Final PV Project 2017 SVU

South Valley University Faculty of Engineering
ON/OFF Grid Photovoltaic

Generation System for Low Power
Applications
B.Sc. Graduation Project

Department of Electrical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
South Valley University
2016-2017
South Valley University Faculty of Engineering
ON/OFF Grid Photovoltaic

Generation System for Low Power
Applications
Bachelor Graduation Project
By:
Abdelrhman Hesham Mohamed Mohamed

Erhab Yousry Mortada AbdElwareth
Gamal Saber Abdullah Hassan
Maha Mohamed AbdElhamied Megahed
Mohamed Akram Mahmoud Abdelmagid
Mohamed Osama Ahmed Helmy
Mahmoud Eid Sebak Mahmoud
Shaimaa Ali Saleem Ebrahim
Supervision,
Dr. Essam E. M. Mohamed
Eng. Ahmed Esmail
Acknowledgements
We start our speech in the name of Allah, The Most Gracious, the Most
Merciful, and all praises be to Allah for helping us finishing our project . . . And
peace and blessing of Allah be upon the noblest of the Prophets, Mohammad
''peace be upon him''.
We would like to thank our lovely families for their unmatched support and
encouragement over previous five years of studying may Allah blesses them
all.
In the beginning, we would like to acknowledge our supervisor Dr. Essam E.

M. Mohamed and thank him for his precious time he gave us, guiding us to
finish this project as it should be.
We also cannot forget the great effort of our elder brother Eng. Ahmed Esmail
for his guidance during all stages of the project, his time he spent with us in
troubleshooting technical problems and also for his moral support.
Also we wish to send our thanks and appreciation for Dr. Abdel Rahim Youssef
and Eng. Mahmoud Said for their support.
We would like to express our sincere appreciation and gratefulness to those

who helped us with any aspect during our work and we didn't mention their
names in this Acknowledgements, thank you very much.
Finally we are also glad to thank our teaching staff of the Electrical
Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering SVU.
Abstract
The main objective of this project is the optimal utilization of solar energy in
household applications which has a great importance because of increasing household
loads demand in Egypt in the last few years and the disability of the conventional
generation systems from supplying these loads.
This optimal operation of the solar panel achieved by an electronic power point
tracking system, where the system is capable of absorbing the maximum energy from
the solar panel without any mechanical movement. The method which is used in this
project is the Perturb and Observe (P&O), the design and implementation of this
method is presented which uses a microcontroller based maximum power point
tracking controller. A multi-level boost converter is interfaced between the solar panel
and the multi-level inverter then whole circuit is connected to the load. The duty cycle
of the boost converter is varied using the microcontroller in order to absorb the
maximum power under varying solar irradiance and temperature.
The results of this project show improvements in the oscillations about MPP, high
gain, stable voltage output with less losses on switches, and less overall total
harmonic distortion (THD) compared to other conventional sinusoidal PWM inverter.
Also multi-level topology contributes in cancellation of instantaneous voltage sag due
to PV cell shading. The simulation and experimental results are presented to validate
the concept.
CONTENT
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................1
1.2 RENEWABLE ENERGY .....................................................................................................................2
1.3 ENERGY CONSUMPTION .................................................................................................................2
1.3.1 Types of Renewable Energy ...............................................................................................................3

(1) Wind Power ....................................................................................................................................3
(2) Solar Power ....................................................................................................................................3
(3) Biomass ..........................................................................................................................................4
(4) Geothermal Energy.........................................................................................................................4
(5) Hydroelectric Power .......................................................................................................................4
1.4 Photovoltaic system ...............................................................................................................................4

1) Benefits of a PV system to the householder ....................................................................................4
2) Drawbacks of photovoltaic systems ................................................................................................5
3) Components of PV system...............................................................................................................5
4) Maximum power point Tracking (MPPT) techniques: ....................................................................5
5) Dc-Dc Converters ............................................................................................................................5
6) Boost Converter ...............................................................................................................................6
7) Dc-Ac Converters ............................................................................................................................6
CHAPTER TWO
2.1- ELECTRICITY GENERATION WITH SOLAR CELLS ..............................................................7
2.2- SOLAR RADIATION ..........................................................................................................................9
2.3- ANGLE DEFINITION.......................................................................................................................11
2.4- SOLAR ANGLES USED IN POWER CALCULATIONS FOR PV PANELS ............................11
2.5- ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLAR CELLS [9] ................................................................12

I
2.6- PHOTOVOLTAIC MODEL WITH SINGLE-DIODE AND SERIES RESISTANCE ..............13
2.7- PHOTOVOLTAIC MODEL WITH SERIES AND PARALLEL RESISTANCES ....................14
2.8- SOLAR CELL "IV" CURVES CHARACTERISTICS [10] .........................................................16
2.9- INFLUENCE OF IRRADIATION AND TEMPERATURE .........................................................17
2.10- SOLAR PANEL ................................................................................................................................17
2.11- SOLAR PANEL MODULE .............................................................................................................18
2.12- TYPES OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS..........................................................................18
CHAPTER THREE
3.1 INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................................21
3.2 -WHAT IS MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING (MPPT) ..................................................22
3.3-THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND IRRADIANCE ON MAXIMUM POWER POINT

TRACKING (MPPT) ................................................................................................................................23
3.4-MPPT METHODS ..............................................................................................................................25
1-Constant Voltage (CV) ...........................................................................................................................25

Benefits, .............................................................................................................................................25
Drawbacks, .........................................................................................................................................25
2-Fractional open circuit voltage ..............................................................................................................25
3-Fractional short circuit current ............................................................................................................26

Benefits: .............................................................................................................................................26
Drawbacks:.........................................................................................................................................27
4-Perturb and Observe (P&O) method of MPPT ...................................................................................27
5-Incremental Conductance method of MPPT .......................................................................................29

Benefits, .............................................................................................................................................31
Drawbacks, .........................................................................................................................................31
3.5-COMPARISON BETWEEN MPPT TECHNIQUE ......................................................................33
II
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1-INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................................35
4.2- DC-DC CONVERTERS ....................................................................................................................35
4.2.1- DC-DC BOOST CONVERTER .....................................................................................................36
4.2.2- THE OPERATION OF BOOST CONVERTER .........................................................................36
4.2.3- THE MODES OF OPERATION OF A BOOST CONVERTER ...............................................37

1-Charging Mode ...............................................................................................................................37
2-Discharging Mode ..........................................................................................................................38
4.2.5- MULTI-LEVEL BOOST CONVERTER (MLBC)......................................................................40
4.2.6- THE OPERATION OF MULTILEVEL BOOST CONVERSION: ..........................................40
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................................43
5.2 TYPES OF INVERTER

