Soviet montage theory

Soviet montage theory is an approach to understand- theories.

ing and creating cinema that relies heavily upon editing
(montage is French for assembly or editing). It is the
principal contribution of Soviet lm theorists to global 1 Montage
cinema, and brought formalism to bear on lmmaking.
Although Soviet lmmakers in the 1920s disagreed about Montage Theory, in its rudimentary form, asserts that a
how exactly to view montage, Sergei Eisenstein marked a series of connected images allows for complex ideas to
note of accord in A Dialectic Approach to Film Form be extracted from a sequence and, when strung together,
when he noted that montage is the nerve of cinema, and constitute the entirety of a lms ideological and intel-
that to determine the nature of montage is to solve the lectual power. In other words, the editing of shots rather
specic problem of cinema. Its inuence is far reach- than the content of the shot alone constitutes the force of a
ing commercially, academically, and politically. Alfred lm. Many directors still believe that montage is what de-
Hitchcock cites editing (and montage indirectly) as the nes cinema against other specic media. Vsevolod Illar-
lynchpin of worthwhile lmmaking. In fact, montage ionovich Pudovkin, for example, claimed that words were
is demonstrated in the majority of narrative ction lm themeatically inadequate, despite silent cinemas use of
available today. Post-Soviet lm theories relied exten- intertitles to make narrative connections between shots.[2]
sively on montages redirection of lm analysis toward Steve Odin traces montage back to Charles Dickens use
language, a literal grammar of lm. A semiotic under- of the concept to track parallel action across a narrative.[3]
standing of lm, for example, is indebted to and in con-
trast with Sergei Eisensteins wanton transposition of lan-
guage in ways that are altogether new.[1] While several 1.1 Background
Soviet lmmakers, such as Lev Kuleshov, Dziga Vertov,
Esr Shub and Vsevolod Pudovkin put forth explanations Conned to the project of Soviet expansion, lm theo-
of what constitutes the montage eect, Eisensteins view rists of the USSR cared little for questions of meaning.
that montage is an idea that arises from the collision of Instead, the writing sought the praxis of lmmaking and
independent shots wherein each sequential element is theory. The pragmatic and revolutionary application of
perceived not next to the other, but on top of the other these movements stands in harsh contrast to ideas being
has become most widely accepted. developed simultaneously in Western Europe. Socialist
The production of lms- how and under what conditions Realism characterized the emergence of art within the
they are made- was of crucial importance to Soviet lead- constraints of communism. Constructivism, an exten-
ership and lmmakers. Films that focused on individu- sion of Futurism, sought a pre-modern integration of art
als rather than masses were deemed counterrevolution- into the everyday. Soviet theorists had a clear job before
ary, but not exclusively so. The collectivization of lm- them: theorize in order to aid the cause of the Communist
making was central to the programmatic realization of Party. The ethical and ontological dimensions explored
the Communist state. Kino-eye forged a lm and news- in the West were tabled in lieu of lms potential to reach
reel collective that sought the dismantling of bourgeois the millions in far reaches of Soviet territory, where lit-
notions of artistry above the needs of the people. La- eracy was scarce. Film was a tool with which the state
bor, movement, the machinery of life, and the everyday could advance the dictatorship of the proletariat. It was
of Soviet citizens coalesced in the content, form, and pro- no surprise that most of the Soviet lm theorists were also
ductive character of Kino-eye repertoire. lmmakers.
Ultimately, the over-regulation of lm form under Joseph
Stalin, the absorption of Hollywood cinematic stan- 1.2 History
dards, and the alienation of lmmakers from their craft
prompted the zzling of Soviet inuence in global cin- Continuity Editing - Continuity, like montage, situ-
ema. The bulk of inuence, beginning from the October ates editing as the driving formal element of narra-
1917 Revolution until the late 1950s, brought a cine- tive lm making. DW Grith developed and imple-
matic language to the fore and provided the groundwork mented a grammar of lm through his use of con-
for contemporary editing and documentary techniques, tinuity editing by establishing a logical progression
as well as providing a starting point for more advanced of shots as to make a story intelligible to the audi-

