Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
SALEM, TAMILNADU
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PROGRAMME : MASTER OF ARTS IN EDUCATION I YEAR
COURSE : PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION
COURSE CODE : (2070105)
Chapter 01
Educational Management Meaning Need Importance Characteristics Scope
Objectives Arts or Science or profession
Chapter 02
Management Functions Operative Education Administration Vs Education
Management Principles of Education Administration
Chapter 03
Education Planning Meaning Rational Type of Education Plans Approaches to
Education planning
Chapter 04
Education Planning Process Steps in Education Planning Process MBO in
Education Decision Making Types Process
Chapter -05
Organization Meaning Structures Organization Chart Organization for
Education Administration
Chapter 06
Central and State Government Bodies Delegation Vs Decentralization
Organizational Competence Strategic Alliances
Chapter 07
Direction Meaning and Significance Principles of Effective Direction -
Supervision
Chapter 08
Education Leadership Meaning Scope Importance Styles Qualities of
Successful Education Leader
Chapter 09
Motivation Meaning Types Motivational Theories Their Impact on
Educational Management Motivating the employees of Educational Institutions
Chapter 10
Education Communications Types Barriers Methods to Overcome Barriers
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Chapter - 11
Principles of Effective Communication Co-ordination Importance of Co-
ordination in Educational Institutions
Chapter 12
Control Meaning Need Control Process Techniques Evaluation Quality
Assurance Total Quality Management (TOM) - ISO Certification for Education
Institutions Academic Audit
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M.A EDUCATION
FIRST YEAR
I Educational Management
1 to 14
Educational Administration
II 15 to 26
Planning and Administration
III 27 to 35
Educational Planning Process
IV 36 to 53
Organisation
V 54 to 63
Central State Bodies and Delegation -
VI Decentralisation 64 to 78
Motivation
IX 98 to 108
Education - Communication
X 109 to 125
Principles of Effective Communication
XI Co-Ordination 126 to 136
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STRUCTURE
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Meaning of Management.
1.2 Aims and objectives of Educational management
1.3 Characteristics of Education Management.
1.4 Principles and types of Educational Management
1.5 Management as science
1.6. Management as an art
1.7 Management as profession
1.8 Historical legacy educational administration
1.9 Questions
1.10 Suggested Readings
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
The term management is used in different contexts differently. As we are
concerned with educational management, it is to be defined as a scientific term.
Interestingly public administration as an independent academic discipline developed
from the discoverers on political theory and practice and management took its blood
from business, economics, education and Psychology. Therefore, the environment
from which these two disciplines that is management and administration developed
are quite different. But both the disciplines are concerned with the same process of
activity and its efficiency. Autocratic administration and Democratic administration
play a vital role in Educational administration. There are different arguments today
about the difference between administration and management in educational
institutions. Some argue that administration is a higher level activity concerned with
policy and therefore it is different from management that concerns with business
enterprises. Some argue that administration is a part of management as it is a total
process of executive control involving planning, guidance, co-ordination and
supervision of an institution. As far as education is concerned, it remained as
administration as long as the provision of education continues to be an important
activity of the state. Once education is left to the vagaries of free market forces,
management of the system as an enterprise became inevitable. Now education,
particularly at the higher levels, is managed by business executives. Therefore
education up to a level is administered and at certain levels it is managed in some
countries. In educational system both management and administration are like two
eyes of an institution. Only with the co-ordination of these eyes we can see the
education world perfectly, accurately as we are seeing the world.
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some academics stared using the term public management indicating the change in the
context of public administration.
Management being a social process. lays its major emphasis on the interaction
of people-people inside and outside the institutions and people above and below ones
operational position. Therefore, the aims and objectives of educational management
have to be understood from the above dimension. Several attempts have been made to
define aims and objectives of educational management in different terms. Broadly the
objectives are
To define the functions of the school. To plan for the future and arrange the
plan of operation. To organize / build up the material and human resources
required for proper running of the school.
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To command the staff both teaching non-teaching to do their work efficiently.
To co-ordinate the functions of various human elements and correlate all the
activities.
To control and to ensure everything is done in accordance with the rules which
have been laid down and the instructions which have been given.
To create environment and facilities for educational research etc.
There have been several attempts over the past few years to redefine
objectives, such as
Creating proper environment for effective utilisation of facilities.
Assembling resources required for organisation and management.
Supervision to ensure proper direction, co-ordination and control.
Motivation to create proper work-atmosphere.
Evaluation which includes performance, assessment and management process.
Flexibility
One of the essential characteristics of successful education management is its
flexibility. The management should be dynamic and provide enough scope for
additions, suggestions and modifications. The rules and regulations should act as a
means to an end and not an end in themselves. Rigid uniformity and mechanical
efficiency are the very antithesis of good administration. Flexibility does not mean
that the administration should be weak without any norms or standards creating chaos
at every step. What is meant is a proper balance between rigidity and elasticity.
Practicability
The education management is not a bundle of theoretical principles, but it
provides practical measures to achieve its desired results:
Efficiency
Efficiency is the most important step of education management. This is
possible only when human and material recourses are properly and efficiently utilized.
For this the management should plan every activity scientifically and execute it with
meticulous care.
Cost effective
Another important characteristics of management is cost- effectiveness. The
purpose of administration is to enable the right pupils to receive the right education
from right teachers at a cost within the means of state, under conditions which will
enable the pupils to profit the best by their learning. It is more constructive and
creative and human educational administration which has a special feature of its own.
It is basically more humane, more flexible more constructive, more creative, more
imaginative, and more reformative. It is more an art than a science
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Education management is primarily a social enterprise. It cannot be run by any
set of formulae, which may be quite effective in the physical world. It is more
concerned with the human element than in animate things. It is more an art than a
science in this the question of human relationship and emotional climate are of
importance. The administration is to be guided by the basic principles which have
been formulated from the human experience of handling human beings.
1.4.1. Classification
Based on the above, two types of classification are suggested.
Type A
i) Decenralisation of Management and
ii) Centralisation
Type B
i) Autocratic Education Management
ii) Democratic Educational Management
iii) Laissez Educational Management
Type a
i) Decentralisation
In a democratic country like India Educational Administration is decentralised
with sharing of responsibilities between Centre, State and local bodies: In this system
the advantages are i) local initiative is encouraged ii) encourages participation of
people at different levels iii) c decisions can be taken iv) local problems can be solved
with care and iii a democratic way.
ii) Centralisation
In a centralised administration power flows from top to bottom. This type of
administration however, brings discipline in the cadre and uniformity in rules,
regulations and service conditions. Secondly, plenty of resources will be available at
the centre and hence there will be scope for expansion, extension and
experimentation. However, control and co-ordination become a major problem. Since
it is totally centralised local needs and aspiration will not be reflected in the process of
educational management.
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CONCLUSION
Centralisation and decentralisation systems have got their own merits and
demerits. Centralised system believes in managing its affairs without participation of
shareholders. Here the management system believes in a power over situation and
uses its power, position and authority to get people to do things, whereas democratic
system adopts the power with approach and is assisted by the people who play
together.
Type B
ii) Autocratic Administration
Where an administration behaves in an autocratic manner, such educational
administration is called Autocratic Administration A despotic and autocratic
administration is bound to meet with failure in the present democratic set up where
the teachers are highly conscious of their freedom and personal worth. It is an extreme
form of socialisation. An Autocratic state assumes the highest authority and interest of
individuals are made subservient to that of the state. All aspects of education viz-
curriculum, examination are controlled by the central authority.
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Differences between Autocratic and Democratic Administration
Democratic Autocratic
It is based on the principle of It is autocratic and despotic in nature.
co-operation, equality, sharing of
responsibility and justice.
Decision taken on democratic lines Decision taken are implemented by
will be implemented in a democratic officials following the rules &
way through demo- cratic agencies. regulations.
Transparency is maintained in No transparency is maintained. All
planning, monitoring and evaluation, things will be done under strict
secrecy.
Work done by people will be Creativity, innovation of ideas by the
recognised and if necessary rewarded staff will not be encouraged.
Decisions are made as to who will No such facility.
exercise which function at the time
of training.
Management participates in the Any official ruling under such an
discussions, exercises, and gives the approach becomes the final decision.
group the benefit of their best
thinking.
Pupils point of view will be Pupil have to obey the rules.
respected.
Teachers will be participants and Teachers are expected to be obedient,
enjoy power. and passive participants.
Teachers are better motivated and Teachers are considered as staff
considered as organizational members
members to work towards the
achievement of organizational goals.
10. Belongingness, identification, Obedience, faithfulness loyalty will
oneness, feeling of family members be tested.
will be generated.
11. Experimentation, creativity Rigidity, obeying the rule,
innovation, Action research completion of syllabus are followed
encouraged. with no scope for experimentation,
creativity etc.
12. Everybody feels committed and In this, administrator is the leader.
involved in all the programmes of People follow him out of threat or for
the school. appeasement.
13. In democratic administration No such commitment is seen.
individuality is respected and
individual differences are recognised
for their fullest development.
14. In the absence of uniformity and No such provision exists.
standardization, the development
programmes become effective.
15. It is leadership-oriented Standardization and uniformity are
cardinal principles.
1.4.2 Democratic Principles of Educational Administration
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The first principle of democratic administration is decentralization of power
and sharing of experiences. In this philosophy the headmaster should be democratic in
his approach and respect the ideas/suggestions given by the staff and students and
parents who are the shareholders in education. All decisions should be taken in
consultation with the people concerned.
b) Principle of equality
A democratic administrator is one who looks upon his colleagues as his equals
and takes decisions in consultation with his colleagues. Equality refers to recognizing
the worth of each individual child. Teaching staff find out his/her potential and treat
him/her with respect. The total management becomes a joint show of the HM, staff
and students.
b) Principle of freedom
Enough freedom should be given to all to exercise their powers and talents.
The power of analytical thinking, creativity and innovative ideas, important requisites
of democracy, can only be cultivated by stakeholders in an atmosphere of freedom.
The headmaster should give due recognition to innate talents on the part of the
teachers and students and encourage them to offer suggestions/comments to bring
about healthy changes.
c) Principle of leadership
Leadership is not confined to the head of the Institution only. In a way the
headmaster leads his school. For providing wise leadership, he must have the
leadership qualities. Wherever he cannot lead, he will allow others to lead. In this ay
the administration runs smoothly and effectively.
d) Principle of justice
In a democratic set up all individuals should be treated on equal footing. There
is no partiality. The head should be totally impartial to everybody. It the head follows
the principle of justice most of the problems of school are automatically solved.
i) Principle of recognition
W.M. Ryburn says that nothing will more encourage a man or a woman, a boy
or a girl to a greater than an encouraging recognition of good work done, of sincere
effort made, of good qualities shown, H.M should therefore appreciate the good work
done by the staff and students.
g) Principle of co-operation
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Yet another principle of democratic administration is the principle of
co-operation. The head of the institution should seek co operation of everybody in
running the school. He should understand that running the school is not a one-man
job. It requires the co operation of all concerned.
h) Principle of flexibility
The school administrator should not be rigid, he should be flexible in his
approach so as to accommodate day to day changes in the administration of the
school. In the interest of the school, pupils and teachers, the head should reconsider
his decision and plan for smooth running of the institution.
Staff Council
The basic objective of staff council meeting is to plan, monitor and execute
institutional plan of the school. Meetings of the staff council are being held frequently
to discuss all-important issues relating to school. In the staff council meetings
students day-to-day problems, academic planning, administrative problems, school
welfare programmes, community and parent support, school supervision and
inspection and all other related issues should be discussed and decisions should be
taken collectively. Staff council is one of the practical measures to solve the problem
of the school in a democratic way.
Students Council
This is the most important measure in the democratic administration of school.
The main objective of student council is providing opportunities for students to
participate effectively in the school government. It is a forum for students to express
their views, and feelings without fear in the interest of the organization. By practising
this measure students get an opportunity to govern themselves under the guidance of
their staff members.
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Staff Meetings
Staff council includes senior member of the staff whereas staff meeting is a
broader forum, which includes all the staff members. Normally all matters pertaining
to school i.e. Institutional plan. examination schedules, co-curricular activities,
indiscipline of students etc will be discussed in the staff meeting. Staff meeting is the
best forum to make staff feel that the school belongs to them and they are running the
school. Each teacher should get the feeling that I have been consulted. This is my job
now and I must do it and do it well
Conclusion
Thus the school should provide a richly varied pattern of activities to cater to
the development of childrens entire personality. It is the reason why all those
activities carry the name Practical measures to develop democratic administration,
have now come to be recognized as an integral part of schools democratic
programme.
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(iii) Universal Application - The principles of management are universally
applied like the principles of physics and chemistry. The principles like unity of
command, division of labour, etc. are used by every organisation and at every place.
i. Personal Skill
Management is an art as one has to use his personal skill and knowledge in
solving complicated managerial problems. It is an art of dealing with people. The
personal skill of managing differs from person to person.
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iv. Regular Practice
Like an artist, a manager always tries to attain higher goals in order to reach
perfection. A manager uses managerial practices regularly so as to achieve a higher
level of performance. Only the regular use of managerial principles will help a
manager to bring perfection to his acts.
v. Creativity
Management is the most creative art. One has to find newer ways of
motivating people in the organisation. A manager tries to find better ways of getting
things done. So creativity in thinking and practices are essential elements of
management.
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ii. Formal Education and Training
In the present competitive world the application of management knowledge
has become indispensable. It is essential that managers acquire formal management
education and training for the proper application of managerial principles. Many
institutions all over the world including India, are imparting management education
and training.
v. Service Motive
A profession involves the application of expert knowledge for the service of
society. A doctor earns his living out of his profession of medicine but service to the
society is upper most in his mind. Management aims at providing maximum
efficiency at the lowest cost so as to serve the interests of employers, consumers,
society and the nation at large.
The above discussion shows that management in some respects looks like a
profession but it does not have certain features which constitute a recognised
profession. It has an organised body of specialised knowledge and have developed
facilities for formal education and training. It still does not have a body which should
regulate the entry into management profession and also there is a lack of code of
conduct for its members. At the moment management cannot be called a profession
but there is no doubt that it is emerging as a profession.
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the German sociologist Max Weber. He suggested that rationality in human behaviour
was most desirable and bureaucracy offered the best means of achieving such
rationality In organized affairs. After a careful examination of the relationship
between power and authority, Weber attributed authority to bureaucracy. After all
bureaucracy is a type of organisation designed to fulfil large scale administrative tasks
by rationally recruited competent people. Here bureaucracy will have authority which
is based on legitimacy and follow certain rules and regulations. Therefore,
bureaucracy upon which public administration relies heavily today developed certain
attributes like division of-labour in the tasks, hierarchy of arrangement in offices,
fixed set of rules generally in written form, maintenance of records containing
administrative acts and rulings, the officials are not influenced by groups and remain
neutral and functional specialization in the form of ability to perform particular tasks.
In fact educational administration is totally influenced by Webers theory of
bureaucracy for a long time. Now it is being influenced by ideas of scientific
management.
1.9. QUESTIONS
I Very short answer Questions ( 1 Mark)
1. Write the meaning of Management
2. Write any four objectives of Educational Management
3. What are the types of Educational Management
4. What do you mean by centralization
5. What is Laissez faire system
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CHAPTER-II
EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
STRUCTURE
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Administration Vs Management
2.2 Classification of educational administration
2.3 Characteristics of educational administration
2.4 Types of educational administration
2.5 Aims and objectives of educational administration
2.6 Functions of educational administration
2.7 Difference between administration and supervision
2.8 Questions
2.9 Suggested readings
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2.0. INTRODUCTION
In this second chapter, Historical Legacy of educational Administration,
Administration Vs Management, Education and Educational Administration, are
discussed in detail Classification of educational Administration, Characteristics, scope
and Types of Educational Administrations are Explained Features of educational
administration and Functions of educational administrations are also described in this
chapter.
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equipment and instructional supplies. Beyond these two elements are ideas, laws and
regulations, community needs, and so on. All of these have a bearing on the
educational process. The integration of these element into a whole is educational
administration.
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harmonious balance between the extremities of centralised and decentralised types of
educational administration. Basic principles of Democratic Educational
Administration are : (a) Principle of respect for the dignity of man; (b) Principle of
Equalitarianism; (c) Principle of freedom; and (d) Principle of sharing responsibility.
This theory has led to three types of educational authorities :
(a) The Public - The Federal Government and the State Governments
(b) The Quasi - Public - The Universities and the local bodies.
(c) The Private - Institution organised by (i) Educational Trusts,
(ii) Philanthropists and (iii) Missionaries, etc.
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It is universally accepted that the nature of educational administration is found
in both centralisation and decentralisation. For example, there exists centralised
administration in France while in America, there is decentralisation in it, though both
of them work on democratic lines
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1. Production:
It means realisation of the goals of education must be set up by the society.
Educational administration has, therefore, to Interpret the aims of education to the
educational workers such that they may shape the final product of education in the
desired form and shape..