A) TYPE OF AC INVERTER ACCORDING TO INPUT ....................................................................44
b)The type of inverter according to AC Loads .......................................................................................44
c) The wave shape of inverter according to the AC output ...................................................................44
5.2.1 TYPES OF INVERTERS ACCORDING TO INPUT: .................................................................44
5.2.2 TYPES OF INVERTER ACCORDING TO WAVE SHAPE OF AC OUTPUT: ......................45

a) Pure sine wave ...............................................................................................................................45
b) Modified sine wave........................................................................................................................45
c) Square wave ...................................................................................................................................45
5.2.3 TYPES OF INVERTER ACCORDING TO AC LOADS ............................................................45
5.3 MULTILEVEL INVERTER ..............................................................................................................46
5.4 OVERVIEW OF POWER SEMICONDUCTOR SWITCHES USED POWER MOSFETS .....47

III
5.4.1 Operation ...........................................................................................................................................47
5.4.2 Properties of MOSFET as a switch:................................................................................................48
5.5 SWITCHING ALGORITHMS FOR THE PROPOSED PWM SWITCHING TECHNIQUES 48
CHAPTER SIX
A- SIMULINK MODELS: ........................................................................................................................53
A.6-1 PV Array ..........................................................................................................................................54
A.6.2 Multi-Level Boost Converter ..........................................................................................................55

A.6.2.1 Boost Converter Controllers .................................................................................................56
A.6.3 Five-Level Inverter ..........................................................................................................................58
A.6.4 Loads and Grid ................................................................................................................................59
6.2- SIMULINK RESULTS ......................................................................................................................60
CHAPTER SEVEN
1. INTRODUCTION. ................................................................................63
2. MULTI-LEVEL BOOST CONVERTER (MLBC) ............................................................................63

Operation Modes ................................................................................................................................64
Multi-Level Boost PCB design ..........................................................................................................65
PCB View ..........................................................................................................................................66
Multi-Level Boost controller .............................................................................................................66
Multi-Level Boost Controller PCB design.........................................................................................67
Multi-Level Boost Controller PCB design.........................................................................................67
PCB View ..........................................................................................................................................67
Multi-Level Boost Controller View ...................................................................................................67
Multi-Level Boost Controller Micro C Code .....................................................................................68
Multi-Level Boost Controller Micro C Code .....................................................................................68
Multi-Level Boost waveforms ...........................................................................................................69
Multi-Level Boost Circuit Diagram ...................................................................................................69
Multi-Level Boost waveforms ...........................................................................................................70
3. FIVE LEVELS INVERTER .....................................................................70
IV
FIVE LEVELS INVERTER SWITCHING MODES ...........................................................................73
Five levels Inverter PCB design.........................................................................................................73
PCB View ..........................................................................................................................................73
Five levels Inverter Controller ...........................................................................................................74
Switching sequence waveform...........................................................................................................74
Five levels Inverter Controller PCB design .......................................................................................75
PCB View ..........................................................................................................................................76
Five levels Inverter Controller Micro C Code ...................................................................................77
five levels Inverter Controller Micro C Code ....................................................................................77
FIVE-LEVEL INVERTER OUTPUT WAVEFORMS .........................................................................78

Five Levels Inverter Circuit Diagram R-load..................................................................................78
A. R-Load ........................................................................................................................................79
B. RL-Load ......................................................................................................................................80
4.GATE DRIVE. ............................................................................................84
GATE DRIVE CIRCUIT DESIGN ........................................................................................................84