1
2 1 MONTAGE

ence. Continuity diers from montage in both its ory is derived. The Kuleshov Group, composed of
production, eect and intention. Kuleshov and his students, set out to determine the
essence of cinema. Rote repetition of the compo-
Production - Continuity maintains a sub- nents of the cinema plagued their initial ndings:
servience to a predetermined narrative. For competent acting, provocative lighting and elaborate
example, in Griths pinnacle lm Birth of a scenery were not intrinsic to the lmic form. In a
Nation, the editing was completely determined study of two lms- an American and a compara-
in reaction to the scripts narrative. Montage, ble Russian one- the group identied the Amer-
on the other hand, holds that the dialectical ican lm as extraordinary given the short average
collision of images creates a lms meaning, shot time. They then inferred that the American
and thus is less concerned with a script than it organization of shots was perceptually appealing
is the synthesis of associations between shots. to audiences. Lengthy shots, as seen in the Rus-
Eect and Intention - Continuity editing is ori- sian lm, make the task of mentally interpreting
ented spatially; meaning it lls gaps between a pattern dicult. In an essay published in Vest-
locations and moments in a lms narrative nik Kinematograi in 1916, Kuleshov rst coined
progression. The 180 degree rule, in which an the term montage to explain the phenomena of shot
imaginary straight line is imposed by a director succession.[5] In a pinnacle experiment, Kuleshov
in order to create logical association between combined independent shots of Ivan Mosjoukine, a
characters/objects that require a shot-reverse bowl of soup, a woman in a con, and a woman
shot, is used to solidify the spectator in a re- on a sofa. The strategic ordering of the shots had
lation to the image in a way that makes visual a marked eect on audience interpretation of the
sense. Montage may include these elements as Mosjoukines neutral expression. This experiment
well, but is not determined by them. Space can demonstrated cinemas unique capacity as an art
be discontinuous in order to disorient a spec- form to conjure specic reactions from the relation-
tator. For example, Dziga Vertovs Man with ship between indexical images. It further demon-
a Movie Camera documents the everyday ac- strated that montage is dialectical in nature, and
tivities of people from various locations in the that the synthesis of images creates unique political
Soviet Union, but never gives priority to a con- meanings. Recently, Kuleshovs conclusions have
tinuity of action. been brought into question. In The Kuleshov Eect:
Recreating the Classic Experiment, Stephen Prince
Sergei Eisenstein - Though not the inventor of mon- and Wayne E. Hensley contest Kuleshovs ndings
tage, Eisenstein codied its use in Soviet and inter- as unscientic and merely a product of cinematic
national lm making and theory. Beginning with myth. They conclude that Kuleshovs eect- un-
his initial work in the Proletkult, Eisenstein adapted derstood in terms of shot juxtapositions rather than
montage to the cinema and expanded his theories associational cues- may tell us little about lm or vi-
throughout his career to encompass the internal na- sual communication, but its lingering power tells us
ture of the image. He was the most outspoken and a lot about the symbolic uses of the past.[6]
ardent advocate of montage as revolutionary form.
His work has been divided into two periods. The
rst is characterised by mass dramas in which his 1.2.1 Adoption abroad
focus is on formalizing Marxist political struggle
of the proletariat. His lms, Strike and The Bat- Distance, lack of access, and regulations meant that the
tleship Potemkin among the most noted of the pe- formal theory of montage was not widely known until well
riod, centered on the capacity for the masses to re-after its explosion in the Soviet Union. It was only un-
volt. The second period is characterized by a shift til 1929, for example, that Eisensteins theories reached
to individualized narratives that sprang from a syn-Britain in Close Up.[7] Additionally, lmmakers in Japan
chronic understanding of montage inspired by his during the 1920s were quite unaware of montage ac-
cording to Eisenstein.[8] Despite this, both nations pro-
foray into dialectical materialism as a guiding prin-
ciple. The shift between the two periods is indica- duced lms that used something tantamount to continu-
ity editing. According to Chris Rob, the internal strife
tive of the evolution of Marxist thinking writ large,
culminating in an understanding of the material un- between Soviet theories of montage mirrored the liberal
derpinning of all social and political phenomena.[4]and radical debates in the West. In his book Left of Hol-
Though largely uncredited by contemporary lm- lywood: Cinema, Modernism, and the Emergence of U.S.
makers, Eisensteins theories are constantly demon- Radical Film Culture, Rob illustrates the Western Lefts
attempts to tone-down revolutionary language and psy-
strated in lms across genres, nations, languages and
politics. choanalyze characters on the screen. Hanns Sachs essays
Kitsch"(1932) and Film Psychology (1928) are used
The Kuleshov Eect - Lev Kuleshovs work is largely here to demonstrate Kitschs aesthetic distinction from
considered the basis from which all montage the- the Realist project of the Soviet Union, and also to af-
1.3 Terms and concepts
rm Kitschs ability to create a more powerful aect than
realism ever could. As such, Sach argued, a psycholog-
ical montage was recognizable in all lms, even abstract
ones which held no resemblance to classic Soviet cinema.
Rob also cites Zygmunt Toneckys essay The Prelimi-
nary of Art Film as a reformulation of montage theory
in service of abstract cinema. Zygmunts argument cen-
ters around his disagreement with Eisenstein that mon-
tage was logical, but rather psychological. As such, ab-
stract lms defamiliarize objects and have the potential
to create critical spectators. Defamiliarization was seen a
catalyst for revolutionary thinking. Clearly, the adoption
of Montage Theory was rarely hard and fast, but rather a
stepping stone for other theories.
The split between the West and Soviet lmmaking be-
came readily apparent with Andr Bazins dismissal of
montage and Cahiers du Cinmas assertion of the pri-
macy of auteurs. The belief that a still, highly composed,
and individuated shot marked cinemas artistic signi-
cance was an aront to the dialectical method. That in-
dividual directors could compose and produce lms by
themselves (at least in terms of credit and authorship)
made impossible the collectivization of lmmaking.[9]
Eisensteins later work (Alexander Nevsky [1938] and
Ivan the Terrible [1944-1946]), would undercut his ear-
lier lms appeal to masses by locating the narrative on a
single individual.
1.2.2 Contemporary uses
The term montage has undergone radical popular redef-
inition in the last 30 years. It is commonly used to refer
to a sequence of short shots used to demonstrate the pas-
sage of prolonged time. A famous example is the train-
ing sequence in Rocky (Avildsen 1976) in which weeks
of preparation on represented through a sequence of dis-
parate exercise footage. Ferris Buellers Day O (Hughes
1986) demonstrates the same concept in order to col-
lapse several hours into a few short minutes of footage
throughout Chicago. This diers entirely from even the
most conservative interpretations of montage in the So-
viet Union, wherein time is subordinate to the collision
of images and their symbolic meaning.
1.3 Terms and concepts
Dialectic - A relationship of conict that results in a
new form. This is taken explicitly and directly from
Marxs explanation of the dialectic as the process by
which social and political change occurs. There are
varying and competing interpretations of how this
was to be practiced in Soviet cinema, but the em-
bedding of a dialectical process to montage was an
understood goal of most notable Soviet lmmakers.
The dialectic traditionally is composed thus:
Thesis - An initial force, statement, or mode.
3
For lm, thesis could be narrative, as in the
foregrounded social harmony that is later dis-
rupted; visual, like an opening shot of a se-
quence; or historical presumption, an eco-
nomic and political situation which carries
particular assumptions about the lms context.
Antithesis - A conictual force, statement, or
mode designed to negate or otherwise amend
the thesis in some way.It is at the point of an-
tithesis that some disagreement occurs. Pu-
dovkins belief that images build upon one an-
other over the course of the lm functions dif-
ferently than Eisensteins theory of collision.
These two interpretations situate antithesis as
either negation (Eisenstein) or addition (Pu-
