solid food particles.
WBCs pick foreign particles (certain bacteria)
PINOCYTOSIS
Process of fluid intake, for absorbing fluid by forming pinocytic vesicle
(the fluid which cannot be absorbed by osmosis, enters through it)
SIGNIFICANCE
Helps in absorption of harmones, lipids etc.
CELL WALL
The cell wall is the outer most covering of a plant cell. It is composed of
cellulose (a carbohydrate) and some other chemical substances.
This hard covering gives form, firmness and strength to the plant cell.
In a young cell it is thin and delicate but in a mature cell it becomes
thick due to the deposition of various chemical substances on its inner
surface.
There are three layer of cell wall.
1. MIDDLE (LAMELLA)
First formed cell plate.

Cementing layer between two daughter cells.
Composed of Ca++ and Mg++ pectate.
Cells are separated when this layer is dissolved.
2. PRIMARY WALL
First product of cell synthesized by protoplast.

In young cells it is thin and elastic while it becomes thick and rigid
on maturity.
Made up of Hemicellulose (50%), cellulose (25%) and pectate
substances.
3. SECONDARY WALL
Composed of cellulose.
Present inside the primary wall.
Can be modified through the deposition of lignin and other
substances.
NUCLEUS
It control all the activities of the cell and was discovered by Robert
Brown in 1831.
It consist of the following parts,
(1) Nuclear Membrane.
(2) Nucleoplasm or Karyoplasm.
(3) Nucleolus.
(4) Chromatin Network.
1. NUCLEAR MEMBRANE
The nucleus is bounded by a double layered membrane which bears

pores and is known as Nuclear Membrane
2. NUCLEOPLASM
Inside the nuclear membrane is a structure less fluid called

Nucleoplasm and highly rich with proteins.
3. NUCLEOLUS
It is a patch work of granules rich in R.N.A formed in the nucleus. They

may be more than one in a single nucleus. It contains mRNA formed
from DNA, later mRNA comes out of nucleus to control protein

formation.
4. CHROMATIN NETWORK
There is a network of threads dispersed in the karyoplasm called

(Chromatin network)
Each individual thread is called (Chromosomes).
These are made up of DNA and are carrier of genes.
NOTE:(Types of Chromosomes from Book Page# 66)
MEMBRANE BOUND ORGANELLES
(1) ENDOPLASMIC RETUCULUM
It is a complex series of tubules in the cytoplasm. Endoplasmic

reticulum are of two types,
(1) Agranular or Smooth EPR.

(2) Granular or Rough EPR.
SMOOTH EPR
It has no attached ribosomes.

Function is to synthesis lipid.
ROUGH EPR
It has ribosomes attached to its outer surface.

Synthesize protein and also transport material within the cell.
(2) MITOCHONDRIA
An oval body bounded by a double membrane. The inner membrane is

folded to form shelves/incomplete partitions. Which are known as
Crista, here oxidative enzyme are present. They are sites for aerobic
cellular respiration and the energy is produced. Therefore also known
as Power house of cell
(3) GOLGI APPARATUS(DICTYOSOMES)
These are thin, plate like structures and are usually located near the
nucleus. These are the site of formation of lysosomes and also
conjugate protein, modify structure of substances, synthesized by EPR
to form lysosomes and secretary vesides. Golgi bodies of plants and
lower animals (mostly invertebrates) are known as Dictyosomes.
(4) LYSOSOMES
They are large, some what irregular structure formed in the cytoplasm
formed by golgi-bodies. They contain hydrolytic enzymes which
destroys foreign particles. They are also known as Suicide Sacs
because after secreting the enzymes they digese their own proteins
(Autophagy).
NOTE:(Lysosomal Storage Diseases From Text Page # 71)
(5) PLASTIDS
They are specialized organelles of plant cell that contain pigment or

they synthesize reserve substances.
They are of three kinds,
(A) LEUKOPLAST
leuco = white
Leukoplast are colourless and store nutrient material.
(B)CHLOROPLAST
Chloroplast are green having chlorophyll that performs photosynthesis.
(C) CHROMOPLAST
Chromo = Colour
Chromoplast contain different coloured (red, yellow, orange or other
than green) pigments. They are found in the cells of different coloured
flowers and fruits.
(6) MICRO BODIES
It includes peroxisome and glyoxysome.
(A) PEROXISOME
These are the single membrane bounded microbodies contain enzymes
for transferring hydrogen atom to oxygen i.e. forming hydrogen
peroxide.
Hydrogen peroxide is very toxic to the cell therefore it is immediately
break down to water by enzyme catalyst.
These microbodies help in detoxyfication of alcohal and mostly present
in liver cells.
(B) GLYOXYSOME
It is a single layered membrane bound structure containing enzymes
which metabolize some molecules in photosynthesis and respiration.
They also cause oxidation of fatty acids.
CYTOSKELETON
Cytoskeleton means skeleton of the cell, which is mostly composed of

microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments.
(A) MICRO TUBULES
Microtubules are hollow cylinders with an outerdiameter of 25nm.

They are made up of a special type of globular protein tubulin.
In single microtubule consist of hundredth of thousands of tubulin
sub units, which are usually arranged in 13 columns called
Protofilaments.
Microtubules are arranged in assemble and disassemble manner.
In animal cells and lower plants they also form centriole, cilia and
flagella.
(B) MICROFILAMENTS
Microfilaments are solid structures, thread like with a diameter of

7nm.
They are also composed of globular proteins.
Each microfilament consist of two actin (Protein) chains that inter
wing in a helical fashion.
(C) INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
They are intermediate in size having a diameter of 8nm to 11nm.

They are rope like polymers of Fibrous protein.
In skin and hair these filaments are made up of protein keratin.
They provide mechanical strength to the cell and support the
nuclear envelope.
NON MEMBRANE BOUND CYTOPLASMIC ORGENELLE
(1)RIBOSOMES
These are small structures concerned with protein synthesis in all

type of the cells i.e. Prokaryotic as well as Eukaryote.
They are freely dispersed in cytoplasm of Prokaryotic cell but in
Eukaryotic cells they may be free or attached with endoplasmic
reticulum.
More than 50 type of proteins are present in ribosome structure and
they contain high quantity of RNA.
Under the direction of Nucleus ribosome produce the protein made
it by the cell.
Each Ribosome consist of two unequal parts.
These are the smallest and most vital cellular components,
manufactured in the nucleolus.
(2) CENTRIOLE
They are only present in animal cells and certain lower plants.
Mostly near the nucleus.
Each centriole consist of two cylinders lying perpendicular to one
another.
Each cylinder consist of nine parallel triplets of hollow cylindrical
microtubules.
During the cell division they replicate and move towards opposite
poles of the cell.
In mitosis and meiosis they form thread like fibers which rediate
from each centriole are known as mitotic apparatus.
(3)VACUOLES
These are non-protoplasmic fluid filled cavities in the cytoplasm.

Their membrane is known as Tonoplast.
They are more prominent in mature cells.

In plant cells vacuoles are filled with cell sap and act as store,
house.
They also play an important role in plant defence.
In animal cells vacuole contain hydrolytic enzymes (i.e. lysosomes)
Variety of Life
CHAPTER 5
BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS
The living organisms are classified on the basis of Homology,

comparative Biochemistry cytology and Genetics.
(a)Homology
(b)Cytology.
(c)Bio-chemistry.
(d)Genetics
(A)HOMOLOGY
The organisms placed in a particular group, all have many fundamental

similarities in their structure.
EXAMPLE
The flipper, wing and arm are, all build on the same pattern but during
the course of evolution, each has been modified from its basic pattern
to serve a particular and usually highly specialized function, due to its
adaptation different to environment or habitate. (Structures that are
similar because of their common origin but may differ functionally is
known as Homologus)
(B)BIOCHEMISTRY
It is particularly useful, when we classify organism like bacteria, which

may all look alike and have an identical cellular structure with the help
of chromatography and electrophoresis we can compare the amino acid
sequence in the protein of different organisms or the order of bases in
their DNA.
(C)CYTOLOGY
Microscopic observations of cell structure are also used to make a

fundamental split in the classification of living things. They can be
useful at the level of generic and species level. This sort of technique
can show delicate difference between species or sub-species, which are
identical in many other respects. Specie Genus Family Order
Class Division Kingdom
(D)GENETICS
All the morphological, Bio-chemical properties and cytological aspects

of an individual, or of a species depend on its genetic constitution.
Hence the final tool helping in classifying an organism is Genetics.
TAXONOMIC HIERARCHY
The basic unit of the biological classification is specie. Closely related

species are grouped-together into Genera. Genera are grouped into
Families, families into order, orders into classes, classes into phyla and
phyla or divisions into kingdoms. Each grouping of organisms with in
the hierarchy is called taxon and each taxon has a rank and a name. For
example class mammalia or Genus Homo. This ascending series of
successively larger, more inclusive groups make up the Taxonomic
Hierarchy.
CHANGES PROPOSED BY MARGUILES AND SCHWARTZ IN THE FIVE-

KINGDOM SYSTEM
Marguiles and schwartz were American Biologist, put forward a

modification of Robert Whittakers scheme. According to this
modification.
The multicellular alga should be removed from the plant kingdom

and placed along with all unicellular organisms, in a new kingdom
called PROTOCTIST which would replace Whittakers Protista
kingdom.
This modification made the plant kingdom a more natural group.
Due to this modification the kingdom Protoctista became a
kingdom that contains all those organisms, which cannot be fitted
into any of the other kingdom.
VIRUS
Virus are very minute non cellular bodies considered between living and
non-living organisms.
DISCOVERY OF VIRUS
The word virus is derived from a Latin word meaning Poison. A

Russian Biologist Iwanosky in 1892 discovered Virus.
CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRUS
1. Viruses are non-cellular parasitic entities (obligate parasite)

2. Viruses cannot live and reproduce outside the living cells because
they lack the machinery to do so by themselves.
3. The size of the viruses in range 20nm-250nm.
4. Viruses are either virulent destroying the cell in which they occur.
While temperate Viruses become integrated into their host genome and
remain stable for long period of time.
STRUCTURE OF VIRUS
1. The viruses may be small sphere like or golf balls, like rod shape
tadpole and polyhedral.
2. They mainly consist of viral genome, capsids, envelopes and tail

Fibers.
(A)GENOME
Viral genomes may consist of a single or several molecules of DNA or
RNA.
(B)PROTEIN CAPSID (PROTEIN CORE)

The protein coat that encloses the viral genome is called Protein capsid.
It may be of different shapes and mainly made up of proteins sub units
called capsomeres
(C)VIRAL ENVELOPES
In some viruses accessory structure called Viral Envelopes are present
that help them in infecting their host. They are membranes that enclose
the protein core.
TAILS AND TAIL FIBRES
Many viruses possesses thread like long tail and tail fibers. These
structures help in infecting the host. FIGURE / 5.5 (THE STRUCTURE OF
BACTERIOPHAGE) PAGE # 91
CLASSIFICATION OF VIRUSES
(A)ON THE BASIS OF MORPHOLOGY

Viruses are generally classified on the basis of Morphology and nucleic
acids they contain. e.g. On the basis of morphology, Viruses are
classified into rod shape (TMV), spherical (Polio Virus) and Tadpole
(Bacteriophage Virus).
(B) ON THE BASIS OF MODES OF ORIGIN

Viruses can be classified on the basis of their mode of origin, which
provide a systematic idea of some of their diversity. Following are the
main characteristics of these groups:
1. Unenveloped plus strand viruses.
2. Enveloped plus strand RNAViruses.
3. Minus strand RNA Viruses.
4. Viroids
5. Double strand RNA Viruses.
6. Small genome DNA Viruses.
7. Medium genome and large genome DNA Viruses.
8. Bacteriophage.
LIFE CYCLE OF THE BACTERIOPHAGE
The virus that infects the bacteria (mostly E.coli) is known as

Bacteriophage
Bacteriophage can reproduce by two alternative mechanisms.
1.The lytic cycle
2.The Lysogenic cycle.
(1)THE LYTIC CYCLE

The life cycle of the bacteriophage that eventually ends in death of the
host cell is known as A LYTIC CYCLE
The following are the stages of lytic cycle.
1. Initially the bacteriophage uses his tail fibers to stick to specific
receptor present on the outer surface of E-coli bacteria.
2. The sheath of the viral tail contracts, thrusting a hollow core through
the bacterial wall and membrane of the bacterial cell and then phage
injects its DNA into the cell.
3. The empty capsid of the phage is left outside the cell.
4. The bacterial cells DNA is destroyed (hydrolyzed).
5. The phage DNA takes control over the bacterial metabolic machinery
and uses it to produce phage proteins and viral nucleotide.
6. Copies of the phage genome are developed and different parts of the
phage come together forming daughter phages.
7. In the last stage of lytic cycle the daughter phages released,
hydrolytic enzymes lysozymes, which digest the bacterial cell wall.
8. Due to osmosis, bacterial cell swells and finally burst releasing 100-
200 daughter phage particles.
FIGURE 5.6 (THE LYTIC CYCLE OF PHAGE-T4) PAGE # 94
2. THE LYSOGENIC CYCLE

The life cycle of the Bacteriophage in which the viral genome replicates
without destroying the host cell is known as lysogenic cycle.
Viruses that are capable of using both modes of reproduction with in a
bacterium are called Temperate Viruses.
The following are the stages of lysogenic cycle.
(1) In this cycle infection of the E-coli cell begins when the phage binds
to the surface of cell and injects its DNA.
(2) With in the host cell, the phage DNA molecule forms a circle.
(3) The DNA molecules of Viruses incorporated by genetic
recombination into a specific site on the host cells chromosome. Now it
is known as Prophage cycle
(4) The phage genome is mostly silent with in the bacterium.
(5) When E-coli cell prepares to divide, it replicates the phage DNA also,
and passes the viral copies to the daughter cells.
(6) This mechanism enables the virus to propagate with out killing the
host cell upon which it depends.
At some point, prophage give rise to the active phages that lyses their
host cells. It is usually an environmental trigger such as radiations, or
the presence of certain chemicals that convert the virus from the
lysogenic to the lytic mode.
FIGURE 5.7 PAGE # 95
VIRAL DISEASES
1.ANIMAL DISEASES
(1) Poliomyelitis.
(2) Colds
(3) Encephalitis.
(4) Dengue
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(5) Yellow fever.

(6) AIDS
(7) Rabies.
(8) Measles.
(9) Mumps.
(10) Hepatitis.
2. PLANT DISEASES
(1) Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) (Tobacco leaves disease) or (Tobacco

Mosaic Disease)
AIDS
CAUSITIVE AGENT
AIDS is stand for Acquired Immuno-Deficiency Syndrome, caused by

Human Immune Deficiency Virus (HIDV)
SYMPTOMS
(1) Short flu like illness.

(2) Pneumonia like conditions.
(3) Disfiguring form of Skin Cancer (Kaposis Sarcoma)
(4) Weight loss and fever.
(5) Dementia (loss of thoughts)
(6) Diarrhea (loose motion with increasing frequency)
(7) Septicemia (Blood Poisoning)
Severity of the Immuno-Deficiency varies and bouts of illness may
persist for years.
HIV mostly infects lymphocytes and causes brain cell damage, in more
than 50% of cases. Irreversible dementia and eventual death occurs.
TRANSMISSION
(1) The HIV virus can only survive in the body fluids and transmitted by
blood or semen.
(2) In 90% of cases the transmission occurs by sexual contact. Some
other modes of transmission are as follow:
Unsterilized syringes and needles mostly in intravenous drug

abusers.
By giving blood or blood products already infected with HIV.
Close contact between infected and non-infected people.
From an infected pregnant women to her baby through placenta or
through breast milk.
CONTROL AND TREATMENT
No particular drug is available for treatment of AIDS but there are some
drugs, which are effective against this disease like Azidothymadine,
Zidovudine and sumarin.
PREVENTION
Use of the clean needles and sterilize syringes.

Education and public awareness about the disease and restricted
sexual contacts with preventive measures.
Tranfusion of screened blood and blood products.
HEPATITIS
Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver cells caused by viral infections,

toxic agents or drugs.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
Jaundice.
Abdominal pain.
Liver enlargement.
Fatigue and fever.
TYPES OF HEPATITIS
There are various types of Hepatitis few of them are as follow:
(1)HEPATITIS A
Cause by non-enveloped RNA virus.

Transmitted by contact with faeces from infected individual.
Most common form of Hepatitis world wide.
(2)HEPATITIS B (SERUM HEPATITIS)
Caused by DNA viruses.

More common in Asians, Africans and male homosexuals.
Often persist in carrier form without causing any symptoms.
Transmission mostly occurs through skin contacts, blood
transfusion and other medical procedures. (Surgery, NG tube,
Catheters)
The virus of this disease can cause liver cancer mostly in carriers.
TREATMENT AND PREVENTION

New vaccines against the virus have been produced which are of great
importance especially for person who required frequent blood
transfusion.
(3)HEPATITIS C
Transmission occurs through mother to child during pregnancy.

By sexual contacts.
Most common transfusion associated Hepatitis.
It causes liver cancers more often than HBV.
Kingdom Monera
CHAPTER 6
BACTERIA
DISCOVERY
Bacteria was discovered by A.V. Leuwenhoek in 1676.
STRUCTURE OF BACTERIA
Bacteria are smallest and simplest living organism measures from 0.2m
to 2 micron in breadth and 2 to 10 micron in length. They are strictly
unicellular but some species remain associated with each other after
cell division and form colonies.
A generalized bacterial cell consists of following structures.
(1)FLAGELLA
They are extremely thin appendages, which originate from basal body, a
structure in the cytoplasm beneath cell membrane. Flagella help in
bacterial locomotion.
(2)PILLI
They are hollow, filamentous flagella like appendages, which help in
conjugation but not in locomotion.
(3)CAPSULE
It is a protective sheath made up of polysaccharides and proteins. It
provides greater pathogenicity and protects bacteria against
phagocytosis.
(4) CELL WALL

Bacterial cell wall mostly made up of amino acids, sugar and chitin. It
surrounds the cell membrane, determine shape and protects bacteria
from osmotic lyses. Most bacteria have a unique macromolecule called
Peptidoglycan in addition to it. Sugar molecules, teichoic acid, glyco
proteins and lipo polysaccharide are also present.
(5)CELL MEMBRANE
It is present inside the cell wall attached to it at few places

containing many pores.
It is made up of lipids and proteins.
It acts as a respiratory structure.
(6)CYTOPLASM
Bacterial cytoplasm is granular containing many small vacuoles,
glycogen particles and ribosomes.
(7)MESOSOMES
These are the invaginations of the cell membrane into the

cytoplasm.
They are in the form of vesicles, tubules or lamella.
They help in the DNA replication, cell division, respiration and
export of enzyme.
(8)BACTERIAL HEREDITARY MATERIAL
Bacterial hereditary material DNA is found as concentrated

structures called Bacterial chromosomes or chromatin bodies. It is
mostly scattered in the cytoplasm.
A small fragment of extra chromosomal circular DNA, called
Plasmid is also present.
FIGURE 6.1 (FROM TEXT BOOK)
CLASSIFICATION OF BACTERIA
ON THE BASIS OF SHAPE

On the basis of shape bacteria can be divided into four categories.
(1)COCCI
These are spherical or rounded bacteria presents in the form of

mono, diplo or streptococcus form.
They are non-flagellated and cannot move from one place to
another place.
FIGURE (FROM TEXT BOOK)
(2)BACILLI
Bacilli are rod shaped bacteria, can be present in the form of diplo
or streplobacilli.
They may be flagellated and can move from one place to another.
(3)SPIRILLA
These are spiral or cork, screw shape bacteria also known as

spirochetes.
It includes chlamydia and rekettia.
(4)VIBRIO OR COMMA
These are slightly curved bacteria like vibrio cholera.

They may be flagellated and can move.
ON THE BASIS OF RESPIRATION

On the basis of respiration bacteria can be divided into two main types.
(1)AEROBES
Require oxygen for respiration.
(2)ANAEROBES
Respire with out oxygen
Sub-classes of this classification are as follow:
(A)FACULTATIVE BACTERIA
Respire
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(B)MICRO AEROPHILIC BACTERIA

Require low concentration of oxygen for growth
(C)OBLIGATE ANAEROBES
These bacteria only survive in absence of oxygen.
(D)FACULTATIVE ANAEROBES
These bacteria use oxygen but can respire with out it .
(E)OBLIGATE AEROBES
These bacteria only survive in the presence of oxygen.
ON THE BASIS OF NUTRITION

Bacteria can be divided into four main types on the basis of nutrition.
Which are as follow.
(1)SAPROTROPHIC BACTERIA
These bacteria depend on the dead organic matter for their

nutrition.
They are mostly present in the humus of soil and posses large
number of enzymes that convert complex substances of humus to
simpler compounds.
(2)SYMBIOTIC BACTERIA
These bacteria are found associated with other living organism.

They obtain their food from the host without harming it. E.g.
Rizobium redicicola (Symbionts in the root nodules of pea family
plants).
(3)PARASITIC BACTERIA
These bacteria grow inside the tissues of other living organism

They obtain food at the expense of their host.
These bacteria lack certain complex system of enzymes therefore
they usually depend upon host cell. E.g. Pneumococcus,
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Salmonella typhi.
(4)AUTOTROPHIC BACTERIA
These bacteria can sythesize organic compound from simple

inorganic substances.
Autotrophic bacteria can be divided into photosynthetic or

chemosynthetic.
(A)PHOTOSYNTHETIC
These bacteria contain green pigment chlorophyll, which is known

as bacterial chlorophyll, or chlorobium chlorophyll.
These pigments are present in mesosomes (invagination of the cell
membrane in the cytoplasm)
These bacteria utilize H2S during photosynthesis instead of water

and liberate sulphur instead of oxygen.
sunlight
(B) CHEMOSYNTHETIC
These bacteria obtain their energy from oxidation of some

inorganic substances like iron, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur
compounds.
LOCOMOTION IN BACTERIA
Some bacteria can move from one place to another with the help of
a wipe like structure flagella.
Flagella allow bacteria to disperse into new habitats, to migrate
towards nutrients and to leave unfavorable environment.
Flagellated bacteria show orientation towards various stimuli, a
behavior called Taxis.
Some bacteria are chemo tactic, phototectic or magnetotatic.
GROWTH IN BACTERIA
In favorable conditions bacteria can grow, very rapidly. There are some
factors affecting growth of bacteria such as Temperature, nutrient
availability, PH and ion concentration. Bacterial growth can be divided
into four main phases, which are as follows
(1)LAG PHASE
It is inactive phase during which bacteria prepare them for division.
(2)LOG PHASE
In this phase bacteria grow and multiply very rapidly.
(3)STATIONARY PHASE
In this phase bacterial multiplication is equal to bacteria death rate.
(4)DECLINE/DEATH PHASE
In this phase death is more rapid then multiplication rate.
REPRODUCTION IN BACTERIA
Usually asexual reproduction is present in bacteria which is as follow
FISSION
Fission is the fastest mode of bacterial asexual reproduction (Binary
Fission)
It usually takes place in favorable conditions.

Hereditary material DNA in the form of chromatin body replicates.
After the replication of hereditary material a constriction appears in
the middle of the cell, which later splits it into two parts.
Newly form bacterial cells grow in size and form nature bacterial
cells.
The single fission takes place in 20-30 minutes.
ENDOSPORE FORMATION
It is the method of bacterial survival under unfavorable conditions.

Following are the main characters of this process.
During this process, the whole protoplasmic content gets shrink
into a small mass.
A cyst is formed inside the parental wall around constricted
protoplasm to form endospore.
On the return of favorable conditions parental wall raptures due to
decay and endospore is set free.
In the end, this endospore enlarges to form a mature bacterial cell.
FIGURE 6.4 (BINARY FISSION IN BACTERIA)

FIGURE 6.5 (FORMATION OF ENDOSPORE)
GENETIC RECOMBINATION IN BACTERIA
Genetic changes with the help of which bacteria adopt new

characteristics (drugs resistance pathogenic ability) is known as
Genetic recombination
Three types of genetic recombination are present in bacteria, which are
given as follow.
1.CONJUGATION
Simple process of genetic recombination in which genetic material is
transferred from one bacteria to another through a conjugating tube.
Conjugation in bacteria was discovered by Joshua Lederburg and
Edward L.Tatum in 1946
EXPERIMENT
J.laderberg and E.Tatum performed an interesting experiment in order to
prove conjugation in bacteria. Following are the main steps of this
experiment.
1. They selected a wild type bacteria (E-coli) and obtain (triple nutritional
mutants) different from one another.
2. Wild-type was capable of synthesizing six substances symbolized as
A, B, C, D, E and F.
3. Mutant type I was capable of synthesizing three substances
symbolized as A, B and C but not D, E and F.
4. Mutant type II was capable of synthesizing three substances D,E and
F but not A,B and C.
5. These mutant type I and II were grown together in the growth medium
having all the six substances A, B, C, D, E and F.
6. After several hours, three types of bacteria were detected after
nutritional test which were,
i. Both mutant I and mutant II types.
ii. Wild type bacteria synthesizing all the six substances.
iii. A new type of bacterial strain requiring all the six substances for
growth.
In this experiment, appearance of wild type and one new type is an
evidence that conjugation had taken place.
2. TRANSDUCTION
It is the mode of genetic recombination in which genetic material is
transferred from one bacteria to another by a third party, which is
usually bacteriophage.
This process was experimentally carried out by Lederberg and Zinder in
1952.
EXPERIMENT
1. In this experiment, a bacteriophage is made to attack a bacterium
known as donor (D).
2. The injected DNA of bacteriophage multiply to form a large number of
daughter phages.
3. The donor bacterium (D) gives some of its genetic material D to the
multiplying particles.
4. The phages released from this donor bacterium contain the genetic
material of phage plus a little piece of the donor genetic material D.
5. These new phages then made to attack a new bacterium known as
Recipient (R).
6. These recipient bacterium is not destroyed like the donor in order to
reproduce normally. In this way, genetic material of the donor bacterium
is carried to the recipient bacterium by a bacteriophage and this
process is known as Transduction.
3. TRANSFORMATION
In this process, genetic information transfers from one bacteria to
another by producing a change it (undergo a change).
This type of genetic recombination was first proved by Fred Griffith in
1928.
EXPERIMENT
Griffithi injected a small quantity of R-type bacteria and a large quantity
of heat killed S-type bacteria into the same mouse.
This treatment proved fatal as mouse surprisingly suffered from
Pneumonia and died.
The autopsy of the mouse revealed the presence of living S-type
bacteria in the mouse in addition to R-type.
From this experiment Griffith concluded that,
The live R-type bacteria had been transformed into live S-type bacteria
due to transfer of some material from dead S-type, cells.
Thus this transformation occurred due to genetic recombination in R-
type bacteria.
In his experiment, he had been working on two strains of bacteria
Pnemococcus. One strain is known as smooth type (Virulent and
causes Pneumonia) while the second strain is known as (Rough type
(Non-Virulent and does not cause pneumonia).
NOTE: (IMPORTANCE OF BACTERIA (USEFUL AND HARMFUL
BACTERIA)FROM BOOK PAGE # 116 (OLD BOOK 2003)
VACCINATION
DEFINITION
Inoculation of host with inactive or weaken pathogens or pathogenic
products to stimulate protective immunity.
In case of subsequent natural infection with the same pathogen the

immune system easily recognized the invader and comfortably
managed to overcome the pathogen.
A vaccine can taken orally (Polio vaccine) or injected into the body
(Tetanus Vaccine).
IMMUNIZATION
DEFINITION
It is a process of induction of specific immunity by injecting antigens,
antibodies or immune cells.
Immunity can be protective or curative in nature.

It promotes increased immunity against specific diseases.
CYNOBACTERIA (BLUE GREEN ALGAE)
MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF CYNOBACTERIA
They are prokaryotic unicellular autotrophic organisms mostly

occur in colony form.
They posses double layered cell wall.
The protoplasm differentiated into an outer colored region
chromoplasm, which contain various pigments in which chlorophyll
a and phycocyanin are more important.
Inner colorless region of the protoplasm is known as centroplasm.
They are mostly aquatic (fresh water)
Sexual reproduction is absent.
Asexual reproduction takes place by means of Harmogonia,
zoospores, akinates and fragmentation.
NOSTOC
Nostoc is a typical example of blue green algae.
STRUCTURE
Nostoc is a filamentous prokaryotic algae in which filaments are

intermixed in a glatinous mass-forming ball like structure known as
coenobium.
A single filament look like a chain of beads.
Each filament is unbranched and has a single row of rounded or
oval cells.
Each cell has double layered wall, outer thick wall is made up of
cellulose mixed up with pectic compounds. While inner thin layer is
made up of cellulose only.
The protoplasm is differentiated into an outer colored region
(chromoplasm) and an inner colorless region (centroplasm).
The chromoplasm various pigments like chlorophyll, axanthophylls,
carotene, phycocyanin and phycoerythrin.
Ribosomes, pseudovacuoe and reserve food in the form of

cynophyceae starch are present.
Hereditary material is present in cytoplasm with out the nuclear
membrane.
In Nostoc filaments slightly larger, colorless cells with thick walled
known as Heterocyst are present. The function o Heterocyst is
nitrogen fixation, food storage and multiplication of filament during
unfavorable conditions.
NUTRITION
It is an autotroph and prepares its food in the presence of sunlight.

It also capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen and converts it into
nitrates in order to prepare amino acids and proteins, this activity
takes place in Heterocysts.
REPRODUCTION
Only asexual reproduction is present which takes place by

following methods.
(1)HORMOGONIA
A portion of the filaments between two heterocysts is known as

Hormogonia.
During favorable conditions, filaments break up at the junction of
each Heterocyst.
The end cells of each homogonous divide to form long filaments of
Nostoc.
(2)AKINETES
It is the method of survival during unfavorable conditions.

These are non-motile spores, formed from certain vegetative cells.
Each akinete contains an outer layer exospore and inner layer
endospores.
On the return of favorable conditions, each akinete germinates by
rupturing exospore and formed independent filaments by simple
cell division.
IMPORTANCE OF CYNOBACTERIA
They release oxygen as a by-product during photosynthesis.

Many are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen.
They are first colonizers of moist soil.
Nostoc anabena is used as nitrogen fertilizer in agriculture due to
its nitrogen fixing ability.
MONERA
Discovery of bacteria A.V.Leuventoek.

Size of bacteria = 0.2-2 micron (breadth)
= 2-10 micron (length).
Dynamic Views Cell wall
theme. of bacteria
Powered made up of peptidoglycan.
by Blogger.
Arch bacteria do not contain peptidoglycan.

Bacterial replications, cell division, respiration, export of enzymes =
By means of mesosomes (invaginations of cell membrane)
Saprophytic bacteria form humus (important component of soil)
Photosynthetic bacteria = use H2S in photosynthesis instead of
water.
Chlorobium chlorophyll or bacterial chlorophyll discovered by Von
Nell 1930.
DIVERSITY OF LIFE
Father of taxonomy = Charles Linneus.

Genetics = final tool in classifying living organism.
Basic unit of Biological classification = species.
Five kingdom system of Robert Whittaker = 1969.
Discovery of Virus = Iwanosky 1892.
TMV Virus discover by Wendell Stanley in 1935.
Size of Virus = 20nm-250nm.
AIDS is caused by Human Immune Deficiency Virus (HIV)
As a result of lytic cycle of bacterio phage 100-200 daughter phage
viruses are produced.
The Kingdom Protoctista

(Protista)
CHAPTER 7
PLANT LIKE PROTOCTIST
ULVA: (SEA-LETTUCE)
OCCURANCE
Ulva, commonly called Sea Lettuce, is a marine green alga.

It is found attached to rocks, along the sea coast in intertidal zones
(the area between the high tide and low tide mark)
In Karachi, it is found on Manora coast.
STRUCTURE
Ulva exhibits primitive simple multicellular organization.

The plant body is a thallus, which is flat, erect , wrinkled and sheet
like structure having a length of about 30 cm (1ft).
The thallus is very thin and internally it is composed of two vertical
rows of cells only.
Its lower part forms a hold fast, consisting of long thread like
cells for attachment to the substratum.
REPRODUCTION
Ulva can reproduce sexually as well as asexually.

(1)SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Sexual reproduction is isogamous and takes place in sexual plants

or gametophyte, which are haploid (n).
Each cell of the gametophyte produces many biflagellate gametes,
which are released in seawater.
The gametes are morphologically similar or isogametes but the
fusion takes place between gametes produce by two different
gametophyte plants, which are termed as positive strain and the
negative strain.
Thus, ulva plant exhibits heterothallism (two type of plant body i.e.
gametophyte (n) and sporophyte (2n) ulva).
After fusion a diploid quadri flagellate zygote is formed.
Zygote swims for some time then loses its flagella, secretes a wall
around itself and undergoes a period of rest.
Finally the zygote germinates and develops into a new diploid ulva
plant, which is called asexual plant or sporophyte.
(2)ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Asexual reproduction takes place by formation of quadri flagellate

zoospores in diploid asexual plant or sporophyte, which is
morphologically similar to gametophyte.
Each cell (except the basal cells) of the sporophyte (2n) undergoes
meioses or reduction division and forms 8-16 zoospores, which are
released in water.
After swimming they lose flagella and undergo a period of rest.
Each zoospore ultimately developes and forms haploid sexual plant
i.e. gametophyte, thus completing the life cycle.
ALTERNATION OF GENERATION
A distinct regular alternation of generations between the haploid

gametophytes (sexual plant) and diploid sporophyte (asexual plant) is
present. Since the two plants are morphologically similar so this
process is known as Alternation of generation (isomorphic)
CHLORELLA
FIGURE 7.2 PAGE # 127.
OCCURANCE
Chlorella is a fresh water alga found floating in stagnant water of

ponds, pools and ditches.
It is easily cultured and has been used an experimental organism in
research in photosynthesis.
STRUCTURE
The body of chlorella is one celled, spherical in outline and solitary.