4. Person
Personnel are especially important for the educational enterprise where the
whole work is centred round the impact of one type of human beings, the teachers,
upon another type of human beings, and the students. The scope of educational
administration, therefore, spreads over the personnel.
5. Coordination:
Ensures the close inter-relations and integration of different functional
activities of the organization such as personnel, finance and, production of desired
results for integration and realisation of the desired goals.
Jesse B. Sears in his book The Nature of the Administration Process, has
pointed out the scope of educational administration more specifically as follows :
Scope of Aspects
1. Legal Structure
It refers to the law, rules and regulations to be framed in order to determine the
agencies of education, their types, powers and standards of educational institutions to
be run by them, and to decide the question of decentralisation of management and to
set up organisational and administrative machinery.
2. Pupils
Pupils are focal point of the educational enterprise. It is for them that the entire
process of education and its constituents exist. Rules of their admission, promotion,
discipline, etc. have to be framed and implemented. It is therefore, necessary to
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determine the individual and social purposes and procedures in accordance with their
needs, interests and capacities and the demands of society.
3. Personnel
Manpower plays the key role of education and proper attention has to be paid
to them. Good service conditions, attractive salaries, security of tenure, welfare,
service and retirement benefits have to be offered to bring in the best available talent.
Schemes for their direction, guidance and supervision have to be drawn up. They have
to be selected recruited trained and their qualification and Standards have to be
prescribed
4. Finance
It includes income and expenditure and their accounting and auditing. Rules
and auditing have to be framed or budgeting spending and controlling of funds and
resources. Decisions have to be taken about sharing of the cost of education among
the centre, the States and the Local Bodies. The policy of taxation and prescribing
fees; etc. has to be formulated
5. Curriculum
Administration has to pay close attention to, teaching-learning programme and
process and to matters of preparation, selection and supply of textbooks and other
instructional material Educational administration has to deal with curriculum
construction and its day-to-day development. It also has to look after the continuo
evaluation and progressive improvement of the educational programme which are
urgently called for in view of the constantly and rapidly occurring scientific,
technological and social changes.
6. Physical Facilities
Important services, of pupil such as health and recreation and psychological
services to testing and records, guidance and counselling and co-curricular activities,
etc. have to be organised and administered for the benefit of the young. It comprises
of the area dealing with the problem of provision and maintenance of the school plant,
equipment and Supplies, their production, purchase upkeep accounting, etc.
7. Public Relations
Educational administration should maintain effective public relations. It
involves maintenance of records, issuing periodical reports, information and bulletins
about past achievement and future proposals. Administration should encourage
community visitation and secure its participation and cooperation by a process of give
and take.
1. External Administration
In India the framework of rules besides Prescribing the curriculum and
textbooks, scales of salaries of various categories of the staff, terms and conditions of
their service, code of conduct, tuition fees for various classes, fixation of the duration
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of the school session and determination of financial aid and regulation other matters
for the welfare of the staff and students, flow from the Education Department of the
government. The schools have to teach the material as prescribed or recommended for
different classes by the Education Department. Under such a system, the teachers,
administrators and educationists function in a team spirit. This hinders the teachers
initiative. The best form of administration system therefore is that in which the
teachers effectively participate in the affairs of the schools. Only as a result of the
corporate functioning of all these can the objectives be attained for which the
particular institution is started.
2. Internal Administration
It is necessary that the heads of schools are given an opportunity to have their
say in educational matters. If they are not granted the freedom in dealing with these
matters, they would not be able to make use of their initiative and would only be
following the line dictated by higher authorities. The internal educational
administration means the system under which the headmaster of a school manages
and directs the day-to-day programmes and activities with the help of his colleagues
and students in accordance with the general rules and regulations laid down by the
Education Department. A democratic outlook should be brought to bear on the
internal management of the school so that not only educationists, administrators and
teachers but also the students be held equally accountable for the administration of the
school if balanced coordination is to be established between their activities and
functions. Therefore, when India has chosen the path of democracy, it becomes
desirable that the schools should be allowed some autonomy with regard to the
selection of textbooks and teaching methods.
1. Good of education.
2. Providing high chairs to the best fitted persons.
3. Providing proper facilities, freedom and encouragement to the meritorious
teachers.
4. Integration of school administration.
5. Understanding mass psychology
6. Encouragement of direct democracy in schools.
7. Justice.
8. Implementing the educational plans in an efficient and effective manner.
9. Persons in the key posts as educational administrators.
10. Expansion of education.
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It should be pertinent to elaborate on these points in a little detail that warrant
their significance:
1. Good of Education
Educational administration, should aim at the good of education. Graham
Balfour has stated very aptly, The purpose of educational administration is to enable
the right education from the right teachers, at a cost within the means of the it which
will enable students to profit by their learning, Kandel wines, says Fundamentally
the purpose of educational administration pupils and teachers under such conditions
as will more successfully promote the end of education.
It is seen that biological seniority brings to high positions the old- timers and
not those best fitted brilliant younger staff, capable of doing great things for the
reconstruction of education. Some old- timers are exhausted men and women, whose
main business would be met and satisfied with the pension case finalisation and
post- retirement benefits.
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5. Understanding Mass Psychology
A Director of Education or an Inspector of Schools or a Headmaster must
frequently meet the young students to get a feel about of their changing moods, needs,
emotions and fancies. No officer can rule the young on the strength of power alone.
He has to set right things by correcting emotional in balances by understanding their
psychology. The authorities of school administration must understand mass
psychology of students and teachers, and provide them necessary leadership.
7. Justice
A teacher, being an intellectual worker, can work better, if he feels satisfied
with the way he is being administered. Unless he gets the peace of mind, he cannot
teach in the class. Educational administrator should aim at giving justice to the
teachers in respect of recruitment, promotion and transfer. For this, he must frame fair
and just rules to guide him and put a stop to any favouritism and bias. Effective
teaching can be stimulated by right method of recruitment based on worth and merit,
uniform rules of transfer and promotion for every teacher, as it creates an atmosphere
of peace and satisfaction.
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(l) Secure active cooperation of the community.
(m) Motivate students for more and better organised efforts.
(n) Motivate teachers to get involved in the progress of students.
(o) Encourage innovation and experimentation with new ideas.
(p) Provision of pre-service and in-service training facilities for the teachers.
P. Adams
Adams has clarified the difference between educational administration and
supervision in the following words Administrative functions are concerned primarily
with the material facilities and the operation of the schools. Supervisory functions are
concerned with improving the learning situation.
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2. The chief function of education is integrated in the operation of institution,
while supervision takes care of the progress of the teachers running the
institution.
3. The responsibility of construction of institution- library, laboratory, etc. lies
with the administration; while supervision is directly concerned with the
teaching work to be carried out in the institution.
4. Division of time into periods, sending teachers to the classes as may be
needed, determination of time for co-curricular and extra curricular
activities are decided by the administration; while supervision strives to
bring progress to all elements in the process of teaching, such as pupils,
teachers, teaching aids, etc.
2.8. QUESTIONS
I Very Short answer Question (1 Marks)
1. What are the types in Educational Administration
2. Which is an integrated process in education system?
3. Define educational administration
4. What is the relationship between education and educational Administration?
5. What is meant by Legal structure: in educational Administration?
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CHAPTER-III
PLANNING AND ADMINISTRATION
STRUCTURE
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Features of Educational Administration in a Democratic State
3.2 Factors influencing Educational Administration
3.3 Environmental Factors Affecting Educational Administration
3.4 Theories of Educational Administration
3.5 Principle of Democratic Educational Administration
3.6 Distinction between Educational Administration and Educational
Management
3.7 Questions
3.8 Suggested readings
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3.0. INTRODUCTION
This third chapter deals with supervision, theories of educational
administrations, Features of educational administration in a democratic state.
Difference between educational administration and educational Management are also
given in detail.
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3. Administrative ability includes the activities of perception or observation,
vitality, motivation or encouraging workers, emotional stability, following the
rules and social qualities of responsibility
4. Attitude, values, habits include perception and beliefs of administration and
other workers.
5. Cooperation is essential for functioning. It requires group decision about the
problems and activities.
6. Assigning the duties according to the abilities of the workers and teachers.
7. Diagnosing abilities is also essential to diagnose the cause of problems of
educational administration so that remedial action can be taken.
8. Educational objective has the important role of designing the programmes for
an institution,
9. Objectives of administration influence the organising, directing and
controlling of activities.
10. Interference of authority by the state and centre influences the educational
administration.
11. Physical and intellectual abilities should be considered in assigning
responsibilities and accountabilities of various personnel associated with it.
1. Nature of Community
It include (i) Nature of community, (ii) Impact of other communities,
(iii) Complexity of the community, (iv) Power conflicts in the communities
(v) Standard of families, (vi) Characteristics, of community.
2. Nature of State
It has the direct control and influence on educational administration in a
democratic state, the nature of educational administration is a decentralised system. It
includes the following factors (i) Statutory provision of education,
(ii) Government functioning, (iii) Financial provision or grants-in-aid system,
(iv) Form of government.
3. Social Customs
It includes (i) Complexity of life (ii) Physical resources, (iii) Human
resources, (iv) Status of management, (v) Quality of family life, (vi) Educational
values, (vii) Power conflicts, and (viii) Institutional organisation.
4. Social Philosophy
Educational administration has to provide for inculcating ideals and values of
the society. Educational administration is also influenced by social philosophy of the
society. Educational system should be representative of the culture of a society.
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3.4. THEORIES OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
Meaning of Theory
Daniel E. Griffiths has stated, A good theory is one which reveals
uniformities in the subject matter of the theory; which enables one to predict
precisely; that is, in accordance with established criteria and guides to action or
answers which work is to be done in terms of standards determined by the
profession and occupied by the public. A theory which performs these tasks for the
practising administrator has a great value. A theory must have a theme and must be
logical and consistent.
A theory should have the following constituents
1. A theory must be proper and detached.
2. Facts so selected should be related to the theme and should contribute to the
development of the theory.
3. Observations must be easily understandable and describable in enough detail.
4. Theory should be as explicit as possible.
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8. Cooperation is a synthesis of three basic factors-physical, biological and
social.
9. An increasing degree of cooperation implies an increasing degree of
complexity of morality. High degree of moral complexity cannot be attained
without high technological efficiency.
10. Disturbance in cooperation results in false ideologies, prejudices, interests,
etc., of the leaders of formal organisations.
11. Social integration depends upon development of leadership. In the preparation
of leaders mistakes have been committed. In the past, morality was more
emphasised than technological capacity. At present, greater emphasis is laid on
development of technological proficiency than on morality. In both cases the
result is the same-imbalance and disequilibrium. Both are equally important
and necessary for good administration,
12. Society is made up of complex organisations.
13. Wrong decisions are made due to wrong perception of the above factors of the
environment and they limit the scope and success of cooperation.
14. Cooperation depends upon leadership, which is another name for high
personal capacity for technological attainment and moral complexity.
15. The understanding of the three factorsphysical, biological and social are
necessary for the study of normal organisations.
1. Principle of Planning.
2. Principle of Dynamism.
3. Principle of Justice.
4. Principle of Leadership.
5. Principle of Freedom.
6. Principle of Sharing.
7. Principle of Flexibility.
8. Principle of Evaluation.
9. Principle of Co-operation.
10. Principle of Equality.
11. Principle of Competency.
12. Principle of Participation.
13. Principle of Recognition of the Individual growth.
14. Principle of Research.
1. Principle of Planning
Planning focusses the professional activities on the achievement of
educational objective. It makes school administration pointed rather than routine
inspection or vague observation. Planning ensures that the head of the institution
knows the needs of the school and has selected those items which particularly need
35
attention. Effective planning is necessary to secure a unification of effort, better
coordination among the teachers and dministrators and to help in choosing to improve
techniques of administrators. Effective planning also leads to an examination of the
outcomes and the finalisation of procedures to be adopted, in terms of needs and
resources available.
2. Principle of Dynamism
Education is a dynamic process. It has passed through many ages and stages in
the process of evolution and at every stage it acted differently according to the then
existing social conditions. The school administrator has to move with time. Dynamic
education demands dynamic administrator.
3. Principle of Justice
Respect for justice quickens the solution of problems and disputes. Lack of
justice leads to non cooperation among the persons involved in the process of
learning. A head of the institution should not show undue favour. He should do justice
to all. For want of justice, many employees be frustrated. In the centres of learning
due respect must be paid to the rules and regulations.
4. Principle of Leadership
The best society is composed of men who attain their fullest potential. The
democratic leader rules upon the method of intelligence. Mans problems can be
solved through his intellectual efforts. The modern school administrator should be a
democratic educational leader. He should value the dignity and worth of the
individual. Man is important and things are to the welfare of man. He also relies on
cooperation and group action in the solution of common problems. When the
principle of leadership is followed in the field of school administration, it exhibits
certain convictions as follows:
5. Principle of Freedom
Democratic administration allows freedom, ensures suitable opportunity to all
persons to express their unique personality. The students should be allowed academic
freedom. There should not be any imposition on the students from the authorities
concerned. A teacher in the classroom should be allowed freedom to follow any
method which he feels is suitable. He should also be free to criticise, to reason out
anything, to present different viewpoints and to ask questions.
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6. Principle of Sharing
Mutually shared purposes have two important aspects-(a) sharing the largest
number and variety and purposes among the persons involved in the process of
administration, (b) sharing with other groups. Development of policies and the
educational programmes become a joint responsibility of all those who participate in
the process. The participants must have interest in planning, executing and evaluating
the process of administration. The principles of sharing put more brains together for
better work. The teachers, the students, the administrators and the public share
responsibility to achieve success in the field of education. The success and failure are
also equally shared and each is held responsible for his part in the joint enterprise.
7. Principle of Flexibility
A democratic administrator believes in changes, not in rigidity. He modifies
his plan of action in the light of his experiences and also on the constructive advice of
his colleagues. Democratic administration should not follow any stereo-type ideas to
bring about better results in policy and approaches.
8. Principle of Evaluation
The principle of evaluation should be adopted to assess the success and failure
of a programme of administration. It helps to understand the defects in the programme
and to modify them by changing the nature of educational administration.
9. Principle of Cooperation
The principle of cooperation is the basis of democratic administration. Dewey
once said, A society which makes provision for participation in the good of all its
members on equal terms and which secures flexible judgement of its institutions
through interaction of the different form of associated life is so far as democratic.
37
rules of administration which he and his colleagues should follow rigidly, making no
discrimination in their application; and lastly he should want no special privileges.
38
On the basis of his study, the main functions of an administrator have been
identified as school management, organisation, coordination and general direction.
Therefore, an administrator has to undertake organisational work also, such as
allotment of duties to teachers who have been appointed with the needs in yew and
arranging the routine in such a way so as to get the maximum value from the
equipment. The ability of the administrator lies in directing and coordinating the
physical and human factors in the school in such a way as may help in imparting best
possible education to the children. It would thus be evident that organisation and
administration are not only intimately inter-connected but are also inter-dependent.
3.7 Question
I Very short Answer-Questions ( 1 Marks)
1) Define Educational Management
2) What are the two types of Factors influencing Educational Administration
3) Name the four Environmental Factors that affects Educational Administration
4) Write the Essentials of a theory.
5) What is meant by Principle of Justice in a Democratic Educational
Administration?
39
CHAPTER-IV
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING PROCESS
STRUCTURE
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Meaning and scope of planning
4.2 Dimensions of educational planning
4.3 Constraints on educational planning
4.4 Types of educational planning
4.5 Stages of planning
4.6 Educational planning as a part of economics of education
4.7 MBO and Approaches of educational planning
4.8 Alternatives and decisions
4.9 Merits and Demerits of Educational plan
4.10 Decision Making
4.11 Types of Decisions and Process
4.12 Administration Problems in Decision Making
4.13 Questions
4.14 Suggested readings
4.0. INTRODUCTION
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The history of planning is deeply rooted in human history. It is well
remembered that nearly 2500 years ago Plato mentioned about planning in his
Republic as for as educational planning is concerned, it was developed in the
western countries during the 19th century whenever there was some sort of planning in
building schools and training teachers. But planning in the modern sense of the term
of objective assessment of the alternative ways of allocating resources by means of
specialized techniques in order to co-ordinate the development of education with
overall economic and social development, is rather a new concept. In fact the
systematic attempt at educational planning took place in 1923, the year of the year of
the first five year plan in USSR. P.H. Coomb said that educational planning, in its
broadest genetic sense is the application of national, systematic analysis to the process
of educational development with the aim of making education more effective and
efficient in responding to the needs and goals of its students and Society.
Every day the head of the educational institution has to decide about doing or
not doing a particular thing. A decision is the selection from among alternatives.
41
In fact the first systematic attempt at educational planning took place in 1923,
the year of the, first five-year plan in USSR. After the World War II the countries,
which were involved in the reconstruction of their economies felt serious manpower
shortages. Soon the educational systems were physically restored and were hit by an
explosive increase in the student numbers partly by demographic factors and partly by
the post-war urge for democratization of educational opportunity. This led the western
economists to become more manpower minded. This manpower consciousness has
ultimately made them to adopt educational planning as a part of the overall economic
planning.