dovkin). The implication is that the synthetic
result is either product (here product is used in
the mathematical sense; the multiplication of
syntheses) or cumulative, respectively.
Synthesis - The result of the conict between
the antithesis and thesis, which possess within
it the mechanics of its own undoing. Montage
was an editorial process whereby new concepts
were possible only through the relating of two
or more shots, and/or the relationship of ele-
ments within a single shot. The aective result
might be best demonstrated through the cattle
slaughter scene in Strike, in which images of
violence inicted on workers is cut within im-
ages of a cow being slaughtered in an abattoir.
These images work dialectically to produce re-
vulsion and disgust at the notion of the oppres-
sion of the proletariat.
Stimulants - A formal element whose combination
with other elements produces the sum total of mon-
tages eect. Its modiers Dominant and Sec-
ondary are taken from musical composition theory
in which harmonic and melodic resonances are reac-
tions to dominant and secondary notes, chords, beats
and time signatures.
Dominant - The element or stimulus that de-
termines all subsequent and subordinate ele-
ments or stimuli. For lms that implement
Montage Theory, these dominant elements are
determined prior to shooting and inform the
script and editing process. Not all dominants
are singular elements (lighting, allusion, tim-
ing, etc.) but can be the product or sum to-
tal of all stimulants. For example, in The
General Line, Eisenstein determined domi-
nant stimulants based on the composition of
single shots by the method of 'democratic'
equal rights for all the stimulants, viewed to-
gether as a complex.[10] This was Eisensteins
attempt to parallel Japanese Kabuki theater,
which composed movement in a simultane-
ously fragmented but hierarchal fashion. More
4 1 MONTAGE
frequently, however, dominants took overt and
singular form. In Man with a Movie Cam-
era, Vertov constructs one sequence- scarcely
denable as a scene- through the dominant
movement of circularity, displaying industrial
threading machines and human movements
that performed circularly.
Secondary/Subordinate - The elements or
stimuli that support and highlight the dom-
inant. In lm, as in music, these create a
harmony between and through shots. With-
out secondary/subordinate stimuli, the inter-
nal shot structure lacked the requisite dialec-
tical composition necessary for Socialist Real-
isms revolutionary form. Eisenstein asserted
that competing and complementary secondary
stimuli were useful in conjuring particular psy-
chic responses from the audience. Overtonal
analysis of sound in The General Line, for
example, reveals that there is an orchestral
counterpoint to almost every shot, coaxing a
texture from the lm, rather than a purely vi-
sual or aural experience.[10]
Theme - The generalizable content of a lm. Here,
we draw primarily from Vsevolod Pudovkins work
in Film Technique, in which he argues that the foun-
dational work of montage is realized by rst deter-
mining a theme.[11] Unlike Eisenstein, Pudovkin be-
lieved that all necessary elements in recognizing a
theme must be evident in a single shot rather than
a collision of shots. The catch, however, is that the
phenomenon chosen to represent a theme should be
shot from dierent angles and perspectives in order
to portray the supercial and the profound interre-
lationships of actuality. Theme is not, however, a
matter of spectatorial interpretation. Rather, it is
meant to arrive organically at the conclusion of a
given lm due exclusively to the control wielded by
the director.[12] In a mild critique of DW Griths
Intolerance, Pudovkin advocated for a shortening of
the lm (3 hours and 30 minutes) in order to crys-
tallize and condense the lms theme. As it was pre-
sented, Griths lm dilutes its own political po-
tential by attempting create visual themes from non-
phenomenological concepts. Instead, as Pudovkin
elaborated, a lmmaker should choose concepts that
are depictable in images rather than language.
Analysis takes place when a theme is explored
from sucient perspectives. Analysis is de-
rived by examination of individual shots, but is
only relevant when synthesized. Peter Dart, in
his description of Pudovkins concept of anal-
ysis, denes it.
An object or an event becomes vivid
and eective on the screen only when the
necessary details are correctly found and ar-
ranged [...] Pudovkin referred to a hypothet-
ical street demonstration. An actual observer
of a demonstration can get only one point of
view at a time. To a get a broad view he would
have to climb to the roof of a building adja-
cent to the demonstration, but then he might
not be able to read the banners. If he mingled
with the crowd he could only see a small por-
tion of the demonstration. A lmmaker, how-
ever, can photograph the demonstration from
several dierent points of view and edit the
shots to present the spectator with a view of the
demonstration, which transforms from a spec-
tator into an observer.[13]
Identication is the capacity for the audience
to fully comprehend the theme of a lm. Pu-
dovkin was concerned here with the capacity
for spectators to follow his lms and hedged
against breaks in continuity. As such, identi-
cation was mainly concerned with calculat-
ing a consistent theme structure and making
sure images were smoothly shot and seamlessly
edited. Pudovkin achieved both of these tasks
by "[cutting] on action, or editing shots to-
gether through a unied movement.[14]
Aect, Emotion and Pathos - Often used inter-
changeably by many Soviet lmmakers and theo-
rists, these are the impressions felt by a(n) audi-
ence/spectator from a lm or parts of a lm. The
central problem of Eisensteins book Nonindierent
Nature is the relationship between pathos/aect and
the method by which art coaxes it. In the chapter On
the Structure of Things, Eisenstein begins with the
supposition that represented phenomena depict ma-
terial elements which explicates a system of struc-
turation between those elements and the phenom-
ena itself. The composition of music is a case-
in-point. From the emotional aect of verbalized
speech comes the tonal and rhythmic qualities ex-
pressed in a given composition. Cinematography
generates a similar relational dialectic with images
and referents, and through the logic of montage.
In short, when one structures the succession of im-
ages by its emotional referent, the result is aective
moving images.[15] The organic unity of Battleship
Potemkin, for example, sustains particular pathos in
particular instances. In the Odessa Steps scene,
dramatic tension rises not from individuated ele-
ments, but the organization of elements (shots, com-
position, lighting, etc.) from natural model of ten-
sion. This model, from which Eisenstein theorizes
all forms of organic growth and unity, is that of a
logarithmic spiral. This spiral, in which the smaller
point corresponds to its larger counterpoint in the
same ratio that the larger point corresponds to the
1.4 Methods
gure as whole, explains organic growth within na-
ture, the relations of parts to evolutionary growth,
and the process by which transformation takes place.
Platonic scholars and art theorists have identied
this spiral and formula as a central gure of clas-
sical beauty. It can located in classical architec-
ture and painting, as well as contemporary photo-
graphic composition (the rule of thirds). For Eisen-
stein, the capacity for a lm (or any art, but speci-
cally plastic arts) to work aectively/emotionally,
organic unity must be achieved, the growth of its
constituent parts resembling the logarithmic spiral.
When organic unity is realized, one can observe
clear pathos. Eisenstein denes pathos as ...what
forces the viewer to jump out of his seat. It is what
forces him to ee from his place. It is what forces
him to clap, to cry out. It is what forces his eyes
to gleam with ecstasy before tears of ecstasy ap-
pear in them. In word, it is everything that forces
the viewer to be beside himself.[16] In the Odessa
Steps scene, the collision of contrary movements-
e.g. up and down stairs, from many guns to one
muzzle- exemplies an organic growth concept, and
is informed by the pathos of the shooting; one of
horror. The ex stasis (out of a state) is observed
in viewers who trace the logic of organic unity- the
compositional and narrative growth of the scene- to
its foundational pathos. The aective pay-o is a
synthesis of a spectators experience with the radi-
calized representations on the screen.
In The General Line (referred in the text as The Old
and the New) the pathos of the milk separator is lo-
calized in order to examine the (in)voluntary contami-
nation of pathos by themes and supposedly neutral el-
ements. Like Potemkin, The General Line invoked the
theme of collective unity within a community.[17] And