It contains a single nucleus and a cup-shaped chloroplast usually
with out pyrenoid.
REPRODUCTION (ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION)
Reproduction takes place by aplanospore formation, which

involves the division of protoplast into 8-16 daughter protoplast.
Each daughter protoplast secrets a wall to produce a non-motile
aplanospore.
On release from the parent cell, each aplanospore forms a new
vegetative cell.
IMPORTANCE
Recently an antibiotic known as Chlorellin useful for the control of
bacterial diseases has been prepared from the plant.
FUNGI LIKE PROTOCTIST
SLIME MOLD (PLASMODIUM STAGE)
In initial stages of life cycle, slime mold are creeping masses of

living substances, having the consistency of an unboiled egg white
and the colour of the yolk.
It sends out protoplasmic arms that engulf and digest bacteria from
the surface of rotten rock or leaves.
This amoeboid stage of slime mold is called plasmodium stage.
The plasmodium consists of the cytoplasm in which are embedded
many nuclei, food vacuoles and undigested food particles.
Plasmodia can move along the forest floor, on to dead leaves that
are bathed in sunlight.
FRUITING BODY
In dry warm environment metamorphosis in Plasmodia takes place

and it changes into cluster of fruiting bodies.
Depending on the species the fruiting bodies look like golf balls,
feathers, bird cages or worm like and in a great variety of colours.
REPRODUCTION
Each fruiting body produces a large number of microscopic asexual

reproductive cells known as spores.
Each spore has a single nucleus and a thick protective wall.
Germination of the spore occurs when there is plenty of water and
suitable temperature.
When a slime molds spore germinates, it produces one or more
tiny cells.
Each cell has a pair of flagella that propel it through the film of
water, which is necessary for its germination.
These flagellated cells some times function as gametes (sex cells)
and fuse in pairs. This is true sexual reproduction.
Fusion of the gametes forms zygote, which become amoeboid and
form a new plasmodium i.e. multinucleated slime mold
PHYTOPTHORA INFESTANS(WATER MOLD)
This fungi like protoctist belongs to family Oomycotes.

It is a pathogenic organism causing. late blight of potato
STRUCTURE
The mycellium consist of Hyphae which are endophytic, branched,

aseptate coenocytic, hyaline and nodulated.
The rounded or branched hustoria are found which absorb food
material from the host cells.
REPRODUCTION
Sexual as well as asexual reproductions are present.
(A)ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Asexual reproduction takes place by means of biflagellate

zoospores produce inside the productive structure Sporangia.
The spores are produced on the branched Sporangiophore in
favorable condition.
Sporangiophore coming out through the stomata, in groups on the
lower surface of infected leaves.
The sporangia are produced on the branches of sporangiophore.
On maturation, the sporangia the detached from sporangiophore.
On maturation the protoplasm of the sporangium converts into
uninucleate, vacuolated and naked zoospores.
When mature sporangium burst the zoospores liberate in the film.
(B)SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Sexual reproduction is zoogamous.

The female sex organ is oogonium. while the male sex organ is
antheridium.
The antherialium develops first and the oosgonium later.
Both sex organ may develop on he same Hyphae or on two
adjacent Hyphae lying side by side.
The oogonium hyphae penetrates the antheridium.
The oogonium is pear shaped and contains a single female nucleus
in it.
The fertilization takes place when the male and the female nuclei
fuse in the egg after penetration of the oogonium in the
antheridium.
There is no fertilization tube and after fertilization the thick walled
zoospore developed, which is present inside the oogonium.
The oospore germinates in favorable conditions and produce new
mycellium.
Reduction division occurs during germinates of oospore.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
The Water Mold causes a disease in potato crop known as late

blight of potato
This disease effects both aerial and underground parts and whole
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The disease appears in the form of brown spread patches on leaves

and rapidly increases to the whole leaf surface.
The tuber converts into a rotten pulpy mass emitting foul smell and
remains small in size.
A great danger to potato crop and causes sufficient damage of
Potato crop.
EUGLENA
Euglena is an unicellular, flagellated organism. It belongs to the division

Euglenophyta
OCCURANCE
Euglena commonly found in drains, ponds and is also present in soil,
blackish water and even salt water.
DUEL NATURE
Euglena has characteristics of both animals and plants.

It is more evolved than green Algae.
STRUCTURE
1. It is somewhat elongated animal, almost pointed at both ends.
2. It has definite and easily stainable nucleus.
3. It has well defined chloroplast as in higher plants.
4. All the Euglena have two flagella usually one of them is long and the
other one short by which they can swim activity.
5. They lack the outer cellulose cell wall, instead the protoplasm is
bounded by a grooved layer called the Pellicle.
6. Euglena has a gullet near the base of the flagella and an eyespot
containing a pigment called Astaxanthin.
7. Reproduction is usually asexuality by simple division.
TAXONOMIC POSITION OF EUGLENA
One of the examples of Eukaryotes is Euglena.

Belongs to group kingdom Protactista.
PLANT LIKE CHARACTERS IN EUGLENA

1. Presence of Chloroplast.
2. Undergoes physiological, biochemical process of photosynthesis.
3. Behaves as natural autotroph in presence of sunlight.
ANIMAL LIKE CHARACTERS IN EUGLENA

1. Absence of a cell wall.
2. Presence of a mouth with cytopharynx.
3. Eyespot containing animals pigment called Astaxanthin.
4. Presence of reservoir.
5. Can easily be converted into heterotopy after the loss of chloroplast.
ANIMAL LIKE PROTOCTISTA
PHYLUM PROTOZOA
GENERAL CHARACTERS
1. Protozoa are microscopic, unicellular (as single cell performs all vital
activities) organisms.
2. These organisms are asymmetrical.
3. The body of organism may be naked or covered by pellicle to
maintain the shape.
4. Cytoplasm of protozoans is usually divided into outer, ectoplasm and
inner granular endoplasm.
5. Cell may be uninucleate or multinucleate. Nuclei are covered by
nuclear membrane.
6. Protozoan may be solitary or colonial.
7. They are aquatic and are found in both fresh and marine water.
8. Nutrition may be holozoic (animal like), halophytic (plant like) or
saprozoic (subsisting in dead organic matter) or parasitic.
9. Digestion is intracellular and is accomplished inside the food
vacuole.
10. Locomotion takes place by flagella, cilia or psendopodia.
11. Respiration takes place through general body surface.
12. One or more contractile vacuoles are present for osmo-regulation.
13. Reproduction takes place by both asexual and sexual methods.
14. The asexual methods include binary fission, multiple fission and
budding.
15. Sexual reproductive methods include gamete formation (Isogamies
and Anisogamous) or by conjugation.
CLASSIFICATION
About 30,000 species of protozoa are divided into five classes, which
differ in their means of locomotion.
1. Class flagellate (Mastigophora).

2. Class sarcodina (Rhizopoda).
3. Class ciliate (Ciliophora).
4. Class suctoria.
5. Class sporozaa.
(1)CLASS FLAGELLATA
1. Locomotary organs are long hair like Flagella with are one or two in
number.
2. Body is enclosed in a thin covering of Pellicle.
3. Asexual reproduction takes place by longitudinal fission.
4. Class Flagella is divided into sub classes.
(A)SUB-CLASS PHYTOFLAGELLATA (PHYTOMASTIGMA)
Contain chlorophyll and perform process of photosynthesis.
Examples: Euglena and Volvax.
(B)SUB-CLASS ZOOFLAGELLATA (ZOOMASTIGMA)
Does not contain chlorophyll and are heterotrophic.
Examples: Trypanosome and Leis mania.

Some flagellates are parasites. For example: Trypanosome is a blood
parasite human and causes African sleeping sickness. Its carrier is Tse
Tse fly.
(2)CLASS SARCODINA (RHIZOPODA)
1. Locomotion takes place by Psendopodium.

2. Body shape is not definite and keep on changing because the pellicle
is absent. Some have external sheats or skeletons.
3. Nutrition is mostly holozoic, some are parasite. E.g. Entamoeba,
histolytic can cause human dysentery.
4. Example:
i. Entamoeba histolytic is a parasite living in intestine of man. ii.
Foraminifera is a group including shelled sarcodimians. E.g.
Polystomella. iii. Heliozoa is a group including fresh water organisms
having fine, stiff and ray like psendopodia e.g. Actinophrys.
(3)CLASS CILIATA
1. Locomotory organs are cilia which are short, thin, protoplasmic
structure, covering the body surface.
2. Body shape is definite and maintained by pellicle.
3. Many ciliates have a groove or depression called Gullet into which
food can be brought.
This class is divided into two sub-classes.
(i) SUB-CLASS PROTOCILIATA
Cilia all of equal size and uniformly distributed.

Cytosomes absent.
Nuclei two to many but all of one type e.g. Opalina
(ii) SUB-CLASS ENCILIATE
Cilia of different types and not uniformly distributed.

Cytosomes usually present.
Nuclei of two types types Micronucleus and Meganucleus e.g.
Paramecium, Balantidium.
(4)CLASS SUCTORIA
1. They are closely related to ciliates, therefore both are includes in
same sub-phylum i.e. sub phylum Ciliphora.
2. Young individual have cilia and swim about but the adults are
sedentary and have stalks by which they are attached to the substrate.
3. Body bears a group of delicate cytoplasmic tentacles, some of which
are pointed to pierce their prey, where as others are tripped with
rounded adhesive, knobs to catch and hold the prey.
4. The tentacles secrete a toxic material which may paralyze the prey.
5. Suctorians have two nuclei i.e. meganucleus and micronucleus.
6. Reproduction is by asexual budding. E.g. Acineta, Ephelota.
(5)CLASS SPOROZOA
1. Alltheme.
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2. Lomotary organs are absent.

3. Body covered by a thick cuticle.
4. Asexual reproduction is by multiple fission or sporulation.
5. Sexual reproduction is isogamies or anisogamous.
6. Examples.
i) Plasmodium is a human blood parasite enters the human blood when
an infected female Anopheles mosquito bites humans. Plasmodium
reproduces asexually in man and sexually in the body of mosquito.
ii) Monocytis lives as a parasites in seminal vesicles of earthworm.
MALARIA
INTRODUCTION
Malaria is an infectious disease marked by attacks of chills fever,

sweating occurring at intervals that depends on the time required for
the development of a new generation of parasites in the body.
CAUSATIVE AGENT
Malaria is caused by a protozoan parasite of the genus PLASMODIUM. It

was discovered by LAVERAN in 1878.
TRANSMITTING AGENT
Malaria is transmitted into the blood of man by the bite of an infected

FEMALE AND PHELES MOSQUITO. It was discovered by KING in
1717.
SYMPTOMS OF MALARIA
The symptoms of malaria first appear after several days of infection in

man. He time taken by parasite before it appears in the blood is called
INCUBATION PERIOD.
SYMPTOMS DURING INCUBATION PERIOD

The symptoms that appears in incubation period:
Nausea.
Loss of appetite.
Constipation.
Insomnia.
Headache.
Muscular pain.
Aches in joint develops.
USUAL SYMPTOMS OF MALARIA
Onset of malarial fever

Shauking chills
Sweating
Rise in body temp. (may be up 106)
MALARIA A BIOLOGICAL PROBLEM

Malaria has been one of the mans most important biological problems.
Millions of people have been killed only because of his disease. To solve
this problem, various biological methods were applied to find out in
details. Experiments were performed, observation and data were
collected, and finally the complete life cycle of the malarial parasite was
studied.
STUDYING MALARIA EXPERIMENTALLY
In the experimental study of malaria, several HYPOTHESIS were

presented and deductions were made for each of them. Experiments
were performed to test the deduction and observations are recorded. If
the deductions are proved true, the hypothesis regarded as correct.
HYPOTHESIS (1)
A hypothesis was made about the malarial parasite plasmodium that:
Plasmodium is the cause of malaria
DEDUCTION
To test the above hypothesis, the following deductions were made: If
the plasmodium is the cause of malaria, then the patients suffering from
malaria should have malarial parasite in their blood.
EXPERIMENT
Experiment were carried out by examining blood samples from malarial
patients that showed positive result. To prove it further experiments
were repeated whenever malaria accured.
RESULT
In this way the hypothesis that the Plasmodium is the cause of
malaria was found to be true.
HYPOTHESIS (II)
It was noted that people living around the marshy places were usually
have the attack of malaria. Thus the hypothesis was stated Malaria is
associated with marshes
DEDUCTION
To test the statements, a deduction was made that If marshes are
eliminated.
EXPERIMENT
On experimental basis, marshes were eliminated and as a result the role
of infection of malaria was greatly much reduced.
RESULT
It was this proved that malaria is associated with marshes. Thus the
hypothesis stands true. Thus, it is new understood that accurate
methods are essential to understood biological problems.
LIFE CYCLE OF MALARIAL PARASITE
DISCOVERY
Life cycle of plasmodium in ANOPHELES MOSQUITO was first

discovered in 1898.
PHASES OF LIFE CYCLE
The life cycle of plasmodium is digenetic involving two phases is two

hosts for completion.
1. ASEXUAL PHASE IN MAN (PRIMARY HOST)
2. SEXUAL PHASE IN MOSQUITO (SECONDARY HOST)
1. ASEXUAL CYCLE IN MAN (SCHIZOGONY)
INTRODUCTION
The life cycle of plasmodium in mass is Asexual and is called
SCHIZOGONY, because SCHIZONTS are produced.
PHASES OF SCHIZOGONY
According to Graham (1948), the life cycle of plasmodium can be
divided into four phases;
1. PRE-ERYTHROCYTIC PHASE (LIVER SCHIZOGONY).
2. ERYTHROCYTIC PHASE.
3. POST-ERYTHROCYTIC PHASE.
4. GAMORONY OR GAMETOCYTIC PHASE.
EXPLANATION OF SCHIZOGONY
INFECTION
A healthy person acquires infection when a female Anopheles
mosquito, containing infective stages (SPOROZOITES) of parasite is its
salivary gland, bites him for sucking his blood.
(1)PRE-ERYTHROCYTIC PHASE
Once with in the human blood, the sporozoites circulate in the blood for
about half an hour.
INVASION OF LIVER
After circulation in the blood, the sporozoites get into liver to invade the
hepatic cells.
SCHIZONT FORMATION
After penetrating the liver cells, each sporozoite grows for no. of days
and becomes a SCHIZONT.
CRYPTOZOITE FORMATION
SCHIZONT divides to form a large number of uninucleate
CRYPTOZOITES, which are liberated when the liver cell burst.
METACRYPTOZOITE FORMATION
The released cryptozoites invade the fresh liver cells and multiply
producing enormous no. of metacryptozoites.
(2) ERYTHROCYTIC PHASE
TROPHOZOITE FORMATION
The metacryptozoites after escaping into the blood stream, invade the
red blood corpuscles. Each become rounded and is called
TROPHOZOITE.
SIGNET RING STAGE

When trophozoite grows in size, the nucleus is pushed to one side into
the peripheral cytoplasm. It resembles a signet ring and is preferred to
an SIGNET RING STAGE.
MEROZOITE FORMATION
The trophozoite ingesis a large amount of cytoplasm of the R.B.C. The
blood H6 is broken down into its protein components, which is used by
trophozoite develops into an active amoeboid trophozoite. After active
feeding, it becomes rounded and grows in size and become and
SCHIZONT. It now undergoes SCHIZOGONY and produces
MEROZOITES.
RELEASE OF MEROZOITES IN BLOOD

With the rupture of RBCS, the merozoites are liberated into the blood
plasma. These invade fresh corpuscles to repeat the cycle. The time
taken to complete one erythrocytic cycle depends upon the species of
Rasnodium.
(3) POST-ERYTHROCYTIC PHASE

Some merozoites produced in erythrocytic phase reach the liver cells
and undergo schizonic development. This is known as Post-
Erythrocytic Phase.
(4) GAMOGONY
FORMATION OF GAMETOCYTES
When successful asexual multiplication is achieved, the merozoites
donot proceed further with the erythrocytic phase but, after entering the
RBC, increase in size to form Gamocytes.
TYPES OF GAMETOCYTES
Gametocytes are of two types:
1. Male Microgamo Cycle
2. Female Macrogamo Cycle
The Gametocytes do not divide, but remain within the host blood until
they are injected by the vendor, in which they continue their sexual
development.
SEXUAL CYCLE IN MOSQUITO
INTRODUCTION
Sexual life cycle of Plasmodium is completed in the gut of Female
Anopheles Mosquito resulting in infective Sporozoites. This cycle is
completed in 12-23 days.
PHASES OF SEXUAL CYCLE

This cycle comprises of following stages:
1. Gametogony
2. Syngamy or Fertilization
3. Sporogony
EXPLANATION OF SEXUAL CYCLE
(1) GAMETOGONY
Gametogony refers to the Formation of Gametes. The gamocytes are
taken up along with the blood into the stomach of the mosquito and
develop into gametes.
FEMALE MACROGAMETE
The female gamocytes soon become macrogamete, which is larger in
size and ready to fertilize.
MALE MICROGAMETE
Each male gamocyte forms 6 to 8 sperms like microgametes by a
process of Exflagellation.
(2) SYNGANY OR FERTILIZATION
ZYGOT FORMATION
Within the gut of mosquito the two gametes of opposite sexes fuse
together to form a zygot. This process is called Syngamy.
OKINETE FORMATION
After fertilization zygot differentiates into motile worm-like ookinete.
OOCYST FORMATION
Ookinete penetrates the stomach wall to settle down just under the mid
gut. Here after observing nutrients, it develops a cyst around it and
becomes spherical. This encysted is called Oocyst.
(3) SPOROGONY
The oocyst then enters a phase of asexual multiplication, the
Sporogony.
SPOROBLAST FORMATION
In 6 to 7 days, the nucleus of oocyst divides into several nuclei and
cytoplasm envelops each one of them and thus hundreds of oval
shaped Sporoblasts are formed.
SPOROZOITE FORMATION
The sporoblast nucleus again divides and forms hundreds of
filamentous, uninucleated Sporozoites. The cyst bursts and liberated
sporozoites migrates to the Salivary Gland where they await to
penetrate to a human host.
Kingdom Fungi
CHAPTER 8
KINGDOM FUNGI
Fungi are a group of unicellular to multicellular, thalloid, heterotrophic,

eukaryotic living organisms having a body called MYCELLIUM, made up
of HYPHAE which are non-chlorophyllous & have cell wall (made up of
chitin). Reproduction is usually ASEXUAL by means of spores.
FUNGI ARE NEITHER COMPLETELY PLANTS NOR ANIMALS
Previously fungi were regarded as plants as they resemble the plants in

many characteristics. But in addition fungi have many qualities just like
the animals. So they are regarded in the midway between plants and
animals.
PLANT LIKE CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNGI

Fungi resemble the plants in
Having Cell Wall

Lacking Centrioles
Being non-motile
ANIMAL LIKE CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNGI

But Fungi also resemble with animals as they are
Heterotrophic
Lack cellulose in their cell wall
Presence of chitin
It means that
Fungi are neither completely plants nor animals.
CONFIRMATION
Detail studies also confirm that Fungi are different from all other
organisms.
NUCLEAR MITOSIS
They have a characteristic mitosis called Nuclear-mitosis, during which

nuclear membrane does not break & spindle is formed with in the
nucleus.
SOME REPRESENTATIVES OF KINGDOM FUNGI
Some imp. Examples are as follows:-
YEAST
MUSHROOMS
PENICILLIUM
MOLD
MUCOR
RHIZOPUS
STRUCTURE OF BODY OF FUNGUS
MYCELIUM
The complete multicellular body of fungus is called MYCELIUM, which is
composed of white fluffy mass of branched hyphae.
HYPHAE
A few of true fungi are unicellular (such as yeast) but most have
multicellular body (mycelium) consisting of long, slender, branched,
tubular, thread like filaments called as Hyphae which spread extensively
over the surface of substrate.
HYPHAE
TYPES OF HYPHAE
Hyphae can be divided in to two types:

1. Septate or Multicellular Hyphae
2. Non-septate or multinuclear or coenocytic hyphae.
1.SEPTATE HYPHAE
DEFINITION
Those hyphae which are separated by cross-walls called septa into
individual cells containing one or more nuclei , are called Septate
Hyphae
EXAMPLE: Mushrooms
2. NON-SEPTATE HYPHAE
DEFINITION
Those hyphae, which lack septa & are not divided into individual cells,
instead these are in the form of long, multinucleated large cells are
called Non-septate or Coenocytic Hyphae.
EXAMPLE Mucor & Rhizopus
CELL WALL OF HYPHAE
CHITIN is the chief component present in the cell wall of most fungi,
Because it is more resistant to decay than are the Cellulose & lignin
which make up plant cell wall.
CYTOPLASM OF HYPHAE
In septate Hyphae Cytoplasm flows through the pores of septa from

cell to cell, carrying the materials to growing tips & enabling the hyphae
to grow rapidly, under favorable conditions. In non-septate hyphae
cytoplasm moves effectively, distributing the materials throughout.
NUCLEI OF HYPHAE
All fungal nuclei are HAPLOID except for transient diploid zygote that
forms during sexual reproduction.
MAIN FUNCTION OF HYPHAE
Extensive spreading system of Hyphae provides enormous surface area

for absorption.
NUTRITION IN FUNGI
ABSORPTIVE HETEROTROPHS
All fungi lack chlorophyll & are heterotrophs ( obtain carbon & energy
from organic matter, They obtain their food by direct absorption from
immediate environment & are thus ABSORPTIVE HETEROTROPHS.
DIFFERENT MODES OF HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION IN FUNGI
Being Heterotrophic, fungi can exist as

1- Saprotrophs or saprobes ( Decomposers )
2- Parasites
3- Predators
4- Mutualists
1. SAPROBIC OR SAPROTROPHIC FUNGI ( DECOMPOSERS)

Saprobic fungi along with bacteria, are the major decomposers of
biosphere, contributing to the recycling of the elements (C,N,P,O,H &
etc) used by living things.
DEFINITION
Those fungi which obtain their food (energy, carbon & nitrogen),
directly by digesting the dead organic matter are called SAPROBIC
FUNGI OR DECOMPOSERS
MECHANISM OF ABSORBING FOOD (DEVELOPMENT OF RHIZOIDS)

These fungi anchor to the substrate by modified hyphae, the RHIZOID,
which provide enormous surface area for absorptive mode of nutrition.
SECRETION OF DIGESTIVE JUICES

Saprobic fungi secrete digestive juices, which digest organic matter &
the organic molecules thus produced are absorbed, back into the
fungus.
2. PARASITIC FUNGI
DEFINITION
Those fungi which absorb nutrients directly from living host cytoplasm
are called PARASITIC FUNGI.
MECHANISM
For obtaining, their food requirements, these fungi develop specialized
hyphal tips called as HAUSTORIA which penetrate the host tissues for
absorbing nutrients.
TYPES OR PARASITIC FUNGI

Parasitic fungi may be of two types
A. OBLIGATE PARASITES
B. FACULTATIVE PARASITES.
(A) OBLIGATE PARASITES
DEFINITION
Those parasitic fungi which can grow only in their living host & cannot
be grown on available defined growth culture medium, are called
Obligate Parasites.
EXAMPLES
Many mildews
Most of Rust species.
(B) FACULTATIVE PARASITES
DEFINITION
Those parasitic fungi which can grow parasitically on their host as well
as by themselves on artificial growth media, are called Facultative
Parasites.
3. PREDATORY FUNGI
DEFINITION
Those fungi which obtain their food by killing other living organisms
are called PREDATORY FUNGUS
EXAMPLES
1. Oyster Mushrooms ( Pleurotus astreatus ).
2. Some species of Arthrobotrys.
MECHANISM OF OBTAINING FOOD
1. IN OYSTER MUSHROOMS
Oyster mushroom is a carnivorous fungus. It Paralyses the nematodes
(that feed on this fungus), penetrate them & absorb their nutritional
contents, primarily to fulfill nitrogen requirements. It fulfill it glucose
requirements by breaking the woods.
2. IN ARTHROBOTRYS
Constrictor ring development
Some species of Arthrobotrys trap soil nemotodes by forming
CONSTRICTING RING, their hyphae invading & digesting the unlucky
victim.
4. MUTUALISTIC FUNGI
DEFINITION
Those fungi which form such symbiotic associations with other living
organisms in which both partners of association get benefit from each
other are called MUTUALISTIC FUNGI & Such association are called as
MUTUALISTIC SYMBIOTIC ASSOCIATIONS
TWO MUTUALISTIC SYMBIOTIC ASSOCIATIONS FORMED BY FUNGI

Fungi form two key mutualistic symbiotic associations. These are:
1. LICHENS
2.MYCORRHIZAE
1. LICHENS
SYMBIOTIC PARTNERS IN LICHENS

Lichens are mutualistc & have symbiotic associations b/w certain fungi
(mostly Ascomycetes) & imperfect fungi & few Basidiomycetes (about
20 out of 15000 species of lichens) & certain photoautotroph either
green algae or cynobacterium or sometimes both.
MUTUAL BENEFIT
In lichens, fungi protect the algal partner from strong light & desiccation
& itself gets food through the courtesy of alga.
AREAS WHERE LICHENS GROW

Lichens can grow at such places such as bare rocks & etc, where
neither of the components alone can grow.
ECOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF LICHENS

From ecological point of view, lichens are very important because they
serve as BIO INDICATORS of AIR POLLUTION.
2. MYCORRHIZAE
SYMBIOTIC PARTNERS
Mycorrhizae are mutualistic association b/w certain fungi & roots of
vascular plants (about 95% of all kinds of vascular plants).
MUTUAL BENEFIT
The fungal hyphae dramatically increase the amount of soil contact &
total surface area for absorption & help in direct absorption of nutrients
from soil. The plant on the other hand, supplies organic carbon to
fungal hyphae.
TYPES OF MYCORRHIZAE
There are two main types of mycorrhizae.
1. Endomycorrhizae
2. Ectomycorrhizae
1. ENDOMYCORRHIZAE
In Endomycorrhizae, the fungal hyphae penetrate the outer cells of plant
root, forming coils, swellings & minute branches, & also extend out into
surrounding soil.
2.ECTOMYCORRHIZAE
In Ectomycorshizae the hyphae surround & extend between the cell but
dont penetrate the cell walls of roots.
EXAMPLE
Mutualistic association between fungi & pines & firs
REPRODUCTION IN FUNGI
Two kinds of reproduction are usually found in Fungi

1. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
2. SEXUAL
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Except In perfect Fungi in which sexual reproduction has not been

observed.
1. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
DEFINITIION
The most common means of reproduction in fungi which does not
involve sexes, reduction division & fertilization is called A SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
DIFFERENT MODES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
In fungi , asexual reproduction take place by following ways:

1- SPORE FORMATION
2- CONIDIA FORMATION
3- FRAGMENTATION
4- BUDDING.
1- SPORE FORMATION
INTRODUCTION
It is the most common type of asexual reproduction in fungi in which
large no of spores are developed with in the sporangia. Each spore on
generation produces another mycelium.
EXPLANATION OF THE PROCESS
SPORES
Spores may be produced by sexual or asexual process, are haploid,
thick walled, non-motile & not needing water for their dispersal, They
are very small & produced in very large no. with in the SPORANGIUM.
SPORANGIUM
Spores are produced inside the reproductive structures called
SPORANGIA, which develop as swellings at the tips of
SPORANGIOPHORES.
SEPARATION OF SPORANGIUM FROM HYPHAE

After the formation of spores, sporangium becomes separated from
hypae by a complete septa.
BREAKAGE OF SPORANGIAL WALL

On maturity of the spores, the outer wall of sporangium breaks down &
spores are dispersed.
DISPERSION OF SPORES
Spores are usually dispersed by air currents to great distances & cause
wide distribution of many kinds of fungi. They may also be dispersed by
small animals & insects & by rain splashes.
GERMINATION OF SPORES
In a favorable condition, on a proper substrate, the spore germinates
giving rise to new fungal hyphae.
2.CONIDIA FORMATION
INTRODUCTION
The type of asexual reproduction in fungi in which large number of
asexual spores called CONIDIA are formed, each on germination giving
rise to new mycelium is known as CONIDIAL REPRODUCTION.
EXPLANATION
CONIDIA
Conidia are non-motile, asexual spores which may be produced in very
large number & can survive for weeks, causing rapid colonization on
new food.
CONIDIOPHORES
Conidia are not developed inside the sporangium but they are usually
cut off at the end of modified hyphae called CONIDIOPHORES,
commonly in chains or clusters.
EXAMPLE
Asexual reproduction by conidia formation is very common in
ASCOMYCETES.
3.FRAGMENTATION
It is the type of asexual reproduction in which mycelium of some fungal
hyphae breaks into pieces or fragments. Each fragment develops into a
new mycelium.
4. BUDDING
INTRODUCTION
Budding is an asymmetric asexual division in which tiny outgrowth or
bud is produced which may separate & grow by simple relatively equal
cell division into new mycelium.
EXAMPLE
Unicellular yeasts reproduce by budding
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
Details of sexual reproduction very in different groups of fungi on the
basis of which fungi can be divided into four major phyla, However the
fusion of haploid nuclei & meiosis are common to all.
EXPLANATION
Sexual reproduction in fungi takes place through several stages, which
are as follows.
PLASMOGAMY
When fungi reproduce sexually, hyphae of two genetically different but
compatible mating types come together & their cytoplasm fuse. This
process is called PLASMOGAMY, This step is common in all types of
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IN ZYGOMYCOTA
In Zygomycota after Plasmogamy following steps occur.
KARYOGAMY
In zygomycetes, Plasmogamy is followed by fusion of nuclei, called as
KARYOGAMY
ZYGOT FOMATION & MEIOSIS

In ZYGOMYCETES, fusion of nuclei, leads directly to the formation of
zygot, which divides by meiosis when it germinates.
IN ASCOMYCOTA AND BASIDIOMYCOTA

In these groups of fungi, following steps after plasmogamy.
FORMATION OF DIKARYOTIC NYPHAE

In these groups, the two genetic types of haploid nuclei from two
individuals my coexist & divide in the same hyphae for most of the life
of fungus. Such as fungal hyphae is called DIKARYOTIC OR
HETEROKARYOTIC HYPHA/CELL.
FORMATION OF FRUITING BODIES

Extensive growth of dikaryotic hyphae may lead to the formation of
massive structures of interwoven hyphae called as Fruiting Bodies,
such as
Basidia/ Basidiocarps
Asci/ Ascocarps
SYNGAMY & MEIOSIS

Fusion of two haploid nuclei occurs with in the fruiting bodies forming a
zygote, This is called as SYNGAMY, followed immediately by meiosis.
FORMATION OF HAPLOID SEXUAL SPORES

Each zygote divides immediately by meiosis to form four haploid
spores, which when release are dispersed, some of them giving rise to
new hyphae.
CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI
There are four major divisions of fungi, which are divided on the basis
of their sexual reproduction.
1- ZYGOMYCOTA
2- ASCOMYCOTA
3- BASIDIOMYCOTA
4- DEUTEROMYCOTA
1- ZYGOMYCOTA
INTRODUCTION
Zygomycota are by far the smallest of four groups of fungi, with only
about 600 named species. This group includes more frequently bread
molds as well as a variety of other microscopic fungi found on decaying
organic material.
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURE
The group is named after a characteristic feature of the life cycle of its
member, the production of temporalily dormant structures called
ZYGOSPORES.
The zygomycetes lack septa in their hyphae i.e coenocytic hyphae,
except when they form sporangia or gametangia.
LIFE CYCLE OF ZYGOMYCOTA

In the life cycle of zygomycota, two types of reproduction occurs:
A- SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ZYGOMYCOTA
B- ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ZYGOMYCOTA
(A) SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ZYGOMYCOTA

Sexual reproduction takes place by fusion of GAMETANGIA in following
steps:
FORMATION OF PROGAMETANGIUM
When two hyphae came in contact with each other, each of them gives a
lateral progametangium, facing each other.
DIFFERENTIATION OF PROGAMETANGIA INTO GAMETANGIA &

SUSPENSORS
Later on, each of the progametangium differentiates into two parts
Apical swollen part called GAMETANGIUM, containing numerous

nuclei
Basal hollow part called SUSPENSOR.
GAMETANGIAL COPULATION
The gametangia may be formed on hyphae of different mating types or
on a single hyphae. If different mating types are involved, fusion
between pairs of haploid nuclei occurs immediately.
ZYGOT FORMATION
Fusion of haploid nuclei results in formation of diploid zygote nuclei,
Except for the zygote nuclei, all nuclei of zygomycota are haploid.
ZYGOSPORE FORMATION
After the formation of diploid zygote nuclei, the fused portion of hyphae
develops into ZYGOSPORES.
GERMINATION OF ZYGOSPORE
Under favorable condition zygospore germinates & giving rise to new
mycelium. Meiosis occurs during germination.
(B) ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ZYGOMYCOTA (BY SPORE

FORMATION )
Asexual reproduction occurs much more frequently than sexual
reproduction in the zygomycetes.
EXPLANATION
As previously discussed in spore formation
EXAMPLES OF ZYGOMYCETES
1- MUCOR
2- RHIZOPUS STOLONIPER
2-ASCOMYCOTA
INTRODUCTION
The second division of fungi, the ASCOMYCOTA is a very large group of
about 30,000 named species with many more being discovered each
year.
The ascomycota are named for their characteristic reproductive
structure, the microscopic, club shaped ASCUS.
TYPE OF HYPHAE
The hyphae of ascomycetes are divided by septa i.e septate hyphae, but
the septa are perforated & the cytoplasm flows along the length of each
hyphae. The septa that cut off the asci & conidia are initially perforated
like all other septa, but later they often become blocked.
LIFE CYCLE OF ASCOMYCOTA

In life cycle of ascomycota, Both sexual & asexual reproduction occurs.
(A) SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ASCOMYCOTA

Sexual reproduction occurs through following steps.
1-FORMATION OF MALE GAMETANGIUM OR ANTHERIDIUM

The hyphae of ascomycetes may be either homokaryotic &
heterokaryotic. The cells of these hyphae usually contain from several
to many nuclei. These cells form Antheridium or male gametangium.
2-FEMALE GAMETANGIUM OR ASCOGONIUM

The gametangium which develop beak like out growth called as
TRICHOGYNE, is called female gametangium or Ascogonium.
3-FUSION OF MALE & FEMALE GAMETANGIUM

When antheridium is formed , it fuses with trichogyne of an adjacent
ascogonium. Fusion of cytoplasm or plasmogamy occurs.
4-PAIRING OF NUCLEI
After plasmogamy, nuclei from antheridium then migrate through the
trichogyne into the ascogonium, & pair with nuclei of opposite mating
types.
5-FORMATION OF DIKARYOTIC HYPHAE & DIKARYOTICY

Dikarytic hyphae then arise from the area of fusion. Throughout such
hyphae, nuclei that represent the two different original mating types
occur ( DIKARYOTICY ) Such hyphae are also called as
HETEROKARYOTIC HYPHAE.
6-FORMATION OF ASCOCARPS OR FRUITING BODIES

Excessive growth of monokaryotic or dikaryotic hyphae results in
formation
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FRUITING BODIES OF ASCOCARPS, which corresponds to the visible

portions of a morel or cup fungus.
7- ASCI FORMATION
Asci are special reproductive structures which are formed on special
fertile layers of dikaryotic hyphae with in the Ascocarps.
8- SEPARATION OF ASCI
-+The asci are cut off by the formation of septa at the tips of
heterokaryotic hyphae.
9- SYNGAMY
There are two haploid nuclei with in each ascus one of each of which
belongs to different mating type. Fusion of these two nuclei occurs
within each ascus called as SYNGAMY.
10-ZYGOT FORMATION
Syngamy results in zygote formation, which divides immediately by
meiosis, forming four haploid daughter cells.
11- FORMATION OF ASCOSPORES