1. Significance
Every educational problem has some significance. The degree of significance,
depends on the socio-economic importance of the proposed educational objective. To
achieve this objective the decision makers must have access to clear cut guidelines
and the proposed criteria for evaluation. The significance of the decision taken can be
evaluated to reach the objective.
2. Feasibility
There are many factors that determine the feasibility of the plan, not the least
of which is the legitimate and appropriate authority. Along with political
42
authorization, technical feasibility and the receptivity of the public and cost estimates,
there are other aspects that should be given realistic consideration.
3. Relevance
The concept of relevance is absolutely essential in educational planning as it
directly deals with people. The relevance of an educational plan is associated with the
process of the organizational setup, the assurance that the plan will converge more
specifically on the solution of the problem as times goes by and that the plan is indeed
near the optimal process for attaining the specific objectives. The plan must be
relevant to the social and educational needs of the people.
4. Definitiveness
The concept of definitiveness should take into consideration the maximum
number of contingencies that may occur in the process and the precautions to be
observed to overcome the occurrence of the unexpected events that would divert
resources from the planned objective.
5. Parsimoniousness
The principle of parsimony in educational planning indicates that the plan
should be outlined in the simplest manner so that alternative methods can be gauged
to make the plan prudent.
6. Adaptability
The educational plan should be dynamic rather than static. It should be
constantly undergoing change as information is fed back into the system. Through the
use of variety of processes, the adaptable or flexible plan can be designed to avoid the
unexpected and should be suited to the changing situations and circumstances.
7. Time
Associated with time there are several important factors. One aspect of time
deals with the natural cycle of the subject matter under planning. Another is the
immediate need to change an unbearable situation. A constant watch makes the plan
conscious of its targets and their achievement on time. Finally time affects our ability
to evaluate present educational needs in relation to those of the future.
8. Monitoring
Monitoring involves the establishment of educational criteria to assure that the
various components of the plan are working effectively. To assure smooth operation,
procedures should be established to allow the educational planner to determine the
reasons for the variations within the educational planning system. A constant
monitoring enables the planner to make alterations in the plan so that the plan is
appropriately adapted to the changing conditions.
9. Subject-matter
The subject what is being planned is the final dimension of planning. Seven
subjects are given by William P. Maclure. They are as follows:
Goals and objectives
A. Programmes and services
B. Human resources
C. Physical resources
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D. Finance
E. Governmental structure, and
F. Social context
All educational plans are devised on the basis of time dimension. They are
either a long term perspective plans or medium or short term plans of ten or five years
of duration. The set goals need to be achieved within the time limit and with given
resources.
44
3. Compulsive Educational Planning
It specifics in great detail what should and expected to be done. Its major
technique depends on the fact that it is rewarded if successful and punished if
unsuccessful. It is functioning upon the directives given by an authority.
45
4.5. THE STAGES OF PLANNING
Each educational plan must pass through four stages so as to make it an
effective planning. The four stages go in a logical sequence and are interconnected.
The following are the four stages of a plan.
a.Formulation
b.Adoption
c.Execution, and
d.Supervision.
1. Formulation
At this stage, the objectives and priorities of education are considered. The
objectives of the society are given by their chosen leaders. These objectives must
again depended on the needs of the society. The planning has to take the priorities also
into account at this stage after enumerating the objectives, the targets will be
formulated accordingly.
2. Adoption
The formulated plan must be adopted without any changes. If changes are
incorporated once the plan is formulated, it cannot be adopted effectively. Therefore at
this stage, the plan has to be accepted as formulated by the planning authority.
3. Execution
At this stage various aspects of educational system and society must be taken
into account. Here the planner has to analyse teachers, students, pedagogy, society and
institutions so as to implement the plan effectively even at the grass-root level. The
execution of the plan involves programme and projects.
4. Supervision
Constant supervision at various stages of the process of educational planning
is essential. It helps the planner to note the pitfalls at the formulation or at the
implementation stage. Therefore, a plan should be supervised at the line of
administration, financial requirements and its proper utilization etc, so as to make
suggestions for improvement in the making of future plans. It also helps to correct
certain flaws in planning at the end of the period of the plan or during the review of
the plan.
The institution level planning basically agrees with the educational planning at
the macro level and it is a part of the over all educational planning. In a decentralised
educational planning, the planning starts from the institution. Each of such plan
involves the usual stages of formulation, adoption, execution and supervision.
However, educational planning at the institution level differs markedly at the
execution stage since it is a micro level planning.
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the importance of it. A number of educationists stressed the importance of it in a
seminar conducted by the Asian Institute of Educational Planning and Administration
in 1970. They have also explained that the effective implementation of plan
programmes depend upon the commitment of the teachers, students and society at
large to the plan programmes.
School location planning comes in handy for the government which plans for
the restructuring and expansion of its enrollments. It also helps the planner to match
the manpower requirements of a region with that of the inputs into the school. The
major solution to the problem of school location planning lies in deciding the
threshold population. The threshold population is the minimum total population
necessary in a particular locality to establish a school. For instance, if a primary
school has a capacity of 200 (5 classes of 40 places), if the national school population
is 20 per cent of the total population and the rate of enrolment at this stage is 100 per
cent, the threshold population for the establishment of the school comes to 100 (i.e.,
200 / 20 x 100). In other words, if we want to establish a school with 200 students, we
need a population of 1000. If the rate of enrolment is more or less than 100 per cent,
the threshold population change accordingly. Generally, the following formula is used
to arrive at the threshold population.
T = SxC/axe
Where T = threshold population (total)
S = Number of classes per school
a = relevant age group as a percentage of total
population
e = target enrolment rate
The school location planning is solved once the planner establishes the
interaction between the threshold population and the range pf the maximum distance
the children are expected to travel everyday. The range of distance that the children
are expected to travel provides the catchment area to draw up the maps. Therefore, in
order to operate a primary school in a particular area, the norms like the threshold
population or range of distance or target enrolment need to be altered to suit the
conditions. The better method for a school location planning is to prepare a set of
tables like the one given in Table 10.1. Then the table will provide the various
possibilities of locating a school.
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The institutional planning in the education system thus must start with a
school location planning. After identifying the location of the school under the given
norms, it would be easier for the planner to elaborate the institutional planning.
48
many of the developing countries have followed it in their economic planning)
(Clapter-3 examines the approaches in detail).
4.7. MBO:
Management by objectives
Management defining formal goals and attaining them with frequent planning
and evaluation, a business approach applied in educational administration.
49
admitted, and (5) converting the projected number of entrants into the projected
number of places by making additional estimates concerning the length of
studies and the number of foreign students. This will give ultimately the number
of places required in a future year.
b. The more useful social demand is the one which is based on reducing the
inequalities of educational opportunities in the society and thus increasing the
demand for places. There are various factors like the inequalities of access to
education due to historical and traditional factors, regional disparities, economic
and social disadvantages, the inequalities of the parental income and
occupational backgrounds and due to other reasons, some groups are remained
as educationally disadvantaged. Now such groups will be provided all the
support through a state policy and the inequalities are reduced. Here .the aim is
to attack the relevant factors that are depressing the demand and will provide a
policy guidance to the planner.
c. The absolute social demand is based on the full utilization of the abilities, of the
pupils and adjusting the system to the needs of the pupil. There are some
disadvantaged groups like the socially and mentally disadvantaged for whom the
system will provide opportunities to correct the handicaps and bring the pupils
to the main stream. It gives full support and opportunity to develop the students
abilities through innovations in teaching methods.
The above categories which come within the social demand for education
method brings to light that this method of educational planning is simple to follow.
What it is needed here is the basic demographic data with different age groups and
their projections for a future year taking into consideration the above three aspects of
social demand for education. This approach has been followed in all the OECL
countries particularly in U. K, France and Yugoslavia. But, the experience of these
countries tell us that the forecasts and the actual social demand have never coincided
due to the structural changes in the economy and society which are seldom taken care
of in the social demand for education approach.
A Synthesis
It is very difficult to say which of the three methods is the most appropriate to
forecast the enrolments in the educational system. It all depends upon the level of
development of the economy, the state policy towards education and the traditions
followed in the planning of the educational system that determine the use of an
approach. However, it is not true that the above approaches are mutually exclusive
and in fact it is possible to use a combination of any two or three of the above
approaches in planning the educational system in a country. Further, each approach
may help the Planner at different stages of a plan like the rate-of-return which helps
the planner at the formulation stage and the manpower approach at the final stage. The
use of the approach ultimately depends upon the skill of the planner and the purpose
for which they are used.
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function in - relation with each other. The UNESCO indicated that the decisions
relating to these items can be considered as first, second and third order decisions.
The first order decisions are those that relate to technological designs, that is,
to interactions between physical instruction and the social environment. The
educational technology today is intertwined with the revolution in information
technology. Therefore, it requires the collaboration of educationists, planners, social
scientists and specialists in information technology. Developing options and making
choices in this area are important.
The second order decisions are those involving choices among institutional
possibilities for carrying out various functions of the educational organisation. It
requires the knowledge of organizational theory, the social background of the
institute, and the principles of public administration. An understanding of these will
provide information as to what kind of technology is to be selected for the institution,
the process of education, etc.
The third order decisions are those that create the rewards and incentives that
motivate all the people who are concerned about education. It is necessary to motivate
the best administrators to come into the education system and create environment for
them to work hard to realize the goals. The success of educational programmes
depends upon the active involvement of students, parents, leaders and others who are
interested in the overall development of the society. This requires a package of
rewards and a of motivation to involve people in the mission.
As the plan is linked with the manpower requirements of the economy, the
problem of surplus of educated manpower and thus the unemployment will be
eliminated.
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due to red-tapism, favouritism and other such ills. But the advantages attained by the
society by a systematic planning outweigh the demerits of it. As a result many
countries especially the developing countries are resorting to planning to solve their
educational and man power Problem.
Characteristics
Following are the characteristics of decision-making:
1. Decision-making is based on rational thinking. The manager tries to force
various possible effects of a decision before deciding a particular one.
2. It is a process of selecting the best from among alternatives available.
3. It involves the evaluation of various alternatives available. The selection of
best alternative will be made only when pros and cons of all of them are
discussed and evaluated.
Before defining the problem the manager has to identify critical or strategic
factors of the problem. Chester Bernard has pointed out that the theory of the strategic
factor is necessary for the appreciation of the process of decision-making. He
52
emphasises that in decision-making the analysis required is actually a search for the
strategic factors. These factors may be the root cause of obstacles in developing a
proper solution to the problem under discussion. If we wish to increase the yield of
grain in a certain field, on analysis it may be found that there is a lack of potash. The
potash will be a strategic or limiting factor in this case. Once the problem is properly
defined then it will be easily solved. So the first important factor is the determination
of problem.
2. Analysis of Problem
After defining the problem, the manager should analyse it. He should collect
all possible information about the problem and then decide whether it will be
sufficient to take a decision or not. Generally, managers complain that they seldom get
sufficient information which they would have liked to have. Sometimes it may be
costly to get additional information or further information may not be possible. In the
words of Peter Drucker, To make a sound decision, it is not necessary to have all the
facts; but it is not necessary to know what information is lacking in order to judge
how much of a risk the decision involves, as well as the degree of precision and
rigidity that the proposed course of action can afford. Whatever information is
available should be used to analyse the problem. If there are deficencies in
information then manager must judge the degree of risk involved in the decision.
4. Evaluation of Alternatives
After developing, various alternatives, the next step is to evaluate them and
select the right one. The pros and cons of different proposals should be foreseen. The
desirable and undesirable consequences of adopting each alternative should be tested.
This exercise will enable the manager to see the risk involved in each course of
action.
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combined. There may be a situation where none of the alternatives present favourable
situation. Not accepting any alternative is also an important decision. The manager
should develop new alternatives in such a situation.
5. Experience
The oftenly repeated proverbs like history repeats itself or experience is the
best teacher provide help in decision-making. The past experience acts as a guide.
The difficulties faced and problems encountered earlier can be well judged and
collective measures can be taken in advance. The past experience should not blindly
be relied upon. In case the situations in the past and at present are similar then earlier
alternatives may be selected.. But there may be a change in situation and the old
decisions may not hold good in future. Hence the decisions should not be the same.
While relying on experience the conditions prevailing in the past, at present and
possible effects in future should be properly considered before making a decision. The
experience is an asset with a manager but is should not be blindly relied upon.
6. Experimentation
Experimentation is used in scientific enquiry. The alternatives are put to actual
practice and the one giving better results is selected. Experimentation, however, is not
possible in management. It will be costly to put every alternative to practice.
However, it may be used in a limited way. For example, when a new product is put in
the market, it can be marketed in a limited area to see the reaction of consumers. If the
management wants to install a new organisational set up then it may be first applied in
a branch before being used in the whole business. It will always be better to take a
decision on the basis of facts, study, analysis of results, etc.
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organisation. The power to take organisational decisions can be delegated from a
superior to the subordinate.
An executive can also take decisions about himself. Such decision are known
as personal decisions. These generally affect the persona life of decision-maker. The
power to take such decisions cannot b delegated to anybody else.
Strategic decisions are very important and are taken at top level management.
They relate to policy matters and need the development and analysis of alternatives.
Strategic decisions influence organisatioflal structure, objectives, working conditions,
finances, etc. These decisions are basic and have long-term effects.
Operative decisions, on the other hand, are less important and are related with
day-to-day operations of the business. These decisions are taken in the light of
policies decided by the top management. Middle and lower level management take
these decisions since these involve actual execution and supervision. Whether to
allow bonus to employees or not is a policy-decision. Once it is decided to pay bonus
then making calculations of payments to be made to different employees is an
operative decision.
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Group decisions are taken by a group of persons. The decisions of Board of
Directors or Committees come under this category. These are, generally, important
decisions and relate to policy matters. The decisions are taken after a thorough
discussion among persons who are assigned this work. The problem of delay in taking
group decisions may create difficulties but otherwise these are well discussed
decisions.
1. Correctness of Decision
Whether the decisions taken are correct or not is the first problem faced by the
management. If the decision is not correct then it will mean a waste of money and
efforts. The correctness of a decision depends on the calibre of decision-maker,
information available and its analysis. If proper facts and figures are not available
then decision will be based on wrong premises. When they are based on a correct
problem and its proper analysis then decisions will also be correct.
2. Timing of Decision
Timing of decisions is the other difficulty faced by management. It is
important to take decisions at the most opportune time. The determination of that time
in itself is a problem. The decisions will be in vain if not at right time.
4. Participation in Decision-making
The best way of arriving at important decisions is to get the views of
concerned persons before finalising them. Different view points will give a wider
thought to the problem and its analysis. The general tendency in management is to
keep decision-making at top level only. A few persons are given the authority of
making decisions. This type of thinking will create more problems in implementing
them. The view points of those who are to be directly influenced by the decisions may
not be taken into consideration. Such decisions suffer from many lacunae. To avoid
such situations management should try to involve more and more persons in decision-
making process.
5. Decision-environment
The organisational and physical environment prevailing in the business will
have an influence on decision-making process. If the environment is conducive then
there will be proper co-operation and mutual understanding among various persons.
56
The decisions will be accepted in a good spirit and will be honestly implemented. It
will also provide scope for research and creative thinking.
6. Implementation of Decisions
The implementation of decisions is the other difficulty faced by management.
Once a decision taken then all efforts should be made honestly to implement it. The
manager and subordinates should help in proper implementation of decisions.
Manager may consult staff persons or specialists from outside but final decision will
be his own. The responsibility for Implementation decisions will lie on the manager.
When a decision goes wrong then the manager is criticised and when it proves correct
then he may not be applauded. So decision implementation brings a number of
problems which need to be tackled.
4.13. QUESTIONS
I Very Short Answer-Questions (1 Marks)
1. What is MBO?
2. Write the threshold population formula for planning school location
3. Give the meaning of Educational planning
4. What are the types in Educational planning
5. What are the three approaches in Educational Planning
6. Write any two characteristics of decision making
7. Write the four types of Decisions given by peter Drucker
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CHAPTER-V
ORGANISATION
STRUCTURE
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Organisation ManagementDefinition
5.2 Characteristics of Organisation
5.3 Steps in Organisation process.
5.4 Objectives of organization
5.5 Organisations Structure
5.6 Organisation Chart
5.7 Organisation for Education distraction
5.8 Questions
5.9 Suggested readings
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5.0. INTRODUCTION
According to Oliver Sheldon organisation is the process of so combining the
work, which individuals or groups have to perform with the facilities necessary, its
execution, that the duties so performed provide the best channels for the efficient,
systematic positive and Co-ordinated application of the available effort. This
definition emphasis the best use of human resources for achieving good results.
Authority-Responsibility relationship can be obtained through this organisation.
Division of work classification of appointing suitable persons delegation of authority
are some of the steps in organisation process to achieve the aims and objectives of the
educational organisation. Provision for continuity between the various stages of
education is an important characteristic in an educational system. The changes in
secondary educational organisation have included several phases. The setting up of
consolidated or modern schools for rural children helped to equalize opportunities.