all this because the scheme 'of a chain reaction'- buildup
of intensity- explosion- leaps from explosion to explosion-
gives a clearer structural picture of the leaps from one
state to another, characteristic for the ecstasy of particu-
lars accumulating into the pathos of the whole.[17] How-
ever, a number of factors separate the scenes pathos. The
use of a new 28-inch lens allowed for a simultaneous split-
ting and unifying eect in The General Line. Also, milks
transformation to cream was a metaphorical device used
to stand-in for the peasants own transformation. These,
and other examples, illustrate that pathos, as determined
by exterior features, is incomplete. Rather, pathos and
emotion were self-determined and intrinsic to form. The
example of several painterly renderings of Christs expul-
sion of the moneylenders and his eventual resurrection
demonstrate a consistent pathos, despite dierent artists
and moments. This suggests a parallel inner discovery
process embedded in thematic works. Finally, Eisen-
stein identies the dialectical process as the precipitating
force for unearthing pathos. The law of construction of
processes- the basis of their form- in these cases will be
5
identical. The eectiveness of the results in the norms
of each area is equally 'transported beyond the limits of
these norms and the areas themselves as well. The actual
processes- according to the same formula of ex stasis- is
'being beside oneself'. And this formula is nothing but the
moment (instant) of the culmination of the dialecti law of
transition of quantity into quality[...]The areas of applica-
tion are dierent. But the stages are identical. The nature
of the eects achieved is dierent. But the 'formulas at
the basis of these highest stages of manifestation, inde-
pendent of the areas themselves, are identical.[18]
1.4 Methods
Attractions - The montage of attractions asserts that
an audience is moved emotionally, psychically, and
politically by sudden bursts of aggressive movement.
Eisenstein adapted this theory from the Proletkult to
the cinema in his 1923 essay The Montage of Attrac-
tions. Attractions are a molecular unit of a theatrical
whole that is independent of narrative and setting.
In his 1924 essay The Montage of Film Attractions,
Eisenstein makes explicit linkage of lm and the-
ater through a common audience. Here, an attrac-
tion is "...any demonstrable fact (an action, an ob-
ject, a phenomenon, a conscious combination, and
so on) that is known and proven to exercise a de-
nite eect on the attention and emotions of the au-
dience and that, combined with others, possess the
characteristics of concentrating the audiences emo-
tions in any direction dictated by the productions
purpose.[19] The intent was to ground attractions in
revolutionary ideology in order coax the audience
into a sympathetic position.
Metric where the editing follows a specic num-
ber of frames (based purely on the physical nature
of time), cutting to the next shot no matter what is
happening within the image. This montage is used
to elicit the most basal and emotional of reactions
in the audience. Metric montage was based on the
absolute length of shots. The schema of connec-
tion is based on the necessity of rapidity. Eisen-
stein claries its implementation by comparing it to
beat structures in music, which dictates that struc-
tures that fail to follow the law of prime numbers
(relationships)" are incapable of causing any phys-
iological eect. He favors, instead, very basic and
simple beat structures (3:4, 2:4, 1:4).[20]
Metric montage example from Eisensteins
October.
Rhythmic includes cutting based on continuity,
creating visual continuity from edit to edit. Rhyth-
mic montage seeks an editorial and compositional
relationship in which movement within the shot dic-
tates the tempo of editing. The complexity that was
cautioned against for metric montage is praised for
6 1 MONTAGE
rhythmic. Since the content of the shot is a dom-
inant element of the shot length, the ascending or
descending meter of the shots makes intuitive visual
sense.
Rhythmic montage example from The Good
The Bad and the Ugly where the protagonist
and the two antagonists face o in a three-way
duel
Another rhythmic montage example from
The Battleship Potemkin's Odessa steps se-
quence.
Tonal a tonal montage uses the emotional mean-
ing of the shotsnot just manipulating the temporal
length of the cuts or its rhythmical characteristics
to elicit a reaction from the audience even more
complex than from the metric or rhythmic montage.
For example, a sleeping baby would emote calmness
and relaxation.
Tonal example from Eisensteins The Battle-
ship Potemkin. This is the clip following the
death of the revolutionary sailor Vakulinchuk,
a martyr for sailors and workers.
Overtonal/Associational the overtonal montage
is the cumulation of metric, rhythmic, and tonal
montage to synthesize its eect on the audience for
an even more abstract and complicated eect.
Overtonal example from Pudovkins Mother.
In this clip, the men are workers walking to-
wards a confrontation at their factory, and later
in the movie, the protagonist uses ice as a
means of escape..
Intellectual uses shots which, combined, elicit
an intellectual meaning. Intellectual montage seeks
to use few images, but images that are rich in cul-
tural, symbolic, and political history. Their collision
brings about complex concepts that traditional mon-
tage could not achieve. It was at this time (1929)
that Eisenstein sought to distance lmmaking from
an adherence to positivist realism. Intellectual mon-
tage sought to present things not as they were, but
as they functioned in society. In his examination
of Japanese and Chinese language, Eisenstein deter-
mined a linguistic link between language and mon-
tage. Hieroglyphs endemic to either countrys lan-
guage were highly contextual. The combination of
two characters created concepts, but when separated
were neutral. The example Eisenstein gives is the
combination of the symbols eye and water pro-
duce the concept crying. This logic was extended
to Japanese Kabuki theater, which used a montage
technique of acting, wherein parts of the body were
moved in relation and collision to the whole and
other parts of the body. Film, similarly, could col-
lide objects within the frame just as readily as it
could between frames. Intellectual montage seeks to
capitalize on an internal frame as well as the com-
position and content of the image itself, without
sacricing a dialectical approach, which Eisenstein
ultimately concluded was the downfall of Japanese
cinema.[21] Intellectual montage was most notably
used as a productive model in Eisensteins The Gen-
eral Line (1929). Here, dominants- shots and ele-
ments within the shot that mark the schema of all
adjacent shots and elements- are not foregrounded,
but delayed in an attempt to mimic musical reso-
nance. Resonances are secondary stimuli that help
to highlight the dominant. It is here that one should
note the understandable conation of overtonal and
intellectual montage. In fact, overtonal montage is a
kind of intellectual montage, since both attempt to
elicit complex ideas from the collision of cinematic
stimulants.
Intellectual montage examples from Eisen-
steins October and Strike. In Strike, a shot
of striking workers being attacked cut with a
shot of a bull being slaughtered creates a lm
metaphor suggesting that the workers are be-
ing treated like cattle. This meaning does not
exist in the individual shots; it only arises when
they are juxtaposed.
At the end of Apocalypse Now the execution of
Colonel Kurtz is juxtaposed with the villagers
ritual slaughter of a water bualo.
Vertical montage focuses on the a single shot or mo-
ment, rather than across (horizontal) various shots.
Indelibly, vertical montage provides a closer reading
of images and their content, as well as permits non-
visual phenomena to be considered alongside the im-
age proper.
Moving Camera - A dynamic rather than static
camera is often used for the same eect as
editing. Though not expressly a form of mon-
tage, since editing isnt required, a moving
camera can cover movement across space con-
tinuously. Dynamic action, in which char-
acters or objects move across protracted dis-
tances, was the motivating factor in choos-
ing to move the camera. Peter Dart identi-
es relatively few uses of a moving camera
in his analysis of Pudovkins Mother (1926),
The End of St. Petersburg (1928), Storm
Over Asia (1928), and Eisensteins Battleship
Potemkin (1925).[22] In all of these lms and
scenes, the moving camera captures move-
ment. One reason for so few moving shots was
that it provided undue continuity and forfeited
the discontinuity demanded by the dialectical
method of montage.[23] Moving camera and
mise en scene culminates in what we call the
Inner Montage.
 7