PCB View .........................................................................................................................................85
Gate Drive PCB design ..................................................................................................................85
V
APPENDIX A
A.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC DATASHEET: ..................................................................................................89
A.2 MOSFET (IRFP460)...........................................................................................................................91
A.3 POWER DIODE (BY329) ..................................................................................................................93
A.4 OPT COUPLER (6N137) ...................................................................................................................95
A.5 PIC MICROCONTROLLER (18F4620) ..........................................................................................98
A.6 POSITIVE VOLTAGE REGULATOR (7815) ..............................................................................100
A.7 LCD DISPLAY (16 X 2) ...................................................................................................................102
APPENDIX B
MULTI-LEVEL BOOST ISIS DESIGN ...............................................................................................104
FIVE LEVELS INVERTER ISIS DESIGN ..........................................................................................105
MULTI-LEVEL BOOST ........................................................................................................................106
MULTI-LEVEL BOOST CONTROLLER ...........................................................................................106
FIVE LEVELS INVERTER ...................................................................................................................106
FIVE LEVELS INVERTER CONTROLLER & GATE DRIVE .......................................................107
PV SOLAR CELL ...................................................................................................................................107
VI
List of Abbreviations
AC Alternating Current
DC Direct Current
MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking
CV Constant Voltage
OV Open Voltage
P&O Perturb and Observe
IC Incremental Conductance
MLBC Multi-level boost converter
IGBT Integrated Gate Bipolar Transistor
MOSFET Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor
CSI Current Source Inverter
VSI Voltage Source Inverter
IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Junction Transistor
OC Open Circuit
PI Proportional and Integral
PV Photovoltaic
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
EMI Electromagnetic interference
THD Total harmonic distortion
RES Renewable Energy Sources
VII
List of Figures
CHAPTER ONE
FIG. (1. 1) TOPOLOGY OF ON/OFF GRID PV GENERATION SYSTEM .................................................................. 2
FIG. (1. 2) ENERGY CONSUMPTION ................................................................................................................. 3
CHAPTER TWO
FIG. (2. 1) FUNCTIONING OF THE PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL ................................................................................. 9
FIG. (2. 2) EGYPTIAN AVERAGE ANNUAL IRRADIATION [27] ......................................................................... 10
FIG. (2.4) CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF PV SYSTEM ................................................................................................. 12
FIG. (2.5) CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF PV SYSTEM WITH LOAD ............................................................................. 14
FIG. (2.6) PHOTOVOLTAIC MODEL WITH SINGLE-DIODE, SERIES AND PARALLEL RESISTANCE ................... 15
FIG. (2. 7) PHOTOVOLTAIC MODEL WITH TWO DIODE, SERIES AND PARALLEL RESISTANCES ..................... 15
FIG. (2.8) PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF PV CELL ............................................................................ 16
FIG. (2.9) PV CONFIGURATIONS ..................................................................................................................... 17
CHAPTER THREE
FIG. (3.1) CURRENT/VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTIC CURVE (L-V CURVE) FOR CRYSTALLINE SILICON ............ 21
FIG. (3. 2) PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM WITH AN MPPT COMMAND BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR AN ELEMENTARY..... 22
FIG. (3. 3) SEARCH AND RECOVERY OF MPPT, A) SUNSHINE VARIATION, B) LOAD VARIATION ................... 24
FIG. (3. 5) P-V CURVE OF IC ALGORITHM ....................................................................................................... 30
FIG. (3.6) FLOW CHART FOR INCREMENTAL CONDUCTANCE METHOD OF MPPT .......................................... 32
CHAPTER FOUR
FIG. (4.1) BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PV CELL ........................................................................................................ 36
FIG. (4.3) EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT FOR BOOST CONVERTER (MODE 1) ............................................................ 37
FIG. (4. 4) EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT FOR BOOST CONVERTER (MODE 2) ........................................................... 38
FIG. (4. 5) WAVEFORMS FOR BOOST CONVERTER ......................................................................................... 39
FIG. (4. 6): BI-LEVEL MLBC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT. ....................................................................................... 40
FIG. (4. 7): BI LEVEL MBC CIRCUIT WHEN SW IS CLOSED. ............................................................................. 41
FIG. (4. 8): BI LEVEL MLBC CIRCUIT WHEN SW IS OPEN. ............................................................................... 42
VIII
CHAPTER FIVE
FIG. (5.1) DC-LINK CONVERTER..................................................................................................................... 43
FIG. (5.2): - SINGLE-PHASE FIVE LEVEL INVERTER ....................................................................................... 46
FIG. (5.3): ONE PHASE LEG OF AN INVERTER................................................................................................. 47
FIG. (5.4): - MOSFET ....................................................................................................................................... 48
FIG. (5. 5) SINGLE-PHASE FIVE-LEVEL INVERTER PWM SWITCHING TECHNIQUES ....................................... 51
CHAPTER SIX
FIG. (6. 1) MATLAB/SIMULINK MODEL OF THE OVERALL PV SYSTEM.......................................................... 53
FIG. (6. 3) IRRADIATION INPUT OF PV ARRAY .............................................................................................. 55
FIG. (6. 4) MATLAB/SIMULINK MODEL OF MULTI-LEVEL BOOST CONVERTER ............................................. 55
FIG. (6. 5) TOTAL OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF THE CONVERTER (DURING OFF-GRID MODE ) ............................... 56
FIG. (6. 6) TOTAL OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF THE CONVERTER (DURING ON-GRID MODE ) ............................... 56
FIG. (6. 7) MATLAB/SIMULINK MODEL OF CONSTANT VOLTAGE CONTROLLER ......................................... 57
FIG. (6. 8) MATLAB/SIMULINK MODEL OF MPPT CONTROLLER ................................................................... 57
FIG. (6. 9) MATLAB/SIMULINK MODEL OF SWITCHED CONTROL .................................................................. 58
FIG. (6. 10) MATLAB/SIMULINK MODEL OF FIVE-LEVEL INVERTER............................................................. 58
FIG. (6. 11) MATLAB/SIMULINK MODEL OF INVERTER CONTROLLER .......................................................... 59
FIG. (6. 12) MATLAB/SIMULINK MODEL OF RLC SWITCHED LOAD ............................................................... 59
FIG. (6. 13) MATLAB/SIMULINK MODEL OF SWITCHED GRID OPERATION ................................................... 60
FIG. (6. 14) OUTPUT VOLTAGE FOR R-LOAD OFF-GRID OPERATION .............................................................. 60
FIG. (6. 15) OUTPUT CURRENT FOR R-LOAD OFF-GRID OPERATION .............................................................. 61
FIG. (6. 16) HARMONIC SPECTRUM FOR R-LOAD OFF-GRID OPERATION ....................................................... 61
FIG. (6. 17) OUTPUT VOLTAGE FOR RL-LOAD OFF-GRID OPERATION .......................................................... 62
FIG. (6. 18) OUTPUT CURRENT FOR RL-LOAD OFF-GRID OPERATION ........................................................... 62
FIG. (6. 19) HARMONIC SPECTRUM FOR OUTPUT VOLTAGE FOR RL-LOAD OFF-GRID OPERATION............... 62
FIG. (6. 20) HARMONIC SPECTRUM FOR OUTPUT CURRENT FOR RL-LOAD OFF-GRID OPERATION ............. 63
CHAPTER SEVEN
FIG. (7. 1)GENERAL CIRCUIT LAYOUT ........................................................................................................... 63
FIG. (7. 2) MULTI-LEVEL BOOST CIRCUIT DIAGRAM ..................................................................................... 64
FIG. (7. 3) MULTI-LEVEL BOOST OPERATION MODES .................................................................................... 65
FIG. (7. 4) MULTI-LEVEL BOOST PCB DESIGN ................................................................................................ 65
FIG. (7. 5) MULTI-LEVEL BOOST PCB .. ....................................................................66
FIG. (7. 6) MULTI-LEVEL BOOST CONTROLLER ............................................................................................. 66
FIG. (7. 7) MULTI-LEVEL BOOST CONTROLLER PCB DESIGN ......................................................................... 67
IX
FIG. (7. 8) MULTI-LEVEL BOOST CONTROLLER VIEW .................................................................................... 67
FIG. (7.9) MULTI-LEVEL BOOST CONTROLLER MICRO C CODE ..................................................................... 68
FIG. (7.10) MULTI-LEVEL BOOST CIRCUIT DIAGRAM..................................................................................... 69
FIG. (7.11) MULTI-LEVEL BOOST WAVEFORMS ............................................................................................. 70
FIG. (7.12) FIVE LEVEL INVERTER .......................................................................................................................... 70
FIG. (7.13) FIVE LEVELS INVERTER SWITCHING MODES ............................................................................................. 73
FIG. (7.14) FIVE LEVELS INVERTER PCB DESIGN ........................................................................................... 73
FIG. (7.15) FIVE LEVELS INVERTER PCB VIEW ............................................................................................... 74
FIG. (7.16) FIVE LEVELS INVERTER CONTROLLER......................................................................................... 74
FIG. (7.17) FIVE LEVELS INVERTER SWITCHING SEQUENCE WAVEFORM..................................................... 74
FIG. (7. 18) FIVE LEVELS INVERTER CONTROLLER PCB DESIGN.................................................................... 75
FIG. (7. 19) FIVE LEVELS INVERTER CONTROLLER PCB VIEW ....................................................................................... 76
FIG. (7.20) FIVE LEVELS INVERTER CONTROLLER MICRO C CODE ................................................................ 77
FIG. (7.21) FIVE LEVELS INVERTER CIRCUIT DIAGRAM R-LOAD ................................................................. 78
FIG. (7.22) FIVE LEVELS INVERTER WAVEFORMS RL-LOAD ........................................................................ 78
FIG. (7. 23)FIVE LEVELS INVERTER WAVEFORMS R-LOAD .......................................................................... 80
FIG. (7.24) FIVE LEVELS INVERTER WAVEFORMS RL-LOAD ........................................................................ 81
FIG. (7.25) COMPARISON BETWEEN EXPERIMENTAL & SIMULATION OUTPUT VOLTAGE FOR R-LOAD .............................. 81
FIG. (7.26) COMPARISON BETWEEN EXPERIMENTAL & SIMULATION OUTPUT CURRENT FOR R-LOAD ............................. 82
FIG. (7.27) COMPARISON BETWEEN EXPERIMENTAL & SIMULATION OUTPUT HARMONIC SPECTRUM FOR R-LOAD........... 82
FIG. (7.28) COMPARISON BETWEEN EXPERIMENTAL & SIMULATION OUTPUT VOLTAGE FOR RL-LOAD............................. 82
FIG. (7.29) COMPARISON BETWEEN EXPERIMENTAL & SIMULATION OUTPUT CURRENT FOR RL-LOAD ............................ 83
FIG. (7.30) COMPARISON BETWEEN EXPERIMENTAL & SIMULATION HARMONIC SPECTRUM FOR RL-LOAD ...................... 83
FIG. (7. 31) GATE DRIVE CIRCUIT DESIGN ............................................................................................................... 84
FIG. (7. 32) GATE DRIVE PCB DESIGN .......................................................................................................... 85
FIG. (7. 33) GATE DRIVE WAVEFORM ............................................................................................................ 85
FIG. (7. 34) COMPARISON BETWEEN HARMONIC SPECTRUM OF SQUARE WAVE OUTPUT VOLTAGE AND FIVE LEVEL STAIR
WAVE OUTPUT FOR RESISTIVE LOAD ............................................................................................................. 83
X
List of Tables
TABLE 3.1 SUMMARY OF PERTURB AND OBSERVATION ALGORITHM ......................................................... 27