Definitions
Different authors have defined organisation from their point of views. Some
define it as a structure while others define it as a process. While structure refers to the
network of relationships in the organisation and process is concerned with assigning
various functions to different people and fixing the responsibilities for accomplishing
them. Some important definitions are discussed to understand the nature of
organisation.
Ralph C. Davis
Organisation is a group of people, who are co-operating under the direction of
leadership for the accomplishment of accomplishment end. According to Davis,
people work under a common leadership for achieving business goals.
Oliver Sheldon
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Organisation is the process of so combining the work, which individuals or
groups have to perform with the facilities necessary its execution, that the duties so
performed provide the best channels for the efficient, systematic, positive, and co-
ordinated application of the available effort. This definition emphasis the best use of
human resources for achieving good results.
Northcott
The arrangement by which tasks are assigned to men and women so that the
individual efforts contribute effectively to some more or less clearly defined purpose
for which they have been brought together. According to Northcott the purpose of an
organisation is to co-ordinate the activities of various problems for achieving pre-
determined objectives.
1. Group of persons
Every function requires the services of people. When two or more persons
come to-gether for undertaking a common work then the organisation comes into
existence. So an organisation exists with a number of persons.
2. Common objectives
There are common objectives to be achieved in an organisation. The
individual objectives of different persons and departments also lead to the
achievement of common organisational objectives. The working in a common
direction is the essence of an organisation.
3. Division of work
The total work of the enterprise is divided into activities and functions.
Various activities are assigned to different persons for their efficient accomplishment.
When one person performs the same work repeatedly he develops specialization in it
and his efficiency improves. So division of work helps in achieving their goals.
4. Co-ordination
When different persons are assigned different tasks then they try to attain them
in their own ways. Individual efforts may not go towards attainment of main business
goals. There is a need to co-ordinate the activities of various persons so that their
efforts lead to the main goals.
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5. Authority-Responsibility Relationship
An organisation consists of various positions arranged in a hierarchy with well
defined authority and responsibility. A relationship of superior-subordinate is
established clearly. The tasks are assigned at each level and necessary authority is
delegated for accomplishing them. Along with authority, responsibility is also fixed
for each work at every level.
6. Communication
An organisation works with an effective communication system. Every order
or information passes on from upward to downward and reactions to such
communications go upward. The communication system informs various persons the
tasks they are to perform and performance reports from, different jobs enable
management to assess the levels of achievement.
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5.4. OBJECTIVES OF ORGANISATION
The organisation aims at the achievement of the following aims:
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5.7. ORGAQNISATION FOR EDUCATION DISTRACTION
The organization of a national educational system mirrors the philosophy
which under girds and orients its civilization. The structural formulae are derived
from the past and affected by the pressures of contemporary changes and of the
developing future. The past is very persistent and enduring in its effect. The structure
of modern education has been derived from such different sources as the Reformation
vernacular elementary school, the Latin grammar secondary school and the medieval
university, with consequent lack of continuity and articulation. As we have seen in the
study of the education systems of various cultural areas, the indigenous history of the
civilization has a definite effect on the on the structure. The general structure of
education has different relationship to the chronological ages of the children and the
major periods of infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.
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articulation between the ecole and the lycee. The United States provides for
continuity by making the last grade of the elementary school a bridge over into the
more specialized subject-matter instruction of the junior high schools. The junior high
school provides a transition into the similar but there are more highly developed
senior high school. The junior college and the first two years of the four-year college
are increasingly organized to provide a better transition into the different tempo and
demands of university work. The structuring of an educational system so that there is
segregation by the sexes is generally the case in Europe and Asia. Co-education is
generally the rule in the United States. The educational systems policy with regard to
streaming. Or homogenous grouping according to ability is another aspect of
structure. England use streaming very effectively. The evolution of school and
educational buildings themselves reflects the organization of education, although
splendid modern teaching is done in ancient structures. A trend had developed toward
campus patterns of organization with buildings grouped on sufficient ground space to
provide for open air sports and outdoor laboratory work, further expanded by
transportation facilities to make more extensive use of the community and regional
opportunities for education.
Pre-elementary education has been made a regular part of the school structure
in France with the ecole maternelle for two to five-year-olds. Russia has built up an
extensive pre-elementary structure. Generally speaking, the pre-school and
kindergarten structure has lagged behind the succeeding stages of the school system.
The internal organization of elementary education differs greatly in various cultures.
In many countries the traditional elementary school organization is that of grades
subdivided into one-room classes or forms, such carrying out its own days work
centered around books, blackboards, and notebooks. In contrast, a more flexible
elementary structure involves movement from the home-room working area to other
facilities: the gymnasium, library, laboratories, art rooms, studios, playing fields, and
gardens.
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fifteen, or sixteen years so that all children could enjoy the benefits of secondary
education on an equal footing in accordance with their age, aptitude and ability. The
setting up of consolidated or modern schools for rural children helped equalize
opportunities. In the more highly developed and mature countries, the trend was to
delay the choice of a vocation which previously had to be made at eleven or twelve
years of age to sixteen years or later. In underdeveloped countries secondary
education is the most critical stage in organization because enough places much be
provided for every talented student in order to provide sufficient recruits for higher
education which produces the highly trained, professional, technical man power
essential to the countrys advancement.
In the United States, the universities are less selective and begin with general
undergraduate education. The universities also became comprehensive, including on
the same campus not only the traditional faculties but also the special schools of
architecture, business administration, education, and engineering. Some specialized
technical schools continue but the trend is toward the more generalized and
comprehensive university. The universities are the most effective organization yet
devised for creating the high-level intellectual manpower essential to the solution of a
wide range of problems caused by the long- range factors which shape the civilization
and its education. Only the university has sufficient intellectual breadth, depth, and
continuity to provide the scholars, students, working areas, libraries and laboratories
which are essential to the ongoing processes of teaching, research, and service. The
university is the peak of the educational pyramid and its graduates can very rapidly
affect their surroundings by their intellectual contributions. The relative growth of
university populations in totalitarian nations and relative growth of university
population in totalitarian and in democrat nations will do much to determine the
outcome of the struggle for power.
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8. How will the organization encourage the employees to achieve good
results in Academic Achievement
9. What is Division of Work?
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CHAPTER VI
CENTRAL STATE BODIES AND DELEGATION DECENTRALISATION
6.0. Introduction
6.1. Centre State relations in Education in India
6.2. National Institute of Educational Planning
6.3. Central board of Secondary education New Delhi
6.4. Delegation Definition
6.5. Principles of Delegation
6.6. Types of Delegation
6.7. Importance of Delegation
6.8. Decentralisation Definition Measurement
6.9. Advantages Disadvantages of Decentralisation
6.10. Distinction between Decentralisation and Delegation
6.11. Some problems of Educational Administration and organizational
competence in India
6.12. Questions
6.13. Suggested Readings
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6.0 INTRODUCTION
Till 1975 education was primarily a state responsibility. It was recently made
a concurrent subject. The central government can also legislate on education and if
there is a difference between a central and a state act, the former will prevail. In the
same way ministry of human resource development has an important role in
Educational system and its organisation. UGC, RSS, KHSM, NVS, NCTE, CBSE,
KVS are some of the statutory organizations having responsibilities to achieve the
aims and objectives of the educational system. General and specific delegation,
formal or informal delegation, written or unwritten delegation downward or upward
delegation etc are some of the process in delegation while taking steps to achieve the
effective, essential organisation work. Centralisation and decentralization also very
important according to the environment, work load, financial condition of an
organisation. So every one should know the impact of decentralization as well as
advantages and disadvantages of decentralization with respect to educational
organisation.
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The periodic Conferences of the State Education Ministers under the
chairmanship of the Union Minister of Education provide another forum of a similar
kind. But it can examine more closely the practical implications and the process of
execution of specific policies and programmes in education. Progress of on-going
schemes can also be reviewed so that States can benefit from the experience of other
States.
Educational problems of concern to one or more States can well be raised for
consideration and discussion among the State Ministers of Education with the advice
of the Union Minister of Education. During these conferences, consultations can also
be had, wherever necessary, with the Member (Education) in the Planning
Commission, Chairman of the U.G.C. and any other central authority who can be
specially invited to the conference. In any case, the conference provides a platform for
the State Ministers of Education to meet and -consider educational issues pertaining to
their States with a focus on the whole country; and in this manner they serve to
strengthen Center-state relationship.
Planning Commission
The Planning Commission is a Central Government organisation. It is charged
with the responsibility of preparing the development plans for the whole country. For
doing so, the Commission will study the available resources and the needs on which
they are to be spent. It is also required to determine priorities, allocate the resources to
meet the needs, and review the planning process as well as the implementation of
individual programmes and schemes. In the field of Education and other State
subjects, the Commission functions with full consultation and advice of the State
governments and concerned Ministries at the Center. The Commission also thus
becomes another agency to bring the Central Education Ministry and the State
Education Departments closer to each other.
The entire draft plan for development, including the principles and policies on
which it is based, is placed by the Planning Commission before the National
Development Council. A meeting of the Council may also be convened for
consultation and advice with respect to the lines on which a new plan is to be
formulated or other major issues connected with it. The Council has on it every State
Chief Minister or the corresponding functionary of a union Territory as its member
along with the Central Ministers. The Prime Minister is the chairman of the Council.
The Constitution of the Council provides the final decision on a plan or any of its
parts can be taken only by the Council. This while the preparation of the plan is
largely done by the Planning Commission (a Central Ogranisation), the final verdict
on it rests on the State Governments at the level of their Chief Ministers. In this
manner, the Council also contributes to strengthen the Centre-state relationship,
particularly in education and other subjects for which the States are primarily
responsible.
Finance Commission
It is a constitutional obligation on the Government of India to appoint every
five years a Finance Commission. This body is to survey the financial status of the
Central and State governments including their financial commitments. On that basis,
it can recommend diversion of part or whole or any of the sources of income of the
Central Government to the State governments. It can also recommend special grants
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from the Centre to one or more State governments for specific or general purposes.
The Commission, again a body set up by the Central Government, studies the matters
on the basis of data and facts supplied by the State governments and in consultation
with them. Since for any kind of economic development today, money is a very
important input, the Finance Commission becomes an agency so bring the Centre and
the States together and strengthen their relationship.
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secondary examinations, the schools are affiliated to the Central Board of Secondary
Education.
The Union Minister of State or Deputy Minister for Education who may be in
charge of secondary education is generally the chairman of the Sangathan as a society.
The head of office of the Sangathan is a Commissioner. It has set up five regional
offices in different parts of the country in order to facilitate administration of the
Vidyalayas. All the viclyalayas are bilingual in character and both English and Hindi
are taught compulsory from class I onwards.
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Objectives
The main objective of the NCTE is to achieve planned and coordinated
development of the teacher education system throughoutthe country, the regulation
and proper maintenance of Norms and Standards in the teacher education system and
for matters connected therewith. The mandate given to the NCTE is very broad and
covers the whole gamut of teacher education programmers including research and
training of persons for equipping them to teach at pre-primary, primary, secondary and
senior secondary stages in schools, and non- formal education, part-time education,
adult education and distance (correspondence) education courses.
1. Assignment of Responsibility
The first step in delegation is the assignment of work or duty to the
subordinate i.e. delegation of authority. The superior asks his subordinate to perform a
particular task in a given period of time. It is the description of the role assigned to the
subordinate. Duties in terms of functions or tasks to be performed constitute the basis
of delegation process.
2. Grant of Authority
The grant for authority is the second element of delegation. The delegator
grants authority to the subordinate so that the assigned task is accomplished. The
delegation of responsibility with authority is meaningless. The subordinate can only
accomplish the work when he has the authority required for completing that task.
Authority is derived from responsibility. It is the power to order or command,
delegated from superior, to enable the subordinate to discharge his responsibility. The
superior may transfer certain rights like spending of money, use of material,
requisition of workers, direct the work of others, etc. The purpose of this transfer is to
enable the subordinate to complete his assigned work properly. There should be a
balance between authority and responsibility. The superior should delegate sufficient
authority to do the assigned work.
3. Creation of Accountability
Accountability is the obligation of a subordinate to perform the duties
assinged to him. The delegation creates an obligation on the subordinate to
accomplish the task assigned to him by the superior. When a work is assigned and
authority is delegated then the accountability is the by-product of this process. The
authority is transferred so that a particular work is completed as desired. This means
that delegator has to ensure the completion of assigned work. Authority flows
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The manager delegates authority to his subordinate while the latter is
accountable to the former. The downward flow of authority and upward flow of
accountability must have parity at each position-of management hierarchy. The
subordinate should be made accountable to only one superior. Single accountability
improves work an discipline.
It is very difficult to define a job and the authority required to accomplish it. If
the superior is not clear about the results expected then it becomes all the more
difficult. It should be clear who should do what so that amount of authority is
delegated. Dual subordination results in conflicts, division of loyalty and lack of
personal responsibility for results.
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responsibility should bear logical relationship with authority delegated. The
subordinate should not be burdened with high performance responsibility with
delegating enough authority. Sometimes the authority is delegated but the concerned
person is not made accountable for its proper use. This will make a case of poor
management. The parity between authority and responsibility will be essential for
achieving efficiency.
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3. Written or Unwritten Delegation
Written delegation is through letters, instructions, circular, etc. Unwritten
delegation is through conventions, customs, etc.
2. Improved Functioning
In the absence of delegation some persons may be burdened with more tasks
while others may not have sufficient work to do. Delegation helps in rationalising the
functioning of an organisation. Work is divided among various persons in such a way
that it is done in an efficient way. Nobody is unduly burdened and no work is left
unattended.
3. Use of Specialists
Delegation enables the use of specialists for taking up different functions.
A production manager will be assigned the task of production, a sales manager will
look after sales department, a lawyer will look after legal matters and so on. The use
of specialists for different functions will improve the quality of work.
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earlier then it will be dangerous to hive them independent tasks straight way.
Delegation is very useful for undertaking expansion and diversification plan.
1. Defining of Assignments
The work of every person should be properly defined. The results expected
from them should be made clear. They should be given sufficient authority to
accomplish the given results.
3. Proper Communication
There should be an open line of communication. By delegating authority
superior does not abdicate his right to interfere or he is not absolved of responsibility.
There may be changed circumstances which require new plans and delegation may
have to see in the new situation. There should be free flow of information between
superior and subordinate. The subordinate should be furnished information with
which to make decisions and to interpret their correctly. Communication is essential
for making delegation effective.
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Decentralisation implies the dispersal of decision-making power at lower
levels of management. When the power to take decisions and formulate policies does
not lie with one person at the top but is passed on to different persons at various
levels, it will be a case of decentralisation. The decisions taken at lower level should
not only be more in number but they should be important also. If insignificant
decisions are allowed to be taken at lower levels then it will not be a case of
decentralisation.
Definitions
McFarland says Decentralisation is a situation in which ultimate authority to
command and ultimate responsibility for results is localised as far down in the
organisation as efficient management of the organisation permits. The delegation of
authority and responsibility is allowed downward upto a level, it is necessary. In
McFarlands views the degree and extent of delegation should be determined as per
the needs of the situation.
1. Number of Decisions
The greater the number of decisions made at lower levels of management, the
greater is the degree of decentralisation.
2. Importance of Decisions
If important decisions are taken at lower levels then degree of decentralisation
will be more. On the other hand if insignificant decisions are allowed at lower levels
then decentralisation will be much less.
3. Effect of Decisions
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If decisions affecting more functions are allowed at lower levels then
decentralisation will be more. On the hand if only operational decisions are made at
lower levels the centralisation will be less. When decisions involving finances are en
at lower level then degree of decentralisation will be more.
4. Checking of Decisions
When decisions are subjected to the approval of supervisors then
decentralisation will be less. Still, it will be less if superiors are to be consulted before
taking certain decisions. If subordinates are free to take decisions of their own then
will be more)
2. Quick Decisions
Under decentralised system decision making powers are delegated to the level
of actual execution, Whenever there is a need for taking a decision, the concerned
executive will decide the things immediately. There is no need to make reference to
the top level for most of the work. It quickens the process of decision-making.
3. Facilitates Diversification
With the expansion and diversification of activities there will be a need to
delegate authority at departmental level. Decentralisation gives enough authority to
persons at various levels for carrying out the required task. The centralised system of
authority will not allow diversification beyond a certain level because decision-
making is reserved by one man only. The organisation will become more and more
complex with the addition of new products and setting up of more units. Decentralised
system will be more suitable for expanding enterprises.
4. Motivation of Subordinates
Under decentralisation subordinates get opportunity for taking decisions
independently. This fulfils the human need for power, independence and status.
Subordinates will realise their importance in the organisation. They wil1 try to put
their maximum efforts so that their performance improves. They get a chance to take
initiative and to try new ideas. The subordinates feel motivated under decentralised
set-up.
5. Sense of Competition
Under decentralised system different departments of units are separate profit
centres. The employees of different departments will compete with each other to show
better results. The sense of competition will improve the performance of all
departments or segments.
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6. Provides Product or Market Emphasis
Since decision-taking is scattered and goes to lower levels of management
there will be more product or market emphasis. The changing tastes and fashions
require prompt decisions. The decentralised system will respond immediately to the
changing situations. The persons concerned with marketing will take quick decisions
as are necessary under the situation.