Audio/Visual - The synaesthetic mode, char-
acterised by a total sensory analysis of lm,
transforms montage from a purely visual cat-
egory to one incorporating visual and audio
elements. This theorys foundation can be
seen in Eisensteins essay The Fourth Dimen-
sion in Cinema, in which Japanese Kabuki
Theater and Haiku are examined as in their
fragmented totality. Leonard C. Pronko con-
nects Eisensteins sensory analysis to a for-
malized synaesthesia.[24] The implication was
threefold. First, this grounded montage the-
ory within a non-western language, which gave
credibility to Montage Theory as a univer-
sal principle. Second, as Steve Odin illus-
trates, it provided an opening for Japanese
art and culture to be examined within a
modern context.[25] Lastly, the integration of
other senses into the theory of montage laid
the groundwork for Montage Theorys persis-
tence throughout historical and technological
changes in cinema.
montage will in fact form thoughts in the minds of the
viewer, and is therefore a powerful tool for propaganda.
Intellectual montage follows in the tradition of the ide-
ological Russian Proletcult Theatre which was a tool of
political agitation. In his lm Strike, Eisenstein includes
a sequence with cross-cut editing between the slaughter of
a bull and police attacking workers. He thereby creates a
lm metaphor: assaulted workers = slaughtered bull. The
eect that he wished to produce was not simply to show
images of peoples lives in the lm but more importantly
to shock the viewer into understanding the reality of their
own lives. Therefore, there is a revolutionary thrust to
this kind of lm making.
Eisenstein discussed how a perfect example of his theory
is found in his lm October, which contains a sequence
where the concept of God is connected to class struc-
ture, and various images that contain overtones of politi-
cal authority and divinity are edited together in descend-
ing order of impressiveness so that the notion of God
eventually becomes associated with a block of wood. He
believed that this sequence caused the minds of the viewer
to automatically reject all political class structures.