TABLE 3. 2 CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT MPPT TECHNIQUES .............................................................. 33
TABLE (6. 1) PV CELL OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS ....................................................................................... 54
TABLE (7. 1) INVERTER SWITCHING CONDITIONS......................................................................................... 70

TABLE (7. 2) LOAD PARAMETERS.................................................................................................................. 78
XI
XII
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The power capacity crisis has arisen in Egypt few years ago due to increasing household
loads demands such as air conditioners, refrigerators, and washing machines, etc.
Concerned parties , companies , and the government has given attention to the importance
in investing at renewable energy generation systems , and by now many successful attempts
in renewable energy is founded and make small yet, effective contribution in over-all
Electrical power capacity.
In this project we are concerned in developing Photovoltaic (PV) generation systems, many
ways and topologies are designed to achieve maximum benefit from PV systems which will
be classified later.
The PV power generation system can be divided into three classes:
grid-connected system[1], stand-alone system [2],and on/off-grid integrated system [3].
The system discussed here will be on/off-grid integrated system with low power prototype
to explain the system control strategy.
Compared with grid-connected system, ON/OFF grid integrated system has its own
features. Firstly, ON/OFF grid integrated system has less interaction with public grid, so the
grid fault has less influence on the household loads, also because of the randomness and
volatility of the photovoltaic power, on/off-grid integrated system can reduce the impact and
unbalance of the public grid.
Compared with stand-alone system, ON/OFF grid integrated system also has its own
advantages. Firstly, for the stand-alone system, it is very difficult to ensure the maximum
power supply continuity of the system.
Because the ON/OFF grid system can work on on-grid condition, there is no power supply
continuity problem in the system.
Secondly, in many cases, the stand-alone system is equipped with energy storing device. To
ensure that the power supply continuity is maximum and the volume of energy storing
device must be very huge.
In addition, the cost of the system is relatively high. In the on/off-grid integrated system,
because the public can work as a back-up power, the volume of energy storing device can
1
Chapter One - Introduction
be lower to reduce the cost which is the most important factor of the whole generation The
topology of the on/off integrated photovoltaic generation system is shown in Fig. (1. 1).
The whole system consists of a PV, a Battery, the public grid, three-level Boost converter,
three-level inverter, and household loads. PV is connected to the dc bus through the boost
step-up converter. Battery is connected to the dc bus through a Battery charger.
Sa
Utility
Grid
Sx
Battery Charger D3
/Battery C2 S1 S3
D2 Sb
C1 Household
Ac load
L1 D1 Dx
Cin Sw
S4 S2
C3
150KW
PV Module
PIC
Microcontroller
Fig. (1. 1) Topology of ON/OFF grid PV generation system
1.2 Renewable energy

Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources, which are
naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves,
and geothermal heat. Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas:
Electricity generation, air and water heating/cooling, transportation, and rural (off-
grid) energy services. Renewables contributed to humans' global energy consumption by
19.2% and 23.7% to their generation of electricity in 2014 and 2015, respectively. This
energy consumption is divided as 8.9% coming from traditional biomass, 4.2% as heat
energy (modern biomass, geothermal and solar heat), 3.9% hydroelectricity and 2.2% is
electricity from wind, solar and geothermal.
1.3 Energy consumption

World energy consumption is the total energy used by the entire human population.
Typically measured per year, it involves all energy harnessed from every energy
source applied towards humanity's endeavors across every single industrial and
technological sector, across every country. It does not include energy from food, and the
extent to which direct biomass burning has been accounted for is poorly documented. Being
2
the power source metric of civilization, World Energy Consumption has deep implications
for humanity's socio-economic-political sphere [4].
Fig. (1. 2) Energy Consumption [5]
1.3.1 Types of Renewable Energy

The worlds energy needs could be reduced by one-third by 2050 if individuals and
corporations seek for saving energy and beginning rely on renewable energy sources
provided by power companies and personalized adoption. Renewable energy allows
consumer to tap into natural resources that are replenished as part of the normal life cycle.
Cut a tree down to burn for heat, and that tree is gone forever. Tap into the wind with a
turbine to generate electricity, and the wind continues to blow. The Union of Concerned
Scientists suggests the following clean renewable energy sources:
(1) Wind Power

The U.S. can produce more than 10 times its energy needs through wind power, one of the
fastest-growing energy sources. Turbines use wind to generate electricity without creating
pollutants
(2) Solar Power
The sun will be a source of energy for billions of years. To capture this energy, the current
technology includes photovoltaic panels, solar collectors and thin-film solar sheeting. The
solar cells turn sunlight into electricity directly, so there is no need for a generator. It is a
clean and non-polluting source of energy.
3
(3) Biomass
It is the use of plant matter and animal waste to create electricity. When converted
properly, it is a low-carbon source of energy with little pollution
(4) Geothermal Energy

It is the use of heated water and steam from the earth to run power stations, which turn the
steam into electricity. California has more than 40 geothermal power stations which
produces five percent of that states needs. The Philippines, Iceland and El Salvador are all
generating more than 25 percent of their electricity with geothermal plants.
(5) Hydroelectric Power

It uses flowing water to move turbines which generate electricity. Hydropower provides
20 percent of the worlds energy needs, according to the United States Geological
Survey.]2[
1.4 Photovoltaic system

A photovoltaic system, also PV system or solar power system, is a power system designed
to supply usable solar power by means of photovoltaic. It consists of an arrangement of
several components, including solar panels to absorb and convert sunlight into electricity, a
solar inverter to change the electric current from DC to AC, as well as mounting, cabling
and other electrical accessories to set up a working system. It may also use a solar tracking
system to improve the system's overall performance and include an integrated battery
solution, as prices for storage devices are expected to decline. Moreover, PV systems
convert light directly into electricity and shouldn't be confused with other technologies, such
as concentrated solar power or solar thermal, used for heating and cooling.
1) Benefits of a PV system to the householder