Four haploid daughter nuclei, usually divide again by mitosis ,
producing 8 haploid nuclei that become walled & called ASCOSPORES.
12-BURSTING OF ASCUS
In most Ascomycetes, the ascus becomes highly turgid at maturity and
ultimately bursts, often at a perforated area, which may be pore or slit or
lid
13- DESPERSION & GERMINATION OF ASCOSPORES

After bursting, the ascospores may be thrown as far as 30 cm. Under
favorable circumstances they germinate giving new hyphae.
TYPES OF ASCOCARPS IN ASCOMYCETES

According to their shape, Ascocarps are of following three types:
1- OPOTHECIUM
The ascocarps of cup fungi & the morels are open, with the asci lining
the open cups called OPOTHECIUM.
2- CLEISTOTHECIUM
Some ascocarps are closed & called as CLESTOTHECIUM
3- PERITHECIUM
Some ascocarps have small opening at the apex called as
PERITHECIUM. Ascocarps of NEUROSPORA are of this type.
(B) ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ASCOMYCOTA (BY CONDIA

FORMATION)
INTRODUCTION
The type of asexual reproduction in fungi in which large number of
asexual spores called CONIDIA are formed, each on germination giving
rise to
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EXPLANATION
CONIDIA
Conidia are non-motile, asexual spores which may be produced in very
large number & can survive for weeks, causing rapid colonization on
new food.
CONIDIOPHORES
Conidia are not developed inside the sporangium but they are usually
cut off at the end of modified hyphae called CONIDIOPHORES,
commonly in chains or clusters.
EXAMPLE
Asexual reproduction by conidia formation is very common in
ASCOMYCETES.
3.BASIDIOMYCOTA
INTRODUCTION
The basidiomycetes, third division of fungi have about 16,000 named
species. More is known about some members of this group than about
any other fungi.
Basidiomycetes are named for their characteristic sexual reproductive
structures, the BASIDIUM, which is club shaped like as ascus.
LIFE CYCLE OF BASIDIOMYCOTA

In life cycle of Basidiomycota, reproduction is usually sexual. Asexual
reproduction is not very important.
(A) SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN BASIDIOMYCOTA

The life cycle of basidiomycetes begin with the production of hyphae
which may be of two types.
1- Homokaryotic hyphae giving rise to primary mycelium.
2- Heterokaryotic hyphae giving rise to secondary mycelium.
PRIMARY OR MONOKARYOTIC MYCELIUM

Homokaryotic or monokaryotic hyphae lack septa at first. Eventually,
However, septa are formed between nuclei of these hyphae. A
basidiomycete mycelium made up of monokaryotic hyphae is called
PRIMARY MYCELIUM.
SECONDARY OR DIKARYOTIC MYCELIUM

Mycelium of basidiomycetes, with two nuclei, representing the two
different mating types b/w each pair of septa, is called SECONDARY OR
DIKARYOTIC MYCELIUM. Most of the mycelium of basidiomycetes that
occur in nature is dikaryotic & often only dikaryotic mycelium is able to
form basidiocarps.
FORMATION OF BASIDIOCARP OR FRUITING BODY
Dikaryotic mycelium is responsible for the formation of FRUITING BODY

in Basidiomycetes
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BASIDIOCARP, made up of tightly
interwoven dikaryotic hyphae.
FORMATION OF BASIDIUM
Basidium is characteristic reproductive structure of Basidiomycetes,
which is club shaped & formed with in the Basidiocarp. This produces
slender projection at the end called as STERIGMATA, in this way.
SYNGAMY & ZYGOT FORMATION

Nuclear fusion or syangamy occurs in Basidium, giving rise to diploid
zygote, the only diploid cell of the life cycle.
MEIOSIS & BASIDIOSPORE FORMATION

Meiosis occurs immediately after the formation of zygot, resulting in the
formation of four haploid nuclei, which are incorporated in
Basidiospores. In most member of this division basidiospores are borne
at the sterignata
DISPERSION AND GERMINATION

Same as in Ascomycetes
(B) ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN IN BASIDIOMYCOTA

In contrast to their effective sexual reproduction, asexual reproduction
is rare in most basidiomycetes.
EXAMPLES OF BASIDIOMYCETES
MUSHROOMS
TOAD STOOLS
PUFF BALLS
JELLY FUNGI
SHELF FUNGI
PLANT PATHOGENS CALLED RUSTS & SMUTS,
4.DEUTEROMYCOTA (FUGI IMPERFECTI)
INTRODUCTION
The fungi that are classified is this group, are simply those in which
the sexual reproductive stages have not been observed. In other words,
most of the Fungi Imperfecti are as ascomycota that have lost the ability
to reproduce sexually. There are some 17000 described species of this
group.
Sexual reproduction is absent among Fungi Imperfecti
LIFE CYCLE OF DEUTEROMYCOTA

Although in life cycle of deuteromycetes or Fungi Imperfecti, true sexual
reproduction is absent, but there is certain type of GENETIC
RECOMBINATION which seems to be responsible for some of the
production of new pathogenic strains of wheat rust.
GENETIC RECOMBINATION IN FUNGI IMPERFECTI PARASEXUALITY

In parasexuality, exchange of portions of chromosomes between the
genetically distinct nuclei with in a common hyphae takes place. This is

the special type of genetic recombination occurs in fungi Imperfecti.
EXAMPLES OF FUNGI IMPERFECTI

Among the economically important genera of Fungi Imperfecti are
1-PENICILLIUM
2- ASPERGILLUS
3- Most of the fungi that cause skin diseases in humans, including
athletes foot & ring worm are also fungi imperfecti.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI
Fungi play a vast role in economic field they show both harmful & useful
activities to human beings.
USEFUL FUNGI
Following are some of the beneficial effects of fungi.
FOOD
Many kinds of edible fungi are in the form of mushrooms, are a source
of nourishing & delicious food dishes. But not all the mushrooms are
edible. Some of them are poisonous & called as toad stools or death
stool. Yeast, another kind of fungi, are utilized in baking industry.
MEDICINES
Nearly two dozens antibiotics have been isolated from different types of
fungi & bacteria, like
Penicilliun from penecillium notatum

Neomycin
Chloromycetin
Tetramycin & etc.
FOOD PRODUCTION
Many kinds of Yeast are used in the production of bakery & brewery
products. Some species of genus PENICILLIUM give characteristic
flavors & aromas to the cheese.
FERMENTATION
Species of Aspergillus, are used for fermenting soya sauce & soya
paste. Citric Acid is produced commercially with members of this genus
under highly acidic condition.
SOIL FERTILITY
Fungi maintain the soil fertility by decomposing the dead organic matter
e.g Mycorhizal fungi.
PRODUCTION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

May species of fungi are used in the production of organic compound
such as vitamins, proteins & fats. Saccharomyces, synthesizes a range
of vitamin B group.
HARMFUL
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Following are some of the harmful effects of fungi,
FOOD SPOILAGE
Saprophytic fungi cause tremendous amounts of spoilage of food stuff.
15-20% of worlds fruit is lost each year due to fungal attack.
SPOILAGE OF WOOD & LEATHER ARTICLES

Many fungi spoil leather goods, woods, wool, books, timber, cotton &
etc. WOOD-ROTTING FUNGI destroy not only living trees but also
structural timber. BRACKET/SHELF FUNGI cause lot of damage to store
cut lumber as well as stands of timber of living trees.
TOXINS
Many fungi are poisonous . AMANITA VERNA is a mushroom, which
produces deadly poisonous substance known as AMANITIN, which
causes serious problems in respiratory system & blood circulatory
system.
FOOD POISONING
Some fungi during decomposing food release certain poisonous
substances collectively known as MYCOTOXINS. Mycotoxins are the
major source of food poisoning.
DISEASES
Fungi cause a number of diseases in plants as well as in human beings.
PLANT DISEASES CAUSED BY FUNGI

Fungi destroy many agricultural crops, fruits, ornamentals & other kinds
of plants because they produce several enzymes that can breakdown
cellulose, Lignin and even cutin. Following are some of the serious
plant disease caused by Fungi.
RUST & SMUT DISEASES

Rust & smut diseases are serious diseases of WHEAT, RICE, CORN
&other cerial crops. They cause extensive damage.
POTATO BLIGHT
A serious disease of potato caused by a fungus known as
PHYTOPTHORA INFESTANS. Other plant disease are.
Powdery mildews ( on grapes, rose, wheat & etc).

Ergot of rye
Red rot of sugar cane
Potato will
Cotton root rot
Apple scab
Brown rot of peaches, plums, apricots & cherries.
ANIMAL DISEASES CAUSED BY FUNGI

Following are some of the fungal diseases in man.
SKIN DISEASES
RING WORM & ATHELETES FOOT are superficial fungal infection
caused by certain Fungi Inperfecti
ORAL THRUSH
CANIDIA ALBICANS, a yeast causes oral & Vaginal thrush.
ASPERGILLOSIS
Aspergillosis is the disease of ear & lungs caused by ASPERGILLUS. It
occurs only in person with defective immune system such as AIDS &
cause death.
CANCER
Some strains of ASPERGILLUS FLAVUS produce one of the most
carcinogenic ( cancer causing ) mycotoxins called AFLATOXINS.
ERGOTISM
Ergotism is caused by eating bread made from PUROLE ERGOT-
Contaminated flour. The poisonous material in the ergot causes nervous
spasm, convulsions, psychotic delusion & even gangrene.
HISTOPLASMOSIS
Histoplasmosis is a serious disease of lungs caused by inhaling spores
of a fungus, which is common in soil contaminated with birds feces.
Kingdom Plantae
INTRODUCTION
Includes all eukaryotic multicellular and chlorophyllous living

organisms, which have cell wall made up of true cellulose.
Majority of members are autotrophic but few are parasite e.g.:
Cuscuta
They have localized growth, regions of growth lying primarily at the
extremities that is root and stem apices.
CLASSIFICATION OF KINGDOM PLANTAE
Kingdom planatae is divided into tow sub-kingdom on the basis of

presence or absence of vascular tissue (xylem and phloem).
A SUB-DIVISION BRYOPHYTES (NON-VASCULAR)
Class Hepatica (Liverworts)

Class Musci (Mosses)
Class Anthroccrota (Hornworts)
B- SUB-DIVISION TRACHEOPHYTES
Class Psilopsida (Psilopsids)

Class Lycopsida (Club Mosses)
Class Sphenopsida (Horse Tails)
Class Pteropsida (Ferns)
ClassSpermopsida (Seed Plants)
SUB DIVISION BRYOPHYTA (AMPHIBIAN PLANTS) OR (NON-

VASCULAR PLANTS)
Absence of lignin-fortified tissue to support tall plants on land.

Members of this sub-division usually sprawl horizontally as mats
over a large surface.
Always have a low profile (1-2cm-20cm tall).
Regular heteromorphic alternation of generation is present w/t

gametophytes dominancy (Gametophytes large and long lived).
Sporophyte stage of bryophytes is generally smaller and shorter

lived, and it depends on gametophyte for water and nutrients.
The diploid sporophyte produces haploid spores via meiosis in a
structure called sporangium
The tiny, spores, protected by sporopollenim, disperse and give
rise to new gametophytes.
All members of bryophytes need water to reproduce.
Gametes produce within reproductive structures Gametangia
(Male-Antheridia and Female-Archer-gonium)
Antheridium produces flagellated sperm while female archegonium
contains one egg (ovum).
Fertilization occurs w/t in the archegonium
Zygote develops into an embryo within the protective jacket of
Archegonium.
Windblown spores disperse the speies.
All bryophytes belong to Silurian/Devonian period (345-395Million
yrs. Ago.)
ADAPTATION OF BRYOPHYTES TO LAND HABITAT
All Bryophytes show amphibious form of land plants. Following are

main adaptations exhibited by them.
a. Rhizoid for water absorption
b. Conservation of water
c. Absorption of CO 2
d. Heterogamy
e. Protection of reproductive cells
f. Formation of embryos
CLASSES OF BRYOPHYTES
1-MUSCI (MOSSES)
Plants grow in a tight pack, in the form of mat, in order to hold one
another up.
Mat of moss possess spongy quality and enables it to absorb and
retain water.
Rhizoids are elongated cells or cellular filaments of mats which grip
the substratum.
Photosynthesis occurs in upper part of the plant w/c has many
small stem like and leaf like appendages. E.g Funaria.
2-HEPATICAE (LIVERWORTS)
Usually present in tropical areas

Plant body is divided into lobes somewhat of the lobed liver, of an
animal.
These plants are less fimiliar than Mosses.
E.g Marchantia
3- ANTHROCERATAE:- (HORNWORTS)
These plants resemble w/t liverworts, but are differentiated by their

sporophytes plants.
Sporophyte are elongated capsules that grow like horn from mat
like gametophyte.
Sporophyte has stomata and chloroplast, performs photosynthesis
Sporophyte plant can survive even often the death of gametophyte
due to presence of Meristem.
Meristem is a specialized tissue, which keeps on adding new cells
in sporophyte plant.
Hornworts are the most advanced members of bryophytes.
E.g Arthroceros
SUB-DIVISION TRACHEOPHYTA (VASCULAR PLANTS)
Main characters are as follow,
Conducting vessels Xylem and Phloem are present in plant body.

A protective layer of sterile Jacket cells around reproductive
organs are present.
Multicellular embryos retained within the archegonia.
On aerial parts protective covering Cuticles is present w/c
prevents excessive loss of water during hot climate.
In life cycle Sporophyte stage is dominant.
CLASSES OF TRACHEOPHYTES
1-PSILOPSIDA
These are the fossil representatives of the vascular plants,

belonging to Silurain period and Devonian Period
Sporophytes are simple dichotomously branching plants.
True leaves and true roots absent.
Underground stems that contain unicellular rhizoid similar to root
hairs.
The aerial stems are green and carry out photosynthesis.
Lacking secondary growth due to absence of Cambium
Reproductive structure Sporangia develop at the tips of some of
the aerial branches.
Meiosis produces haploid spores, within the sporangia.
E.g. Rhynia, Psilotum Temesipteris

A) RHYNIA (FIRST VASCULAR PLANT)
One of the most primitive vascular plant

It is an extinct genus, was named often the village Rhynia of
Scotland where the first fossils of Rhynia were discovered.
It belongs to Devonian period, which started about 400 million
years ago.
The fossils of this plant are so well preserved that the stomata are
still intact.
STRUCTURE
The plant body (Sporophyte) was simple.

It consisted of slender, dichotomously branched creeping rhizome,
bearing erect, dichotomously branched aerial stem.
Instead of roots, rhizoids were given out from rhizome.
The aerial branches were leaf-less having terminal fusiform naked
sporangia.
MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE
The internal structure of branches show a solid central core of

vascular tissues surrounded by Cortex.
The outer most layer is Epidermis having stomata.
The vascular tissue is differentiated into centrally placed xylem and
surrounded phloem
(FIGURE 9.06(a) Reconstruction of Rhunia) TEXT BOOK BIO-XI Pg# 170
B) PSILOTUM AND TEMESIPTERIS (LIVING SPECIES OF PSILOPSIDA)
Sporophyte plant produce spores, which give rise to minute

subterranean gametophytes.
Each gametophyte bears both female reproductive organ
Archegonia and male reproductive organ Antheridia w/c produce
both egg and sperm respectively.
As a result of fertilization a diploid zygote is formed which develops
into sporophyte plant.
Sporophyte stage of life cycle is dominant, but haploid gametoplyte
stage is still relatively large.
EVOLUTION OF LEAF
The leaf is the most important organ of a green plant because of its
photosynthetic activity. Leaves are of tow types
1. Single veined leaves- Contain only one vein
2. Poly veined leaves- Contain two or more veins
1- EVOLUTION OF SINGLE-VEINED LEAF
It is assuming that a thorn like out growth emerged on the surface

of the naked stem.
With an increase in size of the leaf, the vascular tissues were also
formed for the supply of water and support to the leaf.
Another possibility is that a single veined leaf originated by a

reduction in size of a part of the leafless branching system of the
primitive vascular plants.
2-EVOLUTION OF POLY-VEINED LEAF
These are the evolutionary modifications of the forked branching in

the primitive plants.
The first step in the evolution of this leaf was the restriction of
forked branches to a single plane.
The branching system become flat.
The next step in the evolution was filling the space b/w the
branching and the vascular tissues.
The leaf so formed looked like the webfoot of a duck.
(Fig#9.7-9.8From Text. Book)
2-LYCOPSIDA(THE CLUB MOSSES)
These plants belong to middle Devonian and carboniferous periods.

They were very large trees that formed the earths first forests.
Only five living genera of this group are present.
Two members, selaginella and lycopodium are common in many
areas of Pakistan
These plants have true branched underground roots.
True leaves also present w/c have arisen as simple scale like
outgrowth (emergence) from the outer tissues of the stem.
Specialized reproductive leaves bearing sporangia on their
surfaces, are present, such type of leaves are known as
Sporophylls.
In some members, the sporophylls are collected on a short length
of stem and form cone like structure Strobilus.
The cone is rather club-shaped; hence name Club-Mosses for the
lycopsids.
Gametophytes plant may be homosporous or heterosporous .
A) HOMOSPOROUS GAMETOPHYTES
Spores produced by sporophyte plant are all alike, and each give
rise to a gametophytes that bear both archegonia (female
reproductive structure) and antheridia (male reproductive structure)
Example Lycopodium (Running pine or ground pine)
B) HETEROSPOROUS GAMETOPHYTES
Sporophyte (2n) plant produces two types of sporangia, which

produced different kinds of spores.
One type of sporangium produces very large spores called
Megaspores, which develop in female gametophytes bearing
archegonia.
Other type of sporangium produces small spores called
Microspores, which develop into male gametophytes bearing
antheridia.
Thats mean sexes are separate in the gametophytes generation
(Heterosporous).
Example: Selaginella.
EVOLUTION OF SEED
Seeds are evolved from primitive spores.
STEPS OF EVOLUTION
1. PRIMITIVE SPORES
All spores of specie are nearly identical in size, structure and function.
2. HETEROSPORES
There are many vascular plants that form two kinds of spores,
these plants are said to be Heterosporous and spores are called
Heterospores.
These spores on germination give rise to two different types of
plants.
A) MALE SPORE: It produces sperm forming gametophyte plant.

B) FEMALE SPORE: It grows into egg forming gametophyte.
3. PROTECTION OF HETEROSPORES
The two different kinds of spores are formed in two different kinds
of sporangia.
Various enveloping structures develop in order to protect these
spores.
Certain fern like plants first developed seed like structures, each of
their sporangia, containing one or more female spores, was
surrounded by little branch like out growth structure forming
Integument.
4. PERSISTANCE OF FEMALE SPORES
Instead of being shed from the sporangium, the female spores are
retained and protected inside the integument.
The female spore develops into a tiny female gametophyte
protected by the integuments.
5. FORMATION AND STRUCTURE OF SEED
Seed is formed as the result of fertilization of male spore with this

protected female spore.
Immature seed is called Ovule.
Ovule is protected by integuments and it contains great quantities
of food.
Ovule not only protects the female gametophyte from the
environment but also provides food for the new off springs that is
produced when the seed matures and germinate. The development
of seed has given the vascular plants better adaptations to their

environment.
3. SPHENOPSIDA (THE HORSE TAILS)
These plants belong to late Devonian and Carboniferous period.

Only one living member Equisetum commonly called Horse-tail
exists today.
Ancient sphenopsids were large trees but now most of these are
small (Less than one meter).
Coal deposits of today was formed from the dead bodies of those
plants.
These plants possess true roots, stems and leaves.
Stems are hollow and are jointed, whorls of leaves occur at each
joint.
Secondary growth absent, because modern species do not possess
cambium.
Spore are born in terminal cones (Strobili) and all are alike (i.e.
plants are homosporous) and give rise to small gametophytes that
bear both archegonia and antheridia (i.e. the sexes are not
separate).
4. PTEROPSIDA (THE FERNS)
These plants belong to Devonian and Carboneferous Period and

then decline in Paleozoid Period.
They are very well developed plants having vascular system with
true roots, stem and leaves.
Leaves are probably arisen from flattened web branched stems.
They are large and provide much greater surface area for
photosynthesis.
Leaves of Ferns are sometimes simple, but more often they are
compound, being divided into numerous leaflets.
In most modern ferns of temperate regions, the stems are prostrate
on or in the soil, and the large leaves are only part normally seen.
SPOROPHYTIC STAGE
The large leafy plant (fern) is diploid sporophytic phase.

Spores are produced in sporangia (Reproductive structure) located
in clusters on the underside of some modified leaves Sporophyll.
Most modern ferns are homosporous i.e. all these spores are alike.
Vascular sporophytes can live in drier places and grow bigger.
GAMETOPHYTE STAGE
After germination, the spores develop into gametophytes that bear

both archegonia and antheridia.
These gametophytes are tiny (less than one centimeter wide), thin
and often more or less heart-shaped.
Free-living, non-vascularized gametophytes can survive only in
moist places, their sperms are flagellated and water is required for
fertilization.Young sporophyte develops directly from the zygote

without passing through any protected seed like stage.
(LIFE CYCLE OF FERN-TEXT BOOK PAGE # 166 NEW ADDITION)
ALTERNATION OF GENERATION
In Kingdom Plantae, life cycle of many plants is completed in two

stages or generations known as Gametophyte and Sporophyte.
The two generations normally differ from each other in morphology,
reproduction and number of chromosomes.
The gametophyte is haploid and reproduces sexually by forming
the gametes, while the sporophyte is diploid and reproduces a-
sexually by forming the spores.
The two generations regularly alternate with each other and
therefore, the phenomenon is called Alternation of generation
(Heteromorphic).
In Bryophytes, the main plant itself is the Gametophyte while the
sporophyte is reduced.
In Tracheophytes, the main plant is Sporophyte and the
Gametophyte is reduced.
5. SPERMOSIDA (THE SEED PLANTS)
First appeared in late Devonian and became dominant in

Carboniferous Period.
Gametophyte stage is even more reduced than in the ferns, and
non-photosynthetic or free-living.
The sperms of most modern species are not independent free-
swimming flagellated cells.
Young embryo, is enclosed within a seed coat and can remain
dormant for long periods.
Spermosida can be divided into two main sub-groups, which are as
follows:
i) Gymnosperms
ii) Angiosperms
I) GYMNOSPERM
These plants have naked seed because ovules are not covered by ovary
i.e. fruit is absent.
Sub-divisions of Gymnosperms are
a) Cycads
b) Gnetae
c) Ginkgo
d) Conifers
A) CYCADS
They have arisen from the seed ferns.

These plants appeared in Permian Period and Mesozoic Period
and declined in Cretaceous Period.
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Living species commonly found in tropical regions and also known

as Sago Palms.
Nine living genera with over a hundred species exist today.
Cycads and its relatives.
B) GINKGOAE
Mostly contains extinct species, only one living specie, the

Ginkgo which is also known as Maiden Hair Tree.
Ginkgo often planted as lawn tree.
E.g: Ginkgo Biloba.
C) CONIFERS
Most familiar and best-known group of gymnosperms.

Leaves are small evergreen needles or scales with an internal
arrangement of tissues.
Reproductive organs are cone like modified leaves.
E.g: Pinus.
PINUS
This plant belongs to Gymnosperms. It includes about 90 species.
HABIT AND HABITAT
It is distributed world-wide mostly in northern hemisphere. 30

species are found in the Himalayas. Some are reported in the
planes of Punjab.
MORPHOLOGY
The pinus plant belongs to the Sporophytic Phase.

It is a tall tree, pyramidal in form and gives a conical appearance
and therefore commonly grouped under Conifers.
It is well differentiated into stem, root and leaves.
STEM
It is erect, cylindrical, solid and covered with thick, rough and brownish
bark. The branches are dimorphic,
Branches of unlimited growth or long shoot.

Branches of limited growth or dwarf shoot.
ROOTS
Underground root system is formed by Tap Roots which disappear
early and only lateral roots persist later on.
LEAVES
It bears two types of leaves (dimorphic condition)
a) Scale leaves
b) Foliage leaves
A) SCALE LEAVES
Thin, membranous small scale like structures.

Provide protection and do not help in photosynthesis.
B) FOLIAGE LEAVES
Only develop on dwarf shoots.

Number of foliage leaves is fixed for particular specie.
Each leave is needle shaped, simple green therefore also known as
Needles.
They have smooth surface and are evergreen and persistent.
LIFE CYCLE OF PINUS
The adult plant of Pinus represents the Sporophytic Phase of life

cycle.
The sporophytic plant body of pinus reproduces asexually by means of
spores and after passing through Gametophytic Phase of the life
cycle again produce Sporophytic plant, showing distinct Alternation of
Generation.
1. SPOROPHYTIC PHASE
The sporophytic plants of Pinus are mostly monoecious i.e. male

and female cones are found on same plant.
Special reproductive organs called Cones, developed on it.
A) MALE CONE OR O-STROBILUS
The male cones occur in clusters near the end of long branches at
the place of dwarf shoot. (Dwarf shoots are replaced by male cone).
Each male cone is simple ovoid structure 3-4 cm in length.
It has got single centrally located cone axis around which are
arranged spirally, many scaly microsporophylls (60-135).
Each microsporophyll has an expanded triangular central part and
a stalk like base.
Each microsporangium, which is born on the lower side bears
numerous Pollen grain mother cells.
When the microsporangium matures, on its lower side a horizontal
slit is formed through which numerous Pollen grains are liberated
and dispersed by wind.
Each pollen grain is winged structure and yellow in colour.
B) FEMALE CONE OR O-STROBILUS
The female cones are developed laterally in the axis of scale leaves.
The female cones are much bigger, woody, dry and hard structure.
The young female cone is reddish green structure. Each female
cone consists of a central axis to which are attached the
Megasporophyll.
Each megasporophyll on its surface has two ovules.
Each ovule is orthosporous and consists of a central mass of

tissue, surrounded by a single integument, made up of 3 layers.
The integument bears a wide gap, the microphyle.
Within the megasporangium, megaspore mother cells are present,
which undergoes reduction division to produce a Megaspore.
Only one megaspore is functional, however the other three
degenerate.
2. GAMETOPHYTE PHASE
The spores are the units of gametophytic phase of life cycle.

In case of Pinus the spores are of two types, microspores and
megaspores.
A) MALE GAMETOPHYTES
Microspore is a unit of male gametophyte.

Each microspore or pollen grain is a unicellular body, covered with
an outer layer, Exine, thick and heavily culticularized, while the
inner layer, the Intine is very thin.
The Exine forms the balloon shaped wings on either side, which
help in pollination.
The microspore is at this, four celled stage (consisting of one
generative cell and two prothalial cells and a tube cell).
B) FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE
The Megaspore is the first cell of female gametophyte.

The functional megaspore increases in size and forms a complete
cellular female gametophyte, also known as Endosperm.
The Archegonia are formed towards micropylar side.
The cells of the endosperm or Archegonia initial cell divides and
forms the central cell.
The central cell forms the venter canal cell and a large egg cell.
POLLINATION
In case of Pinus, Pollination is effected by wind (Anemophyllous).
FERTILIZATION
1. The pollen grains reach the apex of the Archegonium.

2. The pollen tube carrying the two male gametes and the tube nuclei
comes in contact with the archegonium.
3. The tip ruptures, discharging its contents into the egg.
4. One of the male gamete fuses with the egg nucleus and unites
forming the oospore or zygote.
5. The second male gamete along with the tube and tube nuclei
disintegrate.
PINUS SEED
Fertilized ovules get transformed into seeds.

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GERMINATION OF SEED
The seed undergoes into a condition of dormancy when the conditions
are favourable, the seed absorbs moisture and the embryo resume
growth.
STRUCTURE OF OVULE
Ovules are female part of flower, form seed after fertilization.

Microscopic study of an ovule reveals following structural features
of an ovule.
1. FUNICLE
It is slender stalk of ovule through which it attaches to the placenta.
2. HILUM
It is the point of attachment of the body of the ovule to its funicle.
3. RAPHE
In the inverted ovule, the funicle continues beyond the hilum along side
of the body of the ovule forming a sort of ridge, which is called the
Raphe.
4. CHALAZA
The distal end of the raphe, which is the junction of integuments and the
nucellus is called the Chalaza.
5. NUCELLUS
It is the main body of ovule.
6. INTEGUMENTS
Nucellus is surrounded by two coats called the Integuments.
7. MICROPYLE
It is the small opening at the apex of integuments.
8. EMBRYO-SAC
It is a large, oval cell lying embedded in the nucellus towards the

micropyle end. It is the most important part of the ovule as it bears the
embryo. It is further developed, and in the mature embryo sac following
cells can be seen:
A) EGG APPARATUS
It is the group of three cells lying towads the micropyle.

One cell of the group is the female gamete, the ovum/egg, and the
other two are called Synergids.
The ovum or egg-cell on fertilization gives the embryo, synergids

get disorganized soon after fertilization.
B) ANTIPODAL CELLS
This is the group of three cells lying at the opposite end of egg
apparatus. These have no definite function.
C) DEFINITIVE NUCLEUS
In the middle of the embryo-sac there is a distinct nucleus known as a
definitive nucleus, which is the fused product of the two polar nuclei.
STRUCTURE OF POLLEN GRAIN
Pollen grains are male part of flowers, and are contained in the
Pollen-Sac.
They are very small in size, usually varying from 10 to 200 m.
Microscopic study of a pollen grain shows following features:
1. EXINE
It is the outer coat of the pollen grain.

It is tough, cutinized layer, which is often provided with spinous out
growths or markings of different patterns, sometimes smooth.
It has one or more weak slits or pores called Germopores.
2. INTINE
It is the inner coat of the pollen grain.

It is thin, delicate, cellulose layer lying internal to the exine.
During fertilization in time grows to form pollen-tube.
3. INTERNAL STRUCTURE
Each pollen grain contains a bit of cytoplasm on a nucleus.