2 Intellectual montage
In his later writings, Eisenstein argues that montage, es-
pecially intellectual montage, is an alternative system to
3 Counter theories and criticism
continuity editing. He argued that Montage is conict
(dialectical) where new ideas, emerge from the collision Though montage was widely acknowledged in principle
of the montage sequence (synthesis) and where the new as the mechanism that constitutes cinema, it was not uni-
emerging ideas are not innate in any of the images of versally believed as cinemas essence. Lev Kuleshov,
the edited sequence. A new concept explodes into being. for example, expressed that though montage makes cin-
His understanding of montage, thus, illustrates Marxist ema possible, it does not hold as much signicance as
dialectics. performance, a type of internal montage. Additionally,
Concepts similar to intellectual montage would arise dur- Kuleshov expressed the subservience of montage to the
ing the rst half of the 20th century, such as Imagism will of those who deploy it.[26] In his comparisons be-
in poetry (specically Pounds Ideogrammic Method), or tween Russian, European, and American cinema prior
Cubisms attempt at synthesizing multiple perspectives to the Russian Revolution, Kuleshov could not identify a
into one painting. The idea of associated concrete images unifying theory between them and concluded a relativis-
creating a new (often abstract) image was an important tic approach to lmmaking, opting for something similar
aspect of much early Modernist art. to later auteur theories. The implication of an exclusive
focus on montage is one in which performances become
Eisenstein relates this to non-literary writing in pre- unconvincing given the actors jilted belief in his/her own
literate societies, such as the ancient use of pictures and signicance.
images in sequence, that are therefore in conict. Be-
cause the pictures are relating to each other, their colli- Kino-eye, composed of various newsreel correspondents,
sion creates the meaning of the writing. Similarly, he editors, and directors, also took indirect aim at montage
describes this phenomenon as dialectical materialism. as the overarching principle of cinema. Kino-eye was in-
terested in capturing life of the proletariat and actualizing
Eisenstein argued that the new meaning that emerged revolution, and was accused by Eisenstein of being devoid
from conict is the same phenomenon found in the course of ideological method. Films like Dziga Vertovs The
of historical events of social and revolutionary change. Man with a Movie Camera utilized montage (almost all
He used intellectual montage in his feature lms (such as lms did at the time), but packaged images without dis-
Battleship Potemkin and October) to portray the political cernible political connection between shots. Vertov, on
situation surrounding the Bolshevik Revolution. the other hand, saw the ctional revolutions represented
He also believed that intellectual montage expresses how in Eisensteins lms as lacking the visceral weight of un-
everyday thought processes happen. In this sense, the scripted action.
8 4 OTHER SOVIET FILM THEORIES AND PRACTICES
4 Other Soviet lm theories and
practices
4.1 Socialist Realism
Socialist Realism speaks to the project of art within
Stalins period. Art, inherently implosive when funded
and regulated by the state, requires form and content to
avoid neutrality. The ve-year plan, which demanded
workers to overll the plan required lmmakers to ex-
ceed baseline standards.[27] Naturalism, in which art can
only express its subject singularly rather than relationally,
is incapable of exposing the structural and systemic char-
acteristics of phenomena. Realism, on the other hand,
is concerned with relationships, causality, and the pro-
duction of informed spectators. As such, Socialist Real-
ism was primarily a literary movement, characterized by
works such as Maxim Gorkys novel Mother. Filmmakers
took cues from their literary counterparts, implementing
a narrative and character style reminiscent of communist
cultural values. Below are some factors that inuenced
the cinematic Socialist Realist approach.
Synchronized sound was a contentious issue with So-
viet lm theorist. Pudovkin railed against its use
given its capacity for commodication within cap-
italist society and, primarily, its propensity to move
lm toward naturalism.[28] In his reasoning, since
sync sound was conditioned to the image, it could
only lend itself toward enhanced continuity. Conti-
nuity, a process that mitigates the dialectical colli-
sion of concepts, would dilute the radical potential
of lms. Further, any dialectical potential for sound
had already been explored in cinema, since musi-
cal accompaniment had a well established history by
the time synchronized sound had been introduced.
However, Pudovkin later reversed his position on
sync-sound. Joining Eisenstein and others, Pu-
dovkin came to understand sound not a complemen-
tary, but as a counterpoint capable of imbuing lms
with additional conictual elements. The inherent
tension between this position and the States man-
date for narrative clarity and continuity would be a
source of confusion and stagnation for much of this
period. Kino-eye took the problem of sound from
a documentary/newsreel perspective. In the essays
Lets Discuss Ukrainlms First Sound Film: Sym-
phony of the Donbas (1931) and First Steps (1931)
Vertov identies and dismantles the technical, lo-
gistical and political hurdles to sync-sound in news-
reel cinema. By using his lm Enthusiasm (1931),
Vertov demonstrated that sound was not only possi-
ble, but essential to the evolution of newsreel. Vertv
writes
And nally, the most important observa-
tion. When, in Enthusiasm, the industrial
sounds of the All-Union Stokehold arrive at the
square, lling the streets with their machine
music to accompany the gigantic festive pa-
rades; when on the other hand, the sounds of
military bands, of parades [...] fuse with the
sounds of the machines, the sounds of com-
peting factory shops; when the work of bridg-
ing the gape in the Donbas passes before us as
an endless Communist Sabbath, as the days
of industrialization, as a red star, red banner
campaign. We must view this not as a short-
coming, but as a serious, long-range experi-
ment.[29]
Narration - Story clarity was an overriding principle
of Socialist Realist lmmaking, grounding it in ac-
cessibility to a wide array of spectators.[30] Accord-
ing to Vance Kepley Jr., this was a response to the
emerging belief that early montage lms unneces-
sarily conned cinemas appeal to highly competent
lm audiences rather than a general public.[31]
Hollywoods inuence - Over the course of the
1930s, the shift toward Socialist Realism became
Party policy and was modeled after Hollywoods
popularity with the general public. Ironically, the
continuity style that had been the divergent point for
Montage Theorists asserted itself as the paramount
editing technique of the new Soviet lmmaking
mandate. Kepley, in a case study regarding Pu-
dovkins The Return of Vasilii Bortnikov (1953), ex-
plains the narrative, editorial, and compositional in-
uence Hollywood had over Soviet Realist lmmak-
ing at the time. In short, not only did Pudovkin
willingly amend the concept of montage to exclude
an intellect-centric model to suit audience reception,
but was also under strict regulation to meet the Stal-
inist standard of Socialist Realism that came to de-
ne the 1940s and 1950s. Such strict regulation,
combined with the presumptive Hollywood model,
ultimately led to a dearth of lms produced in the
subsequent decades in the Soviet Union.[32]
4.2 Kino-eye
Kinoks (cinema-eye men) / Kinoglaz (Kino-eye) -
The group and movement founded by Dziga Vertov. The
Council of Three was the ocial voice of Kino-eye, is-
suing statements on the groups behalf. The demands,
elaborated in lms, conferences, and future essays, would
seek to situate Kino-eye as the preeminent Soviet lm-
making collective. In the Art of the Cinema, Kuleshov
issues a challenge to non-ction lmmakers: Ideologues
of the non-ctional lm!- give up convincing yourselves
of the correctness of your viewpoints: they are indis-
putable. Create or point out methods of creating genuine,
exciting newsreels.[...]When it is possible to lm easily
4.2 Kino-eye
and comfortably, without having to consider either loca-
tion, or the light conditions, then the authentic owering
of the non-ctional lm will take place, depicting our en-
vironment, our construction, our land.[33]
Manifesto - In their introductory statement We:
Variant of a Manifesto (1922), Vertov lays the
groundwork for Kino-eyes interpretation of cinema
and the role of each component of the cinematic ap-
paratus (producer, spectator, exhibit). The mani-
festo demanded:
The death of cinematography so that the art
of cinema may live. Their objection, spelled-
out in To Cinematographers- The Council of
Three, criticised the old guard of holding
to prerevolutionary models which had ceased
their useful function. Routine, rooted in the
rote reliance on a six-act psychodrama, had
doomed lm to stagnation. In The Resolution
of the Council of Three, April 10, 1923, Kino-
eye identied newsreel as the necessary cor-
rection to devolution of lm practice.
The purity of cinema and its undue conation
with other art forms. Here, they are combat-
ing a premature synthesis of forms. Theater,
which had long been the center of revolution-
ary art, was condemned for its desperate inte-
gration of elemental objects and labors in or-
der to stay relevant. Film, and more speci-
cally newsreel, encountered life as it happened
and created synthesis from life, rather than
an assemblage of representational objects that
approach but never capture life.
The exclusion of man as a subject for lm
and toward a poetry of machines. In a fol-
low up to The Resolution of the Council of
Three, April 10, 1923, Kino-eye published an
excerpt decrying American cinemas reliance
on humanness as a benchmark for lmmaking,
rather than treating the camera as an eye it-
self. We cannot improve the making of our
eyes, but we can endlessly perfect the cam-
era. The reproduction of human perception
was the implicit project of lm until this point,
which Kino-eye saw as a hamstrung endeavor
for cinema. Rather than assume the position
of humanness, Kino-eye sought to breakdown
movement in its intricacies, thereby liberating
cinema from bodily limitations and providing
the basis from which montage could fully ex-
press itself.
The determination and essence of systems of
movement. Analyzing movement was a step
in the reconstitution of the body and the ma-
chine. I am kino-eye, I create a man more
perfect than Adam, I create thousands of dif-
ferent people in accordance with preliminary
9
blueprints and diagrams of dierent kinds. I
am kino-eye. From one person I take the
hands, the strongest and most dexterous; from
another I take the legs, the swiftest and most
shapely; from a third, the most beautiful and
expressive head- and through montage I create
a new, perfect man. I am kino-eye, I am a me-
chanical eye. I, a machine, show you the world
as only I can see it.[34]
Radio-pravda was an attempt to record sounds of
life. Vertov published Kinopravda & Radiopravda
in 1925. In the service of capturing average life, the
sounds of life was left unaccounted for in cinema.
The integration of audio-visual technologies had al-
ready taken place by the time Kino-eye published
its statement. The intent was to fully integrate both
technologies to be broadcast to a worldwide prole-
tariat audience. We must prepare to turn these in-
ventions of the capitalist world to its own destruc-
tion. We will not prepare for the broadcast of operas
and dramas. We will prepare wholeheartedly to give
the workers of every land the opportunity to see and
hear the whole world in an organized form; to see,
hear, and understand one another.[35]
Critique of Art - Art, as conceptualized in var-
ious essays but most explicitly in Kino-Eye (Ver-
tov, 1926), confronts ction as Stupefaction and
suggestion"[36] The capacity to critique was
thought to reside exclusively within realistic docu-
mentation alone. As such, art-dramas weakness was
its inability to excite protest; its danger the capac-
ity to deceive like hypnosis.[36] Kino-eye believed
that the illusion created by art-drama could only be
combated by consciousness. In section 3, Very Sim-
ple Slogans of the Kino-Eye essay, Vertov details the
following axioms of Kinoks:
Film-drama is the opium of the people.
Down with the immortal kings and queens of
the screen! Long live the ordinary mortal,
lmed in life at his daily tasks!
Down with the bourgeois fairy-tale script!
Long live life as it is!
Film-drama and religion are deadly weapons
in the hands of capitalists. By showing our
revolutionary way of life, we will wrest that
weapon from the enemys hands.
The contemporary artistic drama is a vestige
of the old world. It is an attempt to pour our
revolutionary reality into bourgeois molds.
Down with the staging of everyday life! Film
us as we are.
The scenario is a fairy tale invented for us by
a writer. We live our own lives, and we do not
submit to anyones ctions.
10 5 THE DRAMATURGY OF FILM FORM (THE DIALECTICAL APPROACH OF FILM FORM)