1- Solar PV systems generate electricity once the system has been purchased electricity is
generated from a free resource (the sun).
2- PV electricity is generated without emitting greenhouse gases.
3- PV panels or modules are silent, without any moving parts.
4- PV modules are generally unobtrusively mounted on an existing roof.
5- PV modules can be integrated into the building in the form of windows, walls, roof tiles
or pergolas.
6- PV electricity can supplement or provide all your electrical consumption.
7- PV electricity can be fed into the grid.
4
2) Drawbacks of photovoltaic systems

As a developing technology, PV systems have high initial costs and consequently their
economic value is evaluated over many years. Due to the diffuse nature of sunlight and the
current sunlight to electrical energy conversion efficiencies of photovoltaic devices, surface
area requirements for PV array installations are on the order of 8 to12 m2 per kilowatt of
installed peak DC-rated PV array capacity.
3) Components of PV system
1. PV generator and support structure (a single module or an array of several modules)
2. Power conditioning equipment (includes inverters and control and protection equipment)
3. Power storage (usually provided by batteries)
4. A load (lights, pumps, refrigerators, radio, television)
4) Maximum power point Tracking (MPPT) techniques:

Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) technique is used to improve the efficiency of the
solar panel. There are large numbers of algorithms that are able to track MPPs.
Some of them are Simple, such as those based on voltage and current feedback like
perturbation & observation (P&O) or the incremental conductance (IC) methods and some
are more complicated. They mainly vary in complexity, sensor requirement, speed of
convergence, cost, range of operation, popularity, ability to detect multiple local maximum,
and their applications [6, 7].
5) Dc-Dc Converters
A DC-DC converter is an electronic circuit which converts a source of direct current (DC)
from one voltage level to another. The DC-DC converters are widely used in regulated
switch-mode dc power supplies and in dc motor drives applications. Often the input of these
converters is an unregulated dc voltage, which is obtained by rectifying the line voltage, and
therefore it will fluctuate due to changes in the line voltage magnitude. Switch-mode DC-
DC converters are used to convert the unregulated dc input into a controlled dc output at a
desired voltage level. The heart of MPPT hardware is a switch-mode DC-DC converter.
MPPT uses the converter for a different purpose: regulating the input voltage at the MPP
and providing load matching for the maximum power transfer.
The Dc-Dc converter are classified as, Buck converter, Boost converter and Buck Boost
converter.
5
6) Boost Converter
Boost converter steps up the input voltage magnitude to a required output voltage magnitude
without the use of a transformer. The main components of a boost converter are an inductor,
capacitor, a diode and a high frequency switch.
Here in current project we use multilevel boost.
Multilevel Boost Conversion
The number of levels can be increased by adding capacitors and diodes, and then it is possible to
achieve real implementations. It has near continuous input current, a large conversion ratio without
using high duty cycle.
7) Dc-Ac Converters
The dc-ac converter, also known as the inverter converts dc power to ac power at desired
output voltage and frequency.
Here in our project we use multilevel inverter
Multilevel Inverter
This inverter topology uses two carrier signals to generate PWM signals for the switches.
Some switches operate at fundamental frequency and others operate at switching
frequency.
6
Chapter Two
Electricity Generation
With Solar Cells
2.1- Electricity Generation with Solar Cells

Photovoltaic systems use cells to convert sunlight into electricity. Converting solar energy
into electricity in a photovoltaic installation is the most known way of using solar energy.
The Light has a character according to quantum physics. Light is a particle, and it is a wave.
The particles of light are called photons. Photons are mass less particles, moving at Light
speed. The Energy of the photon depends on its Wave length and the frequency, and we
can calculate it by the Einstein's law,
Which is:
E = hv (2.1)
Where,
E: Photon energy
h = 6.62610 34 Js : Planck's constant
: Photon frequency
Valence electrons are associated with the atom while the free electrons can move freely. In
order to become free, valence electron must get the energy that is greater than or equal to
the energy of binding. Binding energy is the energy by which an electron is bound to an
atom in one of the atomic bonds. In the case of photoelectric effect, the electron acquires
the required energy by the collision with a photon. Part of the photon energy is consumed
to get free the electron from the influence of the atom which is attached to, and the remaining
energy is converted into kinetic energy of a new free electron. Free electrons obtained by
the photoelectric effect are also called photoelectrons. The energy required to release a
valence electron from the impact of an atom is called a work out , and it depends on the
type of material in which the photoelectric effect has occurred. The equation that describes
this process is as follows:
Valence electrons are associated with the atom, while the free electrons can move freely. In
order to become free, valence electron must get the energy that is greater than or equal to
the energy of binding.
7
Chapter Two Electricity Generation With Solar Cell
Binding energy is the energy by which an electron is bound to an atom in one of the atomic
bonds. In the case of photoelectric effect, the electron acquires the required energy by the
collision with a photon. Part of the photon energy is consumed to get free the electron from
the influence of the atom, which is attached to, and the remaining energy is converted into
kinetic energy of a new free electron. Free electrons obtained by the photoelectric effect are
also called photoelectrons.
The energy required to release a valence electron from the impact of an atom is called a
"work out" Wi, and it depends on the type of material in which the photoelectric effect has
occurred .The equation that describes this process is as follows:
h = Wi + Ekin (2.2)
Where
: Photon energy
: work out
: Kinetic Energy of emit electron
The previous equation shows that the electron will be released if the photon energy is less
than the work output .The photoelectric conversion in the PV junction. PV junction (diode)
is a boundary between two differently doped semiconductor layers; one is a P type layer
(excess holes), and the second one is an N type (excess electrons). At the Boundary between
the P and the N area, there is a spontaneous electric field, which affects the generated
electrons and holes, and determines the direction of the current.
Fig. (2. 1) Functioning of the photovoltaic cell
8
2.2- Solar radiation

The sun is the central star of the solar system where the Earth is.
It has a form of a large glowing ball of gas, the composition of mostly hydrogen and helium,
but also other elements that existed to a lesser extent, like oxygen, carbon, iron, neon,
nitrogen, silicon, magnesium and sulfur. Energy of the Sun comes to the Earth in the form
of solar radiation. Nuclear reactions take place in the interior of the Sun, which hydrogen is
transformed into helium by a fusion process, accompanied by the release of large amounts
of energy, where the temperature reaches 15 million C. Part of this energy comes to Earth
in form of heat and light.
Under optimal conditions, the earth's surface can obtain 1.000 W/m2, while the actual value
depends on the location, i.e. latitude; climatological location parameters such as frequency
of cloud cover and haze, air pressure, etc.
Considering the productivity of photovoltaic systems, it is necessary to the following
concepts:
Irradiation which is the average density of the radiant solar radiation power, and
equal to the ratio of the solar radiation power and surface of the plane perpendicular
to the direction of this radiation measured by (W/m 2).
The solar radiation, on its way through the earth's atmosphere, weakens due to the
interaction with gases and vapors in the Atmosphere and arrives at the Earth's
surface as direct and diffused radiation.
Direct sunlight comes directly from the sun, while Scattered or diffused radiation
reaches the earth from all directions.
In case of an inclined surface, the reflected radiation has to be added to the direct
and diffused radiation. Reflected radiation can be reflected from the ground or
water.
9
Fig. (2. 2) Egyptian average annual irradiation [27]
The solar radiation weakens on its way through the earth's atmosphere due to the
interaction with gases and vapors in the atmosphere and arrives at the Earth's surface
as direct and diffused. Direct sun light comes directly from the sun, while Scattered
or diffused radiation reaches the earth from all directions. Considering direct and
diffused radiation on a flat Surface, we are talking about the radiation. In case of an
inclined surface, the rejected or reflected radiation has to Beaded to the direct and
diffused radiation. Rejected radiation can be reflected from the ground or water. The
largest component of solar radiation is direct, and the maximum radiation should be
on a surface perpendicular to the direction of the sun's rays.
The largest part of solar radiation is direct, and the maximum radiation should be on
a surface perpendicular to the direction of the sun's rays. The greatest radiation at any
11
given moment is only possible, if the plane is constantly referred to the movement of
the sun in the sky. Photovoltaic modules can be mounted in various ways: fixed at a
certain angle, or moved to get a better angle of monitor inclination of the sun during
the day for greater energy yield and better results in production of electricity.
2.3- Angle definition