7. Division of Risk
The enterprise is divided into a number of departments under decentralisation.
Management can experiment new ideas at one department without disturbing others.
This will reduce the risk if things go adverse. Once the experiment is successful it can
be used in other segments also. So risk element can be limited under decentralised
system.
1. Lack of Co-ordination
Under decentralisation each department, unit or section enjoys substantial
powers. They have the powers to formulate their own policies and programmes. It
becomes difficult to co-ordinate the activities of various segments. Moreover, every
segment emphasises its own work only without bothering about others. This creates
more difficulties in co-ordinating activities.
2. Difficulty in Control
Since different units work independently it becomes difficult to control their
activities. Top management will not be able to exercise effective control because it
does not remain in touch with day-to-day activities of various segments.
3. Costly
Decentralised system involves heavy overhead expenses. Every decentralised
division has to be self- sufficient for its activities like production, marketing,
accounting, personnel, etc. A number of persons will be employed to man various
activities. These persons are paid higher salaries involving huge costs. Decentralised
system is suitable for large scale enterprise only. Small-scale units cannot afford to
spend higher overhead expenses.
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4. Lack of Able Managers
Decentralisation System will succeed only if competent persons are employed
to manage various jobs in different segments. Competent persons are not sometimes
available as per the requirements. The system will fail if competent personnel are not
available
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6.12. Questions
I. Very Short Answer Questions (1
Mark)
1. What is NIEPA?
2. What is CBSE? Which year started?
3. In which year NCTE started?
4. What is delegation?
5. What is Decentralization?
6. What are the elements of Delegation?
7. What are the types of Delegation?
8. How decentralization does involve heavy overhead expenses?
II Short Answer-Questions ( 6
Mark)
9. Differentiate Delegation and Decentralization
10. Write the measurement of degree of Decentralization
11. Write the importance of Delegation
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CHAPTER VII
DIRECTION AND SUPERVISION
STRUCTURE
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Meaning and definitions of supervision.
7.2 Need and importance of Supervision.
7.3 Distinction between Direction and supervision.
7.4 Control-direction-Co-ordination
7.5 Qualities of a good Supervisor.
7.6 Techniques of Supervision.
7.7 Principles of Effective Supervision
7.8 Suggestions for Improving Supervising
7.9 Direction Definition Characteristics
7.10 Work of Direction in Administration
7.11 Functions of Direction
7.12 Questions
7.13 Suggested Readings
7.0. INTRODUCTION
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In any field, any work can be done more effectively and perfectly under the
guidance and supervision of a mighty mind. So as in Educational system also
direction, supervision plays a vital role. The job of supervision consists of planning
and allocation of work, instructing the subordinates and providing them direct and
immediate guidance and control.
Both direction and supervision are concerned with initiating action, issuing
orders and instructions to subordinates and ensuring performance of work according
to the plans so as to achieve the objectives. Knowledge or organisation, technical
method, administrative ability inspiring ability, good communication, proper listening
habit are the special qualities of a good supervisor or director who may either
autocratic or democratic or Laissez faire, but he should act according to the situations,
problems, and conditions nature of the work in hand. More over the leaders with
human approach will be accommodate easily with his subordinates to achieve the goal
allotted for them. Co-operation Co-ordination, confidence, responding to the fellow
feelings, proper motivation are the essential qualities of a good Educational leader. It
is very difficult nowadays to get such people as an educational leader. The success of
an Educational system depends upon the skill and ability of the leader in carrying with
him the teaching community the management, the students and the public at large.
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ii.to ensure that work is being performed as required ;
iii.to ensure that subordinates are keeping the time schedule;
iv.to ensure maximum utilisation of resources;
v.to help subordinates in solving their problems ; and
vi.to correct the subordinates wherever they go wrong.
Thus, supervision is concerned with initiating action and checking the work
while it is done. It involves implementations of the plans, policies and decisions in
order to achieve the enterprise objectives. The job of supervision consists of planning
and allocation of work, instructing the subordinates and providing them direct and
immediate guidance and control.
Some of the common definitions of supervision are given below:
In the words of Davis, Supervision is the function of assuring that the work is
being done in accordance with the plan and instruction.
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and how is to do the same. In the absence of supervision, the subordinate may
not understand his duties properly and his performance may not come upto the
mark.
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2. Technical Knowledge
A supervisor must know his job well. He should have sufficient technical
competence and skill to supervise, guide and control his subordinates. He should be
thoroughly familiar with the machines, tools and work methods employed by workers
under his control. He should be able to devise work methods, procedures, schedules
and techniques and make necessary improvements in them.
3. Administrative Ability
A supervisor should be an able and efficient administrator. He is to get the
work done from others and therefore he must be a man of imaginative and creative
thinking. He should possess sharp memory and self-confidence. To be a successful
supervisor one must be quick at making decisions. He should be a man of orderly
thinking.
5. Ability to Communicate
A supervisor is a front-line manager. He is to work as a link between the
management and the workers. Therefore, to be a successful supervisor, he must have
the ability to communicate effectively. It can be rightly said that a good supervisor is a
good communicator and a bad supervisor is a bad communicator.
6. Ability to Listen
To be a good communicator, one has to be a good listener. As a supervisor he
has to listen to the complaints, grievances, difficulties, problems and suggestions of
the workers, he should have patience and ability to listen. All the grievances have to
be listened to and tackled intelligently. Unless, a supervisor listens to the problems of
his workers, he cannot communicate these further to the higher levels of management.
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1. Autocratic supervision
Autocratic supervision which is also known as authoritarian supervision
implies wielding absolute power. Under this type of supervision, the supervisor
expects complete obedience from his subordinates and the work is to be performed
strictly according to his instructions. No suggestions or initiative from workers is
entertained. Fear of punishment generally used to secure complete obedience. This
type of technique of supervision may be applied to tackle indisciplined workers.
3. Democratic Supervision
Democratic supervision or as participative supervision implies compromise
between the two extremes of autocratic and Laissez-fair supervision. Under this
technique, the supervisor acts according to the mutual consent and the decisions are
arrived at after consulting the subordinates. Supervisors are encouraged to make
suggestions and take initative. It provides necessary motivation to the worker by
ensuring their participation and acceptance of work methods. Mutual trust and
confidence are also created which results in job satisfaction and improved the morale
of the workers. Industrial unrest and strikes are also minimised. But this technique
may sometimes cause delay in decision making and lead to indiscipline among
workers.
1. Competent Supervisor
To have effective supervision, we must have a competent supervisor who has
all the qualities of a good supervisor, i.e., he should have the knowledge of
organisation, technical abilities, administrative abilities, ability to instruct, inspire,
communicate, listen, secure cooperation, judge people, leadership qualities, physical
vigour and social sensibility.
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Sound organisational set up is a must for making communication effective. It
is very necessary to recognise the role of supervisors in the accomplishment of
enterprise objectives. A supervisor should be provided status, authority and
compensation commensurate with his responsibilities because he will succeed in
motivating others.
4. Human Approach
To make supervision effective, it is very necessary to adopt an employee-
centred approach and not a work-centred approach. The supervisor should be
co-operative and have helpful attitude towards workers. He should be just and fair
and should not adopt a vindictive approach. If the supervisor is concerned only with
the results and not with worker, he may not be able to achieve the desired results
itself. Further, to make supervision effective, he should give due recognition to
the workers for accomplishment of performance.
3. Training of Supervisors:
There should be a special pre service training programme for the supervisors,
so that they are equipped with all the know-how before undertaking this specialised
and technical job. After occupying the chair the supervisor is in need of constant
in-service refresher courses, workshops and seminars. He should also remain a regular
reader of educational literature, magazines and periodicals in order to be in touch with
the new developments, ideas and practices in the field of education.
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literature and results of research, reports, etc. which have come to the notice of the
supervisors.
9. Supervisors Contacts:
The supervisor should establish contacts with the teachers by holding meetings
with them for social purposes, for the improvement of instruction and for discussing
their difficulties, problems and plan. Mostly these meetings should be informal in
nature and be confined to small groups. After the inspection, a meeting of the staff
may be held to have discussion and convey suggestions when everything is still fresh
in everybodys mind. Teachers get-togethers may be planned periodically for
discussing common problems, urgent needs, and particular experiences. Educational
conferences and exhibitions may also be organised for their benefit. The teachers may
89
also arrange cultural programmes on such occasions. The supervisor should be a
genuine leader whose call spontaneously collects the teachers around him. The
supervisory staff should also cultivate intimate contacts with the public or community.
School has a special place in our democratic society, therefore the supervisors should
help in developing close contacts between the school and the community.
12. Co-ordination:
Proper co-ordination should be effected between the various supervisors,
subject experts and headmasters in order to arrive at the root cause and real nature of a
difficulty or problem. In a way all the agencies involved in the improvement of
instruction should work in close co-operation and co-ordination.
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These institutions may be set up (already set up in some states) to bring about
qualitative improvement in education. These cater to in service education and
professional growth of teachers and supervisors.
7.9. DIRECTION
The word direction means to take work form others. In other words,
directions is to guide or direct a function toward the desired direction. Directions is
also called by the terms of operation, guidance etc. The chief definitions of direction
are as follows:
Direction is a complex function that includes all those actins which are
designed to encourage subordinates to work effectively and effectively in both the
short and long run.
- Koontz and O Donell
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5. There are two chief objectives of direction to make the employees work and
to prepare the administrations take responsibility.
6. Direction is a continuous process.
7.12. QUESTIONS
I Very Short Answer- Questions (1 Mark)
1. Define supervision
2. Define Direction
3. What are the three important elements of any administration?
4. What are the three types of Supervision?
5. Write about the pre service training programme for supervisors
92
12. Give your suggestions for improving supervision.
13. Explain the work of Direction in Administration
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CHAPTER - VIII
EDUCATION LEADERSHIP
Structure
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Leadership Definition
8.2 Nature and characteristic of leadership
8.3 Types of Leaders
8.4 Formal and Informal Leaders
8.5 Leadership Functions
8.6 Process or Techniques of Effective Leadership
8.7 Leadership in improving Educational curriculum and methods of
teaching
8.8 Importance of leadership in Education of Management
8.9 Questions
8.10 Suggested Readings
94
8.0. INTRODUCTION
Jame. J.Cribbin Says Leaderships a process of influence on a group in a
particular situation at a given point of time and in a specific set of circumstances that
stimulates people to strive willingly to attain organizational objectives and satisfaction
with the types of leadership provided. In this unit four types of leaders and their role
are explained clearly. Educational institutions must have the awareness of these
effective leaders teachers heads those who are producing effective, qualitative citizens
to citizens to the nation.
2. Dubin, R.:
Leadership is the exercise of authority and making of decisions.
4. George R. Terry:
Leadership is the activity of influencing people to strive willingly for group
objectives.
5. Hemphill, J.K
Leadership is the initiation of acts which result in consistent pattern of
interaction directed towards the solution of mutual problem.
6. Jame J. Cribbin:
Leadership is a process of influence on a group in a particular situation at a
given point of time, and in a specific set of circumstances that stimulates people to
strive willingly to attain organisational objectives and satisfaction with the types of
leadership provided.
7. Peter Drucker:
Leadership is not making friends and influencing people, i.e salesmanship. It
is the lifting of mans vision to higher sights, the raising of mans performance to
higher standards, the building of mans personality beyond its normal limitations.
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8.2. NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF LEADERSHIP
An analysis of the definitions cited above reveals the following important
characteristics of leadership.
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8.3.3. Democratic or Participative Style Leader
The democratic or participative style of leadership implies compromise
between the two extremes of autocratic and laissez-faire style of leadership. Under
this style, the supervisor acts according to the mutual consent and the decisions
reached after consulting the subordinates. Subordinates are encouraged to make
suggestions and take initiative. It provides necessary motivation to the workers by
ensuring their participation and acceptance of work methods. Mutual trust and
confidence is also created resulting in job satisfaction and improved morale of
workers. It reduces the number of complaints, employees grievances, industrial unrst
and strikes. But this style of leadership may sometimes cause delay in decisions and
lead to indiscipline in workers.
Informal leaders are not formally recognised. They derive authority from the
people who are under their influence. In any organisation we can always find some
persons who command respect and who are approached to help, guide and protect the
interest of the people. They are known as informal leaders. The informal leaders have
only one task to perform, i.e., to help their followers in achieving their individual and
group goals. Informal leaders are created to satisfy those needs which are not satisfied
by the formal leaders. An organisation can make effective use of informal leaders to
strengthen the, formal leadership.
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decision and judgement. He should float new ideas and his decisions
should reflect original thinking.
4. Co-ordination. A leader has to reconcile the interests of individual
members of the group with that of the organisation. He has to ensure
voluntary co-operation from the group in realising the common objectives.
5. Direction and Motivation. It is the primary function of leaders to guide
and direct his group and motivate people to do their best in the
achievement of desired goals. He should build up confidence and zeal in
the work group.
6. Link between Management and Workers. A leader works as a necessary
link between the management and the workers. He interprets the policies
and programmes of the management to his subordinates and represents the
subordinates interests before the management. He can be effective only
when he can act as the true guardian of the interests of his subordinates.
Here, teachers will need to have pupils identify how they wish to learn, based
on the preferred style of leaning. The curriculum will need to be redesigned to
harmonize with these individual styles of learning. Thus, a pupil may prefer to work
by the self or with others, as well as be provided choices in terms of what to learn.
Methods of instruction and sequential approaches of individual pupils learning style
will need to be considered in designing the curriculum. Even the time of day needs to
be identified as to when pupils individually achieve best.
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The importance of leadership in any group activity is too obvious to be over-
emphasised. Wherever, there is an organised group of people working towards a
common goal, some types of leadership becomes essential. Lawerence A.Appley
remarked that the time had come to substitute the word leadership for management.
Although the concern for leadership is as old as recorded history, it has become more
acute during the last few decades due to the complexities of production methods, high
degree of specialisation and social changes in the modern organisation.
3. It acts as an aid to authority. The use of authority alone cannot always bring
the desired results. Leadership acts as an aid to authority by influencing, inspiring
and initiating action.
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8.9. QUESTIONS
I Very Short Answer Questions (1 Mark)
1) Define Leadership
2) Name the types of Leaders
3) Do you prefer autoerotic leader in your educational system?
4) Who is free style leader?
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CHAPTER IX
MOTIVATION
STRUCTURE
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Motivation Meaning
9.2 Types of motivation
9.3 Importance of motivation
9.4 Theories of Motivation
9.5 Techniques to increase Motivation among the Employees of
Educational Institutions.
9.6 Questions
9.7 Suggested Readings
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9.0. INTRODUCTION
Motivation is an important factor which encourages process to give their best
performance and help in reaching their goals. A strong positive motivation will enable
the increased output of students in their academic achievement where as a negative
motivation will reduce their performance. In this chapter the types of motivation,
importance of motivation, theories of motivation techniques to increase motivation
among Employees are explained clearly. Job enrichment has been recognized as an
important motivate by various researchers Every Management tries to spacing certain
motivational techniques which can be employed for improving performance of its
employees.
Nature of motivation
Motivation is a psychological phenomena which generates within an
individual. A person feels the lack of certain needs, to satisfy which he working more.
The need satisfying ego motivates a person to do better than be normally does. From
the definitions given earlier the following inferences can be derived:
1. Positive Motivation
Positive motivation or incentive motivation is based on reward. The workers
are offered incentives for achieving the desired goals. The incentives may be in the
shape of more pay, promotion, recognition of work, etc. The employees are offered
the incentives and try to improve their performance willingly. According to Peter
Drucker, the real and positive motivators are responsible for placement, high
standard performance, information adequate for self-control and the participation of
the worker as a responsible citizen in the plant community. Positive motivation is
achieved by the co-operation of employees and they have a feeling of happiness.
2. Negative Motivation
Negative or fear motivation is based on force or fear. Fear causes employees to
act in a certain way. In case, they do not act accordingly then they may be punished
with demotions or lay-offs. The fear acts as a push mechanism. The employees are not
willingly co-operate, rather they want to avoid the punishment. Though employees
work upto a level where punishment is avoided but this type of motivation causes
anger. and frustration. This type of motivation generally becomes a cause of industrial
unrest.
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In spite of the drawbacks of negative motivation, this method is commonly
used to achieve desired results. There may be hardly any management which has not
used negative motivation at one or the other time.
1. High Performance
Motivated employees will put maximum efforts for achieving organisational
goals. The untaped reservoirs, physical and mental abilities are taped to the maximum.
Better performance will also result in higher productivity. The cost of production can
also be brought down if productivity is raised. The employees should be offered more
incentive for increasing their performance. Motivation will act as a stimulate for
improving the performance of employees.
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They will think of positive side of new changes and will co-operate with the
management. If the employees are satisfied with their work and are not offered better
avenues then they will oppose everything suggested by the management. Motivation
will ensure the acceptability of new changes by the employers.