During germination of pollen grain nucleus further divides to form a
Tube Nucleus, and a smaller one the Generative Nucleus.
The generative nucleus soon divides into two male gametes.
Plant Families
1- CAESAL PINIOIDEAE/CASIA FAMILY
CLASSIFICATION
DIVISION : ANGIOSPERMS
CLASS : DICOTYLEDON
SUBCLASS : POLYPETALAE
SERIES : CALCIFLORAE
ORDER : ROSALES
FAMILY : LEGUMINOSAE
SUB-FAMILY : CAESALPINIOIDEAE OR CAESALPINIACEAE.
GENERAL CHARACTERS
Majority of these plants are trees or shrubs, about 135 genera and 5800
species are known .
VEGETATIVE CHARACTERS
ROOT
Usually, Taproot with nodules and primary, secondary and tertiary
divisions.
STEM
Usually, Climbing stem or erect herbaceous or woody, Some plants
show xerophytic character.
LEAVES
Usually, Compound leaves bipinnate, stipulate.
INFLORESCENCE
Usually, Racemose.
FLORAL CHARACTER
Usually, Complete, bisexual, perigynous, zygomorphic, pentamerous.
CALYX
5 sepals, polysepalous, imbricate or valvate, Green in colour.
COROLLA
5 petals, poly petalous, imbricate aestivation.
ANDROECIUM
Usually, 10 stamens, polyanderous, exerted, extrose.
GYNOECIUM
Usually Monocarpillary, perigynous, placentational marginal, unilocular
with many ovules.
FLORAL FORMULA
+ , Q , K(5) , C(5) , A10 , G1/
POLLINATION
Usually, Cross pollination by insects (entomophilly)
SEEDS
Usually, Both endospermic and non-endospermic.
FRUIT
Legume pod.
ECONOMICAL IMPORTANCE
MEDICINAL PLANS
Amaltas
Kachnar
Tamarindus Indica
Panwar. e.t.c.
ORNAMENTALS
Parkinsonia
Gul-e-mohar
Cacia sophera
DYES AND STAINING

Haemotoxylin is obtained from haemotoxylon campechianom.
EDIBLE FRUIT
Lomentum (Imli)
FIBER
Suitable fiber for paper making is obtained from parkinsonia Aculeata.
FAMILIAR PLANTS
Botanical nameCommon NameLocal Names

1-Tamarindus indicaTamarind..Imli
2-Cassia fistulaAmaltus.
3-Bauninia verigataCamels foot.Kachnar
4-Poinciana regia..Flame of Forest Gul-e-Mohar
5-Parkinosia roxburgaiVilayatiKikar
FLORAL DIAGRAM
(From Book)
2 MIMOSACEAE
ALTERNATE NAME
It is also known as Acacia family.
CLASSIFICATION
DIVISION : ANGIOSPERMS
CLASS : DICOTYLEDON
SUBCLASS: POLYPETALAE
SERIES : CALCIFLORAE
ORDER : ROSALES
FAMILY : LEGUMINOSAE
SUBFAMILY : MIMOSACEAE / ACACIA
GENERAL CHARACTERS
It is the smallest group among the 3 groups of family legume. It contains

about 40 genera and 1450 species.
HABITAT
Mostly plants are distributed in tropical and subtropical regions. Great

variation inhabit, usually these trees are perinial or binnial shrubs, some
are herbs and climbing.
1. ROOT
Usually, Tap root with side branches, nodules are present.
2. STEM
Usually, Erect and woody stem, rarely herbacious, tannin and gums may
also present.
3. LEAVES
Usually, Compound, bipinnate, stipule are modified into spines. In many
plants leaves show sleeping movement or after having a shock.
INFLORESCENCE
Mostly, racemose.
FLORAL CHARACTERS
Usually, Complete, bisexual actinomorphic, perigynous, pentamerous.
1. CALYX
Usually, 5 sepals, gamosepalous, valvate.
2. COROLLA
Usually, 5 petals, polypetalous, valvate aestivation, small size.
3. ANDROCEIUM
Usually, numerous stamens, exerted, extrose, basifixed anther.
4. GYNOECIUM
Usually, Monocarpillary, perigynous, unilocular, placentation marginal,
many ovules in locule.
POLLINATION
Usually, cross pollination by insects (entomophilly).
SEEDS
Usually, Non-endospermic or with very little endosperm.
FRUIT
Usually, It is called legume.
FLORAL FORMULA
+ ,Q , K(5) , C(5) , A , G1/
1.WOOD YIELDING PLANTS

e.g-prosopis
Acacia species
Albizzia
Xyliaet
2. ORNAMENTALS
e.g-Mimosa pudica (chuimoi)
Austratian Acacia
Neptunia
3. FOODER
From leaves of prosopis,
Acacia
Dicrostachys e.t.c.
4. SOAP POPS
Acacia concinna pods have (soponim), a substance can be used as
Soap.
5. CATECHU (KATHA)
Piece of hard wood
6. MEDICINAL USE
Katha
Siah Kanta
Entada
Acacia senegal
7. GUMS & DYES
Katha
Safed Babul
Sada Babul
IMPORTANT FAMILY MEMBERS
BOTANICAL NAME..COMMON NAME.LOCAL NAME

1-Acacia nilotica.Gum tree..Bauble, Kikar
2-Albizzia lebbek.Siris
3-Mimosa pudica..Touch-me-not..Chhui mui
4-Prosopis glandulosaProsopis..Devi
5-Acacia catechu..Katha plant
FLORAL DIAGRAM
(FROM BOOK)
3- ROSACEAE
CLASSIFICATION
Division
Dynamic Views Class
Subclass
Series
Order
Family: Rosaceae / Rose family.
GENERAL CHARACTERS
It has about 100 genera and 2000 species.
HABITAT
These plants are found growing all over the world 213 species of about
29 genera are reported from Pakistan.
1. ROOT
Usually, Tap root with its usual branching.
2. STEM
Usually, Green herbaceous, cylindrical, small spines are also present.
3. LEAVES
Usually, Simple leaves with or without petiole, Opposite or alternate.
INFLORSCENCE
Usually Racemose
FLORAL CHARACTERS
Usually, Complete, bisexual, actinomorphic, perigynous, pentamerous.
1. CALYX
Usually, Sometime epicalyx may also be present, of variable number, 5
sepals are present, Gamosepalous, green, pubescent.
2. COROLLA
Usually, 5 petals or multiple of 5 petals, polypetalous, aestivation,
imbricate, shape-rosaceous, full of colour.
3. ANDROCEIUM
Usually, Nomerous stamen,ditheous, anther, enerted, extrose, dorsi
fixed.
4. GYNOECIUM
Usually, Monocarpillary or multiple capillary with formation of a single
compound pistil. Ovary perigynous, unilocular two or more ovules are
present, placentation axile when the carpels are many and syncarpous
FLORAL FORMULA
+ , Q , K(5) , C() , Ax , G1/ (2-5) or x
FRUIT
Economical importance of this family is great in providing the pleasure
and welfare of mankind. Plants of many famous fruits belong to this
family for e.g. Apple, pear, peach, e.t.c. Perhaps they rank 3rd in
commercial importance in the temperate, zone among the families of
flowering plants.
ORNAMENTALS
A large no. of ornamental plants of this family are grown in parks and
gardens the most widely cultivated plant for this purpose is Rosa. Many
others genera are also grown for their beautiful flowers in homes and
gardens.
OTHERS
Branches of crataegus and cotoneaster provide excellent walking stick
and wood. The wood of pyruspastia is used for making tobacco pipes.
In Asian countries rose petals are used in making Gul Khand and are
also used in extraction of an essential oil, Rose oil, used as perfume or
may be used as eye cleaner in certain diseases.
FAMILIAR PLANTS
BOTANICAL NAME.COMMON NAME..LOCAL NAME

Malva silvestis.Apple..Seb
Pyrus pyrifolia.PearNashpati
Prunus amygdalusAlmond..Badam
Rosa indica..Rose.Gulab
Prunus persica..PeachAru
FLORAL DIAGRAM
(FROM BOOK)
4-SOLANACEAE
ALTERNATE NAME
Night shade or Potato family
HABIT AND HABITAT
It is widely distributed in temperate region and very abundant in

tropical countries.
The plants are usually herbs or climbing vines but may be shrub.
1-ROOT
Tap root and branched
2-STEM
Herbacious, erect or underground(Potato)
3-LEAF
Alternate in vegetative and opposite in floral region
FLORAL CHARACTERS
INFLORESCENCE
Cyme sometimes helicoids
1-FLOWER
Pentamerous, Bisexual, Regular, Actinomorphic, Hypogynous.
2-CALYX
Five, united sepals
3-COROLLA
Five petals, united, valvate aestivation
4-ANDROCIEUM
Five stamens, Inserted on Corolla
5-GYNOECIUM
Bicarpellary, Syncarpous (Carpels fused), Placentaion axile.
6-FRUIT
Capsule Berry or Xanthium.
7-SEED
Minute with abundant endosperm.
FLORAL FORMULA
+ , O , K(5) , A5, C(5) ,
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
Members of this family provide drugs and food. Some plants are
poisonous and other are ornamental. This family is of great economic
importance as it provides food, fodder, drugs and ornamentals.
1-FOODER
Solanum tuberosum (Potato)

Lycopersicum esculentum (Tomato)
Solanum melongena (Brinjal)
2-CONDIMENTS
Fruit of capsicum
Capsicum frutenscens
3-EDIBLE FRUIT
Physalis (Cherry or Rasbhari)
4-DRUG YIELDING
Atropa belladonna (atropine)

Dotura (Daturine)
Used in severe cold and in eye diseases.
Sap of hanbane is used in dilating the pupils, white cherry is used
an nerve tonic.
5-ORNAMENTAL
Cultivated in gardens
Petunaia
Nicotiana
Cestrum Schizanthus
Brunfelsia solanum
6-CIGARETTE MAKING
Nicotiania tobacum (Tobacco)
BOT-NAMECOMMON NAME.LOC-
NAME
1-Solanum TuberosumPotatoAaloo
2-Solanum MelongenaBringal..Bengan
3-Lycoperscum Escalentum.Tomato
Temater
4-Capsicum AnnumRed-Pepper..Lal-
mirch
5-Petunia Alba..Petunia
6-Solanum NigrumBlack Night shade
7-Datura AlbaThorn apple
8-Nicotiana Tobaccum..Tobacco..Tambako
9-Atropa BelladonnaDeadly night shade
10-Cestrum nocturnum..Lady of night..Raat ki
Rani
FLORAL DIAGRAM
FROM TEXT BOOK (BIO-XI FAMILY SOLANACEAE )
5-FABACEAE
ALTERNATE NAME
Papilionaceae or Pea family
HABIT AND HABITAT
Plants are herbs, shrubs or trees. Climbers, aquatic plants or

xerophytes. World wide distributed.
1-ROOTS
Tap root, branched bearing tubercle containing nitrogen fixing bacteria.
2- STEM
Herbecious or woodi, erect or climber.
3-LEAF
Simple or commonly compound alternate, stipulate
FLORAL CHARACTERS
1- INFLORESCENCE
Racemose, rarely solitary.
2- FLOWER
Bisexual, irregular, zygomorphic, hypogynous.
3- CALYX
Five sepals, united
4- COROLLA
Five petals, usually free.

Corolla is papilionaceous (Butterfly shaped). In this form the petals
are 5, one of them is usually large and clawed. This petal is called
standard or Vexillum The two lateral ones, which are free are
called as Wings and two anterior inner most fuse to form a boat
shaped structure called the Keel or Carina.
5- ANDROCIEUM
Stamens (9) +1 i.e 9 fuse to form a round sheath around the pistil while
tenth is free.
6-GYNOECIUM
Monocarpellary, ovary unilocular, ovule numerous on marginal placenta.
7-FRUIT
Legume or pod.
8-SEED
EX-albuminous.
FLORAL FORMULA
+ , Q , K(5) , C 1+2+(2) , A(9)+1 , G1
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
The family is of considerable importance, as a source of high protein

food, oil and forage as well as for ornamental purposes. Chief
importance lies in the pulses, belonging to this family. All types of
pulses (Dalls) are actually the seeds of this family which are rich in
protein.
1- FOOD
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Cicer arietinum (Gram)

Pisum sativum (Pea)
Lens esculanta (Masure)
Phaseolus aureus (Mung)
Phaseolus mung (Urad/Mash)
Phaseolus vulgaris (kidney bean/Lobia)
Medicago sativa alfalfa (Lusan)
Vicia
Melilotus & Trifolium
2- FURNITURE & BUILDING PURPOSE
Butea
Dilburgia
3- OIL EXTRACTION
Arachis hypogea (Peanut/Moongphali)
4- DYES
Indigofera tinctoria (Neel)

Butea monosperma (Yellow dye)
5-MEDICINAL PURPOSE
Glycyrrhiza glabra (Cough & cold treatment)

Clitoria termatea (Snake bite treatment)
6- ORNAMENTAL PLANTS
Lathyrus
Lupinus
Clitoria
Butea
Abrus precatorious, used by jewellars as weights called Ratti.
BOT-NAME.COMMON NAME..LOCAL-NAME
1- Lathyrus Odoratus..Sweet pea.Matter
2- Arachis Hypogea.Peanut.Moongphali
3- Cicer Arietinum.GramChanna
4- Dalbergia Sisso.Red-wood..Shesham
5- Pisum SativumEdible pea
6- Sesbania aegyptica.Sesbania
FLORAL DIAGRAM
FROM TEXT BOOK BIOLOGY-XI Pg # 191
6-POACEAE
ALTERNATE NAME
GRAMINAE/ GRASS FAMILY
HABIT AND HABITAT
The species are most numerous in the tropics but they are also
abundant in temperate region.
This family is monocot (one cotyledon in seed)
Mostly annual or perennial herbs or shrubs.
1- ROOTS
Adventitious, fibrous or fascicled.
2- STEM
Cylindrical, Conspicuous nodes and hollow, although solid stems are
also found as sugar cane.
3- LEAF
Legulate, alternate leaf sheath mostly open sessile, lamina narrow and
ribbon shaped.
FLORAL CHARACTERS
1- INFLORESCENCE
Compound spikes.
2- FLOWER
Sessile, bracteate, incomplete, bisexual or unisexual and zygomorphic.
3- PERIANTH
It is combined structure instead of calyx and corolla. Number 2 or 3
membranous scales called Lodicules
4- ANDROECIUM
Usually 3 stamens, filaments long, free anther versatile.
5- GYNOECIUM
Tricarpellary, syncarpous though only one is functional, unilocular,
single ovule, style short 2-3, stigma feather like.
6- FRUIT
Grain or coryposis.
7- SEED
Endospermic, monocotyledonous.
FLORAL FORMULA
+ or O , O or O or O , P2 (lodicules) , A3 or 0 , G1 or 0
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
The family poaceae has great importance than any other family of
flowering
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1- FODDER AND FOOD STUFF
Triticum indicum
Avena sativa
Zea mays
Oryza sativa
Hordeum vulgare
Pennisetum typhoideum
2- SUGAR MAKING
Saccharum officinarum (sugar cane)
3-PAPER MANUFACTURING
Certain species of Grasses
4- VEGETABLES & SOUP DISH
Sugar cane
Bamboo-shoots
BOT-NAMECOM-NAME.LOC-
NAME
Triticum Indicum..Wheat.Gandum
Avena SativaOats
Zea Mays.Indian corn.Makai
Oryza SativaRice..Chawal
Saccharum OfficinarumSugar cane..Ganna
Hordeum VulgareBarly.Joo
Pennisetum TyphoideumBajra
Bambusa Arundinacea..BambooBanns
Cymbopogon Jawarancuza..Lemon
Grass
Cynodon dactylon..Lawn Grass
FLORAL DIAGRAM
FROM TEXT BOOK BIOLOGY-XI Pg#196)
DOUBLE FERTILIZATION
After pollination, the tube nucleus of the pollen grain forms pollen
tube, while generative nucleus divides into two male (sperm)
gametes.
When pollen tube reaches the embryo sac through micropyle, one
of the male gametes fuses w/t egg cell and forms oospore
(zygote),it develops into seed. Another male gamete fuses with
definitive nucleus and forms Endospermic nucleus, w/c develop
into endosperm of seed or food storage tissue of seed.
Because two times fertilization occurs so it is called Double
Dynamic Views fertilization.
THE FLOWERS
The flower is a modified shoot and meant for sexual reproduction. It is

collection of four different kinds of floral members, arranged in four
separate whorls. The upper two whorls are essential or reproductive
whorls whereas lower two are helping or accessory whorls. The flower
is born on an axis which consists of two parts the pedicel or stalk of
flower and the thalamus is swollen end of the axis on which the floral
leaves are inserted. The floral whorls are arranged on the thalamus in a
particular order one just above the other. These four whorls are as
follows.
CALYX
It is the first or lower most whorl of the flower, the calyx is generally
green is colour. Each member of calyx is known as sepal. Sometimes
sepals become coloured called petaloid. Such as in gold mohur. The
calyx is non essential or accessory part of flower.
FUNCTIONS
1- Protection of floral bud
2- Assimilation when green in colour
3- Attraction when coloured and showy
4- Modified into papus which helps in dispersal
COROLLA
It is the second non essential floral whorl of flower. It is brightly colored.

Each member of its known as petal. However there is no differentiation
of calyx and corolla in some flowers. It is called perianth.
FUNCTIONS
1- The corolla attracts insects and hence help in pollination.
2- It encloses stamens and carpels.
3- It protect the stamens and carpels from external heat rain and insects
attack.
ANDROCIEUM
It is the third essential floral whorl and each member of it is known as

stamen. The stamen is a male reproductive body and consists of
filament, anther and connective. The anther bears four chambers of
pollen sacs, each chamber is filled with granular mass of small cells
called pollen grains. Each pollen grain consists of two walls, the outer
exine and inner intine.
FUNCTIONS
It is the male reproductive body and hence possess male gametes
which take part in reproduction.
GYNOECIUM
It is the fourth essential floral whorl and its component parts are called
carpals.
Dynamic Views The
theme. carpel
Powered is a female
by Blogger. reproductive body, it may be one or more
than one, and may be united or free. Each carpel consists of stigma,
style and ovary. The stigma is terminal end which receives the pollen
grain. It may be smooth or hairy and becomes sticky on maturity, The
style is slender projection of ovary, It helps in pollination and later on
dries up. The ovary is swollen basal portion, which encloses minute egg
like bodies called ovules. The ovule possess egg cells.
FUNCTIONS
The gynoecium is a female reproductive body. It possess the egg cells
which take parts in reproduction.
AESTIVATION
It is the arrangement of floral whorls i.e. the sepals or petals in a floral

bud, it is of following types:
(A) VALVATE
The members of a whorl lie close to each other and do not overlap e .g
Calatropis.
(B) TWISTED
One margin of a floral whorl overlaps that of the next one. It may be
clockwise or anti clockwise e.g. China rose.
(C)VEXILLARY
When petals are five, two internal are overlaped on both margins by two
petals, these two are overlaped by a single largest posterior petal e.g.
Pea bean etc.
(D)IMBRICATE
When one of the sepal or petal is internal and other external and each or
remaining one is overlaped on one margin and it overlaps the next one
on other margin e.g Gold mohur .
A. Velvate.
B Twisted
C. Vexillary
D. Imtricate.
INSERTION OF FLORAL LEAVES ON THE THALAMUS
The floral leaves are inserted on the thalamus in a particular order, it is

of following types:
(A) HYPOGYNOUS
In some flowers the thalamus is convex or conical and ovary occupies
the highest position on it. However other floral whorls are inserted
below the ovary, such flower is known as hypogynous and ovary as
superior. E.g. Mustard.
(B ) PERIGYNOUS
In certain flowers thalamus forms a flattened circular disc due to the
fact that sises of thalamus grows up to the same level. The apex of
thalamus is in the middle of the disc at which gynoecium develops,
whereas at the rim or margin sepals, petals and androecium are

inserted. They are round about it and hence are called perigynous, such
as in pea. Sometimes the apex of thalamus grows up in conical shape
as in raspberry. Whereas in some cases the calyx forms a cup shaped
structure called calyx tube such as in wild rose.
(C) EPIGYNOUS
In some flowers the concave receptacle surrounds the ovary and is
fused with it. The sepals, petals and stamens apparently arise from the
tip of the ovary such ovary is said to be inferior. E.g. Sunflower, apple,
guava, pear etc.
IMPORTANT TERMS TO DESCRIBE A FLOWER
COMPLETE: When all the four floral whorls are present.

INCOMPLETE: When any of the whorl is absents.
BISEXUAL: The stamen and carpel both are present.
UNISEXUAL: The flower possess either stamen or carpel.
STAMINATE: Only stamens are present (male).
PISTILATE: When flower possess only carpels (female).
NEUTER: The stamens and carpels both are absent.
SYMMETRY
+ACTINOMORPHIC
When a flower can be divided into two equal halves by any vertical
section passing through centre.
+ ZYGOMORPHIC
When it can be divided into two similar halves by only one vertical
section.
+ IRREGULAR
The flower can not be divided into two similar halves by any vertical
plane.
COHESION OF STAMEN
+ MONOADELPHOUS
When filaments are united in a bundle and anthers are free e.g. China
rose.
+ DIADELPHOUS
The filaments are united into two bundles and anthers are free e.g. Pea.
+ POLYADELPHOUS
The filaments are united into more than two bundles and anthers are
free.
+ SYNGENECIOUS
The anthers are united together and filaments are free e.g. Sunflower.
ADHESION OF STAMENS
+ EPIPETALOUS
The stamens adhere to corolla, wholly or partially by their filaments.
+ GYNANDROUS
When stamens adhere to carpels e.g. Calatropis.
LENGTH OF STAMENS
+DIDYNAMOUS
The stamens are four, two of them short and two long e.g. Nerium.
+TETRADYNAMOUS
The stamens are six but two short and four long e.g. mustard.
GYNOECIUM
+ MONOCARPELLARY
The pistil consists of only one carpel, it is also known as simple pistil
e.g. Pea, Bean
+ POLYCARPELLARY
The pistil consists of two or more carpels, it is also known as
compound pistil e.g. Rose.
+ SYNCARPOUS
The carpels are united into one ovary e.g. Mustard.
STIGMA
+ CAPITATE
When stigma is rounded and knob like. Bi, tri or Multified: when stigma
is branched into two , three or many.
+ FEATHERY
When stigma is feather like.
+ FLATTENED
When sitgma is flat.
+ POINTED
When stigma is pointed.
+ LINEAR
When it is long and narrow.
STYLE
+ TERMINAL
When style arise from top of ovary; such as in Mustard.
+ GYNOBASIC
When it arise between the lobes of the ovary from its base;such as in
Salvia.
+ PEDICILLATE
When flower is born on a stalk or pedicel. (STALKED)
+ SESSILE
When stalk is absent
+ BRACTEATE
When flower is developed in the axil of a bract
+ EBRACTEATE
When bract is absent.
+ DIMEROUS
When each floral whorl has two floral leaves (Dicot)
+ TRIMEROUS
When floral whorl has three floral leaves (Monocot)
+ TETRAMEROUS
When each floral whorl has four floral leaves; and so the pentamerous
Dicots)
CALYX
+ PETALOID
The calyx having other then green colour.
+ CAMPANULATE
Sepals fused to form bell shaped structure.
+ POLYSEPALOUS
When sepals are free from one another.
+ GAMOSEPALOUS
When sepals are fused or united with one another.
PETALS
+SEPALOID
The petals are green in colour.
+CRUCIFORM
Petals are arranged in form of a cross.
+POLYPETALOUS
When petals are free from one another.
+GAMOPETALOUS
When petals are united with one another.
+PERIANTH
When calyx and corolla can not be distinguished with one other due to
similar shape and colour.
PERIANTH
+SEPALOID
When perianth leaves are green.
+POLYPHYLLOUS
When perianth leaves are free from one another.
+GAMOPHYLLOUS
When perianth leaves are fused.
FLORAL FORMULA
The floral formula is represented by various symlols. The symbols used
in floral formula are as follows.
SYMMETRY OF THE FLOWER
Zygomorphic = +
Actinomorphic = O
SEXUALITY
Bisexual = Q+
Unisexual (male)
Unisexual (female)
Neuter =
PERIANTH
Perianth = P
Polyphyllous = Pn n=number of perianth leaves.
Gamophyllous = (n)
CALYX
Epicalyx = Epi K
Petals = C
Calyx = K
Polypetalous = Cn,
Polysepalous = Kn, n= number
Gamopetalous = C(n)
Gamosepalous = K (n) of sepals
ANDROECIUM
Androecium = A
Androecium free = An n= number of stamens
Androecium United = A (n)
Epipetalous = C-A
GYNOECIUM
Gynoecium = G
Apocarpous = Gn
Syncarpous = G (n)
Ovary inferior = G
n= number of carpels
Ovary Superior = G
FLORAL DIAGRAM
The features of flower in flora formula are represented by symbols,
while in floral diagram by the diagram of its various floral leaves
alongwith actual number and position.
MOTHER AXIS: It is represented by a Dot above the floral diagram. It
actually shows the position how a flower is born. The position of it can
be seen from upperside. It may be between two adjacent sepals or a
single sepal.
PLACENTATION
It is the arrangement of placenta which are cushion like ridges in the

ovary, The placenta bear ovules. In simple ovary placentaion is
marginal, whereas in compound ovary it may be parietal, axile, free
central, basal and superficial.
(A) MARGINAL
In a simple ovary or monocarpellary pistil, the ovules are arranged
along the fused margins, these margins forms a cushion like tissue
called placenta along the ventral suture on the inner surface of ovary
wall e.g. Pea, Gram, Bean, etc.
(B) PARIETAL
In a compound syncarpous and unilocular ovary, the fused margins of
the carpals swells up to form placentas, to which ovules are attached.
The placentas lie along the wall of ovary and their number indicates the
number of carpels forming ovary e.g. cucumber, Melon; etc.
(C) AXILE
In a polycarpellary syncarpous pistil and multilocular ovary, each carpel
is folded along its mid-rib and meets in the centre of the ovary. The
ovules are attached to this central axis e.g. Tomato, China rose, etc.
(D) FREE CENTRAL

In a compound and unilocular ovary the ovules are situated all around
the central axis, which arise from the thalamus and not fused with the
margins of the carpels. However in some plants the axile placentation
becomes free central due to breaking down of septa e.g. Pink (Diantus)
(E) BASAL
In a unilocular ovary the placentas develops directly on the thalamus
and bears single ovule at the base of ovary e.g. Sunflower, Cosmos etc.
(F) SUPERFICIAL
In a multilocular ovary, the ovules are not on the margins of the carpels;
but over the whole inner surface of the partition walls e.g. Waterlily.
TYPES OF PLACENTATION
1.FOR SIMPLE OVARY

Only one type, MARGINAL.
2.FOR COMPOUND OVARY

I- Exile
II- Central
III- Parietal
IV- Basal
V- Superficial.
1. MARGINAL PLACENTATION
In marginal placentation, the ovary is one chambered and the placenta
develops along the junction of the two margins of the carpel, called the
ventral suture.
EXAMPLES
Pea, wild pea, gram, gold mohr, and cassia are common examples.
2. AXILE PLACENTATION
In the axile placentation the ovary is two to many chambered and the
placenta bearing the ovules develop from the central axis e.g. Potato,
Tomato, Petunia, China rose etc.
3. CENTRAL PLACENTATION
In this case the septa in the young ovary soon break down so that the
ovary becomes one-chambered and the placenta develops all round the
central axis e.g. Dianthus, Saponaria etc.
4. PARIETAL PLACENTATION
The ovary is one chambered and placenta develops on the inner wall of
the ovary e.g. papaw, orchids etc.
5. BASAL PLACENTATION
The ovary is unilocular and placenta develops directly on the thalamus
e.g. sunflower, cosmos etc.
6. SUPERFICIAL PLACENTATION
The ovary is multilocular, carpels are numerous and placenta develops
all round the inner surface of the partition walls as in waterlily.
INFLORESCENCE
The branch system of the floral region bearing a group of flowers is

called INFLORESCENCE. The term inflorescence refers to the
arrangement of flowers on plant.
TYPES OF INFLORESCENCE
The flowers may be solitary or grouped into clusters, Such clusters vary
in shape and arrangement. On the basis of arrangement of flowers,
inflorescence is classified into
1-RECEMOSE
1- In this case, the main axis of inflorescence does not end in a flower.
2- Main axis continues to grow and gives off flowers laterally.
3- The lower or outer flowers are always older and open earlier than the
upper or inner ones.
4- Order of opening of flowers is called centripetal.
EXAMPLES
Mustard, Gold mohr, Mulberry, birch etc.
KINDS OF RECEMOSE INFLORESCENCE
Recemose inflorescence has following main types on the basis of

nature and shape of the peduncle:
I- PEDUNCLE ELONGATED
It is further subdivided into following types;
1. RECEME
The main axis in this case is elongated and it bears laterally a number of
flowers which are all stalk e.g. radish, mustard, dwarf gold mohur etc.
2. SPIKE
In this case the flowers are sessile e.g. Adhatoda, Achyrnthes etc.
3. CATKIN
This is a spike with a long and pendulous axis which bears unisexual
flowers e.g. Musberry, Acalypha, Birch and Oak etc.
4. SPADIX
This is also a spike with a fleshy axis which is enclosed by one or more
large bracts called spathes e.g. Banana, Palms etc.
II- PEDUNCLE SHORTENED

It is further divided into following types;
1. CORYMB
Here the main axis is comparatively short, and the lower flowers have
much longer stalk than the upper ones. Hence all the flowers are
brought more or less to the same level e.g. candytuft, wall flowers etc.
2. UMBEL
Here the primary axis is short and it bears at its tips a group of flowers
which have pedicles of more or less equal length so that the flowers are
seen to spread out from a common point. In the umbel there is always a
whorl of bracts forming an involucre, and each flower develops from the
axil of a bract, e.g. Carrycumin, Coriander etc.
III- PEDUNCLE FLATTENED

The best example is seen in sunflower family, here the inflorescence is
called the head as the capitulum.
HEAD OR CAPITULUM
1. A dense cluster of sessile or sub-sessile flowers, on a compound
receptacle
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2. Main axis is almost flat, bearing sessile flowers.

3. Outer flowers are older and open earlier.
4. The florets are commonly of two types
I- RAY FLORETS
II- DESC FLORETS
EXAMPLES
Capitulum is characteristic feature of sunflower family e.g. sunflower,
marigold; zinnia, cosmos etc.
IV- SPIKELET INFLORESCENCE

It is a kind of racemose inflorescence. There are three bracts at its base
called glumes. The lower two without flowers are called empty glumes.
The third glume has flower in its axil and called Lemma. Just opposite
to lemma, there is small bractcole called Palea. Flowers are covered by
their respective lemma and palea. This type of inflorescence is
characteristic feature of family Poaceae (Grass Family).
2-CYMOSE
1- Here the main axis ends in a flower and similarly the lateral axis also
ends in a flower.
2- The growth of each axis is checked due to presence of flower on its
tip.
3- The terminal flowers are always older and open earlier than the lateral
ones.
4- The order of opening of flowers is centrifugal.
EXAMPLES
Jasmine, Teak, Night Jasmine, Ixora.
KIND OF CYMOSE INFLORESCENCE
I- UNIPAROUS (MONOCHASIAL) CYME

Main axis soon ends into a flower and produces only one lateral branch
at a time ending in a flower. The succeeding lateral branches again
follow the same mode of producing flowers. If the succeeding branches
are produced on alternate side, it is called Scorpiold cyme (cotton,
forget-me-not). Whereas, if the succeeding branches are produced on
same side, it is called Helicoid (sundew).
II- BIPAROUS (DICHASIAL) CYME

Main axis soon terminate into a flower and produces two flowers. This
mode is followed by each succeeding flowers (Pink, Night- Jasmine).
POLLINATION
It is the process of transference of pollen grains to the stigma of the

flower.
TYPES OF POLLINATION
Pollination is of two types.

1- Self pollination or Autogamy.
2- Cross Pollination or Allogamy.
(A)SELF POLLINATION
It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the
stigma of the same flower.
METHODS OF SELF POLLINATION

In self pollination, only one flower is concerned to produce the
offspring. Irrespective whether the flower is unisexual or bisexual self
pollination can take place by two methods
I-HOMOGAMY
In homogamy the anther and the stigma of a unisexual flower mature at
the same time. In rare cases it may takes place by insects or wind.
II- CLEISTOGAMY
In cleistogamy the flower never open. They remain closed and the
pollination takes place in the closed flower such as in pansy (viola),
balsam (impatiens), oxalis, etc.
B)CROSS POLLINATION
It is transfer of pollen grain from the flower of one plant to the stigma of
flower of another plant of the same species.
METHODS OF CROSS POLLINATION

It takes place by external agencies. These agents are insects, animals,
birds, wind and water.
I- ENTOMYPHILY
The pollination takes place by insects. It is of general occurrence in
plants.
II ANEMOPHILY
The pollination is brought about by wind.
III HYDROPHILY
The pollination takes place in aquatic plants particularly the submerged
ones, through the medium of water e.g. Hydrilla and vallisneria
IV ZOOPHILY
The pollination is carried out by birds, squirrels, snails etc. Examples
are Bombax and Erythrina.
Phylum Porifera (Sponges)

MAIN CHARACTERISTICS
Animals of this phylum show following important characters.
NATURE
Most simple multicellular organisms. From evolutionary point of view

they occupy a position between protozoa and true metazoa
HABIT AND HABITAT
Mostly marine but few in fresh water habitat.

They are sessile, living attached to rocks, coral and other hard
surfaces
SHAPE AND STRUCTURE
Their shape may be cylindrical, branching, globular, flat, bell

shaped or cup shaped.
Some are dull in colour and most are brightly coloured.
The body is perforated by pores and canals.
MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE
Most of sponges contain following types of cell:
(A) PINACOCYTES
Forming the epidermis.
(B) POROCYTES
Form pores of the body wall
(C) CHOANOCYTES
These are flagellated cells, form the internal lining of the body. These
cells are strikingly similar to the choano flagellates.
Much of the body is composed of jelly like matrix containing a

skeleton made of Protein, CaCO3 or silica.
Sponges are organized on cellular level, instead of a single cell
carring on all the life activities.
Sponges show cellular differentiation but little or no coordination of
cells to form tissues.
They usually have an endoskeleton of separate spicules.
They do not posses a head, an interior end, a mouth or gut cavity.
They are sedentary organisms ranging in size from 1 to 200cm.
DIGESTION
Digestion takes place with in the cell. (Intracellular)
PROCESS OF FEEDING, EXCRETION AND RESPIRATION
Sponges feed by filtering out bacteria and fine particles of organic

matter from water.
The flagella of Choanocytes beat and create a current of water.
The water current also helps in respiration, removal of waste
products and dispersal of gametes.
REPRODUCTION
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Asexual reproduction is by means of Buds and Gemmules

formation.
Sexual reproduction is by means of sperm and ova.
All sponges appear to be diploid and have the usual metazoan
process of Oogenesis and Spermatogenesis.
The eggs retained just beneath the choanocytes where they are
fertilized by sperm from another sponge brought in with the current
of water.
Fertilization is internal.
LARVA
After cleavage, the larva escape from the parent to the open sea as
a free swimming Amphiblastula larva.
It finally becomes attached to the bottom by its anterior end.
Reproduction is also by fragmentation.
BODY CAVITY
Body cavity is known as Spongocoel.
EXAMPLES
Common examples are

1. Sycon
2. Euplectella
3. Euspongia
Phylum Cnidaria (Coelenterata)

MAIN CHARACTERS
HABIT AND HABITAT
They are aquatic animals, mostly marine and few fresh water forms.
They are sedentary or free swimming and solitary or colonial
STRUCTURE
The cnidaria are metazoa having the simplest type of body wall
consisting of two layers. The outer epidermis and the inner
gastrodermis which lines the body cavity.
In between the two layers lies the mesogloa, non-cellular jelly
secreted by them.
Cnidarians, due to their two layers body wall are termed as
diploblastic animals. All other metazons possesses a third layer
called mesoderm in their body wall, laying in between the epidermis
and gastrodermis (Endoderm) and are therefore called Triploblastic
animals.
They have radially symmetrical body plan organized as a hollow
sac.
The mouth is surrounded by a circle of tentacles bearing
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They have central digestive cavity connected to the outside by

mouth.
STRUCTURAL TYPES
The Cnidarians are radially symmetrical and occur in two types of

forms.
(a) The polyp

(b) The Medusa
(A) POLYP
The polyp like Cnidarian for example sea anemone has a cylindrical
body with a mouth directed upwards and surrounded by tentacles. The
basal surface of the body is attached to the substratum.
(B) MEDUSA
The medusa like Cnidarians jelly fish are umbrella like in appearance.
Their oral surface, bearing the mouth is directed downwards. Whereas
the aboral surface is directed upward. The medusoid Cnidarians are
usually free swimming.
PROCESS OF FEEDING AND DEFENCE
The Cnidarians feed mostly on animal diet.

The food is digested in the gut and the waste products are expelled
through the mouth.
The Cnidarians so named, because they possess cnidoblasts
bearing nematocysts which help in feeding and defence.
REPRODUCTION
The Cnidarians reproduce by asexual as well as sexual methods.

Polypoid Cnidarians possess a remarkable ability to regenerate.
(A) REGENERATION
If the oral part of the body is lost. The remaining part regenerates the
new mouth and the whole of tentacles.
(B) ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
A sexual reproduction takes place by Budding.
(C) SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
The sexual reproduction takes place through male or female

gametes which are usually produced by different parents.
The gametes develop in the interstitial cells and aggregate in
gonads which are located either in the epidermis or in the
gastodermis.
The fertilized egg gives rise to Planula Larva
CLASSIFICATION OF CNIDARIA (COELENTERATA)
The Phylum Cnidaria is divided into three classes:
1. Hydrozoa
2. Scyphozoa
3. Anthozoa
1. HYDROZOA
As the most primitive class of the Cnidarians, Hydrozoa is thought by

some evolutionists to have given rise to both other classes. They show
following characteristic features:
They are mainly marine, but some are fresh water species
Many species have both polyp and medusa
For e.g:
Hydra, Obelia and Physalia
2. SCYPHOZOA
Most of animals of this class are commonly called Jelly Fish.

They are semitransparent and are of various colours.
Most are of marine habitat.
For e.g:
Aurelia and Cyanea (largest Jelly Fish)
3. ANTHOZOA
These animals are mostly marine.