Angle definition is important for calculating irradiance value and the yields of solar energy
system.[8]
2.4- Solar angles used in power calculations for PV panels
The angle at which the sun hits a PV panel is the basis for understanding how to design the
most efficient PV array for a specific location. This is one of the first topics presented in
solar engineering textbooks.
Zenith Angle, z: is the angle between the line that points to the sun and the vertical basically.
At sunrise and sunset, this angle is 90, Solar Altitude Angle, s: This is the angle between
the line that points to the sun and the horizontal. It is the complement of the zenith angle.
At sunrise and sunset, this angle is 0 Solar Azimuth Angle, s: This is the angle between
the line that points to the sun and south. Angles to the east are negative. Angles to the west
are positive. This angle is 0 at solar noon. It is probably close to -90 at sunrise and 90 at
sunset, depending on the season. This angle is only measured in the horizontal plane; in
other words, it neglects the height of the sun.
Angle of Incidence, : This is the angle between the line that points to the sun and the angle
that points straight out of a PV panel (also called the line that is normal to the surface of the
panel). This is the most important angle. Solar panels are most efficient when pointing at
the sun, so engineers want to minimize this angle at all times. To know this angle, you must
know all of the angles listed and described next.
11
Hour Angle, : This is based on the suns angular displacement, east or west, of the local
meridian (the line the local time zone is based on). The earth rotates 15 per hour so at 11am,
the hour angle is -15 and at 1pm, it is 15.
Surface Azimuth Angle, : This is the angle between the line that points straight out of a PV
panel and south. It is only measured in the horizontal plane. Again, east is negative and west
is positive. If a panel pointed directly south, this angle would be 0.
Collector Slope, : This is the angle between the plane of the solar collector and the
horizontal. If a panel is lying flat, then it is 0. As you tip it up, this angle increases. It does
not matter which direction the panel faces.
Declination, : This is the angle between the line that points to the sun from the equator and
the line that points straight out from the equator (at solar noon). North is positive and south
is negative. This angle varies from 23.45 to -23.45 throughout the year, which is related to
why we have seasons.
Latitude, : This is the angle between a line that points from the center of the Earth to a
location on the Earths surface and a line that points from the center of the Earth to the
equator. This can be easily found on the map.
2.5- Electrical properties of solar cells [9]

IT is necessary to understand the physical configuration of the elements of the cell as well
as the electrical characteristics of each element.
The ideal equivalent circuit of a PV cell is a current source in parallel with a single-diode.
The configuration of the simulated ideal solar cell with single-diode is shown in Fig. (2.34)
I
+
ID
D V
G Ipv
-
Fig. (2.3) Circuit diagram of PV system
12
The equation for the output current is given by:

= (2.3)
Where
(2.4)
= [ ( ) ]

(2.5)
= [ ( ) ]

Then equation (1) becomes:

: is the current generated by the incidence of light.
Io: is the diode reverse bias saturation current.
A PV cell can at least be characterized by the short circuit current (ISC); the open circuit
voltage (VOC) and the ideality factor A. The output of current source is directly proportional
to the light falling on the cell.
For the same irradiance and p-n junction temperature conditions, the short circuit current
(ISC) is the greatest value of the current generated by the cell.
The short current is given by:
For V = 0; ISC = I = IPV
Likewise, for the same irradiance and p-n junction temperature conditions, the open circuit
voltage (VOC) is the greatest value of the voltage at the cell terminals and it can be written
as:
(2.6)
= = [ + ] =

In addition, at the same conditions, the output power is given by:

(2.7)
= { [( )]}

2.6- Photovoltaic model with single-diode and series resistance

More accuracy and complexity can be introduced to the previous model by adding a series
resistance. The circuit diagram of this model is shown in Fig. (2.4).
13
+
ID Rs
D V
G Ipv
-
Fig. (2.4) Circuit diagram of PV system with load
For the same irradiation and temperature conditions, the inclusion of a series resistance in
the model implies the use of a recurrent equation to determine the output current in function
of the terminal voltage.
I-V characteristics of the solar cell are given by
+ (2.8)
= [ (
) ]
In this case, the short circuit current ISC is given by

(2.9)
= = [ ( )]

=
The open circuit voltage VOC can be written as:
(2.10)
= = [ +
]
For I = 0
In addition, the output power is given by:
+ (2.11)
= { [ (
) ]}
2.7- Photovoltaic model with series and parallel resistances
The PV model devices are represented in two different models with series and parallel
resistances:
1- Single-diode model with series and parallel resistances.
2- Double diode model with series and parallel resistances.
14
Photovoltaic model with single-diode, series and parallel resistance

I
ID Ish Rs +
D Rsh V
G Ipv
-
Fig. (2.5) Photovoltaic model with single-diode, series and parallel resistance
V+IRS V+IRs (2.12)
I = IPV IO [exp ( VT
) 1] ( RSH
)
Photovoltaic model with two diode, series and parallel resistances
ID1 ID2 Ish Rs +
D1 D2 Rsh V
G Ipv
-
Fig. (2. 6) Photovoltaic model with two diode, series and parallel resistances
The basic equation of two-diode model of the PV cell is given by the following:
= (2.13)

= [ ( ) ] (2.14)

15
ID2 = IO2 [exp (2VV ) 1] (2.15)

T
2.8- Solar cell "IV" Curves Characteristics [10]

The IV curve of a solar cell is the superposition of the IV curve in the dark with the light-
generated current. Illumination shifts the IV curve down into the fourth quadrant where
power can be extracted from the diode. Illuminating a cell adds a current to the normal
"dark" currents in the diode so that the diode law becomes:
qV 2.16
I = I [exp ( ) 1] I
O nKT L
Where I= light generated current
IV Curve of the solar cell