Table 1 gives the hierarchy of needs. These needs are discussed as follows:
TABLE - M. 1
Maslows Need Hierarchy
Self fulfilment needs
needs
Esteem or
ego needs
Social
needs
Safety
needs
Physiological
needs
1. Physiological Needs
These needs are most essential for the survival and maintenance of body.
These include food, clothing, drinking, shelter, rest, exercise, etc.
A man will try to satisfy these needs first. Unless physiological needs are satisfied no
other needs will motivate him. Once these needs are satisfied then these will cease to
motivate him and he will want to satisfy the other needs.
2. Safety Needs
Once physiological needs are satisfied then safety needs take the precedence.
These are the needs to be free from physical danger and the fear of loss of job,
property, shelter, etc. One would like to be free from economic worries like loss of
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job, sickness, old age pension etc. The physical safety against murder, accident, fire,
etc. is also essential. The physical and economic needs act as motivators upto the time
they are not properly met.
3. Social Needs
Since people are human beings, they need to belong, to be accepted by others.
When social needs become dominant, human beings will strive to have meaningful
association with others. In an organisation workers may form informal groups for
exchange of ideas. If management tries to have close supervision and control then
workers may retort against such environment. The communication among workers
should be encouraged to remove the irritants.
It is generally seen that needs do not follow Maslows hierarchy. The hierarchy
determined by individuals is different. They proceed to follow their own pattern of
need satisfaction. Some people may try for self-actuating needs rather than lower
needs. For some persons esteem needs are more important than social needs.
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There is no cause and effect relation between need and behaviour. A particular
need may cause behaviour in different ways in different persons. Similarly, one
particular behaviour may result due to different needs. It is said that higher needs
motivate a person when lower needs are reasonably satisfied. The word reasonably
satisfied is a subjective matter. The levels of satisfaction may be different for
different persons.
The persons were asked to describe a few previous job experiences in which
they felt exceptionally good or exceptionally bad about jobs. The influence of these
experiences on job was also studied.
Herzberg concluded that there were two sets of conditions. First type of
conditions, described as maintenances or hygiene factors, do not motivate employees
by their presence but their absence dissatisfied them. The other conditions, called
motivational factors, operate to build strong motivation and high job satisfaction, but
their absence brings dissatisfactions.
Motivational Factors
The presence of these factors build high motivation and job satisfaction.
However, if these conditions are not present, they do not cause dissatisfaction.
Herzberg pointed out that managers have been very much concerned with
hygiene factors only. They could not enlist the full co-operation of employees by
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increasing salaries etc. They did not realise the importance of motivating factors. The
employees are motivated by the content of the job. The satisfaction which an
employee will derive from the job will go to increase his output. The main agreement
should try to reduce dissatisfaction arising out of hygiene factors and building up the
satisfaction form motivator
Though there is no reference to carrot and stick in motivation theories hut still
these form the basis of motivation. The control of internal environment in an
orgnisation requires a desired behaviour of various employees. Management uses
rewards as well as punishments for enforcing a particular behaviour. The carrot,
rewards, are recognised in various theories of motivation. The performance of
employees is bound to certain rewards. The employees will be motivated to improve
their performance and they get financial and non-financial incentives in return. The
stick, punishment, also pushes employees to raise their performance. In order to make
the stick to work effectively, some factors may have to be kept in mind. It is important
to decide the proper time of using the stick. The negative motivation can also bring
retaliation form employees. Punishment only temporarily suppresses the behaviour, It
should also be taken into consideration that stick should not become a reward for
undesirable behaviour.
Both carrot and stick should be used judiciously otherwise they will not help
in achieving the desired result.
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or perform some assigned task. The learning material or experiences should always be
assigned according to the needs, interest and abilities of the child.
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assured, work harder after criticism. The ways, in which these incentives are given or
repeated by the teacher, also counts much. The essential condition for the
effectiveness of these incentives, is that. they must either satisfy or threaten our
security or one or more of our other motives. In this way, the teacher must try to
recognize the nature of the students and consequently make use of the praise or
reproof in motivating and inspiring them.
With this discussion, it should not be taken that punishment as a rule should be
decried in all circumstances be given to anybody. In some cases, it brings more
improvement than other hand, indiscriminate and unqualified use of reward proves
harmful as it sometimes tends to become an end in itself. For an example, a student
may strive hard to get the gold medal but in doing so he may be interested, not in
learning but in the medal. Therefore the teacher should be very careful in using
reward or punishment as an incentive to motivate his student.
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team spirit, community feeling, thinking for a common cause, a sense of unity and
other desirable habits. A wise teacher should try to make use of the competition based
on co-operation and feeling.
9. Ego-involvement
The ego consists of attitudes relating to the self. Everyone of us tries to
maintain status and self-respect. Teachers generally, are in the habit of ridiculing and
snubbing their students. It is not the proper way of motivating them. Instead of using
such means, the teacher should try to motivate his students by appealing to ego
maximization. He should engage them in the activities which can appeal to his self-
respect and raise his status among his class-mates or peers.
9.7. QUESTIONS
I Very Short answer Questions ( 1 Mark)
1. Define motivation
2. What are the two types of motivation?
3. Write any two nature of motivation
4. Write the Maslows Need Hierarchy
5. What is Esteem or Ego needs?
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11. What is the importance of motivation in learned? How will you motivate
unwilling pupils of your class to bar willingly?
12. Explain the importance of Motivation.
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CHAPTER X
EDUCATION COMMUNICATION
STRUCTURE
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Meaning-Definition-Process of communication
10.2 Purpose of Communication.
10.3 Importance of Communication
10.4 Types of Communication.
10.5 Barriers to communication.
10.6 Communication in Educational Administration
10.7 Communication Process
10.8 Communication at school level
10.9 Modern Devices of Communication
9.10 Overcoming barriers of Communication in Educational System.
9.11 Questions
9.12 Suggested Readings
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10.0. INTRODUCTION
Communication makes possible the smooth and efficient working of an
institution. It is only through communication that a management changes and
regulates the actions of the subordinates in the desired direction. Moreover
communication skill helps establishing leadership and sound industrial relations. It
also acts as an effective tool of control. Physical, personal. Semantic, premature
evaluation Emotional attitude, are some of the barriers in communication. But
Teaching process depends on two major components one is content and another is
communication. The former determines method and the latter decides the media.
Media and method are often used interchangeably in Education but they are quite
different from one another. In this modern world there are so many modern devices of
communication. Every one related with educational system should learn and acquire
the knowledge of new devices of communication to impart and inculcate his ideas and
means and ways in a successful manner. Proper communication and proper
Co-ordination stand like two pillars of the educational system.
Louis A. Allen: Communication is the sum of all the things one person does
when he wants to create understanding in the mind of another. It is a bridge of
meaning. It involves a systematic and continuous process of telling, listening and
understanding.
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8. Communication is an on-going or continuous process.
Communication Process
The communication process has the following steps
1. Sender
The person who sends the message is known as sender or Communicator. He
may be a speaker, writer, actor etc. He formulates the message he wants to convey and
selects the media for sending it.
2. Message
A message is the subject matter of communication. It may consist of facts,
opinions or information he wants to convey. It exists in the mind of the sender.
3. Symbol
The sender translates the message into words, symbols, gestures or some other
form which he feels should be understood by the receiver. This process is known as
encoding of the message.
4. Channel
The encoded message is to be communicated to the receiver. The media for
transmission of message may be a letter, telephone, television etc., the message is
conveyed with the help of selected channel.
5. Receiver
The person who receives the message is known as receiver. The receiver may
be a reader, listener, viewer. He decodes the message and draws meaning from it.
6. Feedback
The effectiveness of communication is measured through feedback. If the
communication brings in the desired changes in the actions or behaviour of the
receiver, it is said to be a successful communication. The communication is complete
when the receiver understands the message.
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The main purpose of communication is to effect change in someone i.e. to
influence action or to secure inaction in the overall interest of an enterprise. It enables
us to understand others and to make ourselves understood. Communication serves the
following purposes:
3. Facilitates Co-ordination
Management is the art of getting things done through others and this objective
of management cannot be achieved unless there is unity of purpose and harmony of
effort Communication through exchange of ideas and information helps to bring about
unity of action in the pursuit of common purpose. It binds the people together and
facilitates co-ordination.
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5. Sound Industrial Relations
Effective communication creates mutual understanding and trust among the
members of the organisation. It promotes, co-operation between the employer and the
employees. Without communication, there cannot be sound industrial relations and
industrial peace. It is only through communication that workers can express their
grievances, problems and suggestions to the management
8. Effective Control
Communication acts as a tool of effective control. The plans have to be
communicated to the subordinates, the actual performance has to be measured and
communicated to the top management and a corrective action has to be taken or
communicated so as to achieve the desired goals. All this may not be possible without
an efficient system of communication.
9. Job Satisfaction
Effective communication creates job satisfaction among employees as it
increases mutual trust and confidence between management and the employees. The
gap between management and the employees is reduced through the efficient means
of communication and a sense of belongingness is created among employees. They
work with zeal and enthusiasm.
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10.4. TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
There are two main types of in every organisation formal and informal
communication.
Formal Communication
Formal communication refers to official communication which takes place
through a chain of commands. It implies the flow of information along the lines) of
authority formally established in the enterprise. Members of the enterprise are
expected to communicate with one another strictly as per channels laid down in the
structure. For example, when the chief executive issues decisions and instructions to
the subordinates, there is a formal communication which flows downward. In the
same manner formal communication flows upward when the subordinate reports to
the superior.
1. Downward Communication
Downward communication means the flow of communication from the top
management downward to the operating level. It may also be called a communication
from a superior to subordinates. It follows the line of authority from the top to the
bottom of the organization. Downward communication consists of plans and policies,
orders and instructions, procedures and rules, etc..
2. Upward Communication
Upward communication means the flow of information from the lower levels
of the organization to the higher levels of authority. It passes from subordinate to
superior, as that from worker to foreman, foreman to manager, from manager to
general manager and so on. This communication includes opinion ideas, suggestions,
complaints, grievances, appeals, reports, etc.
Horizontal Communication
The transmission of information and understanding between people on the
same level of organization hierarchy is called the horizontal communication. This
type of communication is also known as lateral or sideward or cross - wise
communication. Usually, it pertains to inter departmental communication, i.e., the
communication between two departmental managers working at the same level of
organisation or among subordinates working under one boss. Horizontal
communication speeds up information and promotes mutual understanding. It enables
the managers working at the same level to exchange information and co-ordinate their
activities without referring all matters to the higher level of management.
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The horizontal communication is generally of an informal nature. Whenever a
departmental head requires some information from another departmental head, he
tends to contact him directly. However, this type of communication can be oral or
written.
Advantages
Formal communication has the following advantages
1. It ensures orderly flow of information.
2. It helps in fixation of authority and maintaining of authority relationship in the
organisation.
3. The Sources of communication can be easily located.
4. It facilitates managerial control by providing information about performance.
5. Formal communication helps in co-ordination of activities and efforts.
Limitations
1. Formal communication is time consuming and leads to a good deal of
distortion.
2. It lacks personal warmth and involvement.
3. The subordinates present rosy picture of their work in order to impress seniors.
4. It is rigid and rule bound.
Informal Communication
Communication arising out of all those channels of communication that fall
outside the formal channels is known as informal communication. Informal
communication does not follow lines of authority as in the case of formal
communication. It is built around the social relationship of members of the
organisation. It arises due to the personal needs of the members and exists in every
organisation. Such communication is usually oral and it may be conveyed even by
simple glance, gesture, smile or silence. It is also called grapevine because the origin
and flow of informally transmitted messages cannot be easily traced just as in the case
of a vineyard.
Advantages
1. Informal communication travels very fast. Management can make use of it for
transmitting urgent messages.
2. It supplements formal communication
3. The information which cannot be sent through formal channels can be sent
through it.
4. It enables people to express their views about certain decisions
5. It helps in improving industrial relations by providing emotional support to
employees.
6. Informal communication enables employees to develop friendly relations
amongst them and have social satisfaction.
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Limitations
1. Informal communication may consist of half truths and distorted information.
2. Inaccurate information may bring more harm than good.
3. No responsibility can be fixed for the origin of information.
4. Management should use this channel cautiously because confidential
information may be leaked out.
Rumours
A rumour is an information without any secure standard of evidence. It is an
undesirable feature of grapevine. It is an untrue part of grapevine. Rumours tend to
change as they pass from one person to another. The outbreak of rumours may be
dangerous for the organisation. Therefore, management should be careful in dealing
with the rumours. It should not allow rumours to spread. Management should try to
scuttle rumours by giving out facts and figures about the issues covered in the
rumours.
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hurdles, stoppages or bottlenecks, called barriers in communication, distort the
message and make communication ineffective. These communication barriers lead to
misunderstanding and conflict between men living in the same community. These
communication barriers lead to misunderstanding and conflict between men living in
the same community, working on the same job and even persons living in different
parts of the world who even do not know each other. A large number of managerial
problems is the result of ineffective or faulty communication. Significant
improvement in managerial efficiency can be made if communication barriers are
toned down or minimised. Some of the important barriers of communication have
been discussed below:
1. Physical Barriers
A communication is a two-way process, distance between the sender and the
receiver of the message is an important barrier to communication. Noise and
environmental factors also block communication.
2. Personal Barriers
Personal factors like difference in judgement, social values, inferiority
complex, biassed attitude, pressure of time, inability to communicate, etc., widen the
psychological distance between the communicator and the communicate. Credibility
gap, i.e., inconsistency between what one says and what one does, also acts as a
barrier in communication.
3. Semantic or Language Barriers
Semantic is the science of meaning. The same words and symbols carry
different meanings to different people. Difficulties in communication arise when the
sender and the receiver of the message use words or symbols in different senses. The
meaning intended by the sender may be quite different from the meaning followed by
the receiver. People interpret the message in terms of their own behaviour and
experience. Sometimes, the language used by the sender may not at all be followed by
the receiver.
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subordinates those problems, conditions or results which may affect adversely on his
ability and judgement. To do so would undermine his position as a superior being in
the formal organisation, This causes distortion in downward communication.
A subordinate may also feel reluctant to report his shortcomings or may not seek
clarification on instructions which are subjected to different interpretations for fear of
loss of prestige in the eyes of the superior.
7. Premature Evaluation
Some people have the tendency to form a judgement before listening to the
entire message. This is known as premature evaluation. As discussed in the previous
point, half-listening is like racing your engine with the gears in neutral. You use
gasoline but you get nowhere. Premature evaluation distorts understanding and acts
as a barrier to effective communication.
8. Emotional Attitude
Barriers may also arise due to emotional attitude because when emotions are
strong, it is difficult to know the frame of mind of other person or group. Emotional.
attitudes of both, the communicator as well as the communicate, obstruct free flow of
transmission and understanding of messages.
9. Resistance to Change
It is a general tendency of human beings to stick to old and customary patterns
of life. They may resist change to maintain status quo. Thus, one will freely transfer
information and understanding with another only when there is mutual trust between
the two. When there is a lack of mutual trust between the communicator and the
communicatee, the message is not followed. Credibility gaps, i.e. inconsistency in
saying and doing, also causes lack of mutual trust which act as a basic obstacle to
effective communication.
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11. Other Barriers
There may be many other barriers, such as unclarified assumptions, lack of
ability to communicate, mirage of too much knowledge or closed minds,
communication overload, shortage of time, etc., which cause distortion or obstruction
in the free flow of communication and thus make it ineffective. Failure to retain or
store information for future use becomes a barrier to communication when the
information is needed in future.
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personal and professional expertise, and (b) be able to communicate with and
influence other managers.
When you consider the nature and purposes of the communication which
managers have to carry out, the topic takes on a whole new dimension. The audience
might be public or private, requiring adjustments of style. Among the numerous
Purposes of communication will be the following:
Interpersonal Communication
The word communication is not easy to define. One way of looking at is as
an interpersonal process of sending and receiving symbols with meanings attached to
them. It is therefore supposed to result in the exchange of information and shared
understanding between people. So, a measure of the effective management of
interpersonal communication is that information is passed, and relationships are built.
The success of information passing depends very much on the nature and
quality of the information received which in turn depends on the nature and quality of
the relationship between the persons involved. People tend to experience personal
satisfaction when communicating and interacting with friends, relatives and others
they know well, in fact, with people with whom they feel comfortable. They do not
feel the need to be guarded because of the smooth way they manage their
relationships with each other. They can speak openly and honestly, and joke about
serious matters. Personal abuse is a form of comradeship. But the headmasters
frequently have to work with others with whom they have not developed close
relationships in order to achieve organisation and educational objectives.
Misunderstandings may occur, leading to disagreement and conflict, or often the
avoidance of conflict and the development of mistrust. Out of this can develop lack of
cooperation and an unhealthy work climate. People are polite to each other, and
apparently genuinely and cooperative. But because the underlying inter personal
problems have not been faced, the quality of interpersonal communication is poor.