Solitary or colonial Polyp forms are present.
Medusa stage is absent.
Gastrovascular cavity is divided into chambers, increase area for
digestion.
For e.g:
Sea-anemones and Corals etc
Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flat

worms)
MAIN CHARACTERS
HABIT AND HABITAT
Animals are mostly Parasitic in habitat and found in other higher

animals. But some animals are also free living.
NATURE
They are triploblastic in nature i.e. body is composed of three germinal

layers, viz, ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm
EXTERNAL FEATURES
Their bodies are compressed dorsoventrally and shows bilateral

symmetry.
Body shape generally worm like but vary from moderately
elongated flattened to long flat ribbons and leaf like.
The flat worms are small to moderate in size varying from
microscopic to as long as up to 10-15 m.
Majority of animals are white or colourless, some derive colour
from ingested food.
Anterior end of body is differentiated into head.
Ventral surface bearing mouth and genital pores.
Presence of great variety of adhesive parts e.g. suckers.
Body is covered by cuticle or by ciliated epidermis.
Hard part consist of cuticle, spines, thorns or hooks etc.
INTERNAL FEATURES
Endo and Exo skeleton are completely absent, hence the body is
generally soft.
Acoelomate i.e. true coelom is absent.
Body space between various organs is filled with MESENCHYME.
Digestive system is poorly developed or absent.
Respiratory and Circulatory systems are absent.
Excretory system consists of Protonephridia or flame cells.
Nervous system is primitive. The main nervous system consists of
a pair of cerebral ganglia or brain and 1-3 pairs of longitudinal
nerve cords, connected to each other by transverse commissures.
REPRODUCTION
Platyhelmenthes are hermaphrodite i.e. male and female sex organs

are present in same individual.
In majority of forms eggs are devoid of Yolk but provided with
special yolk cells.
Cross fertilization as well as self fertilization is present.
Life cycle may be simple or complicated involved one or more
hosts.
EXAMPLES
Planaria, Liver flukes, Schistosoma and Taenia Solium etc.
Phylum Aschelminthes
(Nematoda/Round worm)
MAIN CHARACTERS
HABIT
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Nematoda have a very wide distribution and they seem to have

mastered almost every habitat.
Free living nematodes are found in the sea, fresh water or in the
soil in all kinds of environment.
There are also many Parasitic nematodes found in all groups of
Plants and animals.
The Saprophagous species live in decomposing plant and animal
bodies and in rotting fruits.
NATURE
They have a bilaterally symmetrical, cylindrical body, glistening smooth

surface. They are triploblastic.
EXTERNAL FEATURES
They show no trace of segmentation.

Most of the free living nematodes are less then a millimeter length.
Some of the parasitic species attain a length of several meters e.g.
Guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis).
They are usually long, round, tapered at both ends showing very
little morphological diversity from species to species.
The mouth of nematodes is modified for various modes of feeding
such as cutting, tearing, piercing and sucking fluids from the host.
Body is covered by cuticle, which moults only during the period of
growth.
INTERNAL FEATURES
The organs are packed in parenchyma when young, but later on it

disappears in adult. So that organs lie in a fluid filled cavity. This
cavity is termed as PSEUDOCOEL and it has not peritoneum.
Muscles are only longitudinal.
Excretory system has no flame cells.
Alimentary canal is straight with ectodermal fore and hind gut and
an endodermal mid gut.
REPRODUCTION
Sexes are generally separate.

Gonades are tubular and continues with their ducts.
Female organs are usually paired and open by vulva.
Male organs are single and open into a cloaca.
The life cycle of Parasitic species involves one, two or more hosts
EXAMPLES
Ascaris (Round worms), Hookworms and Thread worms etc.
Phylum Annelida (Segmented

worms)
MAIN CHARACTERS
NATURE
Annelida are triploblastic, symmetrical, coelomata and segmented

metozoa.
HABIT AND HABITAT
Annelida are mostly aquatic, marine or fresh water, burrowing or living

in tubes, some free living forms.
EXTERNAL FEATURES
The most important feature of annelida is their metameric

segmentation. (External segmentation)
Segmentation is indicated externally by circular constrictions or
grooves on the body wall.
Outer covering of the body is cuticle secreted by the underlying
epidermis.
Appendages, when present are unjointed.
Locomotory organs are segmentally arranged, paired setae or
chaetae.
INTERNAL FEATURES
Body wall is contractile, consists of an outer epidermis, circular

and longitudinal muscles.
The gut, longitudinal blood vessels and the nerve cord extend
throughout the body length, whereas other structures are repeated
in each segment.
Important character of annelida is the development of series of
coelomic compartments in their body between the gut and the body
wall.
The Coelom is a cavity, which develop within the mesoderm and is
lined by mesodermal cells.
Segmented musculature plays an important part in locomotion of
Annelids.
SYSTEMS OF BODY
Alimentary canal is tube like extending straight from mouth to anus.

Respiration through general body surface, by gills in some forms.
Blood vascular system is closed type.
Blood is red due to haemoglobin.
Excretory organs are Nephridia usually one pair in each segment.
Nervous system consists of dorsal brain and longitudinal ventral
nerve cord.
Sexes may be united or separate.
Development is direct when sexes are united and indirect when
sexes are separate.
EXAMPLES
Nereis, Earthworm and Leeches etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF PHYLUM ANNELIDA
Phylum Annelida is divided into four classes:

1. Polychaeta
2. Oligochaeta
3. Hirudinea
4. Archiannelida
1.POLYCHAETA
LOCOMOTORY ORGANS
The Polychaetes possess paired parapodia functioning as locomotry
appendages, are present only in the class Polychaeta.
PROSTOMIUM
Usually there is a distinct head or Prostomium bearing sensory and
feeding appendages.
MODE OF LIFE
The Polychaetes may be carnivorous, scavengers, or filter feeders.
REPRODUCTION
The sexes are separate and fertilization of eggs takes place outside
body. Their free swimming larva is called Trochophore.
RESPIRATION
The respiration takes place through the body surface in many but in
some gills may be present as respiratory organs.
EXAMPLES
Some well-known examples of marine polychaetes are Nereis, Arenicola
and Sabella. Nereis lives beneath stones and in crakes of rocks.
2.CLASS OLIGOCHAETA
LOCOMOTORY ORGANS
The Oligochaetes possess fewer numbers of Setae as compared to the
Polychaetes. The setae help the earth worms in crawling.
SENSE ORGANS
There anterior end lacks eyes, or sensory appendages.
CLITELLUM
At sexual maturity, all of the oligochaetes develop in several segment,
glandular epithelium, called clitellum.
MODE OF LIFE
Oligochaetes live either in fresh water or on land.

There is no free swimming larval stage in their development
Majority of oligochaetes are scavengers, feeding on decomposing
organic matter.
Some fresh water species feed on algae.

Burrowers like earth worm ingest a large quantity of soil, digest the
organic matter and the living fauna.
RESPIRATION
Respiration takes place through their general body surface. Some
aquatic species possess anal gills.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
Earthworms increase the fertility of soil by physically over turning it.
They ingest the soil, break it down and deposit it in the form of casts.
The over turned soil is relatively in proportions of total nitrogen, organic
carbon, calcium, magnesium and phosphorus.
3.CLASS HIRUDINEA
BODY SEGMENTS
Unlike polychaetes and oligochaetes, the number of body segment in
leeches is fixed at 34.
SUCKERS
The anterior and posterior body segments are fused to form suckers.
LOCOMOTION
Leeches either swim or crawl.
RESPIRATION
Respiration generally takes place through the body surface. Leaf like
gills may be present.
PARASITIC NATURE
Most leeches feed by sucking blood of aquatic invertebrates and
vertebrates.
4.ARCHIANNELIDA
It is a small group of marine worms.

They are not segmented externally and dont have bristles.
They live in the sea and show annelid characteristics to a minor
extent.
Their development is also characterized by Trochophore Larva.
EXAMPLES
Nerilla
Dinophilus
Phylum Arthropoda (Jointed

Appendages Animals)
MAIN CHARACTERS
Arthropoda is the largest Phylum of the animal kingdom including

10, 00000 species of different types of animals.
The word Arthropods is derived from Greek Arthos Jointed and
Podos Foot.
HABIT AND HABITAT
Arthropodes have undergone an adaptive radiation for aerial, aquatic,

terrestrial and parasitic environment. They are widely distributed in
each and every place of the world.
NATURE
Arthropoda are bilaterally symmetrical, metamerically segmented

metazoa.
EXTERNAL FEATURES
Their body is covered by an exo-skeleton of chitin and protein.

They possess paired jointed appendages.
Their metamers are not alike but are specialized and their number is
generally fixed.
The head is well developed.
INTERNAL FEATURES
Musculature is not continues but comprises separates striped

muscles.
The coelomic space in Arthropods is occupied by the blood
vascular system and is thus called Haemocoel.
Digestive tract is complete; mouth and anus lie at the opposite end
of the body.
Circulatory system is open with dorsal heart and arteries but
without capillaries.
Respiration through general body surface, by gills in aquatic forms,
trachea or book lungs in terrestrial forms.
Excretion by Malpighian tubules or Coelomoducts.
Sexes are generally separate and sexual dimorphism is often
exhibited by several forms.
Development is usually indirect through the larval stage.
Nervous system of arthropods is quite similar to that of annelids
and consists of dorsal anterior brain and a double ventral nerve
cord.
CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA
Phylum Arthropoda is divided into following five classes:
1. CLASS MEROSTOMATA
Almost all members of the class Merostomata are extinct. The only
living merostomes, the king Crabs have survived.
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The long spike like tail that extends, posteriorly is used in

locomotion. It is called Telson.
They feed on mollusks, worms and other invertebrates that they
find on the ocean floor.
King Crabs a hors-shoe crabs have a tough Carapace jointed to a
smaller abdomen.
E.g:Limulus Polyphemus (King Crab).
2. CLASS ARACHNIDA
This class includes spiders, scorpions, mites, ticks and many other
terrestrial arthropods.
The Arachnid body consists of a cephalothorax and abdomen.
Cephalothorax is comprised of fused head and thorax.
Arachnids have six pairs of jointed appendages.
Most Archnids are carnivorous and prey upon insects and other
small arthropods.
Respiration in archnids takes place either by trachea or book lungs
or by both.
They are mainly terrestrial arthropods.
They have no antenna.
Cephalothorax is non-segmented.
E.g: Scorpions, Ticks & Mites, Spiders
3. CLASS CRUSTACEA
They live both in marine and fresh waters.

A few are terrestrial.
Crustaceans are unique among arthropods in possessing two pairs
of antenna.
They always have one pair of mandibles and two pairs of maxillae
around the mouth.
Mandibles are usually adapted for biting and chewing. Maxillae are
used for holding the food.
Their body is divided into three distinct parts, i.e. the head, thorax
and abdomen.
Respiration usually takes place through gills associated with
appendages.
The sexes are usually separate and the reproduction is sexual.
The thoracic and abdominal appendages may be variously modified
for walking, swimming, feeding, respiration or as accessory
reproductive structures.
E.g: Sacculina (Parasitic Crustacean), Astacus (Cray-fish), Prawns,

Shrimps, Lobsters and Crabs etc.
4. CLASS MYRIAPODA
All the animals are terrestrial.

Their body is divided into a head and an elongated trunk with many
segments.
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They are carnivorous /herbivorous.

Eyes may present or absent.
E.g: Millipedes and Centipedes etc.
5. CLASS INSECTA (HEXAPODA)
Insecta is the largest class of the animal kingdom.
HABIT AND HABITAT
In their adaptive radiation, approximately a 8,50,000 species of

insecta have occupied all types of terrestrial habitat.
Some live in fresh water, however one small group is marine.
NATURE AND ADAPTATIONS
The great success of insects can be attributed partly to the

development of flight in them.
Flight has provided them the great capacity of dispersal, access to
food sources, and favourable habitat and escape from enemies.
Corresponding to their number of species, there exists a huge
variation in their structural and biological adaptations.
EXTERNAL FEATURES
All insects have their body divided into three well-defined regions
i.e. the head, thorax and abdomen.
There is always a pair of antenna on the head.
The thorax always consists of three segments:
(a) Prothorax
(b) Mesothorax
(c) Metathorax
Each thoracic segment bears a pair of legs.

Head consists of six fused segments and a pair of compound eyes
and mouth parts.
Abdomen comprises 7-11 segments and devoid of appendages.
MOUTH PARTS
The feeding appendages consists of three pairs:
(a) Mandibles
(b) First Pair of Maxilla
(c) Second Pair of Maxilla
The second pair of maxillae have fused together to form the

LABIUM, or lower lip
The upper lip is formed by the projections head and is called the
LABRUM.
Types:- The mouth appendages have been greatly modified to form five
basic types of pattern:
(i) Biting
(ii) Chewing
(iii) Piercing
(iv) Sucking
(v) Siphoning or Sponging
INTERNAL FEATURES
Heart is elongated, tubular and divided into chambers situated in

the abdomen.
Excretion takes place through Malpighian tubules.
Liver is absent but salivary glands are usually present.
Respiration is by TRACHEA. External gills may be present as
accessory respiratory organs in some aquatic insects.
REPRODUCTION
Reproduction is sexual in most insects. However it takes place
parthenogenetically i.e. eggs developing without being fertilized by
sperms in a number of insects e.g: Aphids and Termites etc.
METAMORPHOSIS
The development of insects after hatching from egg into adult stage
involves considerable growth and in some cases drastic
morphological changes.
The entire post-hatching development is termed as
Metamorphosis.
(A) INCOMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS
In some insects the immature form that hatch from the egg are
essentially similar in shape to their adults, but are smaller in size,
lack wings and reproductive organs
They attain adult characters after some growth period. This type of
metamorphosis is called Incomplete Metamorphosis.
Three stages are Egg Nymph Adult.
For example Cockroach, Grasshopper, Bugs etc.
(B) COMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS
In this type the animal shows following stages during its complete
development: Egg Larva Pupa Adult.
For example Mosquito, Butter fly, House fly etc.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF INSECTS
Insects are of very great importance to man.
BENEFICIAL INSECTS
1. Apis, the honey bees produce honey and also give wax.
2. Insects bring about the cross-pollination.
3. Bombyx and Eupterote are silk-moths and produce silk.
4. The larvae of Lucilla and Pharmia are used in wound healing of
bones.
5. Some insects feed upon and destroy harmful insects.
6. Some insects are Scavengers
HARMFUL INSECTS
1. Many types of mosquitoes, flies, fleas, lice and bugs transmit
diseases to man and animals.
2. Human food is spoiled by cockroaches, ants and flies.
3. Tinea and Teniola are cloth-moths and destroy cloths.
4. Tenebrio is mealworm. They eat meal, flour and grains.
5. Lepisma destroy the books.
6. Termites destroy books and wood.
7. Many insects injurious to crops e.g. Tree hoppers, Leaf hoppers,
Aphids, White flies and bugs.
Phylum Echinodermata
GENERAL CHARACTERS
HABIT AND HABITAT
The Echinodermates are exclusively marine including the largest

invertebrate Giant Squids.
EXTERNAL FEATURES
Symmetry usually radial, nearly always pentamerous.

Body shape is rounded to cylindrical or star like.
Surface of the body is rough.
Body wall consists of an outer epidermis, a middle dermis and
inner lining of peritoneum.
INTERNAL FEATURES
Endoskeleton consists of closely fitted plates forming shell usually

called THECA, may be composed of separate small OSSICLES.
Coelom is spacious, lined by peritoneum and occupied mainly by
digestive and reproductive systems.
Presence of Water Vascular System is most characteristic
feature.
Alimentary tract is usually coiled.
Circulatory or Haemal or blood lacunar system is typically present.
Excretory system is wanting.
Nervous system is primitive, consists of ganglionated nerve cord.
Sense organs are poorly developed.
Sexes are usually separate.
Reproduction is usually sexual, fertilization is external.
WATER CANAL SYSTEM
Water canal system is unique in possessing an internal closed system

of canals containing a watery fluid.
REGENERATION
Regeneration of lost part is common
IMPORTANCE OF WATER CANAL SYSTEM
These canals are provided with tubular protrusions called Tube Feet,
which serve a number of functions like locomotion, anchoring to hard
surfaces, grabbing the prey, diverting food particles towards mouth and
in some cases also respiration. The watery fluid is drawn from the
surrounding water through a perforated disc called the Madreporite.
EXAMPLE
Star Fish, Brittle stars, Sea urchins, Sea-cucumbers, Sea-Dollar, Sea-

lilies and Feather stars.
LARVA
Bipinnaria larva
Phylum Hemichordata
GENERAL CHARACTERS
It is a small group of animals, which include about 90

species.
They are soft-bodied animals, which usually live in shallow U
shaped burrows in the sandy or muddy sea bottom.
EXTERNAL FEATURES
They are cylindrical or vase shaped animals, bilaterally symmetrical

and lack any segmentation.
They may be solitary or colonial and usually range between a few
millimeter and 250 cm in length.
Sexes are separate in hemichordates.
INTERNAL FEATURES
Circulatory system is open and coelom is divided into three

chambers.
A dorsal and a ventral nerve cord are present.
LARVA
Tornaria larva
EXAMPLE
Balanoglossus, Acron worm etc.
Phylum Chordata
GENERAL CHARACTERS
The chordate animals at some time in their life history exhibit the
following diagnostic characters:
1. NOTOCHORD
It is an elastic, solid, skeletal rod lying below the nerve cord and
above the alimentary canal.
It serves as a primitive internal skeleton and acts as a rigid axis.
It may persist throughout life or it may be replaced partially or
completely by a backbone or vertebral column.
2. DORSAL HOLLOW NERVOUS SYSTEM
There is a dorsal, hollow, fluid filled nerve cord.

It is formed by enfolding of a mid-dorsal strip of ectoderm and it
generally sinks below the surface.
It lies above the notochord and outside the coelom.
It persists throughout life in most chordates, but in a few it
degenerates before maturity.
3. GILL CLEFTS
These are paired openings leading from the Pharynx to the exterior.
Such gill clefts appear during the development of every chordate,
but in many aquatic forms they are lined with vascular lemallae,
which forms gills for respiration.
In terrestrial chordates, which never breath by gills, gill clefts are
present during early development but later on, they disappear.
4. PHA-RYNGEAL POUCHES
All the chordates have paired pharyngeal pouches at some stage of

their life cycle.
These extend from laterally from the anterior part of the digestive
tract towards the body wall.
OTHER FEATURES
Chordates are triploblastic.

They are bilaterally symmetrical.
True coelom is found.
They are found in almost all the habitats of the World.
CLASSIFICATION OF PHYLUM CHORDATA
The Phylum Chordata is divided into two groups which are:
1. Acraniata (Protochordata)
2. Craniata (Vertebrata)
1. GROUP ACRANIATA (PROTOCHORDATA)
They are first or simple Chordates.

Brain box (Cranium) is absent and hence brain is not prominent.
Notochord does not transform into vertebral column.
This group is further divided into two sub-phyla, which are as follows:
a) Sub-Phylum Urochordata (Notochord in tail)
b) Sub-Phylum Cephalochordata (Notochord head to tail)
A) SUB-PHYLUM UROCHORDATA (NOTOCHORD IN TAIL)
They are also known as Tunicates because their body is enclosed

in a sac called Tunic.
All members are marine and sessile.
Body possesses two openings, an incurrent or buccal siphon and
an excurrent or Atrial siphon, through these openings exchange of
gases and food or waste material take place.
As a result of Retrogressive metamorphosis the larva loses its
tail and most of chordate characters and converts into an adult.
E.g: Ascidia, Herdmania etc.
B) SUB-PHYLUM CEPHALOCHORDATA (NOTOCHORD FROM HEAD TO

TAIL)
This is a small group of marine animals, body with pointed ends.

Usually live buried in sand, in shallow water with anterior end
protruded out.
They show all typical chordate characters (hollow dorsal nerve
chord, pharyngeal gill slits and notochord).
Only two genera are present around the world.
E.g: Branchiostoma (Amphioxus) etc
2. GROUP CRANIATA (VERTEBRATA)
In these chordates brain is protected inside a skeletal brain box

called CRANIUM.
Also known as Vertebrates because notochord is replaced by a
vertebral column.
This group is sub-divided into two sub-phyla, which are as follows:
a) Sub-Phylum Agnatha (Mouth without Jaws)

b) Sub-Phylum Gnathostomata (Mouth with Jaws)
A) SUB-PHYLUM AGNATHA (MOUTH WITHOUT JAWS)
This is a small group of marine vertebrates also known as

Cyclostomes.
Superficially they resemble the fish but lack the jaw so they are
often known as Jawless Fishes.
They have rounded suctorial mouth with many rings of teeth.
Paired fins and scales on body.
Usually parasitic in nature.
E.g: Hag Fish, Lamprey etc.
B) SUB-PHYLUM GNATHOSTOMATA (MOUTH WITH JAWS)
It is a large group of vertebrates with both upper and lower jaw.

Teeth may be present or absent.
Gnathostomata are divided into two super classes, which are as

follows:
i) Pisces (Fishes)
ii) Tetrapoda
I) SUPER CLASS PISCES (FISHES)
This is the largest group of chordates, which includes half of the

chordate (25,000 species).
Study of fishes is called Ichthyology.
Body is streamlined with paired fins and covered over by dermal
scales.
Super class Pisces is divided into two classes, which are:

i-a) Chondrichthyes (Cartilage Fishes)
i-b) Osteiochthyes (Bony Fishes)
I-A) CLASS CHONDRICHTHYES (CARTILAGE FISHES)
Alternate name is Class Elasmobranchi.

Usually includes marine fishes with endoskeleton of cartilage (soft
bone).
Skin contains sharp tiny enamel coated denticles called Placoid
Scales, which form exoskeleton.
Mouth is ventral in position and tail fin is Heterocercal.
Five exposed gill slits, which are not covered over by a gill cover.
Common examples are Skates, Sharks, Rays and Scoliodon (Dog
Fish)- a small Shark etc.
I-B) CLASS OSTEIOCHTHYES (BONY FISHES)
Alternate name is Teleostom, actually the largest class of

chordates.
Includes marine and fresh water fishes.
Mouth is present at anterior tip.
Endoskeleton in these fishes is made up of hard bone while
exoskeleton is made up of thin bony plates, which are known as
Cycloid or Ctenoid scales.
Gills are covered over on each side by a gill cover called
Operculum.
An air bladder is present which acts as a hydrostatic organ.

Tail fin is usually Homocercal or Diphycercal.
Common e.g are Eel, Sea-Horse, Flying Fish, Globe Fish etc
LUNG FISHES
Zoogeographically important fishes, belonging to group Dipnoi,

included in Class Osteiochthyes.
Only three living genera.
They respire by gills and by lungs during drought period (Lungs-
Modified air bladder).
Limited distribution in South America, Africa and Australia.
E.g: Protopterus (African Lung Fish)
II) SUPER CLASS TETRAPODA
It includes following classes:

a) Class Amphibia
b) Class Reptilia
c) Class Aves
d) Class Mammalia
A) CLASS AMPHIBIA
This class includes the animals that came out of the water and
established a successful life on land.
They took advantages of the improved possibilities by remaining
close to water, by keeping a soft and moist skin, by developing
lungs and by evolving a bony skeleton with a strong vertebral
column and four legs.
They cope with seasonal changes by burrowing during extreme
cold and save water by sealing themselves in a mucous envelop on
dry land.
The bony endoskeleton is the main body support.
The notochord is absorbed during development
Breathing is mostly by means of skin and also lung, and also by
lining of buccal cavity.
In larva the breathing is mostly by means of external or internal
gills.
The circulatory system shows a three chambered heart, with two
atria and one ventricle.
The amphibians are Cold Blooded (Poikilothermic) that is having
internal temperature that very with the environment.
Eggs and sperms are laid in water and fertilization is external.
E.g: Frog and Toads, Salamanders, Newts, Mud puppies etc.
B) CLASS REPTILIA
GENERAL CHARCTERS
The earliest reptiles evolved from the amphibians.

HABIT AND HABITAT

Reptiles are generally well adapted to life on land, in semi-dry,
completely dry and even desert habitat.
NATURE
All reptiles lay their eggs on land.

They are cold-blooded animals and are less active during low
temperature.
STRUCTURAL FEATURES
They possess dry skin covered with epidermal scales.

In some lizards and crocodiles, small bony plates develop below
the epidermal scales.
The skeleton is built on the same plane as that of amphibians, but
is much stronger to support their body weight.
Respiration takes place exclusively through lungs.
Heart is three chambered, two auricles and one incompletely
divided ventricle. (In Crocodiles, the ventricle is completely divided
into two chambers.)
The excretion takes place through kidneys. The reptiles secrete
much of their waste products in form of non-toxic Uric-Acid.
REPRODUCTION
In most reptiles fertilization is internal.

Eggs are provided with a shell and are laid on land.
The early development of embryo takes place on the large
quantities of yolk and albumin present in the egg.
Due to the presence of a protective membrane called AMNION in
the egg, reptiles are included in the Amniota Group of
Vertebrates.
EXAMPLE
Alligators, Crocodile, Snake, Turtle and Gecko etc.
C) CLASS AVES (BIRDS)
EVOLUTION
Aves have evolved from reptiles.

As they acquired the capability of true flight they were able to
exploit the aerial environment and became the largest class of
terrestrial vertebrates.
CHARACTERS OF CLASS AVES
HABIT AND HABITAT

The birds live from pole to pole in all type of ecological zones. They all
breed on land.
FLIGHT AND ADAPTATION

Feathers differentiate birds from all other vertebrates.

Feathers originated as extraordinary development of Reptilian
scales.
Instead of growing all over the body and spreading evenly, the
feathers grow in definite tracts.
The feathers play an important role in the thermoregulation of birds.
They trap air, which is a bad conductor of heat and so prevent loss
of body heat.
To fly efficiently the birds have reduced their body weight in a
variety of ways.
Many bones become hollow, thin and light.
Synsacrum and pygostyle are formed by the fusion of vertebrae
and give strength to skeleton.
Birds possess strong muscles to control the use of wing in flight.
ADAPTATION FOR COMMUNICATION
They possess large eyes with well-developed sight.

The birds communicate with members of their species with sound
signals for which the sense of hearing is well developed.
STRUCTURAL FEATURES
The great mobility of neck is helpful in feeding, nest building,

preening and defence.
There are developed a number of types of bills according to their
feeding habits.
The digestive system of birds is compact and can accommodate
large quantity of food.
The food is stored for a short period in the crop.
Gizzard possess thick muscular wall with horny lining, small
stones swallowed by birds are passed on the gizzard for grinding
the food.
The Syrinx or sound-producing organ is found in no other
vertebrate except the birds. It is located at the junction between the
trachea and the paired bronchi.
The lungs of birds are small, solid, spongy and slightly distensible.
They are in contact with a number of air sacs.
MIGRATION IN BIRDS
A large number of species of birds exhibit a deep-rooted phenomenon
of migration, during which they travel long distances from their summer
breeding homes towards areas of warm climate.
SUB-CLASSES OF AVES
There are two main sub-classes of aves, which are:

i) Sub-Class Ratitae (Flightless Birds)
ii) Sub-Class Carinatae (Free-Flying Birds)
I) SUB CLASS RATITAE (FLIGHTLESS BIRDS)
Dynamic Views This

theme.sub-class includes
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They comparatively have heavy weight and their wings are either
vestigial or rudimentary.
They have a flat sternum without keel.
Their flight muscles are poorly developed.
The distribution of these birds is restricted to few areas of the
World.
E.g: Ostrich, Rhea, Emu, Cassowary, Kiwi and Penguin.
II) SUB-CLASS CARINATAE (FREE FLYING BIRDS)
In this sub-class modern flying birds are included.

They are usually small, light weight birds with highly developed
wings and feathers with interlocking system.
They possess sternum with a crest like keel to accommodate the
hightly developed pectoral flight muscles.
The flying birds are distributed all around the World.
E.g: Sparrow, Pigeons, Myna, Bulbul, Hoopoes, Crow, Doves, Parrots,

Fowls, Cuckoo and Ducks etc.
D) CLASS MAMMALIA
GENERAL CHARACTERS
Early mammals are originated from reptiles. The distinctive

characteristic of mammals are at the highest grade of development in
animal kingdom.
HABIT AND HABITAT

Mostly terrestrial, a few aquatic.
NATURE
They are warm-blooded animals.

They can maintain a fairly high body temperature and so can
successfully survive in colder areas of the world.
TEMPERATURE REGULATION
Heat is generated by high metabolic rate of their body and is lost by

increasing blood circulation in the skin and evaporation of sweat.
The mammalian body temperature is maintained at 35C-40C.
APPARENT FEATURE
All mammals possess hair on skin.

Sweat glands and sebaccous glands are present on skin.
Mammary glands secrete milk in females.
External ears (Pinna) are present.
Teeth are heterodont i.e. not uniform. The different types of teeth
are: Incisors, Canine, Premolars, Molars.
SKELETAL SYSTEM
Skull with two occipital condyles is present.

Lower jaw is composed of single bone on each side.
Vertebrae are Gastrocentrous, composed of three pieces i.e. the
centrum and two epiphyses.
Digits of fore and hind limbs are usually five.
Cervical (Neck) vertebrae are seven.
INTERNAL FEATURES
A thick muscular septum Diaphram is present between abdomen

and thoracic cavity.
Heart is four-chambered.
R.B.Cs are non-nucleated.
Brain with four optic lobes.
Kidney is metanephrous.
The stomach is simple sac but rarely complicated.
REPRODUCTION
Mammals give birth to young ones (Viviparous), which are

nourished by parents. Except Prototherians that lay eggs.
Development of eggs occurs in the uterus of female, where the
developing embryo develops relationship with mother (Placenta).
After the birth of the child, the mother nourished her young ones.
CLASSIFICATION OF CLASS MAMMALIA
Mammals are divided into three sub-class:
1. SUB-CLASS PROTOTHERIA
Includes the egg laying mammals. For example Duck billed, Echidna
(Spiny anteater).
2. SUB-CLASS METATHERIA
Includes the pouched mammals, also known as Marsupial mammals.
For example Kangaroo, Koala Bear and Opossums etc.
3. SUB-CLASS EUTHERIA
Includes the placental mammals. For example Monkey, Cow, Elephant,
Cat, Dog, Bat, Whale and Human being etc.
Summary of Kingdom Anamalia

(1) PHYLUM PORIFERA
Porous body
CaCO3 Silica Skeleton
Asymmetrical
Amphiblastula larva
Diffuse cellular organization
Spongocoel body cavity
(2) PHYLUM CNIDARIA
Radially symmetrical
Body cavity Coelentron
Pnedoblast Defensive cells
Diploblast (Ecto + Endoderm)
Middle non-cellular layer Mesoglea
Larva Planula Larva
Morphologically
a- Medusa = Umbrella like

b- Polyp = Rod shaped
(3) PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES
Flatworms
Totally Parasite
Flat or Ribbon shaped
Excretory organs Proto nephridia (Flame cells)
Aeoelomate (Absence of body cavity)
It is the first phylum containing triplo blastic animals
Usually Hermaphrodites
Planaria is the only free living member
High fertility rate
Bilaterally Symmetrical
(4) PHYLUM ASCHELMINTHES (NEMATODA ROUND WORMS)
Totally parasitic including 50 human parasite

Bilaterally symmetrical with cylindrical body
Two openings (Mouth & Anus)
Psudocoelomates
Common diseases Ascariasis, filiariasis (elephantiasis), hook
worm infection.
(5) PHYLUM ANNELIDA (SEGMENTED WORMS)
Metamers (External segmentation)

Septae (Internal segmentation)
Setae (Locomotary organs) or cheata
Digestive, excretory, nervous, reproductive system well developed.
Respiration through diffusion
Blood is red with a closed type of circulatory system (with many
pulsatile hearts)
CLASS POLYCHEATA
Setae with Parapodia

Separate sexes
Sabella (Peacock worm), Nereis (Clam worm)
CLASS OLIGOCHEATA
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Pheretima (Earth worm)
CLASS HIRUNDINIA (LEACHES)
Free living, Ecto or Endo parasite

Contains a Enzyme hirudin which prevents blood clotting
(6) PHYLUM MOLLUSCA (SOFT BODIED ANIMAL)
Second largest phylum

Largest invertebrate Gram squlds
External hard covering calcium carbonate shell
A grinding structure radula is present in the buccal cavity
Thin membraneous covering of the body mantle
Respiration through gills
Locomotary organ a mascular foot
Larva Trocophore larva
CLASS GASTROPODA
A phenomenon torsion is present in which the animal body rotates

at the angle of 180
Example: Pila
CLASS BIVALVIA
Second largest class of mollusca

Shell consist of two parts and attached with eachother by hinge
joint
Common examples: Unio, mytilus and pearl oysters
CLASS CEPHALOPODA
All members are marine

Locomotary organ foot transformed into suckers which bears
tentacles and arms
Example: Sepia (cuttle fish), loligo (squids), octopus (devil fish)
Shell is absent in octopus
(7) PHYLUM ARTHROPODA ( JOINTED LEGS)
Largest phylum
One million species
Metamerically segmented animals
Blood filled cavity hoemocoel is present
Blood without haemoglobin (white)
Respiration: Gills, Trachea or Book lungs
Excretory organs malphigian tubules
Nervous system well developed
Compound erges with sharp vision
Metamorphosis = developmental changes which transforms a larva
into its developed adult form
Dynamic Views Incomplete
theme. Poweredmetamorphosis
by Blogger. = egg nymph adult e.g. cockroach
Complete metamorphosis = egg larva pupa adult e.g.