Isc
The short circuit current Isc , is the
maximum current from a solar cell
and occurs when the voltage
Current
across the device is zero .
Power from the

solar cell
Voc
Voltage
Fig. (2.7) Performance characteristics of PV cell
Short circuit photocurrent (ISC) Short circuit photocurrent

The short-circuit current (ISC) is the current through the solar cell when the voltage across
the solar cell is zero (i.e., when the solar cell is short-circuited). Usually written as ISC.
Open circuit photo voltage (VOC)

The open-circuit voltage, Voc, is the maximum voltage available from a solar cell, and this
occurs at zero current. The open-circuit voltage corresponds to the amount of forward bias
on the solar cell due to the bias of the solar cell junction with the light-generated current.
16
2.9- Influence of Irradiation and Temperature

In the three models, the temperature is maintained constant at 25C and by varying the
irradiation (250W/m2, 500W/m2, 750W/m2, 1000 W/m2) The MATLAB program results
under these conditions on (I-V) and (P-V) characteristics respectively. It is clear that current
generated by the incident light depends on irradiation. The higher the irradiation, the greater
current will be generated. On the other hand, voltage is staying almost constant.
The influence of irradiation on maximum power point is clear. The higher the irradiation,
the higher value of the maximum power point it will be. The irradiation is maintained
constant at 1000W/m2 and varying temperature (25C, 50C, 75C, and 100 C) will
generate the characteristic curves. Fig. 6 shows the simulation results of I-V and P-V
characteristics respectively under the same conditions. The current generated by the incident
light is going to stay constant although it increases slightly while the voltage decreases.
The effect of the temperature increase decreases voltage and power. Fig. 7shows the
influence of both the irradiation and the temperature, we can remark that the (I-V) and (P-
V) curves are similar to these of the irradiation influence with slightly higher values of
power; the effect of the temperature in this case is almost ignored.
2.10- Solar Panel

A solar panel is a packaged connected assembly of photovoltaic cells. The solar panel can
be used as a component of a larger photovoltaic system to generate and supply electricity in
commercial and residential applications. Solar panels use light energy photon which comes
from the sun to generate electricity through the photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules
use wafer based cells or thin film cells based on non-magnetic conductive transition metals,
telluride or silicon.
Fig. (2.8) PV Configurations
17
Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage or in parallel
to provide a desired current capability. The conducting wires that take the current off the
panels may contain silver, copper or other nonmagnetic conductive transition metals. The
cells must be connected electrically to each other and to the rest of the system. Each panel
is rated by its DC output power under standard test conditions, and typically ranges from
100 to 320 watts. Depending on construction, photovoltaic panels can produce electricity
from a range of light frequencies, but usually cannot cover the entire solar range
(specifically, ultraviolet and low or diffused light). Hence, much of the incident sun light
energy is wasted by solar panels, and they can give far higher efficiencies if illuminated
with monochromatic light.
2.11- Solar panel Module

The solar module is the heart of the photovoltaic system.
The manufacturer solders solar module wires of many photovoltaic cells in series. During
installing at a site, solar modules are wired together in series to form strings. Strings of
modules are connected in parallel to form an array.
2.12- Types of solar photovoltaic cells

Electricity is produced in solar cells, which as noted, consist of more layers of semi
conductive material.
When the sun's rays shine down upon the solar cells, the electromotive force between these
layers is being created, which causes the flow of electricity. The higher the solar radiation
intensity, the greater the flow of electricity.
The most common material for the production of solar cells is silicon. Silicon is obtained
from sand and is one of the most common elements in the earth's crust, so there is no limit
to the availability of raw materials.
Solar cell manufacturing technologies:

Mono crystalline.
Polycrystalline.
Barcrystalline silicon.
Thinfilm technology.
18
Cells made from crystal silicon (Si), are made of a thinly sliced piece (wafer), a crystal of
silicon (mono crystalline) or a whole block of silicon crystals (multi crystalline); their
efficiency ranges between 12% and 19%.
Mono crystalline Si cells:
Conversion efficiency for this type of cells ranges from 13% to 17%, which make it
commercially wide use. In good light conditions, it is the most efficient photovoltaic cell.
This type of cell can convert solar radiation of 1.000 W/m2 to 140 W of electricity with the
cell surface of 12 .
The production of mono crystalline Si cells requires an absolutely pure semiconducting
material. Mono crystalline rods are extracted from the molten silicon and sliced into thin
chips (wafer).
Such type of production enables a relatively high degree of usability.
Expected lifespan of these cells is typically 2530 years and, of course, as well as for all
photovoltaic cells, the output degrades somewhat over the years.
Multi Crystalline Si Cells:
This type of cell can convert solar radiation of 1.000 W/m2 to 130 W of electricity with the
cell surface of12 . The production of these cells is economically more efficient compared
to Mono crystalline.
Liquid silicon is poured into blocks, which are then cut into slabs. During the solidification
of materials crystal structures of various sizes are being created, at whose borders some
defects may emerge, making the solar cell to have a somewhat lower efficiency, which
ranges from 10% to 14%. The lifespan is expected to be between 20 and 25 years.
Ribbon Silicon:
It has the advantage in its production process in not needing a wafer cutting (which results
in loss of up to 50% of the material in the process of cutting).However, the quality and the
possibility of production of this technology will not make it a leader in the near future.
The efficiency of these cells is around 11%.
ThinFilm Technology
The modules are manufactured by piling extremely thin layers of photosensitive materials
on a cheap substrate such as glass, stainless steel or plastic. The process of generating
19
modules in thinfilm technology has resulted in reduced production costs compared to

crystalline silicon technology, which is somewhat more intense.
Today's price advantage in the production of a thinfilm is balanced with the crystalline
silicon due to lower efficiency of the thinfilm, which ranges from 5% to 13%. The share of
thinfilm technology on the market is 15% and constantly increasing, it is also expected an
increase in years to come and thus reduce the adverse market ratio in relation to the
photovoltaic module of crystalline silicon. Lifespan is around 1520 years. There are four
types of thinfilm modules (depending on the active material) that are now in commercial
use:
Amorphous Silicon (ASi)
Amorphous Si Cells: Cell efficiency is around 6%, a cell surface of 1m2 can convert 1.000
W/m2 of solar radiation to about 50 watts of electric energy.
Cadmium Tellurium (CdTe)
Cadmium tellurium (CdTe) cells: Cell efficiency is around18%, a cell surface of 1m2 can
convert solar radiation of1.000 W/ m2 to 160 W of electricity in laboratory conditions.
Cadmium telluride is a fusion of metal cadmium and tellurium semimetal. It is suitable for
using thin photovoltaic modules due to the physical properties and lowtechnology
manufacturing.
Despite these advantages, it is not widely used due to cadmium toxicity and suspected
carcinogenicity.
Copper indium gallium selenite (CIS, CIGS)
CIS cells have the highest efficiency among the thinfilm cells, which is about 20%. This
cell type can convert solar radiation of 1.000 W/2 to 160W of electricity with the cell
surface of 12 in laboratory conditions.
Thermo sensitive solar cells and other organ cells (DSC)
The development of these organic cells is yet to come, since it is still testing and it is not
increasingly commercialized. Cell efficiency is around 10%. The tests are going in the
direction of using the facade-integrated systems, which has proven to be highquality
solutions in all light radiation and all temperature conditions. In addition, a great potential
of this technology is in low cost compared to silicon cell.
21
CHAPTER THREE
Maximum Power
Point Tracking
3.1 INTRODUCTION
MPPT is a method that is used in Solar PV arrays to expose uniform solar irradiance and
maintain a maximum power output for a period of time. In Fig. (3.1); the maximum power
output can clearly be seen at the knee of the curve. This position is achieved when
maximum voltage and maximum current are achieved at the same time. MPPT is used for
ensuring that maximum voltage and maximum current are reached as much as possible,
achieving maximum utilization of PV modules and minimizing the power failure due to
environmental conditions [11]
The irradiation upon solar panel differs during the day from sunrise to sunset, or when solar
array becomes partially shaded at any stage due to cloud, branches of trees etc., thus power
output of the panel also differs.
To benefit from low irradiation conditions mentioned earlier and maximize the maximum
output power. The method that is being used in this Project is the Perturb and Observe
(P&O) method. Perturb and Observe (P and O) seeks for the maximum power point by
changing the PV voltage or current and detecting the change in PV power output. The
direction of the change is reversed when the PV power decreases.
MPP maximum power