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People are different, and they need to understand the nature of those
differences so as to modify our interpersonal behaviour to cope with them. An
individual, may have a consistent view of the world, his organisation and his job, but
he has to work in an environment consisting of other people. That is his dilemma. In
reality, one of his greatest challenges, as a manager or superior, is that other people
are different from him. Two of the basic differences between people are personality
and perception. These differences cause people to behave differently toward others in
different situations, and cause communication problems.
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Figure 11.2.
Status effects can occur when one person is considerably higher in hierarchy
than the other.
Semantic problems occur when people use either the same word in different
ways, or different words in the same way. Do you know that there are 15 different
meanings of the word charge in the English language? They also occur when people
use jargon or professional shorthand which they expect others to understand, or
language which is outside the others vocabulary.
Perceptual distortions can be caused by having a poor of self concept or self-
understanding, or a poor understanding of others.
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In England an invitation for dinner at 8 p would see most guests arrive at
about 8.15; in India even later-if at all! In most parts of the world nodding your head
means agreement, shaking your head means, no - except in some parts of India,
where, the reverse is true. Communication can be very difficult at times!
It is not possible for the headmaster to go around in the school campus for
supervising the school activities. Generally the headmasters employ the oral medium
in communication in his administration and organisation but the use of
communication devices brings efficiency in his working. He renders his responsibility
and accountability. In supervision, communication devices play significant role in
school organisation. The oral communication is inadequate in personal situation of
schools. In prayers, assembly, playground, cultural programme, there is required mike
and speaker system because oral communication is not adequate for large gathering of
students unless amplified. Intercom and video system should be available in each
room, so that the headmaster can observe a specific class and provide instruction to all
classes by sitting in his room. The headmaster thus, directs the teachers activities.
This type of system is used for supervising, monitoring and controlling the school
functioning.
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(a) Audio and videos tape recorder.
(b) Closed circuit television (CCT)
(c) Computer assisted instruction (CAI)
(d) Intercom system
(e) Language laboratory
(f) Library internet system.
(g) Mike and speaker system (Public Address Equipment).
(h) Multi-media approach and packages.
(i) Overhead projector (OH!).
(j) Radio and television
(k) Still picture and other audio-visual aids
(i) Telephone and fax, e-mail
(m) Video camera and audio camera.
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10.11. QUESTIONS
I Very Short answer Questions ( 1 Marks )
1. Define communication
2. What are the three types of communication?
3. Name the five steps adopted in Communication process
4. Write Any two purpose of communication
5. What is Downward communication?
6. Write any two limitations of Informal communication
7. Name any four Modern Devices of Communication
8. Write any two advantages of Horizontal communication
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CHAPTER-XI
PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION CO-ORDINATION
STRUCTURE
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Principles of Effective Communication
10.2 Co-ordination-Definitions
10.3 Principles Co-ordination
10.4 Importance of Co-ordination
10.5 Co-ordination of Co-curricular Activities and Supervision
10.6 Process of Co-ordination
10.7 Techniques of Effective Co-ordination
10.8 Questions
10.9 Suggested Readings
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11.0. INTRODUCTION
Co-ordination is the process of synchronizing activities of various persons in
the organisation in order to achieve goals. It is undertaken at every level of
Management. So, the importance of co-ordination, co-ordination of co-curricular
activities and Techniques of educational institutions for effective Co-ordination are
explained clearly in this chapter.
2. Proper Language
To avoid semantic barriers, the message should be expressed in simple, brief
and clear language. The words or symbols selected for conveying the message must
be appropriate to the reference and understanding of the receiver
4. Orientation of Employees
The employees should be oriented to understand the objectives, rules, policies,
authority relationships and operations of the enterprise. It will help to understand each
other, minimise conflicts and distortion of messages.
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To avoid credibility gap, management must ensure that their actions and deeds
are in accordance with their communication.
8. Use of Grapevine
Grapevine or the informal channels of communication helps to improve
managerial decisions and make communication more effective. Thus, formal channels
of communication must be supplemented with the use of grapevine.
9. Feedback
Communication is not complete unless the response or reaction of the receiver
of the message is obtained by the communicator. The effectiveness of communication
can be judged from the feedback: Therefore, feedback must be encouraged and
analysed.
The communication must be kept open, as only then the teacher sand pupils
are able to communicate clearly without interference of understanding and ensuring
appreciation. But unfortunately many interferences and communication barriers arise
which impede the smooth flow of communication between the teacher and his pupils
in the classroom, e.g., advertisements and entertainment media.
11.2. CO-ORDINATION
Co-ordination is the process of synchronising activities of various persons in
the organisation in order to achieve goals. Co-ordination is undertaken at every level
of management. At the top level, the chief executive will co-ordinate the activities of
functional or departmental managers. If there is lack a of co-ordination production
and sales departments then either production will suffer or sales will suffer. Similarly,
personnel department will like to know the manpower needs of various departments.
No department will be able to function without a proper co-ordination with finance
department. At middle/lower levels of management, the deputy managers/ foremen/
supervisor will co-ordinate the work of persons working under them. The purpose of
co-ordination is to create team work and harmony in the enterprise. It is the blending
of human efforts in order to achieve better organisation goals.
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of the body combine together to do a work, the different segments of the organisation
should work in unison so that task is completed in a better way.
Definitions
A number of authors have defined co-ordination differently. The views of
some of them are given here in order to know its exact nature.
George Terry: Co-ordination deals with the task of blending efforts in order
to ensure successful attainment of an objective. It is accomplished by means of
planning organising actuating and controlling. The aim of
co-ordination is to active better results and this may be done in different ways.
Different functions are also used to attain organisational goals.
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For instance, A works with B and he in turn works with C and D. The relationship of
all the four will be reciprocal. In the absence of co-ordination among them the work
of everyone will suffer. Similarly, other factors like materials, finance, sales
production will be dependent upon one another. When members in an organiation
realize that all factors are reciprocally related then co-ordination becomes easy.
4. Principle of Continuity
As the fourth principle of co-ordination Mary Full states that communication
is a continuing process and something which must go on all the time. It is a
managerial process which is exercised every time so that the working is smooth and
uninterrupted. It is not like reconciling conflicts as and when they arise. Co-ordination
cannot be left to a sheer chance but management should make constant efforts to
achieve it. There is a constant need for co ordination in a business,
The results of co-ordinated group efforts will be much better than the sum
results of different individuals. The members will willingly and whole heartedly
contribute towards the success of the enterprise. Therefore, co-ordination is necessary
to bring unity of action in the organisation.
2. Unity of Direction
Co-ordination helps in creating unity of direction. Different segments of the
business may have different goals. The co-ordination process helps in synchronising
various efforts. It motivates various employees to view their work from the standpoint
of the business. In the ahs of co-ordination, there may be conflicting goals and
everybody may perceive the objectives in a different way. This will create confusion
and chaos in the organisation. Co-ordination will help in reconciling conflicting
views.
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3. Essence of Management
The increase in the size of organisation has brought a number of complexities.
There is a degree of specialisation, division of labour, and large number of
individuals. Everybody has his own personality traits and ways of working. It is
essential to synchronise the work of all persons in the organisation. Co-ordination
helps in bringing unity of action for achieving business goals.
(a) Does the activity proposed meet the needs of the schools?
(b) Are the students sufficiently interested in it?
(c) Are teachers available in the school who are qualified, have time and
are willing to direct the proposed activity?
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larger ones. The introduction of co-curricular activities should be gradual. An activity
should be introduced only when the school has a need for it and when its students are
interested in it. For example, when there is a fully developed department of History in
the school, a History Club may be started. The number and type of activities to be
developed in any school should be determined by the size of enrolment and the needs
of the school. Activities that are organised in the school should, as far as possible, aim
for achieving civil, social, moral and other worthwhile values as indicated in a
previous section. Activities for enjoyment are useless though they may be harmless.
The number of activities which the students should be allowed to take part in during
an academic year should be according to the needs.
Supervision Co-ordination
Every co-activity should be held under the supervision of the school
administration It should be amenable to school control and discipline. The amount of
supervision will depend upon the type of the activity and the maturity level of
students. For example, you will need a greater quantum of supervision of athletics and
dramatics. Similarly in lower classes, the work will have to be closely supervised. Too
much supervision is of course not required, nor is it desirable, because it stifles
spontaneity and makes it difficult for students to develop initiative, leadership and
fellowship. But this supervision will have to be of the motherly type. In higher
secondary schools and colleges where students are quite mature and group, the
supervision will have to be of the brotherly type. But the essence of supervision
should be democratic. Only those activities should be selected which relate to school
curriculum and satisfy school needs, such as to conduct research on the values of all
curricular as well as co-curricular activities, to organise transportation services to take
students to various places of interest, and to evaluate students performance in other
activities.
Elements of Coordination
Whenever a programme or activity has been chalked out, the following
elements should be given importance. Coordination has the following three factors
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1. Parts and the aspect of the programme, such as the staff, students, parents,
curriculum, etc.
2. Means of coordination, such as the rules, regulations, customs, etc.
3. The climate, the environment and the powers of coordination.
Stages of Coordination
It is evident from the ongoing discussion, coordination is needed at two stages:
1. In the beginning of the administrative process, to prevent the breakdown of the
organization.
2. During the process to remedy conflicts and maladjustment.
3. Coordination starts with establishing a unity and restores this unity whenever
the purpose, the structure and the process is threatened and thus, is both
preventive and curative in nature.
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The co-ordination work of the manager will also become easy. So direction of
employees will lead to co-ordination.
1. Well-defined Goals
The goals of the organisation should be clear and well Every body should
know the objectives and his contribution towards its achievement. Unity of purpose
will be achieved through proper o-ordintion.
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2. Simplified Organisation
The organisational structure should clearly define the authority and
responsibility of each and every, person. This will help in reducing conflicts among
persons. Over-specialisation of activities also creates problems of
co-ordination. There should be well-defined organisational charts, job descriptions,
work manuals, etc. for avoiding any type of misunderstanding. Co-ordination will be
achieved when there are clear lines of authority and responsibility.
3. Proper Communication
Effective communication helps in creating proper understanding among
persons whose work needs to be co-ordinated. Through communication every
individual understands his scope, limitations, his position in the organisation and his
relationship with others. Regular communication among various persons helps in
resolving conflicts and differences. People can understand the view point of others in
the organisation.
4. Effective Leadership
Effective leadership is essential for better co-ordination. A good lender is able
to achieve co-ordination both at planning and execution stages. It brings individual
motivation and persuades the group to have identity of interests in total efforts. If a
leader is undecided about his task then he will not be able to either guide or co-
ordinate their activities.
5. Proper supervision
Co-ordination can also be facilitated by effective supervision.
A supervisor is the person who constantly watches the work of his subordinates. He
can adjust the work load, provide guidance to his subordinates If the situation
demands. A supervisor is an important person in co-ordinating the work at execution
level. He will keep the overall objectives of the organisation in mind and will direct
the work of his subordinates In that direction.
6. Co-operation
Co-ordination can be achieved through voluntary co-operation of employees.
There should be a feeling of mutual help for each other.
Co-operation can be brought by keeping harmonious relation among employees.
Management should encourage formal and informal communication among
employees. There should also be committees to take important decisions. The decision
of committees will be group decisions and everybody will co-operate in implementing
them.
11.8. QUESTIONS
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II Short Answer-Questions (6 Mark)
6) What are the points Should be kept in mind for a democratic educational
organisaton to receive effective Co-ordination?
7) Write the process of Co-ordination
8) Write the principles of Co-ordination
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CHAPTER XII
CONTROL AND EVALUATION
STRUCTURE
12.0. Introduction
12.1. Meaning of Control Definition
12.2. Characteristics of Control
12.3. Pre requisites of Control System.
12.4. Steps in Controlling Process.
12.5. Requirements of a Control Systems
12.6. Control of Education at State level
12.7. Need and Importance of Institutional Evaluation
12.8. Measuring Performance of the Institutions
12.9. Total quality Management
12.10. T Q M in the context of Education (TQM)
12.11. ISO Certificate
12.12. Importance of Management Audit
12.13. Auditors Report Essentials
12.14. Questions
12.15. Suggested Readings
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12.0. INTRODUCTION
According to Earnest Date The modern concept of control envisages a system
that not only provides a historical record of what has happened to the business as a
whole but also pin-points the reason why it has happened and provides data that,
enable the chief executive or the departmental head to take corrective steps if he finds
he is on the wrong track. Date has enlarged the scope of control by saying that it
helps in finding out the reasons for low performance and then suggesting the ways of
improving it. It also gives information to the top executives to assess their
performance and then take corrective measures if necessary. The efficiency of various
functions is also ensured by the control process.
Schools, Colleges, Universities and all other educational institutions may well
be considered as social organisations. They are established by the society for
achieving social and individual development. So, institutional evaluation is essential
for finding out what the constraints are on institutions effective functioning so that
efforts may be made to help the institution to remove them. An institutions
performance may be evaluated internally as well as externally. As regards pupils
knowledge and understanding examination results may throw enough light on
institutions performance. ISO certificate can justify the performance and
organisational structure, climate, equipments etc. Similarly the institutional Audit also
helps the institution to grow efficiently and develop in a proper way to achieve within
the budget of financial condition.
Definitions
George R. Terry: Controlling is determining what is being accomplished that
is evaluating the performance and, if necessary, applying corrected measures so that
the performance takes place according to plans. In Terrys views, controlling helps in
proper implementing of plans. If the plans are not progressing at a proper pace then
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necessary measures are taken to set the things right. Controlling is a channel through
which plans may be properly implemented.
Robert N. Anthony
Robert N. Antony Says, Management Control is the process by which
managers assure that resources are obtained and used effectively and efficiently in the
accomplishment of an organisations objectives. Control is a tool in the hands of
management for ensuring better utilisation of resources, Anthony even goes to the
extent of saying that control even ensures the arrangement of required resources.
Earnest Date
According to Earnest Date. The modern concept of control envisages a
system that not only provides a historical record of what has happened to the business
as a whole but pin-points the reason why it has happened and provides data that,
enable the chief executive or the departmental head to take corrective steps if he finds
he is on the wrong track. Dale has enlarged the scope of control by saying that it
helps in finding out the reasons for low performance and then suggesting the ways of
improving it. It also gives information to the top executives to assess their
performance and then take corrective measures if necessary.
Henry Fayol
Henry fayol brings out that, In an undertaking, control consists in verifying
whether everything occurs in conformity with the plan adopted, the instructions issued
and principles established. It has to point out weaknesses and error in order to rectify
them and prevent recurrence. It operates on everything; people, actions, etc.
2. Forward Looking
Control is forward looking. Past is already gone thus cannot be controlled.
Measures can be devised to control future activities only. Past provides a base for
determining controls for future. The manager will study the past performance in order
to find out the reasons for low results. A corrective action will be taken to ensure that
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work in future is not adversely affected. Take for example, production for a particular
month is lowest than the standard. From the discussion of above given definitions,
following inferences may be drawn. Manager will not be able to do anything about
the past performance. However, he may study the reasons for low production. He
should take appropriate steps so that the same mistakes are not repeated and
production will not suffer in future.
3. Continuous Activity
Control is regularly exercised. It is not an activity in isolation. The manager
will have to see that his subordinates perform according to plans at all the times. Once
the control is withdrawn, it will adversely affect the work. So, control will have to be
exercised continuously.
Importance of control
The control function helps management in various ways. It guides the
management in achieving pre-determined goals. The efficiency of various functions is
also ensured by the control process. The shortcomings in various fields are also
reported for taking corrective measures. The following are some of the advantages of
control system.
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3. Control facilitates Decentralisation
Decentralisation of authority is necessary in big enterprises. The management
cannot delegate authority without ensuring proper controls. The targets or goals of
various departments are used as a control technique. If the work is going on
satisfactorily then top management should not worry. The management by exception
enables top management to concentrate on policy formulation. Various control
techniques like budgeting, cost control, pre-action approvals allow decentralisation
without losing control over activities.
1. Planning
Planning is the first prerequisite for making control effective. Planning
involves the setting of objectives and then deciding about the appropriate course of
action. First of all organisational goals are set and then departmental or sectional
objectives are decided. The objectives are the targets for the achievement of which all
energies are pooled. The objectives must be specific so that their achievement may be
determined, the pre-determined course of action should be used to reach various
objectives.
Control concerned with finding out whether the objectives have been achieved
or not. If the results are not according to the standards set then deviations are
ascertained. Controlling relates to the finding out of deviations and taking corrective
measures. If the performance is low then immediate steps should be taken to set the
things right.
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Control can be exercised only when objectives are set and plans will be
effective only when they are properly implemented. Control cannot be exercised
without planning. Planning must precede control, It is essential to plan first and then
exercise control for its implementation,
2. Action
Timely action on the part of the manager is essential for exercising control.
Manager should give proper guidelines to his subordinates for undertaking various
functions. Instead of finding out faults later it will be proper to guide first so that
things are done in a systematic manner.
Besides all precautions there may be some deviations. The deviations should
be reported at the earliest. Any delay in their reporting will delay a corrective action
also. Manager should give instructions in such a way that whenever the performance
is below the standards then it will be reported to the appropriate authority.
There should be a quick action to take remedial steps. There will be no use of
reporting a deviation if it is not corrected at the earliest.