Each of us does his task in life and does not nuance.

prevent anyone else from working. The lm
workers task is to lm us so as not to interfere
with our work.
Long live the kino-eye of proletarian
revolution.[37]
Constructivism and Kino-eye - Though Vertov
considered himself a constructivist, his practices
and those of Aleskei Gan, perhaps the most vocal In this essay, Eisenstein explicates how art is created and
of the movement, diverged. Gan and other con- sustained through a dialectical process. He begins with
structivists took the statements of the Kino-Eye es- this supposition:
say to be a fundamental misunderstanding of the
workers purpose and usefulness. While Vertov un-
derstood the labor of art to be culprit of mass il-
lusion, to Gan, artistic labor was a highly valuable
endeavor with which workers could ultimately dis-
mantle artistry.[38] Constructivism does not strive
to create new types of art. It develops forms of
artistic labor through which workers can actually
enter into artistic labor without losing touch with
their material labor. . . . Revolutionary Construc-
tivism wrenches photography and cinematography
from the hands of art-makers. Constructivism digs
arts grave.[39] Gans lm Island of the Young Pio-
neers follows a community of children who live self-
sustaining lives in the countryside. The lm, lost or
destroyed over time, was produced in the hope of
marrying artistic performance and reality in a way
that meets the standards of Party leadership and the
Socialist Realist movement. The result was a pro-
ductive process that mirrored the summer camps al-
ready enjoyed by many Russian youth of the time.
The camera captured Gans ability to elicit perfor-
mance as a practice not a product.
Above all, I constructed a true cinema-object not on top
of everyday life, but out of everyday life. The story of-
fered by comrade Verevkins script did not weigh life
down in my work. Instead, the everyday life of the Young
Pioneers absorbed the story, making it possible to cap-
ture the essence of the young Leninists in their sponta-
neous actuality [or immediate reality, neposredstvennoi
deistvitelnosti]. This materialist approach freed us from
art cinemas bourgeois illustration of a literary text, over-
came the government-issue formalism of the newsreel,
and allowed us to productively establish devices for lm- From this, the form an art takes grants it its dialectical and
ing with a socialist character.[40]
Kristin Romberg mediates the conictual but parallel na-
ture of Kino-eye and Gans constructivism by identify-
ing empathy as the central dividing element. Island of
the Young Pioneers enters into a role-playing relationship
between and with children that seeks to build an under-
standing between them. This, along with the focus on rad-
icalizing children specically, was inconceivable within
Kino-eyes framework. Vertov, concerned with machin-
ery, movement and labor, universalized Kino-eyes strat-
egy of constant critique, with little room for empathy and
5 The Dramaturgy of Film Form
(The Dialectical Approach of
Film Form)
According to Marx and Engels the sys-
tem of the dialectic is only the conscious re-
production of the dialectical course (essence)
of the external events of the world. (Razu-
movsky, The Theory of Historical Material-
ism, Moscow, 1928)
Thus:
the projection of the dialectical system of
objects into the brain
-into abstraction creation-
-into thought-
produces dialectical modes of thought- di-
alectical materialism-
PHILOSOPHY
Similarly:
the projection of the same system of
objects- in concrete creation- in form- pro-
duces
ART
The basis of this philosophy is the dynamic
conception of objects: being as a constant evo-
lution from the interaction between two contra-
dictory opposites. Synthesis that evolves from
the opposition between thesis and antithesis. It
is equally of basic importance for the correct
conception of art and all art forms.
In the realm of art this dialectical principle
of the dynamic is embodied in
CONFLICT
as the essential basic principle of the exis-
tence of every work of art and every form.[41]
political dimension. The material from which it is created
is inherently conictual and holds the seeds of its own de-
struction (antithesis). Without this understanding, mon-
tage is merely a succession of images reminiscent of DW
Griths continuity editing. Here, it is important to note
that, for Eisenstein, art form is inherently political. The
danger is in claiming its neutral until a story or interpreta-
tion are attached. While theories of montage prior to this
sought political mobilization, Dramaturgy took montage
beyond the cinema and implicated lm form in broader
Marxist struggle.