Butterfly, common, housefly and mosquito
Moulting (ecdysis)
Changing over of old exoskeleton and formation of a new one
Apiculture => Farming of honey bees
Sericulture => Farming of silk worms
CLASS MEROSTOMATA
Limulus (king crab)
CLASS ARCHINIDA (SPIDER LIKE)
Group of Spiders & Scorpions

Respiration through book lungs
Four pair of walking legs
CLASS CRUSTACEA
Class of prawns, shrimps, lobsters, crabs

Two pairs of antenae, one pair of mandible and two pair of maxilla
Exoskeleton a large plate of carapase
Sacculina is the only parasitic member
CLASS MYRIAPODA
Class of millipedes and centipedes

Body is divided into similar multiple segments
CLASS INSECTA OR HEXAPODA
Largest class (eight lakhs & 50,000 members)

Study of insects is called entomology
Three pairs of walking legs
Pterygota (insects with wings)
Apterygota (insects without wings)
Social insects: Ants, termites, honey bees
(8) PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA (ANIMAL WITH SPINY SKIN)
Marine animals
Radially symmetrical
Pentamerous body
Water vascular system is present
Locomotary organs are tube feets = External openings of the water
vascular system
Exoskeleton is made up of calcarious plates in the form of spines
Power of regemeration is very great
Phylum echinodermata, hemichordata & chordate posses common
ancestor
Bipinnaria larva is present
Common e.g. Sea Star (Star fish, Brittle star, Sea dollar, Sea
urchins, Sea cucumbers.
(9) PHYLUM HEMICHORDATA (ANIMAL WITH HALF NOTOCHORD)
Notochord in future = Vertebral column + Skull

Dorsal nerve cord = Brain and Spinal cord
Pharengeal gill slits <>Aquatic animals = gills
-> Terrestrial = Internal neck structures
Only 90 species are present
Larva is tornaria larva
Open circulatory system
(10) PHYLUM CHORDATA
GROUP ACRANIATA
Brain without any covering or skull
SUB-PHYLUM UROCHORDATA
Also known as tunicates

Body is enclosed in a sac tunic
Only embryonical stages show chordate characters
SUB-PHYLUM CEPHALO CHORDATA
Embryonic as well as adult both forms show typical chordate characters
GROUP CRANIATA OR VERTEBRATA
Brain and spinal cord is enclosed in a hard covering skull & vertebral
column respectively
SUB-PHYLUM AGNATHA (ANIMALS WITHOUT JAWS)
Also known as cyclostomes or jawless fishes

Totally parasitic
Teeth are present in the form of rings
Common e.g. Hag fishes, lamprey
SUBPHYLUM GNATHOSTOMATA (ANIMAL WITH JAWS)
Teeth may be present or absent

Amphibians and bird lack teeth
Fishes, reptiles, mammals do have teeth
1. SUPER CLASS PICSES (FISHES)
Study of fish is known as echthylogy
SUB CLASS CHONDRICHTHYES (CARTILAGENOUS FISHES)
Endo skeleton is cartilaginous (soft boned)

Exoskeleton Placoid scales
Fins are heterocircle (different size and shaped)
Gills without any covering
Dynamic Views Common example
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Scolidoen (dog fish) Small Shark
SUB CLASS OSTEOCHYTHES (BONY FISHES)
Exoskeleton cycloid or ctenoid scales

Operculum is present (covering of gills)
Fins are homocircle (Same size and shape)
Lung fishes are included in order dipnoi.
2. SUPER CLASS TETRAPODA
1. CLASS AMPHIBIA
Exoskeleton is absent
Respiration by lungs, gills or skin
Fertilization is external
Cold blooded
Having the characteristics of hibernation & aestivation
Common e.g. Toads, frogs, salamanders etc.
2. CLASS REPTILIA
Included in group amniota due to the presence of amnion in eggs

Fertilization is internal
Exoskeleton is made up of thick horny scales
Important members are snakes, turtles, lizards, crocodiles and
alligators
Venom Snake poison
Fangs sharped and curved teeth of snake
3. CLASS AVES (BIRDS)
Study of birds is called ornithology

They posses hollow bones (Pneumatic bones)
Sound producing organ Syrinx is present instead of larynx.
Teeth totally absent.
SUB CLASS RETITA (FLIGHT LESS BIRDS)

E.g. Penguin, Kiwi, Ostrich.
Ostrich Largest Bird.
SUB CLASS CARNIATAE (FLYING BIRDS)
Wings with interlocking system.

Common e.g. Peacock, Seagulls, Kites, Falcon etc.
Archeopetryx Intermediate specie between reptiles and birds.
4. CLASS MAMMALIA
Presence of mammary glands and hairs.

A muscular organ diaphragm, which separates thoracic cavity from
abdominal cavity.
Teeth are present with different size and shape (heterodont).
a- Incissors for biting and cutting purpose

b- Canives Tearing purpose
c- Pre-Molars -> For grinding and holding purpose
d- Molars -> For grinding and holding purpose
SUB CLASS PROTOTHERA (EGG LAYING MAMMALS)
Also called monotremous.

Two genera with 3 species
Oviparous.
Common urogenital opening Cloaca is present.
External ear is absent.
It is a connecting link between reptiles and true mammals. e.g.
spiny anteater, duck billed platypus.
SUB CLASS METATHERIA (POUCHED MAMMALS)
Marsupials
Give birth to live young ones.
Special pouch like bag is present in the ventral side of female.
This pouch is known as marsupial.
Common e.g. Kangaroo, Kuala bear, Opossums.
SUB CLASS EUTHERIA (PLACENTAL ANIMALS)
95% of mammals are included in this group.

Viviparous.
Placenta connecting link between mother and fetus.
Common e.g. Camel, donkey, elephant, bat, whale, dolphin.
Markhor is the national animal of Pakistan also known as Wild goat.
Bio-Energetics
CHAPTER 11
DEFINITION
The capturing and conversion of energy from one form to another in the
living system and its utilization in metabolic activities is called
Bioenergetics.
Bio-energetics is the quantitative study of energy relationships and
conversion into biological system. Biological energy transformation
always obey the laws of thernodynamic.
ROLE OF ATP AS ENERGY CURRENCY
ATP is adenosine triphosphate. Adenosine is made of adenosine and

ribose sugar. Among the three phosphate groups two are energy rich
PO4 bonds. So ATP is a high energy compound it gives its PO4 groups
easily. When 1 ATP is converted into ADP, 7.3 K cal/mole or 31.81
KJ/mole energy is released. ATP -> ADP + Pi + Energy
Living organisms use organic food for generation of energy. These food
usually
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energy. Which is usually in the form of ATPs. ATP plays role in several
endergonic and exergonic reactions.
ENDERGONIC REACTIONS
Those chemical reactions which accompanied by the absorption of the

energy are known as endergonic reactions. The products have a higher
free energy than reactants. Examples of endergonic reaction in human
are
1. Synthesis of proteins
2. Synthesis of lipids
3. Synthesis of cholestrol
4. Synthesis of glycogen
EXERGONIC REACTIONS
Those reactions which complete along with the liberation of free energy
are known as Exergonic reaction. The products have a lower free energy
than the reactants.
EXAMPLE
An aerobic glycolysis, Krebs cycle, oxidative phosphoylation.
PIGMENTS
Substances in plants that absorb the visible light are called Pigments.
Different pigments absorb light of different wavelength. They are
involved in the conversion of light energy to chemical energy. Important
plant pigments are chlorophyls, carotenoids, phycobilin, xanthophylls,
phaelophytin.
PHOTOSYSTEM
Each photosystem is a highly organized unit consisting of chlorophyll

accessory pigment molecules and electron carrier molecules present on
the thylakoids of chloroplast. Each thylakoid contains many units of two
photosystems the photosystem I and photosystem II. So chloroplast
contains thousands of photosystem.
The photosystem consists of chlorophyll a and b and carotenoids.
Chlorophyll having empirical formula of C55H72O5N4Mg is almost
identical to Chlorophyll b of empirical formula C55H70O6N4Mg. But
the slight structural difference between them is enough to give 2
pigments slightly different absorption spectra and hence different
colours Chlorophyll a is blue green while b is yellow green.
Hundreds of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and carotenoids cluster
together in a photosystem. But only a single molecule of chlorophyll a
acts like a reaction centre the rest of others absorbs a photon, the
energy is transmitted from pigment, molecules to pigment molecules
until it reaches a particular chlorophyll a located in the region of
reaction centre, where it gives electrons to primary electron acceptor
FIGURE 11.3 PAGE 260
Hundreds of carotenoids are admixed with 2 types of chlorophyll
molecules
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Carotenoids can absorb wavelength of light that chlorophyll cannot

transfer to chlorophyll a. Some times excess energy can damage
chlorophyll a, so carotenoids accept energy from them, thus providing a
function known as Photoreceptor.
ROLE OF LIGHT
Light has a dual nature, can behave like a wave or like a particle. It is
composed of packets of energy called photons (hu). Light energy
captured in the light harvesting complexes is efficiently and rapidly
transferred to the chlorophyll molecules present in the photosynthetic
reaction centre. When a photon of light hits these chlorophyll a
molecules. The energy of these photons is absorbed and results in the
elevation of an e- from the ground state to an excited state, level
depends upon the energy and incident photon.
A photon of red light has enough energy to raise an electron to excited
state I and this energy is sufficient to carryout all the chemical reactions
of photosynthesis.
The energy transferred by blue light raise the electron to excited state
2. However the energy transmitted by red or blue photons to
photosynthetic electron transport chain is exactly the same. This is
because that extra energy is lost (from absorption of blue photon) by
radiationless de-excitation.
The excitation energy can be used in
1. Photochemistry (i.e. it enter the photosynthetic electron transport
chain)
2. Lost as heat.
3. Give fluorescence etc.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is an anabolic process in which chloroplast of the

plants take up CO2 and H2O and using light energy to synthesize
carbohydrates. In photosynthesis, the light energy is converted to
chemical energy. It is an oxidation reduction process in which water is
oxidized and CO2 is reduced
6CO2 + 12H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
In simple
6CO2 + 6H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6O2
This process divides into
1. Light reaction
2. Dark reaction
1. LIGHT REACTION
In the light dependent reactions, light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll

and other photosynthetic pigment molecules. It is then converted into
chemical energy. Due to this energy conversion, NADPH+ and ATP are
produced.
Components of light reaction
1. Light capturing chlorophyll molecules.
2. Membrane bound protein complexes

3. Mobile electron carriers
CHLOROPHYLL MOLECULES AND PHOTOSYSTEM

Each photosystem consists of a light gathering antenna complex and
a reaction centre. The antenna complex has many molecules of
chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and carotenoids most of them channeling
the energy to reaction centre. Reaction centre of photosystem I and II
has one or two chlorophyll a molecules, primary electron acceptor,
associated electron carriers of electron transport system and certain
specific proteins known as chlorophyll-bound proteins which differs
them from other chlorophyll a molecules of the same system. The
chlorophyll a molecules at the reaction centre of photosystem I (PSI)
has a maximum absorbance at 700 nm, while those of PS II absorb at
680 nm. Therefore these reaction centre are called P700 and P680 where
P simply stands for pigment.
COMPLEXES
There are 4 major groups of complexes.
1. PS I
2. PS II
3. Cytochrome b/f complex
4. ATPase complex
The PS I and ATPase or ATP synthase complex are present on non-
appressed region of thylakoid. While PS II and light harvesting
complexes (LHC II) are present on appressed side. The cyt b/f complex
is randomly distributed throughout the mambrane.
MOBILE ELECTRON CARRIERS

Transport the excited electrons between the complexes. These are
plastoquinone (PQ) plastocyanin (PC), ferredoxin (FD)
ELECTRON TRANSPORT
This process occurs in several steps.
(1) EXCITATION OF PS II
When chlorophyll a of reaction centre of PS II is striked by a photon, the
energy of photon absorbs in it. This results in the elevation of an
electron from the ground state to an excited state. The excited electrons
produced within P680 is rapidly transferred to the primary electrons
acceptors phaelophytin. So 2 electrons which are transformed has to be
replaced which is done by water.
(2) PHOTOLYSIS OF WATER

In the presence of light a water splitting enzyme complex extracts 4
electrons from two water molecules. Removal of electrons splits the
water into two hydrogen ions 2H+ and oxygen atoms. The extracted
electrons from water are supplied to PS II (P680) while the oxygen atom
immediately combines with another oxygen atom to form O2. Which is
released during photosynthesis. The hydrogen ions or proton (H+) are
stored in thylakoid space. The overall reaction will be
2H2O -> 4 H+ + 4e- + O2
(3) FLOW OF ELECTRONS FROM PS II TO PS I

Photoexcited electrons accepted by phaelophytin from PS II are
transferred to plastoquinone molecules QA and QB which accept two
electrons and takes up two protein from the stroma. PQ carries
electrons from PS II to cytochrome b/f complex containing FeS protein.
This is thought to be the rate limiting step of electron transport.
Electrons from PQ are taken up by Cyt b/f complex through FeS and
releasing protons (2H+) to the lumen. The second mobile electron
carrier plastocyanin (PC) takes the electrons and delivered to the
photosystem I.
(4) FLOW OF ELECTRONS FROM PS I TO NADP+ REDUCTASE

A second excitation event within PS I leads to the transfer of electrons
to the primary electron acceptor. The primary e- acceptor of PS I passes
the photoexcited electrons to a second electron transport chain, which
transmit then to ferredoxin, an iron containing protein. An enzyme
called NADP reductase then transfer the electrons from Fd to NADP+
(oxidized form)
(5) REDUCTION OF NADP+ TO NADPH+ H+

This is the redox reaction that stores the high energy electrons in
NADP+ to reduced it to NADPH + H+.
NADP+ + 2H+ -> NADPH + H+
Hydrogen ions are taken from stroma which is being pumped from
thylakoid space to stroma by ATPase.
PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION
Hydrogen ions are pumped into thylakoid space by cyt b/f and also 2H+
ions are collected there from photolysis of one water molecule. This
large no. of H+ ions in thylakoid space compared to stroma, creates an
electrochemical gradient, when these hydrogen ions flow out of the
thylakoid space by way of a channel protein present in membrane called
the ATP synthase complex, energy is prvided to it. The transport of 3
protons (H+ ions) through the ATPase complex are normally required to
produce 1 ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate Pi.
ADP + Pi -> ATP
This is called chemiosmotic ATP synthesis because chemical and
osmatic events join to permit ATP synthesis. The linear flow of electrons
from H2O to NADP+, coupled to ATP syntheses is non-cyclic
photophosphorylation because the electrons pass on to a terminal
acceptor.
In cyclic photophosphorylation the electrons are cycled from PS I back
to PQ. So only ATP is produced but not NADPH + H+. This occurs under
following conditions to meet increased ATP demand for e.g. CO2
fixation
1. Protein synthesis
2. Synthesis of starch
EVENTS OF LIGHT REACTION

1. Photolysis of water.
2. Reduction of NADP+ to NADPH + H+
3. Synthesis
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So during light reaction ATP and NADPH + H+ are produced which are
used in Dark reaction, O2 is evolved as a by product.
2. DARK REACTION
The dark reaction consist of a series of light independent reactions

which can proceed even in the absence of light. During dark reaction,
energy is produced by ATP and NADPH+ H+ and CO2 is fixed in
carbohydrates. This cyclic series of enzymatic catalyzed reaction in the
stroma of the chloroplasts is called Calvin-Benson Cycle. During this
cycle CO2 is reduced to triose-PO4 sugars, therefore this pathway is
also known as C3 pathray (reductive pentose phosphate cycle) and the
plants undergo this cycle are known as C3 plants. The calvin or C3
cycle is divided into 3 phases.
CARBOXYLATION (CARBON FIXATION)

The calvin cycle begins when a molecule of CO2 reacts with a highly
reactive phosphorylated five carbon sugar named ribulase 1.5
bisphosphate (RuBP). This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme ribulase
biphosphate carboxylase or Rubisco (it is the most abundant protein in
chloroplast). The product of this reaction is a highly unstable, six
carbon intermediate that immediately breakdown into two molecules of
three carbon compound called 3-phosphoglycerate (G3P).
3CO2 + 3RuBP -> G3P
REDUCTION
Each molecule of the PGA or G3P receives an additional phosphate
from ATP of light reaction, forming 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (G1,3P)
which is then reduced to glyceraldehydes 3-phosphate (GA3P) and
Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) by NADPH+ H+GA3P and DHAP
are intercovertible and the reaction dont require any energy. These
products are also formed during glycolysis and links dark reaction with
sugar synthesis pathway.
6G3P + 6ATP + 6NADPH + H+ -> 6GA3P + 6ADP + 6NADP+ + 6Pi
REGENERATION
Three carbon compounds are rearranged to form five carbon units
ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP), which is the primary carbon
acceptors in the cycle.
5 GA3P + 3ATP -> 3 RuBP + 3 ADP + 3Pi
Again more molecules of ATP are used for phosphorylation of RuBP,
which then starts the cycle again.
CONCLUSION
For every 3 molecules of CO2 entering the cycle and combining with 3
mole of RuBP (5C), six molecules of three carbon G3P is produced. Out
of six G3P only one G3P molecule leaves the cycle and can be used for
synthesis of glucose, starch, cellulose, sucrose or other compounds.
The other 5 molecules are recycled to regenerate 5C RuBPs three
molecules, the CO2 acceptor.
CONSUMPTION
For the net synthesis of one G3P molecule, the calvin cycle consumes a
total of nine ATPs and six NADPH + H+
PHOTORESPIRATION
In presence of light (photon), oxygen is taken up by RuBP and CO2 is

evolved.
RuBP + O2 -> PGA + Phosphoglycolate CO2
It occurs when CO2 is deficient, Rubisco works like an oxygenase rather
than carboxylase in presence of O2, produce phosphoglycerate
(phosphoglyceric acid-PGA) and Phosphoglycolate, where
phosphoglycolate rapidly breaks down to release CO2. Alternative
mechanisms of carbon fixation in hot, arid climate.
In hot temperature the concentration of CO2 begins to fall in leaves due
to closing of stomata, increase yield of photosynthesis etc. These
conditions in leaves may cause a wasteful process called
photorespiration in which precious products are lost and less energy is
generated. In certain plant species alternate mode of CO2 fixation have
evolved even in very hot and arid environment.
These two photosynthetic adaptations are
1. C4 PHOTOSYNTHESIS (C4 PATHWAY)

This process occurs in C4 plants. Those which prefer calvin cycle with
an alternate mode of carbon fixation are known as C4 plants. CO2 reacts
with PEP in presence of PEP carboxylase to produce oxaloacetate, a
four carbon compound which converts into malate. Malate transfers
from mesophyll cell to bundle sheath cell where it breaks down to
pyruvate and releases CO2. This CO2 is fixed in calvin cycle by Rubsico
and so the cycle continues.
E.g. Family poaceae especially sugar cane, corn.
2. CAM
Plants of hot, arid environment, open their stomata during the night and
close them during the day. Closing stomata during the day helps
deserts plants to conserve water but it also prevents CO2 from entering
the leaves. During the night, when their stomata are open, these plants
take up CO2 and incorporate it into a variety of organic acids because of
lack of energy (ATPs and NADPH+ H+). This mode of carbon fixation is
called crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM). They store these organic
acids in vacuoles. During day time organic acids release CO2 for dark
reaction because light reaction can supply ATP and NADPH+ H+ on
which the calvin cycle depends.
E.g. Cactus, Pinapple, Succulent plants.
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
Aerobic breakdown of glucose molecules into CO2 and water with

synthesis of ATP is called Cellular Respiration.
C6H12O6 +6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + 673 Kcal/mole
Respiration is an oxidation reduction process because the carbon of
substrate, mostly glucose is oxidized to form CO2, while the
atmospheric O2 is reduced to form the water.

There are two types of cellular respiration.
(A) AEROBIC RESPIRATION
The breakdown of sugar, in presence of oxygen [molecular O2] and

release of carbondioxide and water with sufficient amount of energy.
This type of respiration is known as Aerobic respiration, and the
organisms performed this are known as Aerobes.
(B) ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
The break down of sugar in absence of oxygen is known as Anaerobic

respiration, and this type of respiration is performed by Anaerobs.
E.g. Yeast, some bacteria, gut parasites (e.g. tapeworm). Some species
of annelids, roots of plants growing in water logged area. Anaerobes are
of two types. Those which never need of O2 at all are Obligate
anaerobes. Those which respire aerobically but can also respire in
absence of O2 are known as Facultative aerobes.
CATEGORIES OF AEROBIC RESPIRATION
The process of aerobic respiration is divided into three main categories.

1. Glycolysis
2. Krebs cycle
3. ETC
(1) GLYCOLYSIS
Glycolysis is the first and common step in both aerobic and anaerobic
respiration. It consists of a complex series of enzymatically catalyzed
reactions in which a 6 carbon molecule Glucose breaks down into 3
carbon Pyruvic acid. These reactions occur in Cytoplasm and doesnt
require oxygen. Following are the different steps of Glycolysis.
(I) PHOSPHORYLATION
Phosphorylation is the addition of phosphate groups to the sugar
molecules. Glucose is phosphorylated by a molecule of ATP to form an
activated molecule, the glucose 6 phosphate. ATP is converted to ADP.
(II) ISOMERIZATION
Glucose -6-phosphate is converted to fructose -6-phosphate, an isomer
of it by an enzyme.
(III) SECOND PHOSPHORYLATION

Another molecules of ATP is invested which transfers its phosphate
group to carbon no.1 of fructose 6-phosphate, forming fructose 1,6-
bisphosphate and ADP.
(IV) CLEAVAGE
The 6-carbon, fructose 1,6 bisphosphate molecule is break down into 2;
three carbon molecules, 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde PGAL and
dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP). These two sugar molecules are
isomers
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glycolysis derives its name. DHAP is converted to its isomer PGAL and
then 2 PGAL will be converted to 2 pyruvic acid molecules. Since at this
stage 2 ATPs are used, therefore this phase is known as Energy
investment phase.
In the subsequent reactions, energy is produced therefore this half is
also known as Energy yielding phase
(V) DEHYDROGENATION (OXIDATION)

In the next step, PGAL is acted upon by an enzyme dehydrogenase
along with a co-enzyme nicotine amide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+),
which convert PGAL into phosphoglyceric acid PGA or
phosphoglycerate by the loss of two hydrogen atoms (2e- + 2H+). These
H atoms are captured by NAD+. This is a redox reaction in which PGAL
oxidized by removal of electrons and NAD is reduced by the gaining of
electrons. Now phosphoglyceric acid PGA picks up phosphate group
(Pi) present in cytoplasm and becomes 1,3-bisphosphoglyceric acid
(DPGA)
(VI) PHOSPHORYL TRANSFER

1,3-bisphosphoglyceric acid loses its phosphate group to ADP forming
ATP and 3-phosphoglyceric acid.
(VII) ISOMERIZATION
The PO4 group of PGA, attaches with carbon no,3 changes its position
to carbon no.2 forming an isomer 1-phosphoglyceric acid.
(VIII) DEHYDRATION
A water molecule is removed from the substrate and forming
phosphoenal pyruvate (PEP)
(IX) PHOSPHORYL TRANSFER

ADP removes the high energy PO4 from PEP producing ATP and
Pyruvic acid. OVERALL REACTION of glycolysis can be summarized as
Glucose + 2ADP + 2NAD+ -> 2 Pyruvic acid + 2ATP + 2NADH+ H+ +
2H2O
ENERGY YIELD
Since when PGAL is produced, the cycle is counted twice because

DHAP also converts into PGAL and enter the same cycle. 4ATP
molecules are produced at Substrate level phosphorylation because
PO4 groups are transferred directly to ADP from another molecule. 2
ATP are used in the first phase. Thus there is a net gain of 2 ATPs. 2
NADH+ H+ are produced and each gives 2 ATPs (a total of 6 ATPs).
Therefore net production of ATP during glycolysis is 8 ATPs
FATE OF PYRUVIC ACID
There are 3 major pathways by which it is further processed under

anaerobic conditions, pyruvic acid either forms, ethyl alcohol or lactic
acid or produces CO2 and H2O from krebs cycle under aerobic
conditions.
FERMENTATION
Fermentation the alternative term for Anaerobic respiration was used by

W.Pasteur and defined as respiration in absence of oxygen (air). The
production of ethyl alcohol from glucose is alcoholic fermentation and
that of lactic acid is lactic acid fermentation.
ALCOHOL FERMENTATION
Each pyruvic acid molecule is converted to ethyl alcohol also known as

Ethanol in two steps. In the first pyruvic acid is decarboxylated to
acetaldehyde under the action of enzyme.
Pyruvic acid CH3.CO.COOH -> CH3CHO + CO2
In the next step NADH+ H+ reduces acetaldehyde to ethyl alcohol
CH3.CHO + NADH+ H+ -> CH3.CH2OH + NAD+
Ethyl alcohol is toxic, plants can never use it because it cannot be
converted to carbohydrates or breaks up in presence of O2. When
accumulation is more than tolerable limits, plants will be poisoned and
subsequently they died.
LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION
When NADH+ H+ transfer its hydrogen directly to pyruvic acid, it results

in formation of lactic acid.
Pyruvic acid + NADH + H+ -> CH3.CH.OH. COOH
During extensive exercise such as fast running muscle cells of animals
and man respire anaerobically. Due to inadequate supply of O2, pyruvic
acid is converted to lactic acid. Blood circulation removes lactic acid
from muscle cells. When lactic acid accumulates inside cells, it causes
Muscle futigue. This forces person to stop work, until normal O2 levels
are restored.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF FERMENTATION
1. It is the source of ethyl alcohol in wines and beers Wines are

produced by fermenting fruits like grapes, dates etc. Beers are
produced by fermenting malted cereals such as Barley.
2. Yeast is used to prepare bread from wheat.
3. Milk is converted to curd (yoghurt) by bacteria.
4. Preparation of cheese and other dairy products.
5. Production of lactic acid, propionic acid, and butanol.
6. Flavour of pickles is due to lactic and acetic acid.
7. Addition of lactic and acetic acids prevent foods from spoilage and
also give sour flavours to yoghurt and cheese.
8. Acetone is also formed as a by-product.
(2) KREBS CYCLE
FORMATION OF ACETYL-COA
Before entering the Krebs cycle, each molecule of pyruvic acid
undergoes oxidative decarboxylation. During this process one of the
three carbons of pyruvic acid molecule is removed to form CO2 by
enzymatic
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of energy rich Hydrogen atoms are passed on to a H acceptor NAD+ to

form NADH+H+. The remaining 2-carbon component is called acetyle
which combines with coenzyme A to form an activated two carbon
compound called acetyle CoA. Acetyle CoA connects Krebs cycle with
glycolysis. For each molecule of glucose that enters glycoilysis, two
molecules of acetyle CoA produced, which enter in a cyclic series of
enzymatically catalyzed reactions known as Krebs Cycle, which occurs
in Mitochondria.
Pyruvic acid (3C) + CoA + NAD+ -> Acetyle CoA + CO2 + NADH+H+
SERIES OF REACTIONS IN KREBS CYCLE
Sir Hans Kreb was working over these cyclical series of reactions
therefore the cycle was given the name as Krebs cycle. The first
molecule formed during the cycle is citric acid, so it is also called as
Citric Acid cycle. This cycle is a multi step process and the steps are
given below:
1. FORMATION OF CITRIC ACID

In this first step of the Krebs cycle, bond between acetyl and CoA is
broken by the addition of water molecule. The acetyl (2C) reacts with 4
carbon compound (oxalo acetic) acid to form 6-carbon compound, citric
acid, and the CoA is set free. This citric acid possess 3 carboxyl groups,
therefore the cycle is also recommended as Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
(TCA cycle).
2. ISOMERIZATION
A molecule of water is removed and another added back so that cirtic
acid is isomerized to isocitric acid through an intermediate, Cis-aconitic
acid.
3.FIRST OXIDATIVE DECARBOXYLATION

First time the sugar molecules are oxidized, therefore it is also called
first oxidation of the cycle. Isocitric acid is oxidized yielding a pair of
electrons (2H+) that reduces a molecule of NAD+ to NADH+H+. The
reduced sugar molecule is decarboxylated with the removal of CO2. It
now converts into a 5 carbon compound -Ketoglutaric acid (KG).
4. SECOND OXIDATIVE DECARBOXYLATION

KG is oxidatively decarboxylated. A CO2 molecule is lost. The
remaining 4-C compound is oxidized by transfer of a pair of electrons
(2H+) reducing NAD+ to NADH+H+. This 4-C compound accepts CoA
forming succinyl CoA.
5. SUBSTRATE LEVEL PHOSPHORYLATION

Bond between succinyl and CoA is broken. CoA is replaced by PO4
group, which is then transferred to Guanosine diphosphate (GDP) to
form Guanosine Triphosphate (GTP). GTP then transfers its phosphate
group to ADP, forming ATP and with addition of 1 water molecule,
succinic acid is formed.
6. THIRD OXIDATION
With theme.
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Powered by Blogger. (2H+)succinic acid is oxidized to fumaric acid
and FAD+ is reduced to FADH2.
7. HYDRATION
One water molecule is added to fumaric acid to convert it to Malic acid.
8. FOURTH OXIDATION AND REGENERATION OF OXALO-ACETIC ACID

Oxidation of malic acid leads to the production of 1 more NADH+H+ and
oxaloacetic acid is regenerated.
ENERGY YIELD
Glucose molecule breaks down into 2 pyruvic acid molecules and each
will enter the Krebs cycle.
For each pyruvic acid molecule, 3CO2 molecules are produced, four
NADH+H+ are produced and 1 FADH2.
Pyruvic Acid + 3H2O + 4NAD+ + FAD+ -> 3CO2 + 4NADH+H+ + 1FADH2
Four calculation of energy (ATPs) we will multiply the products with 2 as
2 acetyle CoA enters the Krebs cycle.
Pyruvic Acid to Acetyl CoA..1NADH2 -> 3ATP x 2 = 6 ATP
Krebs Cycle..3NADH+H+ -> 9ATP x 2 = 18 ATP
1FADH2 -> 2ATP x 2 = 4 ATP
.Substrate Level Phosphorylation ->
1ATP x 2 = 2ATP
Total. = 30 ATP
OVERALL ENERGY YIELD OF AEROBIC RESPIRATION
Glycolysis8ATP
Pyruvic Acid to Acetyl CoA..6ATP
Krebs Cycle.24 ATP
Total..38 ATP
But actually 2 ATPs are utilizing in transporting cytoplasmic NADH+H+
to Mitochondria, which are produced during Glycolysis, so overall
energy yield is only 36 ATPs.
3. ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN/ ETC OR ET SYSTEM
The last of all steps is ETC. It consists of a series of electron acceptors

which are located in the cristae of mitochondria. In respiration there are
6 steps at which hydrogen atoms are released (one in glycolysis, 5 in
Krebs cycle). A pair of hydrogen atoms are dissociated into a pair of
electrons and a pair of protons.
2H -> 2H+ + 2e
These electrons are accepted by Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
(NAD) and Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD) from where they are
passed along a chain of electron carriers such as cytochrome b,
cytochrome c; cytochrome a, cytochrome a3.While passing from one
carrier to another, these cytochromes are alternatively reduced and
oxidized. During this, the energy released is used in the formation of
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) from ADP and Pi. The final electron
acceptor is atmospheric oxygen, which also picks up protons, and form
the water molecule. The formation of ATP in mitochondria is called
Oxidative Phosphorylation.
From every NAD, 3ATPs and from 1 FADH2, 2 ATPs are produced.
Nutrition in Plants
CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF MODE OF NUTRITION
Plants can be divided into two groups on the basis of their mode of
nutrition.
1. AUTOTROPHIC
2. HETEROTROPHIC
1. AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION
DEFINITION
Autotrophic nutrition is the type of nutrition in which organic
compounds are manufactured from available inorganic raw material
taking from surroundings.In autotrophic nutrition, the nutrients do not
require to be pretreated or digested before taking them into their cells.
TWO METHODS OF AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION
On the basis of source of energy, autotrophic nutrition can be sub-

divided into following sub-types.
(I) Phototrophic nutrition
(II) Chemotrophic nutrition
I. PHOTOTROPHIC NUTRITION
DEFINITION
The type of autotrophic nutrition is which organic molecules are
manufactured from simple inorganic molecules by using light energy as
a source is called Phototrophic Nutrition.
EXAMPLE
a. Green Plants
b. Photosynthetic Bacteria
(I-A) PHOTOTROPHIC NUTRITION IN GREEN PLANTS
Green plants are very prominent example of phototrophic nutrition.

They prepare the food by the process of photosynthesis.
RAW MATERIAL
The raw material needed by these organisms are
(1) CO2 AND H20

They provide carbon, hydrogen and oxygen for the synthesis of organic
molecules.
(2) MINERALS
The minerals like Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Sulphur and Magnesium
are also
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(3) GREEN PIGMENTS

The green pigments i.e. Chlorophyll a, b, or others are also required to
absorb the energy from universal source of light.
(4) LIGHT
In the presence of sun light nutrients are used to synthesis the energy
rich compounded (CHO) This process is called PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
This process can be represented by equation as follows.
6CO2 + 12H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
(I-B) PHOTOTROPHIC NUTRITION IN PHOTOSYNTHETIC BACTERIA
Photosynthetic bacteria are unique because they are the only

organisms which are capable of synthesizing the carbohydrate food
without chlorophyll a.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PHOTOSYNTHETIC BACTERIA AND GREEN

PLANTS
Photosynthesis in bacteria is different from green plants. Some

differences are
Photosynthetic bacteria usually grow in sulphide spring where H2S

is normally present.
Hydrogen is provided by H2S instead of H2O.
Free oxygen is not released as a by product in bacterial
photosynthesis.
The process takes place at low expenditure of energy.
TWO TYPES OF PHOTOSYNTHETIC BACTERIA
There are two types of photosynthetic bacteria.
(1) THOSE IN WHICH S IS RELEASED AS BY PRODUCT

These bacteria use H2S as donor of hydrogen. Light splits hydrogen
sulphide. Hydrogen combines with CO2 to form H2O.
2H2S + CO2 -> (CH2O)n + H2O + 2S
EXAMPLES
Purple Sulphur Bacteria which use BACTERIO CHLOROPHIL &
CARETENOID as photosynthetic pigments.
(2) THOSE IN WHICH S IS NOT RELEASED AS BY PRODUCT

These bacteria use H2S as Hydrogen donor where as sulphur is not the
by product in their case.
EXAMPLES
PURPLE NON-SULPHUR BACTERIA
BROWN NON-SULPHUR BACTERIA
Both of these contain BACTERIO CHLORPHYLL as photosynthetic
pigments.
(II) CHEMOTROPHIC NUTRITION

DEFINITION
The mode of autotrophic nutrition in which organic molecules are
manufactured from simple inorganic molecules by using energy
produced by the oxidation of certain inorganic substances such as
ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, ferrous ions, H2S and etc. This type of
nutrition is called CHEMOTROPHIC NUTRITION and process of
manufacturing food is called CHEMOSYNTHESIS.Mainly Bacteria are
AMMONIA USING BACTERIA

They derive their energy by oxidation of Ammonia.
NH4+ + O2 -> 2NO2 + 2H2O + 4H+ + energy
BACTERIA CONVERTING NITRITES TO NITRATES

2NO2 + O2 -> 2NO3- + energy
IMPORTANCE OF CHEMOSYNTHETIC BACTERIA
The chemosynthetic bacteria that act on nitrogen compounds do play

an important role in the maintenance of nitrogen balance in the life
system.
2. HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION IN PLANTS
DEFINITION
Plants which are not capable of manufacturing their own organic
molecules entirely or partially depend for these organic molecular are
called HETEROTROPHIC PLANTS
CLASSIFICATION OF HETEROTROPHIC PLANTS
On the basis of type of organisms on which heterotrophic plants

depend, they can be classified into following two classes.
1. PARASITC PLANTS OR PARASITES
2. SAPROPHYTIC PLANTS OR SAPROPHYTES
1. PARASITES
DEFINITION
Those heterotrophic plants which depend on living plants and animals
for their nutritional requirements are known as PARASITES.
TYPES OF PARASITES
Parasitic plants can be divided into following types.