To make control effective manager should give proper guideline for doing a
work, reporting a deviation and taking corrective action. In the absence of an action
plan control may not be exercised effectively.
3. Delegation of Authority
Delegation of authority is essential for exercising control. Controlling process
involves evaluating performance, ascertaining deviations and taking corrective
measures. All these steps require some kind of authority. When we ask production
manager to increase production by 20% in the current year then he will require
authority
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him to take rectifying measures. The steps suggested for improving efficiency should
also reach subordinates at the earliest so that they are able to act upon the advice.
2. Measurement of Performance
The second step in controlling process is the measurement of performance.
The actual performance is measured against the standards set. This will enable
management to determine whether the work is being done according to plans or not.
The measurement of quantitative objectives is easy since figures of work done will be
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available. The qualitative performance such as human relations, employee morale, etc.
can only be measured through psychological tests and surveys.
When the actual performance is not upto the level, then causes for it should be
pin-pointed. Necessary steps are taken, so that performance is not adversely affected
once again. If no efforts are made to rectify the weak areas then the whole control
process will be futile. Whenever the performance is low than the standards, the
reasons for it should immediately be found.
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1. Control System should be easily understandable
The controls should be such that they are easily understood by the managers
and as well as by the subordinates. If the managers are not clear about the controls
then they will not be effectively exercised. On the other hand, subordinates must
know the type of controls they will be subjected to. It is only the top managers who
should understand controls but junior managers should also be clear about them.
Generally the first line managers are expected to exercise controls because they
directly come in contact with workers. The manager may devise certain mathematical
formulas or statistical charts for finding out deviations in performance. These
complicated devices may not be properly followed by junior managers. In case the
controls are difficult then junior managers will develop their own controls and these
may not be the same as desired by the top management. So the first requirement of a
good control system is its easy understandability.
The controls should be such which adequately reflect the activities of the
enterprise. These are many control techniques like standard hours, standard costs,
budgets, and financial ratios. It is the duty of the manager to select those techniques
which are adequate for his business. Only those techniques should be used which can
suitably be used in the enterprise.
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Controls should be forward looking. This concept is such that results precede
the exercise of control. Nothing can be done about what has already happened. The
manager should try to take corrective action at the earliest. The control system should
help in planning process. The data needed for plans should be provided by control
system.
The different state Governments of the country have been carrying out on their
responsibilities as, per the norms laid down in the constitution. Leadership for the
advancement of education rests with the centre. Naturally the State Governments
depend upon the centre for financial assistance, and technical guidance. In the present
day fast changing society, the educational role is played by the state Governments
which has become very complex. In the words of Education Commission 196466:
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The responsibility of school education will rest squarely on the state Government.
The local authorities will, no doubt, have a good deal of initiative and we should like
the state Government to encourage by adopting flexible policies. But, by and large,
they will act as agents of the State Governments and exercise delegated powers.
Each of these dimension has to be further defined, specified and described into
objective indicators. A sort of exercise called bench making is required.
1. Achievement of objectives
This is the sole purpose of establishing an institution. In case of a school or
college it is physical, scholastic and behavioural or moral development. Most feasible
and major concern is students scholastic development. Its indicators may be
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1. Pass percentage in external examination (high school, Intermediate or
higher secondary boards examination)
2. Number of 1st, 2nd, 3rd divisioners and distinction holders along with
percentage of failures.
3. Grades obtained by these final year students on standardized scholastic
development, attitude and personality development tests.
4. Percentage of or number of students qualifying in competitive
examinations.
3. Institutional climate
This is the dimension the quality of which subsumes effectiveness or
ineffectiveness of all other factors conditions. Its indicators for the purpose of
evaluation may be:
1. Human relations among the faculty members and between the faculty and
other employees.
2. Relations between the principal and the staff members,
3. Relations between the staff-members and the students.
4. Relations between the school and the community.
Taking the foregoing 18 indicators a five point rating scale questionnaire may
be developed on which opinions of students, teachers and supervisory personnel may
be gathered. Each of these 18 indicators may be further specified for full
understanding of the respondents.
A few precautions to be taken care of are: (1) the questionnaire should not be
very long. It should not contain more than 100 items, (a) the questionnaire are to be
used by students, teachers and other personnel should be the same. If different items
are contained in the questionnaire, integration of information and generalization or
grading of institutional performance will not be possible. The information revealed in
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that case may oftentimes be contradictory. Similarly, if the questionnaire is too long, it
may be cumbersome and time-consuring to collect information and process
information. It may defeat the purpose. (3) It is necessary to explain fully what each
indicator means, (4) The questionnaire should be administered to the teachers and the
students at the end of the session.
Evaluation by Teachers:
Evaluation is confined to the following aspects of institutions performance:
1. Administrative efficiency including principals human, technical and
conceptual skills.
2. Quality of classroom teaching learning. This may include information about
several aspects such as whether classes are held regularly, whether teachers
come well prepared tot teaching, whether teachers use various teaching aids,
whether teachers focus on students discipline and motivate them, whether
they complete their course in time, whether students achievement and
examination results are satisfactory, whether teachers are sufficiently
knowledgeable whether teachers evaluate students performance regularly,
whether do teachers do remedial teaching in case of students lagging behind
and so on.
3. Co-curricular programmes: This is an important aspect of school functioning.
The development of knowledge and understanding of students are taken care
of by class-room teaching. But, the development of personality, attitudes and
values is made possible through co-curricular programmes and activities such
as seminars debates projects MSS, scouting cultural activities and various
kinds of social welfare programmes. How effectively the institution
performing in this area can also be successfully evaluated teachers.
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resources are made available. These resources include human resource (i.e., adequate
number of competent teachers) financial resources, teaching-learning material aids
and equipments and sufficient space for classroom teaching, library, laboratories,
playing ground, administrative block, staff room, etc. Teachers may know enough
good information about these indicators of the institutions effectiveness. The teachers
may be asked to tell whether the institution considers availability and supply of these
facilities important. Whether the institution makes efforts to procure them from the
government or the management and whether the available resource are effectively
utilized.
Method of Evaluation:
For evaluation by teachers questionnaire based on the foregoing indicators
such as a five pointing scale may be prepared. On the basis of responses an over
quantitative index on the total questionnaire as well as each dimension may be
worked out every year. Information about these may be given to every teacher as the
feedback information.
Evaluation by Pupils:
Pupils are theoretically, the best judges of their institutions performance. It is
they who are most affected whatever the institution does to them and with them. In
fact, the educational institutions are there because students are there, If t institutions
are there to serve the societys purposes, they are to achieve this only through pupils
transformation. Hence, logically, the most fundamental indicator of effective or
ineffective performance the institution is the change that is brought about or the
efforts of institution made to bring about the same in the pupils.
The change that is brought about in pupils may relate to their knowledge and
understanding, social skills and desirable behaviour attitudes and personality qualities.
Efforts made by the institution bringing about these changes may relate to transaction
of curriculum and organization of co-curricular activities and other supporting
services. About these two indicators of intuitions performance sufficiently useful
information may be gathered from the pupils.
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1. Classroom teaching which may include teachers preparation for teaching, their
regularly taking classes, their methods of teaching their skills in teaching, their
fairness in evaluating students learning and achievement, their classroom
behaviour, their knowledge and enthusiasm, etc.
2. Management of co-curricular activities which may be assessed on several
dimensions such as seriousness with which these are conducted, extent of
students participation in various such activities, sufficiency of support
provided by the principal and the management, etc.
3. Utilization of resources which may be assessed on such dimensions as
proper utilization of various funds, library, laboratories and equipment.
A Constraint:
Although evaluation of institutions performer by students is desirable, it has
its own constraints. The socio-political conditions prevailing in the larger society and
within the institution, the moment, may not allow this kind of evaluation of
institutions performance functional. The students unrest and teachers activities caused
and promoted by their associations may use this process an instrument of pressurising
and maligning teachers and the principal. Political interference with education is also
a factor which may cause it to be dysfunctional. In a word, the situation prevailing the
educational institutions today do not appear to be conducive to such innovations to be
introduced.
The Education Reform Act 1988 and related legislation Scotland and Northern
Ireland has had the net effect of shifting responsibility, authority and accountability to
the institutional level, eroding the traditional infrastructure of support and focusing on
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to individual institutions the previously diffuse patterns of management activity. In
essence the changes are encapsulated in the concept of the self-governing school or
college. The specific requirements on schools in England and Wales to manage the
national curriculum LMS and appraisal in the context of parental choice and the
impact of incorporation on post-compulsory institutions create demands which are of
a different order of magnitude to anything previously encountered. The possibility of
institutions not managing themselves has now been removed as an option. In .the
context of consumer choice failing institutions will be allowed the ultimate failure.
A further factor is the changing culture in which schools and colleges will
have to operate. As the quality movement extends into the commercial and public
sectors so expectations on all providers will change. Parents will increasingly the
working in TQM companies, school-leavers and students will be seeking employment
in organizations managed according to quality criteria. There will inevitably be
increasingly specific demands on schools and colleges as suppliers. Most readers will
be familiar with the British Standard kitemark; as well as being an indication of
safety, there is a kitemark for quality management systems, BS 5750. Some further
education colleges are having to seek BS 5750 accreditation in order to be able to deal
with registered companies.
Sallis has identified four imperatives for change which he argues point
towards a total quality approach. The professional imperative implies a commitment
to client needs and the obligation to meet those needs by deploying knowledge and
skills to the best effect., The moral imperative is the need to find a basis for
management action which is firmly rooted in the key purposes of educational
institutions. Quality approaches are offered as a way of meeting long-standing
concerns about the nature of management in schools and colleges. Sallis extends the
applicability of TQM to education by arguing that there are two further imperatives
operating, the competitive and survival. These are closely linked but in essence the
emergence of a market economy in education requires the evolution of strategies
which reconcile the first two imperatives with the need to ensure institutional
viability.
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The combination of the need to respond to the 1988 Act and preserve the
integrity of the learning process is further complicated by a third factor-the concern
with quality. The issue of quality in education is perennial one and the standard
response has been in Platonic terms-to see it as an intellectual problem to be grappled
with which, buy definition, is probably not capable of solutions, Quality has been
perceived as an ideal, an absolute like truth, justice and beauty which we can only
ever aspire to. The definition of quality in education is for philosopher-kings and not
for children, parents or teachers!
There is not a single, homogeneous theory of TQM. The gurus and their
disciples have produced sets of percepts which are broadly in accord but differ in
significant respects. Most importantly TQM has to evolve in response to the needs,
context and values of a specific organization. There will therefore be significant
differences between an engineering company an airline, a retail organization and
public sector activities in the way in which TQM is interpreted and applied. However,
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certain fundamental principle will remain constant and these can be identified by
synthesizing the key imperative of the originators of TQM:
There is, as yet, very little empirical evidence available on the impact of
quality approaches in schools and colleges. Samuel provides useful indicators of some
areas of school management that lend themselves to a TQM approach:
the experience of pupils when taken by a supply teacher,
the impact of the homework policy,
consistency in entry criteria for the sixth form,
heads of department being responsible for their work areas,
response times for repairs and maintenance.
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empowering and developmental model of leadership. There is no doubt that the
individual is subordinated to the organization in terms of values but the TQM
organization then accepts the need to secure the commitment and personal
involvement of the individual, i.e. there is no question of denying personal integrity.
There is also a recognition that values are only given expression through individual
action.
The emphasis on teams raises the issue of democratic and collegial models.
The criteria for effective teams are highly reminiscent of the characteristics of
collegiality as outlined by Bush. The requirement for open decision-making, and the
emphasis on individual responses to the organization all appear to locate TQM firmly
in a human relations view of management. It may well be said that TQM represents
the next generation of thinking in management theory where the criteria are practical
rather than ideological. TQM represents a form of conceptual pluralism, i.e. it does
not derive all of its components from a single theoretical base but rather takes its
premises from elements of models which meet the empirical requirements derived,
from quality organizations.
Curriculum-focused leadership,
supportive climate,
emphasis on learning,
clear goals and high expectations
monitoring performance,
continuous staff development, parental involvement,
LEA support.
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of the self-governing school and the national curriculum argue against the
validity of the individualistic approach. Schools are increasingly having to
respond as organizations and the management of the national curriculum
requires high level of integration and collaboration whilst preserving team and
personal discretion,
(3) The customer : there has always been a problem in defining whom education
is for, the child? the parent? the taxpayer? the State? The TQM s response is
to accept all claim to client status. It is the process that defines the customer
and accountability and not a debate between alternative value systems. Thus
the child is the customer in the classroom, the parent is the customer for
reporting procedures, the LEA, DES and HMI are equally customers i context.
One of the problems in applying TQM to education is how potential tensions
between these customers might be reconciled.
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12.12. IMPORTANCE OF MANAGEMENT AUDIT
Then the profession of accountancy is developed to detect errors and frauds.
Later on they were asked to suggest ways and means to prevent the errors, frauds and
manipulation of accounts. By and by the area of the functions of the auditor expanded
and the statutory auditor was required to state whether the balance sheet and the profit
and loss were properly drawn up according to the Companies Act and that they
represented a true and fair view of the state of the affairs of the company. Now-a-days
the Act enjoins the auditor, in addition to what has been stated in the foregoing lines,
to state in his report whether or not the personal expenditure has been charged to
revenue account; whether the prices paid for the stores, raw materials or other
components exceeding the value of one thousand rupees purchased from the -
subsidiaries in which the directors are interested are reasonable or not; whether the
rate of interest and other terms of loan in the case of concerns engaged in
manufacturing, mining, processing is reasonable or not and so on.
But in spite of all these enactments and precautions, the statutory auditor never
goes into the question whether the policies laid down by the management are properly
carried out or not; whether any improvement in running the business can be made in
order to maximise the profits or to eliminate the wastes; he is not expect to make any
suggestion as to which centralisation or decentralisation of the management is
advantageous or disadvantageous; he is not concerned whether a change in the system
of running the business is beneficial to the concern.
It is argued by some people that the internal auditor who is appointed by most
of the large companies, fulfils all these functions as stated above. It may be pointed
out that the internal auditor confines his attention to the financial aspect for the
prevention and detection of errors frauds and manipulations, etc. But today the
business has become so large and complicated that many of the unhealthy situations
which arise as a consequence can be to the basic defects of the organisational.
structure and the ineffective type of the organisation. Here lies the necessity of the
management auditor who pays attention to all the factors of production and to the
elements of costs which are very important in the business world of today.
Due to keen competition in the business world today, the management of the
industrial organisations want to minimise the cost of production which is possible by
el Wastes, avoid bottlenecks and to utilise fully the manpower as well as the plant and
machinery and so on. In order to achieve these objectives, management now-a-days
recruit auditors from the fields other than that of accountancy. Such a person is called
r auditor.
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e.g., the information furnished to them by the management may not be sufficient or
may even be incorrect. There is only one channel of communication between the
Board and the rest of the organisation and this is the managing director. Again the
directors have to take immediate decision on the information or the figures furnished
and they have to accept such information is given to them, has to be accepted. Under
the circumstance they cannot delay a full discussion and take the decision which may
ultimately go wrong.
The auditors are often called upon to advise the firm as to how to minimise
waste, bottlenecks, breakdowns and maximise the production of quality goods. The
fees paid for these consulting services by the auditors are attractive because the client
is benefited much more than the consulting fees he pays.
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12.13 AUDITORS REPORT-ESSENTIALS
It should be courteous, i.e., even if it is to criticise the management, it should
be so worded to avoid unnecessary sharpness or implication. It should contain the
recommendations if any which should be constructive and not condemning in nature.
In order to know the amount of money a for the money spent and activities,
the following registers are to be maintained.
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11. A register of marks obtained by each student at school / college exams and
public exams
12. A. register of addresses of students
13. A comprehensive register of students background data
14. A counterfoil book of certificates o inspection of students
15. A register of inspection.
16. A visitors book
Funds Registers
1. General cash book - fees income and receipt of grants and all expenditure
2. Development cash book - to deal with development fee and experience
3. Scholarship account - to deal with scholarships receipts and payments
4. Examination Fund - the fees received and remittance made to
Government, University.
5. Union Fund - Students related activities
6. Imprest book - Contingency accounts.
ISO certificate can be obtained by the educational institutions from the Indian
Standardised Organisation according to certain norms and conditions. Management
Audit is an independent appraisal activity for the review of control of managerial
functions so as to ensure compliance with the organisational objectives, policies and
procedures and the management methods and purposes.
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12.14. TERMINAL QUESTIONS
I. Answer the following in a sentence or two (1Mark)
1. Define Control
2. What are the steps in controlling process?
3. What are new control techniques?
4. What is paradigm?
5. What is ISO?
6. How does control related with Psychological pressure?
7. Write the Newman guidelines for selecting strategic points?
8. What is PERT?
9. What is MIS?
10. What are the duties of the manage Auditor?
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
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SUGGESTION FOR REFERENCE
Prepared by :
Mrs. M. SARADHA M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil., P.hd.
Lecturer, Mahendra College of Education,
Minnampalli,
Salem Dt.
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