6 See also
Kuleshov Eect
La Psychologie de l'Art book on montage theory
by Andr Malraux
7 References
[1] Metz, Christian (1974). Film Language; A Semiotics of
Cinema. Oxford University Press. p. 133.
[2] Pudovkin, Vsevolod Illarionovich (1949). Film Tech-
nique. And Film Acting, The Cinema Writings Of V. I.
Pudovkin. New York: Bonanza Books. pp. 5455.
[3] Odin, Steve (1989). The Inuence Of Traditional
Japanese Aesthetics On The Film Theory Of Sergei Eisen-
stein. Journal of Aesthetic Education.
[4] Mircea, Eugenia (2012). The Dialectical Image: Eisen-
stein In The Soviet Cinema. Scientic Journal of Human-
istic Studies.
[5] Kuleshov, Lev (1974). Kuleshov on Film: Writings.
Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 4748.
[6] Hensley, Wayne E. (1992). The Kuleshov Eect: Recre-
ating the Classic Experiment. Cinema Journal.
[7] Maclean, Caroline (2012). That Magic Force That Is
Montage': Eisensteins Filmic Fourth Dimension, Border-
line And H. D.. Literature & History.
[8] Eisenstein, Sergei (1998). Eisenstein Reader. London:
British Film Institute. p. 82.
[9] Eisenstein, Sergei (1998). Eisenstein Reader. London:
British Film Institute. pp. 13439.
[10] Eisenstein, Sergei (1998). Eisenstein Reader. London:
British Film Institute. p. 17.
[11] Dart, Peter (1974). Pudovkins Films And Film Theory.
New York: Arno Press. p. 90.
[12] Dart, Peter. pg. 93
[13] Dart, Peter. p. 96
[14] Pudovkin, Film Technique p. 106-7
[15] Eisenstein, Sergei (1987). Nonindierent Nature. New
York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 36.
[16] Nonindierent Nature p. 27
[17] Nonindierent Nature p. 46
[18] Nonindierent Nature, p. 198-99
[19] Eisenstein Reader, pp. 35-36
[20] Eisenstein Reader, p. 116
[21] Eisenstein Reader, pp. 82-92
[22] Dart, Peter. p. 131
11
[23] Pudovkin, Film Technique, p. 214
[24] Pronko, Leonard Cabell (1967). Theater East And West;
Perspectives Toward A Total Theater. Berkeley: Univer-
sity of California Press. p. 127.
[25] Odin, Steve. pp. 69-81
[26] Kuleshov, Kuleshov on Film, p. 185
[27] Kepley Jr., Vance (1995). Pudovkin, Socialist Realism,
And The Classical Hollywood Style. Journal of Film &
Video.
[28] Dart, Peter. p.137
[29] Vertov p. 112
[30] Kepley Jr. p. 4-5
[31] Kepley Jr., p. 5
[32] Kepley Jr., pp 3-12
[33] Kuleshov on Film, p. 122-23
[34] Vertov, Dziga (1984). Kino-Eye : The Writings Of Dziga
Vertov. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 17.
[35] Vertov, p. 56
[36] Vertov, p. 63
[37] Vertov, p. 71
[38] Romberg, Kristin (2013). Labor Demonstrations: Alek-
sei Gans Island Of The Young Pioneers, Dziga Vertovs
Kino-Eye, And The Rationalization Of Artistic Labor.
October.
[39] Gan, Aleskei (March 1924). Konstruktivizm
mogilshchik iskusstva. Zrelishcha.
[40] Gan, Aleskei. Da zdravstvuet demonstratsiia byta.
[41] Eisenstein Reader, p. 93
Eisenstein, Sergei (1942). The Film Sense. Trans.
and edited by Jay Leyda. Harcourt Brace and Com-
pany. ISBN 0-15-630935-1. OCLC 01289114.
Eisenstein, Sergei (1949). Film Form. Trans. by Jay
Leyda. Harcourt Brace and Company. ISBN 0-15-
630920-3. OCLC 715230100.
Smith, Greg M. (OctoberNovember 2004).
Moving Explosions: Metaphors of Emotion
in Sergei Eisensteins Writings. Quarterly Re-
view of Film and Video. 21 (4): 303315.
doi:10.1080/10509200490446196. Retrieved
2006-12-28.
12 8 EXTERNAL LINKS

8 External links
"Eisensteins Montage", Humanities Advanced
Technology and Information Institute, University
of Glasgow.

"Classical Montage Sequence and Soviet Montage",

the Telecommunication and Film Department, the
University of Alabama.

Tomi Huttunen: Montage Culture Dept. of Slavonic

and Baltic languages and literatures, University of
Helsinki
 13

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