A. Obligate or total parasites.
B. Facultative or partial parasites.
1.A TOTAL PARASITES
DEFINITION
Those parasites which depend for their nutrition entirely on other living
organisms
CLASSIFICATION OF TOTAL PARASITIC ANGIOSPERMS

Total or obligate parasitic angiosperms are broadly classified into

1. Total stem parasite
2. Total root parasite
1. TOTAL STEM PARASITES
DEFINITION
Those parasitic plants which depend entirely on the stems of other
plants are called Total stem Parasites
EXPLANATION
These plants send HAUSTORIA (specialized structures for absorbing
nutrients in parasitic plants) inside the tissue of host. The xylem of
parasite comes in contact with xylem of host and phloem of parasite to
phloem of host. Through xylem it sucks the water and nutrients,
through phloem prepared organic material. The host plant eventually
dies off due to exhaustion.
EXAMPLE
CUSCUTA (AMER-BAIL)
2. TOTAL ROOT PARASITES
DEFINITION
Those parasitic plants which suck their nutritional requirements from
the roots of host are called Total root parasites.
EXAMPLES
OROBANCHE -> attacks the roots of the plants belonging to families
Cruciferae and Solanaceae
CISTANCHE -> Parasitizes on the roots of Calatropis.
STRIGA -> Found as parasite on the roots of sugar cane
(1.B)PARTIAL PARASITES
DEFINITION
Those parasite plants which depend for their nutritional requirements
partially on other living organisms are called Falcultave or partial
parasites.
CLASSIFICATION OF PARTIAL PARASITIC ANGIOSPERMS
Partial parasitic angiosperms can be broadly classified into

1. PARTIAL STEM PARASITE
2. PARTIAL ROOT PARASITE
1. PARTIAL STEM PARASITES
DEFINITION
Those partial parasites whose haustoria penetrate in the stem of the
host and suck their nutrition from vascular tissues of stem are called
PARTIAL STEM PARASITE
EXPLANATION
LORANTHUS, is a partial stem parasite. It has thick green leaves, a
woody stem and elaborated haustorial system. It can manufacture some
of its food with the help of nutrients and water absorbed from host
plants. The seeds get stuck upto the stem of host plant and germinates
sending its haustoria in the tissues of the host.
EXAMPLES
LORANTHUS -> found on shrubs, roseaceous tree, Bauhinia and mango
VISCUM -> produce haustorial branches for an internal suckling system.
CASSYTHA FILLIFORMIS -> found in tropics
2. PARTIAL ROOT PARASITES
EXAMPLE
The examples of this category are rare.
One important example is
SANDLE WOOD TREE
SAPROPHYTES
DEFINITION
Those plants which depend for their nutrition on dead or rotten organic
remains of plants or animals are called as SAPROPHYTES
or
Plants which break up complex dead food material into simple

compounds and use them for their growth and development are called
as SAPROPHYTES.
TYPES OF SAPROPHYTES
Saprophytes can be divided into two types:

1. Total Saprophytes
2. Partial Saprophytes
1. TOTAL SAPROPHYTES
DEFINITION
Those plants which depend entirely for their nutrition on dead organic
matter are called Total Saprophytes.
2. PARTIAL SAPROPHYTES
DEFINITION
Those plants which depend partially on dead organic matter are called
Partial Saprophytes.
EXAMPLES OF SAPROPHYTES
There are some examples of Saprophytes among flowering plants.

1. Neothia (birds net or orchid)
2. Monotrapa (Indian Pipe)
In both of these cases, the roots of plant form a Mycorhizzal Association

with fungal mycelium to help in absorption process.
SPECIAL MODE OF NUTRITION
CARNIVOROUS OR INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS
DEFINITION
The plants which have as their prey, insects and small birds are called
Carnivorous plants. It is a special mode of nutrition in partially
autotrophic and partially heterotrophic plants.
EXPLANATION
Partially autotrophic and partially heterotrophic plants are carnivorous,
which possess the green pigments and can manufacture CHO but are
not capable of synthesizing nitrogenous compounds and proteins. For
their nitrogen requirement, carnivorous plants have to depend on
insects, which they catch and digest by specific devices developed in
them. J.D. Hooker suggested that the digestion of carnivorous plants is
like that of animals.
COMMON AREAS WHERE THESE PLANTS GROW

These plants commonly grow in areas where nitrogen is deficient due to
unfavourable atmosphere for nitrifying bacteria but favourable
atmosphere for denitrifying bacteria.
SOME COMMON EXAMPLES
1. PITCHER PLANT
In Pitcher plant leaf is modified into pitcher like structure which is insect
trapping organ.
EXAMPLES
Common examples are :
Nepenthes
Sarracenia
Cephalotus
Neliamphora
Darling tonia
2. DORSERA INTERMEDIA OR SUNDEW

This plant has half a dozen prostrate radiating leaves, which bear hair
like tentacles each with gland at its tip. The insects attracted by plant
odour are digested.
3. DIONAEA MUSCIPULA OR VENOUS FLY TRAP

Most well known of all carnivorous plants. It has a resette of prostrate
radiating leaves with inflorescence in the centre. The petiole of leaf is
winged and lamina has two halves, with mid-rib in the centre. Each half
has 12-20 teeth. In the centre of dorsal surface of lamina are numerous
secretory glands, three hairs projecting out, which are sensitive to
touch.
4.ALDROVANDA (WATER FLY TRAP)

It is a root less aquatic plant with floating stem. It has ressettes of
modified leaves, which have two lobed mobile lamina having teeth at the
margin and sensitive jointed hairs and glands on the surface.
5. UTRICULARIA OR BLADDER WORT

It is a root less plant having branched slender stem. Leaves are also
much divided and some leaflets are modified into bladder like traps of
about 1/16 to 1/8 inches in diameter.
Human Digestive System

DIGESTION
It is the process by which large complex insoluble organic food

substances are broken down into smaller simpler soluble molecules by
the help of enzymes.
Digestion in man is mechanical (break down) as well as chemical
(enzymatic hydrolysis)
NUTRITION
HETEROTROPHIC, i.e. man is dependent upon ready made food.
TYPE OF DIGESTION
EXTRACELLULAR, i.e. digestion takes place outside the cells but within
GIT.
TYPE OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
TUBE LIKE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM, i.e,

Digestive cavity is separated from body cavity.
It has both openings, mouth and anus.
Complete digestive sytem
This one way tube is known as GASTRO-INTESTINAL TRACT (GIT)
ORGANS OF GASTRO-INTESTINAL SYSTEM
The adult digestive system is a tube approximately 4.5m (15ft) long and
comprises of
(A) G I T
1. MOUTH
2. ORAL CAVITY -> TEETH, TONGUE
3. PHARYNX
4. OESOPHAGUS
5. STOMACH
6. SMALL INTESTINE -> DUODENUM, JEJUNUM, ILEUM
7. LARGE INTESTINE -> CAECUM, RECTUM, COLON
8. ANUS -> PAROTID
(B) ASSOCIATED GLANDS

1. SALIVARY GLANDS -> SUBLINGUAL, SUBMANDIBULAR
2. LIVER
3. PANCREAS
(1) MOUTH
The anterior or proximal opening of gut, which is bounded anteriorly by

lips. It opens into oral cavity.
FUNCTION
1. Lips close the mouth.
2. Lips also help in ingestion.
(2) ORAL CAVITY
It is a wide cavity supported by bones of skull
BOUNDARIES
Cheeks form side walls.

Tongue forms floor
Palate forms roof
Jaws form roof boundary of mouth.
+ JAWS
Upper jaw is fixed while lower jaw is moveable. Both jaws bear teeth.
CONTENT OF CAVITY
Teeth and Tongue
+ TEETH
The hard calcified structures, meant for mastication (chewing)
NUMBER OF SETS
Humans have 2 sets of teeth DIPHYODONT
(1) DECIDUOUS
The 20 teeth of first dentition, which are shed and replaced by
permanent teeth.
(2) PERMEMANT
The 32 teeth of second dentition, which begin to appear in human at
about 6 year of age. It consisting of 8 incisors, 4 canines, 8 premolars
and 12 molars.
+ Molars are absent in deciduous set.
HETERDONT They are embedded in gums -> THECODONT
STRUCTURE OF A TOOTH
Each tooth consist of 3 parts

1. CROWN
2. NECK
3. ROOT
FUNCTIONS
1. Incisors are cutting and biting teeth. Their flat sharp edges cut food
into smaller pieces.
2. Canines are pointed teeth and poorly developed in humans. They are
used in tearing, killing and piercing the prey.
3. Premolars and Molars are grinders and used for crushing the food.
4. Mastication increases surface are of food for action of enzymes.
5. If one attempt to swallow a food particle too large to enter
ocsophagus, it may block the trachea and may stop ventilation.
DENTAL DISEASES
PLAQUE
A mixture of bacteria and salivary materials
OR
A soft thin film of food debris, mucin and dead epithelial cells
deposited on teeth, providing medium for growth of bacterias
Plague plays an important role in development of dental caries,
periodontal and gingival disease. Calcified plaque forms dental
calculus.
PERIODONTAL DISEASES
Accumulation of plaque causes inflammation of gums. Continuous

inflammation may spread to the root of tooth and destroy peridental
layer. Eventually tooth becomes loose and falls off or may have to be
extracted.
DENTAL CALCULUS
Plaque combine with certain chemicals in saliva which become harden

and calcified forming deposits of calculus which cannot be removed by
brushing.
DENTAL CARIES
When bacteria of plaque converts sugar of food into acid, the enamel
(hardest substance of body, covers dentin of crown of teeth) is
dissolved slowly. When dentine and pulp are attached, produce
toothache and loss of teeth.
FACTOR CAUSING DENTAL CARIES
Prolonged exposure to sugary food stuff.

Disturbance of saliva composition
Lack of oral hygiene
Low levels of fluoride in drinking H2O
PREVENTION
Add flouride in drinking H2O or milk

Take flouride tablet

Use flouride tooth paste.
TONGUE
Tongue is a muscular fleshy structure forming floor of oral cavity.

Tongue has
a root
a tip and
a body
It is attached posteriorly and free anteriorly
TASTE BUDS
Taste buds respond to sweet, salt, acid and bitter taste, only when
these substances are dissolved in H2O of saliva.
Taste buds are most numerous on sides of vallate papillae. They
are absent on mid dorsal region of oral part of tongue.
TONGUE PAPILLAE
Papillae are projections of mucous membrane which gives

characteristic roughness to the tongue. These are of 3 types
VALLATE PAPILLAE
FUNGIFORM PAPILLAE
FILLIFORM PAPILLAE
FUNCTIONS
1. Its function is Spoon-like.
2. It mixes the masticated food with saliva
3. It helps in swalloing
4. It helps in sucking and testing food.
SALIVARY GLANDS
3 pairs of salivary glands.
(1) PAROTID
Lies at base of pinnae.
It is supplied by IX cranial nerve.
(2) SUB LINGUAL

Lies at base of tongue.
Supplied by VII cranial nerve.
(3) SUB MANDIBULAR

Lies at base of lower jaw.
Supplied by VII cranial nerve
FUNCTION
These three pairs produce about 1.5dm3 of saliva each day.
These glands are supplied by Parasympathetic Nervous System. Fibers

of parasympathic N.S lie in Cranial nerves. These nerves increase their
secretion.
SALIVA
It is a watery secretion containing 95% H2O, some mucous, amylase

and Lysozyme enzyme.
Salivation is brought about by Parasympathetic Nervous System.

Saliva is secreted in response to the sight, thought, taste or smell
of food.
FUNCTIONS
1. Mucous of Saliva moistens and lubricates the food particles prior to
swallowing.
2. Salivary Amylase or Ptylin begins digestion of starch, first to dextrins
and then to maltose (dissacharide).
3. Lysozyme destroys the oral cavity pathogen bacteria. It has a
cleansing action.
4. Water in Saliva, dissolve some of the molecules in food particle then
they react with chemo receptors in taste buds, giving sensation of taste,
hence, the H2O enables taste buds to respond.
5. Saliva is fully saturated with calcium and this prevents decalcification
of teeth.
6. Saliva makes speech possible by moistening the mouth; it is not
possible to talk if the mouth is dry.
7. It acts as a lubricant and enables a bolus (a rounded mass of semi-
solid, partially digested food particles stick together by mucus) to be
formed. The tongue pushes bolus into pharynx.
3. PHARYNX
The musculo-membranous passage between mouth and posterior nares

and the larynx and oesophagus.
OPENINGS
It contains opening of oesophagus, glottis, Eustachian tube and internal

nostrils.
PARTS OF PHARYNX
NASOPHARYNNX
The part above the level of soft palate is NASOPHARYNX, which
communicates with auditory tube.
OROPHARYNX
It lies between soft palate and upper edge of the epiglottis.
HYPOPHARYNX
It lies below the upper edge of epiglottis and opens into larynx and
oesophagus.
FUNCTION -> SWALLOWING
Swallowing in its initial stages is voluntary but involuntary afterwards.
MECHANISM
1. As the bolus of food moves into the pharynx, the soft palate is
elevated and lodges against the back wall of pharynx sealing the nasal
cavity and preventing food from entering it.
2. The swallowing center inhibit respiration, raises the larynx and closes
the glottis (opening between vocal cords), keeping food from getting
into trachea.
3. As the tongue forces the food further back into the pharynx, the bolus
tilts the epiglottis backward to cover the closed glottis.
4. This pharyngeal act of swallowing lasts about 1 second.
4. OESOPHAGUS
This is a narrow muscular tube of about 25cm long. It connects pharynx

to stomach. It passes through the thoracic cavity and penetrates the
diaphragm, then it joins the stomach a few cms below the diaphragm.
MUSCLES OF OESOPHAGUS
Upper-one third is surrounded by skeletal muscles.

Lower two-third is surrounded by smooth muscles.
SPHINCTERS (MUSCULAR VALVES)

1. Skeletal muscles, just below pharynx surrounding oesophagus form
Upper Oesophageal Sphincter.
2. Smooth muscles in last 4 cm of oesophagus forms Lower
Oesophageal Sphincter. It seals the exit of food.
FUNCTION
It conveys the food or fluid by Peristalsis.
PERISTALSIS
Alternate rhythmic contraction and relaxation waves in the muscle

layers surrounding a tube are called Peristaltic Waves.
It is the basic propulsive movement of GIT.
STIMULUS
Distention of oesophagus.
TIMING
An oesophageal peristaltic wave takes about 9 sec to reach stomach.

Bolus is moved toward stomach by progressive peristaltic wave which
compresses the lumen and forces the bolus ahead of it.
ANTI-PERISTALSIS
Peristalsis in opposite direction, i.e. from stomach towards pharynx.

STIMULUS
Early stages of GIT irritation.

Over distention.
VOMITING
Anti peristalsis begins to occur, some minute before vomiting appears.

The initial events of anti peristalsis may occur repeatedly without
vomiting, called RETCHING. 1. Vomiting begins with a deep inspiration,
closure of glottis and elevation of soft palate.
2. Abdominal and thoracic muscles contract, raising intradominal
pressure.
3. Stomach is squeezed, lower oesophageal sphincter relaxes allowing
expulsion of stomach content into oesophagus in form of VOMITUS.
5 OESOPHAGUS
Stomach is a hollow, muscular, distensible bag like organ.
LOCATION
Lying below the diaphragm on the left side of abdominal cavity.
STRUCTURE
It has 3 regions.
1 CARDIAC REGION
This is the anterior region which joins the oesophagus through a

cardiac sphincter. It has muscous glands which helps in lubrication of
food.
2 BODY
The middle portion is body of stomach. The part to the left and above
the entrance of oesophagus is called FUNDUS of stomach. Body of
stomach contain gastric glands. Gastric glands contain 3 types of cells.
MUCOUS CELLS
These cells are present at opening of gastric glands and secrete

mucous.
It lubricates the food and passage.
It also protects the epithelium from self digestion by pepsin.
OXYNTIC / PARIETAL CELLS
They lie deeper within the glands and secrete dilute HCl having a
pH of 1.5 2.5.
Kills microbes
Solublization of food particles.
Activate the inactive enzyme pepsinogen into Pepsin.
CHIEF CELL / ZYMOGEN CELLS

Deeper in the glands and secrete enzyme precursor Pepsinogen.

After converting into Pepsin, it acts upon proteins and convert
them into short chain polypeptides, Peptones.
The collective secretion of the above mentioned 3 cells is called as

GASTRIC JUICE
PYLORIC REGION
The posterior region is the terminal narrow pyloric region or Antrum. It

opens into duodenum through pyloric sphincter / pylorus.
ITS SECRETION -> GASTRIN
This region does not secrete acid. It secretes mucous, pepsinogen and
a hormone GASTRIN. Endocrine cells which secrete GASTRIN are
scattered throughout epithelium of antrum.
STIMULUS
Partially digested proteins.
ACTION
Activate gastric glands to produce gastric juices.
RENIN-ADDITIONAL ENZYME IN INFANT
In infants, RENIN is secreted which curdles the milk.
FUNCTION OF STOMACH
(1) STORAGE OF FOOD

Pylorus acts as a valve and retain food in the stomach for about 4
hours. Periodic relaxation of pylorus releases small quantities of chyme
into duodenum.
(2) MECHANICAL DIGESTION

The weak peristaltic waves also called mixing waves move along the
stomach wall once every 20 seconds. These waves not only mix the
food with secretions but also move mixed contents forward.
(3) CHEMICAL DIGESTION

Gastric juice converts food to a creamy paste called CHYME.
6. SMALL INTESTINE
The small intestine is a coiled tube approximately 6 meters long and 2.5
cm wide, leading from stomach to large intestine. It fills most of the
abdominal cavity.
DIVISIONS
There are 3 divisions.

A. DUODENUM
It begins after pyloric stomach and ends at jejunum. Its length is about
30cm.
SECRETION
Pancreatic juice from pancreas by pancreatic duet and bile from gall
bladder by common bile duct act on chyme from stomach. Both ducts
open via a common opening in duodenum.
BILE
SYNTHESIS, STORAGE AND SECRETION
Bile is made in liver and enters the duodenum via the bile duct. It stores
in gall bladder.
COLOUR
Bile is yellow in colour but changes to green due to exposure to air.
CONSTITUENT
Water.
Bile Salts
+ BILE SALTS
These are sodium salts of compounds of cholestrol. NaHCO3 is also
present which neutralizes the acidity of gastric juice and make the
chyme alkaline.
The main bile salts are for emulsification of fats.
EMULSIFICATION Break down of large fat particles into small droplets
so that they can mix well with H2O to form emulsions.
+ BILE PIGMENTS
BILIRUBIN and BILIVERDIN are excretory products formed by
breakdown of haemaglobin of worn out RBCs in the liver.
ACTION OF CHOLECYSTOKININ (CCK)
CCK is a hormone and produced by cells of small intestine.
STIMULI FOR HORMONE RELEASE

Fatty food in duodenum.
ACTION
CCK is released in blood and reaches to gall bladder and causes it to
contract. Due to contraction of gall bladder, bile enters the duodenum.
PANCREATIC JUICE
Pancreatic juice is produced in pancreas by its exocrine function and

secreted via pancreatic duct. It is a colourless fluid.
ACTION OF SECRETIN
Secretion is also a hormone and produced by cells of small intestine.
STIMULI
Acid (HCl) carried with chyme in small intestine.
ACTION
It increases the secretion of pancreatic juice and also increases
bicarbonate secretion in bile.
CONSTITUENTS
(1) TRYPSIN (PROTEASE)

It is secreted in an inactive form called Trypsinogen which is activated
by action of an enzyme produced by duodenum called enterokinase.
ACTION
Break proteins and long chain polypeptides into small peptide
fragments.
(2) CHYMOTRYPSIN (PROTEASE)

It is also secreted in inactive form, Chymotrypsinogen which is
converted into chymotrypsin by action of Trypsin.
ACTION
Converts casein (milk proteins) into short chain peptide.
(3) AMYLASE
It is similar to salivary amylase. It acts on polysaccharides (Glycogen
and Starch) and convert them into maltose (a disaccharide).
(4) LIPASE
It acts on emulsified fat droplets. It splits off lipid into fatty acid and
glycerol, hance the digestion of fat is completed in duodenum.
(B) JEJUNUM
It extends from duodenum to illeum. It is 2.4 meters long. Here the

digestion of food is completed.
COLLECTION OF PEPTIDASES, EREPSIN

Peptidases complete the breakdown of polypeptide into amino acids.
NUCLEOTIDASE
It converts nucleotides into nucleoside. End products of digestion, i.e,
monosaccharide and A.As are liberated in lumen of small intestine for
absorption in ileum.
(C) ILEUM
It is the last and longest part of small intestine. Its length is about 3.6
meters long. It contains digested food in true solution form.
STRUCTURE
The inner wall (Mucosa and Submucosa) of small intestine is thrown
into various folds. These folds have finger-like microscopic projections
called villi.
VILLI
Each villus is lined with epithelial cells having microvilli on their free
surfaces.
Their walls are richly supplied with blood vessels and lymph vessels
called Lacteals. Some smooth muscles are also present in villi.
MECHANISM OF ABSORPTION
Major function of ileum is absorption of digested food, which is
facilitated by highly folded inner wall of intestine with villi on their
surfaces.
This increases the absorptive area. Villi are able to move back and forth
due to muscle fibers in them.
The monosaccharide and A.As are absorbed into blood capillaries

by Diffusion or Active Transport.
Fatty acid and glycerol enter epithelial cells of villi, covert into
triglycerols and enters Lacteals and pass into blood stream.
BLOOD DRAINAGE OF INTESTINE

All capillaries converge to form hepatic portal vein, which delivers
absorbed nutrients to liver.
7. LARGE INTESTINE
Small intestine opens into large intestine, which is a large diameter tube
about 6.5 cm. It is not coiled by relatively has 3 straight segments.
+ Caecum
+ Colon
+ Rectum
+ CAECUM
Caecum is a blind ended pouch placed in the lower right side of
abdominal cavity. It gives a 10cm long finger like projection, Appendix.
Appendix is a vestigial organ, i.e. an organ present in rudimentary form
and has no function but has well developed function in ancestors.
FUNCTION
Symbiotic bacteria, present in caecum, help in digestion of cellulose,
which is not digested by man, as enzyme for digestion is absent.
+ COLON
Colon is longest part and has 3 regions :
+ Ascending colon
+ Transverse Colon
+ Descending Colon
-> SIGMOID COLON is terminal part of Descending Colon.
FUNCTION
Inorganic salts, water and mineral absorbed in colon. Some metabolic
waste products and excess calcium of body as salts are excreted into
large intestine. Each day 500 ml of intestinal content enter the colon and
during its passage the amount reduced to 150 ml due to absorption of
H2O.
+ RECTUM
Rectum is last portion, it stores faeces for some time.
When the faeces enter into rectum, it brings about a desire for
defecation. The process by which faeces passes out is called Egestion.
SYMBIOTIC BACTERIA
Many symbiotic bacteria in large intestine provide the body with a
source of vitamin and A.As, especially vitamin B complex and K, which
are absorbed in blood stream. Administration of Broad-spectrum
antibiotics destroys these bacteria and a vitamin deficiency results,
which is then make up by vitamin intakes.
8. ANUS
External opening of digestive system is ANUS.
SPHINCTERS
Two sphincters surround the anus:
+ Internal Sphinter -> made up of smooth muscle and under Autonomic
control (involuntary control).
+ Outer Sphincter -> made up of skeletal muscle and under Somatic
Control (voluntary control).
FAECUS
Faecus consists of:
Dead bacteria, cellulose, Plant fibers, dead mucosal cells, mucous,
cholesterol, bile pigment derivatives and H2O.
(DIAGRAM DIGESTIVE SYSTEM FROM BOOK XI)
9. LIVER
Liver is the largest organ and gland of body. It weighs about 1.5 kg . It is
also called HEPAR.
COLOUR
It is reddish brown in colour.
LOCATION
It lies below the diaphragm on right side.
LOBES OF LIVER
Liver has 2 lobes, i.e. Right and Left. Left is further divided into two
lobes.
FUNCTIONS OF LIVER
AS A METABOLIC FACTORY
It maintains the appropriate level of nutrients in blood and body. It is
performed in 3 ways.
A. GLUCOSE METABOLISM
1. Additional (Surplus) Glucose is converted into Glycogen by action of
INSULIN after every meal. This is called Glycogenesis.
2. Glycogen is splitted into Glucose for body needs. This is called
Glycogenolysis.
3. New glucose for body requirement is formed by non-carbohydrate
compounds. This is called Gluconeogenesis.
B. A.AS METABOLISM
A.As are also stored after deamination (removal of NH2 group), which
forms Urea.
C. FATTY ACID METABOLISM

It also processes F.As and stores the products as Ketone Bodies, which
are released as nutrients for active muscles.
AS A DETOXIFICATION CENTER
Poisons and toxic substances, which can harm the body, are degraded
into harmless compounds. It excrete out bile pigments and waste
products.
AS A STORAGE ORGAN
It stores vitamins and also produces proteins and coagulating factors of
blood.
GALL BLADER
It lies on undersurface of liver, a pear shaped organ.
FUNCTION
It concentrates and stores the bile secreted by liver.
BILIARY TRACFT
Two hepatic ducts from liver bring bile and join the cystic duct from gall
bladder. This form common bile duct, which joins Pancreatic duct
coming from pancreas bringing pancreatic juice. These 2 ducts open
into duodenum at same opening.
10.PANCREAS
A large elongated gland situated transversely behind the stomach,

between spleen and duodenum.
PARTS OF PANCREAS
HEAD
It is the right extremity and directed downwards.
TAIL
Left extremity is transverse and terminates close to spleen.
BODY
The main portion in middle.
DUCT
Pancreatic duct opens into duodenum with common bile duct and
delivers pancreatic juices.
WORKING AS A GLAND
It works both as an endocrine and exocrine gland.
ENDOCRINE PANCREAS
Endocrine part consists of ISLETS OF LANGERHANS.

The islets contain.
cell (ALPHA)
Produce GLUCAGON which increases blood glucose level.
cell (BETA)
Produce INSULIN which reduces blood glucose level.
cell (DELTA)
Produce Somatostatin (SS) which inhibit the release of many harmones.
P P cells
Secrete pancreatic polypeptide.
EXOCRINE PANCREASE
The exocrine part consists of pancreatic acini. Acini are secretory unit
that produce and secrete pancreatic juice into duodenum which contain
enzymes essential to digestion.
DISORDERS OF GIT
(1) DIARRHOEA
Abnormal frequency and liquidity of fecal discharges. It is the rapid

movement of fecal matter through large intestine.
CAUSES
ENTRITIS
It may be caused by infection of intestinal wall (mucosa) by a virus or
bacteria. Due to infection, mucosa becomes irritated and motility of
intestinal wall increases.
CHOLERA
Cholera is a bacterial disease caused by VIBRIO CHOLERA. It can cause
diarrhoea. It causes extreme amount of HCO3- (bicarbonates ion) and
Na and H2O to be secreted in faeces. It may causes death.
PSYCOGENIC DIARRHOEA
It is caused by nervous tension. In the young and elderly, diarrhoea may
lead to a serious depletion of H2O and inorganic salts.
(2) DYSENTARY
Acute inflammation of intestines especially of the colon.
SYMPTOMS
Pain in abdomen, tenesmus (straining), frequent stool containing blood

and mucus.
CAUSES
PROTOZOA. (like amoebic dysentery)
PARASITIC WORMS.
BACTERIA. (like bacillary dysentery)
CHEMICAL IRRITANTS.
(3) CONSTIPATION
Infrequent or difficult evacuation of faeces. OR Slow movement of

faeces through large intestine.
Faeces becomes hard due to long time available for H2O absorption.
CAUSE
Irregular bowel habits that have developed through a life time of

inhibition of normal defection reflaxes.
TREATMENT
Laxatives are used

Substance which hold H2O with them
(4) PILES
Also called HAEMORRHOIDS Varicose dialatation of veins occurring in

relation to anus, resulting from a persistence increase in pressure.
EXTERNAL PILES
Venous dialatation covered with modified anal skin.
INTERNAL PILES
Dilatation of veins covered by mucous membrane.
CAUSE
CONSTIPATION
The pressure exerted to defecate stretches skin with vein and causes
dilation.
PREVENTION
Can be avoided by regular habit of defecation and by use of fiber diet.
(5) DYSPEPSIA
Impairment of the power or function of digestion, usually applied to

epigastria discomfort following meals.
CAUSE
May be due to peptic ulcer.
SYMPTOMS
Heart burn.
Flatulence (distended with gas)
Anorexia, nausea, vomiting with or without abdominal pair.
FUNCTIONAL / NON-ULCER DYSPEPSIA
Dyspepsia in which symptoms resemble those of peptic ulcer, although

no ulcer is detectable. It is caused by disturbance in moter function of
alimentary tract.
(6) PEPTIC ULCER
Since pepsin, is a protein digesting enzyme, it may digest the stomach

wall, the first part of duodenum or rarely lower part of oesophagus
where stomach juices frequently refluxes. This condition is called
Peptic Ulcers.
GASTRIC ULCERS
DUODENAL ULCERS
CAUSES
Excessive secretion of acid and pepsin.

It may be hereditary.
Psychogenic factors.
COMPLICATIONS
Complications of peptic ulcers are perforation, haemorrhage and

obstruction. INVESTIGATIONS
1. Acid output of stomach is studied.
2. Ulcers cavity may be shown up on X-rays after ingestion of insoluble
barium sulphate (Barium meal).
3. It may be seen using optical instrument passed down through
oesophagus (endoscopy)
(7) FOOD POISONING
Also called GASTRO-ENTRITIS
CAUSES
INFECTION
By bacteria, virus, protozoa. Salmonella species are very common.
NON-INFECTIOUS
Allergy, irritating food or drink.
SYMPTOMS
Vomiting and diarrhoea within 48 hours.
(8) MAL NUTRITION
Any disorder of nutrition due to unbalanced diet or due to defective

assimilation or utilization of foods.
An organism may be deficient or may receives excess of one or more
nutrients for a long period of time.
UNDER NUTRITION
Deficiency is known as under-nutrition. It is most common problem of

under developed countries.
OVER NUTRITION
Excess is known as over-nutrition. Obesity with heart problems and

reduced life expactency are its symptoms and are more common in
developed countries.
(9) OBESITY AND OVER WEIGHT
Increase in body weight beyond the limitation of skeletal and physical

need as the result of accumulation (excessive) of fat in the body.
It is the most common nutritional disorder. It is most prevalent in middle
age. It may be hereditary or family tendency over weight results in rate
of mortality.
(10) ANOREXIA NERVOSA
Loss or lack of appetite for food is called Anorexia.
ANOREXIA NERVOSA
An eating disorder affecting young females, characterized by refusal to
maintain a normal minimal body weight, intence fear of gaining body
weight, intense fear of gaining weight or becoming obese. Sometimes
accompanied by spontaneous or induced vomiting.
(11) BULIMIA NERVOSA
Exclusively found in women and the age of onset is slightly older than
for anorexia.
Recurrent episodes (bouts) of binge (uncontrolled) eating. Lack of self
control over eating during binges.
Attacks occur twice a week and involve rich foods such as cakes and
chocolates and dairy products.
Digestive System of Cockroach

NUTRITION
OMNIVOROUS, i.e. It can eat any kind of organic matter. They search
their food by antennae.
TYPE OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
TABULAR DIGESTIVE SYSTEM, i.e. straight slightly coiled dig tube,

open at both ends, complete dig. system.
ORGANS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
+ ALIMENTARY CANAL
It is divisible into 3 parts
1. FORE GUT / STOMODAEUM
MOUTH
BUCCAL CAVITY
OESOPHAGUS
CROP
GIZZARD
2. MIDGUT / MESENTERON / VENTRICULUS
HEPATIC CAECA
3. HIND GUT / PROCTODAEUM
ILEUM
COLON
RECTUM
ANUS
+ ASSOCIATED GLAND
SALIVARY GLANDS
1.FORE GUT
MOUTH
It lies at base of pre-oval cavity which is bounded by mouth part.
LABRUM / UPPER LIP

Appendage of 3rd head segment.
MANDIBLES
Appendage of 4th head segment. They help in mastication
MAXILLAE
Appendages of 5th head segment. They pick up and bring food.
LABIUM / LOWER LIP

Appendages of 6th head segment.
BUCCAL CAVITY
The mouth opens into buccal cavity which is short and receives the
common duct of salivary glands.
Saliva cantain AMYLASE which act upon carbohydrates.
OESOPHAGUS
Buccal cavity opens into pharynx which in turn opens into oesophagus
which is a long and thin tube lying in thorax.
CROP
It is a large thin walled and pear shaped structure meant for storing
food.
GIZZARD
Crop opens into thick walled, rounded gizzard with muscular chitins
lining which is internally produced six teeth for grinding and straining
the food.
2. MID-GUT
It is narrow, short and tubular portion originate from gizzard. At

beginning it receives eight hepatic caeca hanging in haemocoel (body
cavity filled with white colour blood), ending blindly but opening in gut.
ENZYMES FROM HEPATIC CAECA
They are lined by glandular cells, which secrete enzymes.

Enzymes from hepatic caeca and mid-gut flow back into crop where
digestion takes place.
ENZYMES
1. PEDTIDASES AND TRYPSIN LIKE ENZYME -> digest proteins.
2. AMYLASES -> complete digestion of starches
3. LIPASE -> digestion of fats.
Digested food form a bolus and enclosed in a thin chitinous tube
secreted by stomodael valve of gizzard. This covering is called
PERITROPHIC MEMBRANE.
It is permeable to enzymes and digested food. This membrane protects
the lining of mid gut from damage by hard indigestible components of
food.
Digested food is absorbed in mid gut.
3. HIND-GUT
It has a cuticular ectodermal lining.
ILEUM
Short, narrow and muscular ileum. The beginning of ileum is marked by

60-70 fine and long, greenish yellow MALPHIGIAN TUBULES. (excretory
in function)
COLON
Colon is long, wider and coiled portion of hind gut
RECTUM
Rectum is broad last part of hind gut. It absorbs H2O and conserves the
much needed H2O from undigested food before expelling out the
faeces.
ANUS
Anus is the last opening of digestive system by which hind gut opens to
outside.
SALIVARY GLANDS
Salivary glands are 2 in number. each present on the sides of

oesophagus. Saliva contain amylase for digestion of carbohydrates.
Botony
DIFFUSION
The movement of ions or molecules from the region of higher

concentration to the region of lower concentration is known as
diffusion.
EXAMPLES
1. If a bottle of perfume is opened in a corner of a room, it can be smelt
in the entire room.
2. Leakage of gas pipes can be smelt from a farther point.
3. If we drop a KMNO4 crystal in clean water, then after sometime the
crystals will dissolve and colour of water changes from colorless to
purple.
FACTORS ON WHICH RATE OF DIFFUSION DEPENDS
1-SIZE
Small molecules move faster than larger ones.
2-TEMPERATURE
Rate of diffusion will be high at high temperatures.
3-CONCENTRATION GRADIENT
Greater the difference in concentration and shorter the distance

between two regions, greater will be the rate of diffusion.
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
Diffusion of the substances across the cell membrane through the

specific carrier proteins is known as facilitated diffusion. These
membrane transport proteins are channel proteins, receptors, cell
pumps or carriers, made up of usually proteins and dont require energy
for transport.
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
Movement of substances in and out of the cell, caused by simple kinetic

motion of molecules, doesnt require energy of ATP is known as passive
transport, e.g. Simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion.
OSMOSIS
The movement of water molecules from the region of higher

concentration to the region of lower concentration through a semi-
permeable membrane, is known as osmosis.
TYPES OF OSMOSIS
A- ENDOSMOSIS
The movement of water molecules into the cell, when it is placed in
hypotonic solution is called as Endosmosis.
B- EXOMOSIS
The movement of water molecules out of the cell when the cell is placed
in a hypertonic solution.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
The movement of ions or molecules across the cell membrane against

the concentration gradient i.e. from lower concentration to higher
concentration with the help of specific transport proteins in the cell
membrane, at the expense of cells metabolic energy ATP is called
active transport.
EXAMPLES
1. Sodium-Potassium pump in nerve cells which pump Na+ out of the
nerve cell, and K+ into the cell against the concentration gradient.
2. Cells lining the intestine can transport glucose actively from a lower
concentration in the intestinal contents to higher concentration in
blood.
3. In plants phloem loading is an ex. Of active transport.
IMBIBITIONS
Adsorption of water and swelling up of hydrophilic (water loving)

substances is known as imbibitions.
HYDROPHILIC SUBSTANCES
Those which have great affinity for water are hydrophilic e.g. starch,
gum, protoplasm, cellulose, proteins, e.g. seeds swell up when placed
in water.
Wrapping up of wooden framework during rainy seasons.

Dead plant cells are hydrophilic colloids.
The chemical potential of water is a quantitative expression of the
free energy associated with the water.
UNIT: Joules/mole
This term has been replaced by water potential
WATER POTENTIAL (PSI)
It is the difference between the fee energy of water molecules in pure

water and energy of water in any other system, or solution. Water
potential is a relative quantity, depends upon gravity and pressure.
Q = Q* + f (concentration) + f (pressure) + f (gravity)
* is standard water potential or pure water potential of valve O Mpa.
Unit : Megapascals MPa
(1 Mpa = 9.87 atmospheres)
USES
The direction of water flow across cell membrane can be determined. It
is a measure of water status of the plant.
OSMOTIC PRESSURE
The pressure exerted upon a solution to keep it in equilibrium with pure

water when the two are separated by a semi permeable membrane is
known as Osmotic pressure.
It prevents the process of osmosis.
OSMOTIC POTENTIAL
The tendency of a soln to diffuse into another, when two solutions of

different concentrations are separated by a differentially permeable
membrane.
It is represented by s for pure water s = 0

The s decrenses as the osmotic concentration increases.
Osmotic concentration is the number of osmotic-ally active particle
per unit volume.
Osmotic potential has been replaced by solute potential.
The concentration of solute particles in a solution is know as solute
potential s. It value is always negative.
PRESSURE POTENTIAL P
When a cell is placed in pure water or in aqueous solution with higher

water potential than the cell sap water follows into the vacuole by
endosmosis thru cell membrane and tonoplast. Due to this inflow of
water, the tension developed by the cell wall causes an internal
hydrostatic pressure to develop, which is called as pressure potential.
= s + p or Qp = Q Qs
In turgid cells p is equal and opposite to s
TURGID CELL
When the cell is fully stretched with maximum pressure potential, the
water cannot flow into it. This condition is called turgidity and the cell is
turgid.
PLASMOLYSIS
If a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, which has more negative

solute and water potentials then water will come out of the cell, by
exosmosis and protoplasm starts separating from cell wall leaving a
gap between cell wall and cell membrane. This withdrawal of
protoplasm from cell wall is known as plasmolysis.
The point where protoplasm just starts separating from cell wall is
known as Incipient plasmolysis when it is completely separated, full
plasmolysis occurs.
In plasmolysis cell p = 0 therefore w = s
DEPLASMOLYSIS
When a cell is placed is a hypotonic solution or pure water, there will be

an inflow of water by endosmosis. Protoplasm starts expanding and
presses cell wall due to which pressure potential develops and water
potential becomes less negative. This swelling of cell is known as
deplasmolysis.
WATER AND MINERALS UPTAKE BY ROOTS
1. Absorption of water and mineral salts takes place through root

system.
2. Roots are provided with enormous number of tiny root hairs.
3. These root hairs are more in number in tap root system.
4. Roots hairs are out growths of epidermal cells.
5. Roots hairs increase the surface area for absorption.
6. Most of the absorption takes place at root tips.
7. From hairs and epidermal cells water flows thru cortex, endodermis,
pericycle and them enters xylem.
There are 3 pathways for water to enter xylem.
A- CELLULAR PATHWAY
In this route water flows through cell to cell. Water enters the root hairs
or epidermal cells down a concentration gradient: it flows through cell
wall and cell membrane and enters the adjacent cell from where water
may again flow towards the deeper cells by osmosis.
B- SYMPLAST PATHWAY
Cytoplasm of the cortical cells are interconnected by small pores in the
cell wall known as plasmodesmata.
These pores provide another way of transporting water and solutes
across the plasma membrane at root hairs.
C- APOPLAST PATHWAY
The cell walls of cortical and epidermal cells are hydrophilic and form a
continuous matrix. Soil solution flows freely through these hydrophilic
walls.theme.
Dynamic Views The Powered
movement of soil soln.through extra cellular pathway
by Blogger.
provided by continuous matrix of cell walls is known as Apoplast

pathway.
Simplast and apoplast usually both occur concurrently.
Endodermis forms a waxy barriers against the flow of water and salts
known as casparion strip. So, water cannot enter endodermis via
apoplast pathway. Symplast is the only way to cross the barrier.
Endodermal cells actively transport salts to pericycle resulting in high
osmotic potential which causes inflow of water by osmosis salts. Form
pericycle water flows in to xylem via both symplast and apoplast
pathways.
TRANSPIRATION
The loss of water in the form of vapours from aerial parts of the plant is
called transpiration.
TYPES OF TRANSPIRATION
Following are the three types of transpiration.
A- STOMATAL TRANSPIRATION
It is a type of transpiration in which the water vapours escape through
the stomata. 90% of the total transpiration occur thru this method. In
isobilateral leaves the stomata are present in both upper and lower
epidermis e.g. lily and maize leaves. In dorsiventral leaves, the stomata
are only confined to lower epidermis e.g. Brassica and sunflower.
B- CUTICULAR TRANSPIRATION
The loss of water in the form of vapours through the cuticle of leaves is
called Cuticular Transpiration. About 5-7% of total transpiration takes
place thru this route cuticle is a waxy layer which covers the leaves and
tis is not completely impermeable to water.
C- LENTICULAR TRANSPIRATION
It is the loss of water vapours through lenticles present in the stems of
dicot plants. Lecticles are aerating pores present in the bark formed as
a result of secondary growth. It accounts for only 1-2% of total
transpiration.
MECHANISM OF STOMATAL RESPIRATION
STRUCTURE OF STOMATA
Stomata are microscopic pores present in the epidermis of leaves and

herbaceous stems. Number of stomata are variable in different leaves
and depend upon the availability of water and climate of the region.
Each stomata is surrounded by 2 specialized epidermal cells, as guard
cells, they are bean shaped or kidney shaped and unlike other
epidermal cells, they contain chlorophyll, hence perform photo-
synthesis. The inner wall of guard cell is thick while the outer wall is
thin and elastic. This structural difference is important for opening and
closing of stomata.
STAGES OF TRANSPIRATION
There are two processes involved in stomata transpiration.
+ EVAPORATION
In the first step, water evaporates from the wet surfaces of turgid
mesophyll cells and collected in the intercellular air spaces.
+ DIFFUSION
In this stage water vapours diffuse out from intercellular spaces where
they are in higher concentration to the outer atmosphere where they are
in lower concentration through the stomata.
MECHANISM OF OPENING AND CLOSING OF STOMATA
The opening and closing of stomata depends upon the turgidity of

guard cells, which is due to increase or decrease in the osmotic
potential of the guard cells. When water enters the guard cells by
osmosis, they swell up. Since their outer walls are thin and elastic, they
stretch and bulge out. The inner thick walls cannot stretch and so arch
in and become crescent shaped thus the gap between the two guard
cells widens, opening the stomata when the guard cell lose water, they
become flaccid and the inner wall of two guard cells meet each other,
closing the stomata.
Generally the stomata remain open during day time and close at night.
Thus light appears as the primary factor which control the opening and
closing of stomata.
FACTORS REGULATING OPENING AND CLOSING OF STOMATA
There are two main factors which greatly influence the opening and
closing of stomata these are
1- LIGHT
In the presence of light, chlorophyll containing guard cells synthesize

sugars which is turn increase the osmotic potential of guard cells. This
increase Qs results in endosmosis and ultimately to turgidity. While in
darkness these guard cells consume carbohydrates (sugars) by
respiration for energy production or transported to other neighbouring
cells for respiration and different purposes. This decreases the osmotic
potential of guard cells leading to flaccidity because of exomosis of
water.
2- CONCENTRATION OF K+ IONS
Turgidity of guard cells of many plants is regulated by K+ ion
concentration. During daytime, guard cells actively transport K+ions
into them from neighbouring cells. Accumulation of K+ ions lowers the
water potential of guard cells. This causes on inflow of water by
endosmosis from epidermal cells. During night when they lose K+ ion,
water potential increases. Water flows out of the guard cells by
exosmosis causing them to become flaccid which result in closure of
pore.
FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSPIRATION
Rate of transpiration is very important for a plant because transpiration

stream is necessary to distribute dissolved mineral salts through out
the plants. Water is transported to photosynthesizing cells of leaves.
Transpiration is also very important as it cools the plant. This is
especially important in higher temperatures. If the rate of transpiration
is very high, there would be much loss of water from the plant. So at
high temperatures the stomata almost close and reduction in the rate of
transpiration is effected. This stops witting of the leaves and of
herbaceous stems of plants.
Following are some important factors which affect the rate of
transpiration.
1. LIGHT
Light affects the transpiration in two ways:
a. Light regulates the opening and closing of stomata. During sunshine
the stomata are open, losing water vapours thus rate of transpiration is
high and during night, the stomata are closed, so the rate of
transpiration is low.
b. Greater intensity of light, increases the temperature and warms the
leaf, so leaves lose heat by evaporating water molecules to cool
themselves.
2. TEMPERATURE
Plants transpire more rapidly at higher temperature than at low. Rise in
temperature has two effects:
i. It increases kinetic energy of water molecules, which results in rapid
evaporation of water and decreases the rate of transpiration.
ii. High temperature reduces the humidity of surrounding air. Due to
this, evaporation from surfaces of mesophyll cells increase and hence
rate of transpiration.
3. WIND
The air in motion is called wind. The area around the stomata is
saturated with water vapours due to transpiration. During high velocity
wind the area around leaves is quickly replaced by fresh drier air which
increases diffusion of water molecules from air spaces to outside
atmosphere and increases the rate of transpiration.
When air is still, the rate of diffusion of water molecules is reduced and
the rate of transpiration is also reduced.
4. HUMIDITY
When air is dry, the rate of diffusion of water molecules, from the
surfaces of mesophyll cells, air spaces and through stomata, to outside
the leaf increases. So more water is lost, increasing the rate of
transpiration.
In humid air, the diffusion of water molecules is reduced. This
decreases the rate of transpiration.
5. SOIL WATER
A plant cant continue to transpire rapidly if its moisture loss is not
made up by absorption of fresh supplies of water from the soil. When

absorption of water by roots fails to keep up with rate of transpiration,
loss of turgor occurs and wilting of leaf takes place.
DISADVANTAGES OF TRANSPIRATION
1. Transpiration is said to be necessary evil because it is an inevitable,

but potentially harmful, consequence of the existence of wet cell
surfaces from which evaporation occurs.
2. High rate of transpiration causes water deficiency and thus the
excessive transpiration leads to wilting and death of plants.
3. There is good evidence that even mild water deficiency results in
reduced growth rate of plants.
4. Excessive transpiration effects the protein synthesis, sugar synthesis
and other metabolic activities of plants.
ADVANTAGES OF TRANSPIRATION
1. Water is conducted in most parts of plants due to transpiration pull or

ascent of sap.
2. It causes absorption of water and minerals from the soil.
3. Minerals dissolved in water are conducted throughout the plant body
by transpiration stream.
4. Evaporation of water from the exposed surface of cells of leaves has
cooling effect on plant.
5. Excess water is removed.
6. Wet surface of leaves allow gaseous exchange.
GUTTATION
It is the loss of water in the form of droplets from the ends of large leaf-
veins. It take place through special openings called hydathodes.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TRANSPIRATION AND GUTTATION
TRANSPIRATION
Water escapes in the form of wapours.
Escape water is pure and does not contain solutes.
It takes place through stomata, and cuticle.
It is regulated by stomata.
Normally takes place in light
GUTTATION
Water escapes as liquid.
Escaped water contain solutes.
It takes place through hydathodes and end of veins.
It is not a regulated process.
Takes place at night.
TRANSLOCATION OF ORGANIC SOLUTES
Transport of organic products of photosynthesis, like sugars from

mature leaves to the growing and storage organs in plants is called
translocation. This movement of photo assimilates and other organic

materials takes place via the phloem and is therefore called Phloem
Translocation.
The phloem is generally found on the outer side of xylem and
constitutes the bark. The cells of phloem that take part in phloem
translocation are called sieve elements. Phloem tissue also contains
companion cells, parenchyma cells, fibres like sclereids latex
containing cells. But only sieve tube cells are directly involved in
tansport of organic solutes.
SOURCE TO SINK MOVEMENT
The translocation of photosynthesis always takes place from source to

sink tissues, therefore, the phloem transport is also referred as source
to sink movement.
SOURCE
The part o plant which forms the sugars or photoynthates is known as
source. For example Mature Leaves.
SINK
Sinks are the areas of active metabolism or storage of food e.g: Roots,
Tubers developing fruits, immature leaves, growing tips of roots and
shoots. Some source and sinks are interconvertible during the process
of development of plants. For example: developing and mature leaves,
developing and germinating seeds, root of sugar beets etc.
MUNCH HYPOTHESIS (MECHANISM OF PHLOEM TRANSLOCATION)
Phloem translocation is mainly explained by a theory called the

Pressure flow hypothesis proposed by Ernest munch in 1930 which
explains the steps involved in the movement of photosynthates from
mesophyll chloroplasts to the sieve elements of phloem of mature
leaves.
STEPS
The following steps explain flow theory:
1. The glucose formed during photosynthesis in mesophyll cells, is
used in respiration or converted into non-reducing sugar i.e. sucrose.
2. the sucrose is actively transported to bundle sheath cells and then to
companion cell of the nearest smallest vein in the leaf. This is called
short distance transport because solutes cover only a distance of two
or three cells.
3. Sucrose diffuse into sieve tube cell or sieve elements by symplast
pathway or apoplast pathway. This is called phloem loading, this raises
the conc. of sugars in sieve elements, which causes osmosis of water
from nearby xylem in the leaf. It causes an increase in the hydrostatic
pressure or tugor pressure.
4. The increase hydrostatic pressure moves the sucrose and other
substances in the sieve tube cells, and moves to sinks. The photo-
assimilates (sugars etc) can be moved a long distance i.e. of several
meters, therefore this is known as Long distance transport.
5. In the sink tissues, present at the other end of pathway, sugars are
delivered by phloem by an active process called Phloem Unloading. It
produces a low osmotic pressure in sieve elements of sink, as a result
of this water potential begins to rise in the phloem and causes an
exosmosis of water molecules from the sieve tubes. This causes a
decrease in turgor pressure of the sieve tubes (phloem).
6. The presence of sieve plates in the sieve elements greatly increases
the resistance along the pathway and results in the generation and
maintenance of a substantial pressure gradient in the sieve elements
between source and sink. The sieve elements contents are physically
pushed along the traslocation pathway by bulk flow, much like water
flowing through a garden house.
SIGNIFICANCE OF TRANSLOCATION
1. Food can be formed or stored as in sugar beets root or stem of sugar

cane.
2. Sucrose is transported to sink where it is converted to glucose and
used as energy.
3. Productivity of crop can be increased by accumulation of photo-
synthates in edible sink tissues like cereal grains, pulses, ground nuts
etc.
4. Fruit is forme by this process e.g. Apples, Mango etc.
ASCENT OF SAP
The upward movement of water and dissolved mineral salts from the
roots to the leaves agains the downward pull of gravity is known as
Ascent of Sap.
PATH OF MOVEMENT
The distance traveled by water is small and easy in plans like herbs and
shrubs and longest in tall trees like pinus, red wood, eucalyptus etc. For
transport different tissues of xylem is used for conduction of water in
different plants. These are open ended cells called Vessels and
porous cells called tracheids (Fig. From book).
A. VESSELS
1. These are thick walled tube like structures which extend through
several feet of xylem tissue.
2. They range in diameter from 20m to 70m.
3. Their walls are lignified and perforated by pits. At the pit, cell wall is
only made up of cellulose. Pits of adjacent cells match up with each
other, so that their cavities are interconnected.
4. Xylem vessels arise from cylindrical cells, which placed end to end.
They die at maturity forming a continuous duct, providing a channel for
long-distance transport of water.
5. Rate of flow of water is 10 times faster than tracheids.
OCCURANCE
VESSELS are mostly found in Angiospermic plants.
B. TRACHEIDS
1. These are individual cells about 30m in diameter. They are several
mm long and tapered.
2. Like vessels, they are also dead, made up of thick lignified walls.
3. Their walls are perforated by small pits, which are of two types,
simple and bordered.
4. The Tracheids are connected by pits and forming a long channel for
conduction of water.
OCCURANCE
In Ferns and Conifers.
MECHANISM OF ASCENT OF SAP
Water and dissolved mineral salts present in xylem, flow in upward

direction at the rate of 15m/hour. Xylem sap ascends because of two
reasons:
1. Push from below Root Pressure Theory
2. Pull from above Dixons Theory
1. ROOT PRESSURE THEORY
According to Stephen Hales:

The force which is responsible for the upward movement of water
molecules in xylem is by the pushing effect from below (i.e. roots) and
is known as Root Pressure. Root Pressure is created by active
secretion of sals and other solutes from the other cells into xylem sap.
This lowers the water potential of xylem sap. Water enters by osmosis,
thus increasing the level of sap. Water also take apoplast or symplast
pathway to enter the xylem cells, this increased level causes a pressure
effect in xylem and pushes the water upwards.
OBJECTIONS/FAILURE OF THEORY
1. This force is unable to push water in tall plants.
2. It is seasonal.
3. Completely absent from Cycads and Conifers, so how they transfer
water.
4. When a cut shoot is placed in water, the water rises in shoots
although roots are absent.
5. It is also present in plant which donot have well developed root
system.
2. TRANSPIRATION PULL (DIXONS THEORY) OR ADHESION-

COHESION-TENSION THEORY
Dixon and Jolly proposed this theory for ascent of sap. It provides a
reasonable explanation of flow of water and minerals from the roots to
leaves of plants. It depends on:
ADHESION
Adhesion is the sticking together of molecules of different kinds. Water
molecules adhere to the cell walls of xylem cells, so that the column of
water in xylem tissue doesnt break. The cellulose of cell wall has great
affinity for water, which helps in the process.
COHESION
Cohesion is the attraction among molecules of same kind, which holds
water molecules together, forming a solid chain-like column within the
xylem tubes. Extensive hydrogen bonding in water gives rise to
property of cohesion. The molecules of water in xylem tube form a
continuous column.
TRANSPIRATION PULL
The loss of water from the aerial parts of the plant especially through
stomata of leaves is called transpiration.
During daytime the leaf after absorbing sunlight, raising its temperature
starts transpiration. When a leaf transpires, the water potential of its
mesophyll cells drop. This drop causes water to move by osmosis from
the xylem cells of leaf into dehydrating mesophyll cells.
The water molecules leaving the xylem are attached to other water
molecules of tube by H-bonding.
Therefore, when one water molecules moves up the xylem, the process
continues all the way to the root, where water is pulled from the xylem
cells, i.e. tracheids or vessels.
Due to this pulling force or transpiration pull, water in xylem is placed
under tension which is transmitted to root through vessels. Tension is
due to H-bonding and strong cohesive forces between water molecules,
and is strong enough to pull water upto 200 metres or even more.
ASCENT OF SAP IS SOLAR POWERED

To transport water over a long distance, plants do not use their
metabolic energy or ATPs. It is done only by forces like adhesion,
cohesion, evaporation and presence of sunlight. Thus ascent of sap is
Solar Powered.
SIGNIFICANCE OF ASCENT OF SAP
Water can be transported to the different parts of the plant.

Transpiration is regulated.
Food is formed in presence of water.
Photosynthesis requires water.
Salts and minerals are also absorbed along water by roots.
Circulation of Blood
CARDIAC CYCLE
Sequence of events which take pace during completion of one heart

beat is called Cardiac Cycle
PHASES
(I) DIASTOLE
It is resting period of heart chambers.
II) SYSTOLE
During which hearts chambers contract. In cardiac cycle, blood is
circulated in whole body.
TYPES OF CIRCULATION
PULMONARY CIRCULATION
In pulmonary circulation following events take place.
RT. ATRIAL SYSTOL

First the blood from whole systems of body, except lungs enter in
right Atrium through superior and Inferior vena cavae into the right
atrium by atiral systole, blood comes into right ventricle from right
atrium via Tricuspid valve.
RT. VENTRICLE SYSTOLE

After coming of blood into the Rt. Ventricle, it goes to the lungs via
pulmonary trunk by ventricular systole, for oxygenation of blood by
passing through pulmonary valve.
SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
In systemic circulation, following events take place.
LEFT ATRIAL SYSTOLE

When oxygenated blood comes into left atrium, then left atrial
sytole causes blood to enter left ventricle through bicuspid valve
LEFT VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE

When blood reaches here it sends into aorta through aortic valve to
provide blood to body systems.
CARDIAC OUTPUT
The blood volume pump per minute by left ventricle into the
systemic circulation
HEART BEAT
The contraction of heart chambers are known heart beat which are
regular, rhythmic.
Ventricular systole is LUB
Ventricular diastole is DUB
TIME FOR HEART BEAT
0.8 sec is time for one heart beat.
CONDUCTING SYSTEM OF HEART
It consists of
1.AV-NODE
2.SA-NODE
3)AV-BUNDLE
4) PURKINJI FIBERS.
1. SA-NODE
SA NODE found near upper end of superior vena cava in RT. atrium
PARTS
1. Specialized cardiac Muscles.
2. Autonomic Nerve endings.
FUNCTIONS
It Initiates the contraction of heart chambers through impulses &
also transmit to AV node.
2. AV- NODE
It is found in lower end of RT. Atrium. Structurally it is smilar to SA-

NODE
FUNCTION
It transmit nerve impulses to ventricles for contraction rhythmically.
3. AV-BUNDLE
AV BUNDLE are the fibers originate from AV node. The bundle

divided into Right AV bundle, Left AV bundle
FUNCTION
It transmit nerve impulses to ventricles.
4. PURKINJI FIBERS
AV bundles red divided into small fibres which penetrate the

ventricle wall also known as purkinji fibers / Bundle of His small
thin fibers.
LEUKEMIA
DEFINATION
The malignant disorder of increase number of abnormal
leucocytes in blood.
CAUSE
The cause of leukemia is unknown.
FACTORS
Factors associated with leukemia are
Ionizing Radiation
Cytotoxic drugs.
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Genetic
EFFECTS OF DISEASE
In result of leukemia, normal leucocytes counts become less.

This is progressive, and fatal condition which leads to
heamorrhage or infection
THALASSEMIA
DEFINITION
Genetically impaired globin chains formation leads to impaired or
defected formation of hemoglobin.
GENETIC DISEASE
Thalassemia is a genetic disorder, it may be
1. Hetrozygous /Mild thalassemia:
2. Homozygous.
TYPE
BETA Thalassemia
Thalassemia
BETA-THALASSEMIA
When globin chain is impaired or defected. It is most common one.
ALPHA-THALASSEMIA
when -thalassemia globin chain of (HB) hemoglobin is defected.
KINDS OF THALASSEMIA
THALASSEMIA MINOR
When thalassemia is of heterozygous type with mild anemia.
THALASSEMIA MAJOR
When thalassemia is of homozygous type with profound
hypochromic anemia. It is more common in children & results with
enlargement of kidney.
REMEDY
The only remedy is transfusion of blood at regular intervals.
CVD CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE
Diseases of heart, blood vessels and blood circulation are generally

term as CVD.
ATHEROSCLEROSIS
The disease of arterial wall with lose of elasticity, thickness of inner

wall causing narrowing of lumen, results in impairing of blood flow.
ATHEROMATOUS PLAQUES
The narrowing is due to formation of fatty lesions called

atheromatous plaque in inner lining of arteries.
COMPONENTS OF PLAQUE
These plaques consist of
LDL-LOW DENSITY LIPO PROTEINS

DECAYING MUSCLES CELLS
FIBROUS TISSUE
PLATELETES
CLUMP OF BLOOD
CAUSES
Smoking, Hypertension, Obesity, Diabetes (Severe), family history
of arterial disease
EFFECTS
Atherosclerosis produces no symptoms until the damage to artery
is so severe that it restricts blood flow.
ANGINA PECTORIS
If blood flow to heart muscles is restricted causes (cell damage)

necrosis called angina pectoris. Pain in chest, arm, or jaws usually
during exercise.
THROMBUS FORMATION
The formation of blood clot with in the intact blood vessel initiated
by atheromatous plaque.
REASON FOR THROMBUS FORMATION

Due to formation athromatous plaque loss of elasticity, intact blood
vessel get destroyed, blood from vessel wall comes out & later
change to blood clot and blocks the lumen of small arteries.
RESULT OF THROMBUS FORMATION

Initially thrombus block the lumen partially result in decrease blood
flow to organs & leading to impairment of physiology of organs.
Later on, thrombus blocks the lumen completely so due to
complete loss of blood supply, cells damage occur.
CORONARY THROMBOSIS
Type of thrombosis when narrowing of lumen occurs in coronary

blood vessels due to formation of clot.
EFFECT
Occulsion of coronary atery causes myocardial infarction and heart
attack.
HEAMORRHAGE
The escaping of blood from intact blood vessels.

STROKE
Most dangerous type of heamorrhage is that of brain which results

in paralysis or strokes.
HAEMATOMA
The accumalation of blood in interstitial spaces known as

haematoma.
This will lead to edema.
STROKE
DEFINITION
The damage to the part of brain caused by, restriction in blood
supply or leakage of blood outside the vessels.
CHARACTERISTICS
Impairment of sensation, movement & function controlled by
damage part of brain.
CAUSES
Hypertension
Atherosclerosis
HEMIPLEGIA
Damage to any, one cerebral hemisphere can cause weakness or

paralyses of one side of body called hemiplegia
PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES
Blood pressure should be with in normal range through proper diet.
Salt should be used in less quantities exercise should be the
regular habit. Smoking must be avoided. Person life should be free
of worries.
BLOOD VESSELS
DEFINITION
The closed vessels or tubes through which transporting medium
or blood circulate with in body called blood vessels.
TYPES OF BLOOD VESSELS
1. Arteries.
2. Capillaries.
3. Veins.
ARTERIES
DEFINITION
Thick walled blood vessels which carry blood from heart to the
organs of body.
LAYERS
It consists of three layers.
1. Tunica Externa/ Adventitia
2. Tunica Media
3. Tunica Intima
1-TUNICA EXTERNA
It is thin but tough layer, having abundant amount of collagen
fibers. It is outer most layer.
2-TUNICA MEDIA
The middle layer has smooth muscle fibers & elastin fibers. It is the
thickest layer.
3-TUNICA INTIMA
It consists of squamous endothelium.
LUMEN
Thick walled vessels & having smaller lumen than that of veins
except arteries of brain & related to cranium having large lumen.
SEMILUNAR VALVES
They are not present in arteries.
BRANCHES DIVISIONS
Aorta divides into large arteries, large arteries into smaller arteries,
smaller arteries into arterioles, then they give rise to capillary.
At arteriole level, small sphincters are present which are known as
PRE-CAPILLARY SPHINCTER.
SPHINCTER
FUNCTION
They are for regulating the diastolic pressure.
CHARACTERSTICS
Arteries are elastic so during systolic pressure, they do not

rupture and dilate.
During ceasement/ stopage of systolic pressure of heart,
arteries contract & supply even flow of blood.
The arteries carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary
arteries.
VEINS
DEFINITION
The thin walled blood vessels that drian blood from body
parts/organs into heart called veins.
LAYERS
Tunica Externa
Tunica Media
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1. TUNICA EXTERNA
Thickest layer in veins. It contains collagen, elastin and smooth
muscles cells.
2. TUNICA MEDIA
Not thicker as that of arteries. Elastic tissues and small smooth
muscle.
3. TUNICA INTIMA
Contains endothelial cells layer.
LUMEN
It has large lumen and thin wall.
SEMILUNAR VALVES
They are present in veins to prevent back flow of blood in the
influence of gravity.
TRIBUTARIES
Veninules -> small veins -> large veins -> vena cava.
BLOOD PRESSURE
In veins blood pressure is low and are non pulsatile.
CHARACTERISTICS
The blood flows slowly and smoothly in veins. Veins are superficial
and collapse when empty.
CAPILARIES
The intimate microscopic closed channels of both arterial &

veinous interconnected network is called capillaries.
DIAMETER
Capillaries are extremely narrow in diameter of about 7-10 .
LAYERS
Capillaries are thin walled vessels & contains single layer of
endothelium which offers small resistance in transport of material
across the capillary wall.
FUNCTION
Through diffusion and active transport of oxygen is transported to
tissues & CO2 to capillaries. Nitrogenous waste is filtered through
the capillaries into excretory tubules.
BLUE BABIES (CYANOSIS)
Blue baby is a layman terminology. In medical science it is known

as cyanosis.
DEFINITION
The term cyanosis means the blueish discolouration of the skin &
mucous membrane due to excessive cone of reduced

(deoxygenated haemoglobin) in the blood & it appears when
reduced Hb conc in capillaries is more than 5 gm/dl of blood. The
reduced Hb has an intense dark blue purple colour that is
transmitted through the skin.
MOST COMMON CAUSE OF CYANOSIS

Although there are various other causes of cyanosis but the most
common cause is CONGENITAL CYANOTIC HEART DISEASE.
BASIC CAUSE OF CYANOSIS

In congenital heart diseases, there is an abnormal connection b/w
right and left side of heart, which permits the large amount of
unoxygenated venous blood to bypass the pulmonary capillaries &
dilute the oxygenated blood in systemic arteries i.e RIGHT TO LEFT
SHUNT, which results in cyanosis.
SOME EXAMPLES OF CONGENITAL HEART DISEASES
Some congenital heart diseases which are responsible for the

abnormal connection between right and left sides of heart are
as follows.
ATRIAL SEPTUM DEFECT (ASD)
VENTRICULAR SETPUM DEFECT (VSD)
PERSISTANT DUCTUS ARTEROSUS
In all these conditions, blood begins to flow from the aorta (left
side) into pulmonary arteries (right side) & the people donot
show cyanosis until late in life when heart fails or lungs
become congested.
TETRALOGY OF FALLOT (RIGHT TO-LEFT SHUNT)

It is the most common cause of cyanosis or blue baby in which
aorta originates from right ventricles rather than left & receives
deoxygenated blood.
Posted 20th June 2012 by Hassam ul haque
12 View comments
maha malik 21 December 2013 at 23:22

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Umer Iqbal 15 March 2017 at 11:39

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Classic Flipcard Magazine Mosaic Sidebar Snapshot Timeslide

Biology is the study of living organisms. It is derived from Greek words.

CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANIZATION

According to the modern classification given by R.H.Whittaker in 1969, living

It includes unicellular Eukaryotic organisms, which are in between plants and

5. FRESH WATER BIOLOGY

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In order to solve the biological problems (any animal or plant disease or

An educated guess or fact regarding the biological problem.

Malaria means disease cause by bad air.

Treatment with drug or chemical.

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Treatment with radiations, like , , or X-rays.

1. Control weeds and soil disease problems.

Production of duplicate copies of genetic material, cells or entire multicellular living

Identical twin, triplet in humans.

LEVEL OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION

Biochemistry is a branch of biology, which deals with the study of

MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER

Chemically it is Dihydrogen oxide

IMPORTANT BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

(1) BEST SOLVENT

Water is an excellent solvent for polar substances, when ionic

(2) HIGH HEAT CAPACITY

The specific heat capacity of water is the number of calories

(3) HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION

Liquid water requires higher amount of heat energy to change into

(4) ACT AS AMPHOTERIC MOLECULE

Water molecule acts both as acid and a base. As acid, it gives up

Water is an effective lubricant that provides protection against

(6) AS REAGENT /TURGIDITY

Water acts as a reagent in many processes such as photosynthesis

Those compounds containing carbon (other than carbonates) are called

Those compounds, which are without carbon, are called inorganic

Macromolecules are composed of large number of low molecular weight

The process by which two monomers are joined is called

Methyl group (CH3-)

These are the complex organic compounds having C, H,O and N as

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF PROTEINS

Proteins are polymers of amino-acids and number of amino-acids varies

It is the basic structural unit of proteins and all amino-acids have an

Amino Acids are linked together to from polypeptides of proteins. The

PEPTIDE LINKAGE/ BOND

The linkage between the hydroxyle group of carboxyl group of one

TYPES OF PROTEINS ON THE BASIS OF STRUCTURE

There are four basic structural levels of proteins.

(A) PRIMARY STRUCTURE

A polypeptide chain having a linear sequence of amino-acids.

E.g: Insulin Polypeptide chain.

In this type polypeptide chain of amino-acids become spirally

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Polypeptide chain bends and folds upon it self forming a globular

(D) QUATERNARY STRUCTURE

This type is usually present in highly complex proteins in which

E.g: Haemoglobin molecule.

They Build many Structures of the cell E.G: Plasma Membrane.

It is a group of organic compounds having carbon, oxygen and

The carbohydrates can be classified into following groups on the basis

These are called Simple Sugars, because they can not be

E.g: Glucose, Galactose, Fructose and Ribose etc. Monosaccharide can

These carbohydrates yield 2to 10 monosaccharides mnolecules on