point
PMPP
4 1.6
Isc
IMPP
3.5 1.4
3 1.2
Cell current in A
Cell power in W
2.5 1
2 0.8
1.5 0.6
1 0.4
0.5 0.2
VOC
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Cell Voltage in V VMPP
Fig. (3.1) Current/voltage characteristic curve (l-V curve) for crystalline silicon
21
Chapter Three - Maximum Power Point Tracking
3.2 -What is Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)

Maximum Power Point Tracking, frequently referred to as MPPT, is an electronic system
that operates the Photovoltaic (PV) modules in a manner that allows the modules to produce
all the power they are capable of. MPPT is not a mechanical tracking system that physically
moves the modules to make them point more directly at the sun.
MPPT is a fully electronic system that varies the electrical operating point of the modules
so that the modules are able to deliver maximum available power [12].
Tracking the maximum power point (MPP) of a photovoltaic (PV) array is usually an
essential part of a PV system. As such, many MPPT methods have been developed and
implemented.
The problem that is considered by MPPT techniques is finding automatically the voltage
VMPP or current IMPP at which a PV array should operate to obtain the maximum power
output under a given temperature and irradiance [6].
The power that is delivered by a PV system of one or more photovoltaic cells is dependent
on the irradiance, temperature and the current drawn from the cells. Maximum Power Point
Tracking (MPPT) is used to obtain the maximum power from these systems.
Multi-level DC-
PV panel DC boost
converter
Current Voltage Multi-level

inverter
Duty cycle
MPPT controller Load
Fig. (3. 2) Photovoltaic system with an MPPT command block diagram for an elementary
The heart of the model is MPPT block which helps in finding the maximum operating point
of the solar panel. This can be done by using the MPPT algorithm which in turn gives the
22
Chapter Three - Multi-Level Boost Converter
gating pulses to the boost converter which maintains the operating voltage at the maximum
point irrespective of solar irradiance.
Peak power is reached with the help of a DC-DC converter between the photovoltaic
generator and the load by adjusting the duty cycle. The automatic tracking can be performed
by utilizing various algorithms. Those algorithms are the heart of the MPPT controller. The
algorithms are implemented in a microcontroller or a personal computer to implement
maximum power tracking.
The algorithm changes the duty cycle of the dc/dc converter to maximize the power output
of the module and make it operate at the peak power point of the module.
PV cells have a complex relationship between current, voltage, and output power, which
produces a non-linear output. This output is expressed as the current-voltage characteristic
of the PV cell.
3.3-The Effect of temperature and irradiance on maximum power point

Tracking (MPPT)
Constant fluctuations in external variables such as temperature, irradiance, and shading
cause constant shifts of the I-V curve upwards and downwards. A change in temperature
will have an inversely proportional effect on output voltage, and a change in irradiance will
have proportional effect on output current [13].
Ppv [w]
T:Constant Load
Load :Constant characteristics
Sunshine :variable
MPP1
Duty cycle
variation
MPP2
Sunshine variation
E2 < E1
P1
E2 E1
Tamb1 Tamb1
Vpv [v]
(a)
23
Ppv [w] T:Constant Load

Load :Variable characteristics
Sunshine :Constant
Duty cycle MPP1
variation
Load variation
P1
E1
Tamb1
Vpv [v]
(b)
Ppv [w] T:Variable

Load
Load :Constant
characteristics
Sunshine :Constant
MPP1
Duty cycle
variation MPP2
P1
Temperature
variation
E1 E1 Tamb1 < Tamb2

Tamb2 Tamb1
Vpv [v]
(c)
Fig. (3. 3) Search and recovery of MPPT, a) sunshine variation, b) load variation
c) Temperature variation
24
3.4-MPPT Methods
One of the more complete analyses of MPPT methods.
These methods include:
1. Constant Voltage
2. Open Circuit Voltage
3. Short Circuit Current
4. Perturb and Observe
5. incremental Conductance
1-Constant Voltage (CV)

The constant voltage method (CV) is the simplest method. This method simply uses single
voltage to represent the VMPP. The CV method does not require any input. However,
measurement of the voltage is necessary to set up the duty-cycle of the dc/dc converters by
PI regulator. The CV technique is more effective than either the P&O method or the IC
method (analyzed below). Thanks to this characteristic, CV is sometime combined together
with other MPPT techniques.
Benefits,
1. Relatively lower cost.
2. Very simple and easy to implement.
Drawbacks,
1 Not accurate and may not operate exactly at MPP.
2. Slower response as VMPP is proportional to the Voc.
2-Fractional open circuit voltage

The open circuit Voltage algorithm is a simple MPPT control method. This technique is also
known as constant voltage method. Is the open circuit voltage of the PV panel?
Depends on the property of the solar cells. A commonly used / value is 76%,
this relationship can be described by equation (3. 1).
k1 (3. 1)
Here the factor k1 is always less than unity. It looks very simple but determining best value
of k is very difficult and k1 varies from 0.71 to 0.8. The common value used is 0.76; hence
this algorithm is also called as 76% algorithm.
25
The operating point of the PV array is kept near the MPP by regulating the array voltage
and matching it to a fixed reference voltage . The value is set equal to the of
the characteristic PV module or to another calculated best open circuit voltage. This method
assumes that individual insulation and temperature variations on the array are insignificant,
and that the constant reference voltage is an adequate approximation of the true MPP.
3-Fractional short circuit current

The Short Circuit Current algorithm is the simplest MPPT control method. This technique
is also known as constant current method. ISC is the Short circuit current of the PV panel.
Depends on the property of the solar cells.
This relationship can be described by equation (3. 2)
k2 (3. 2)
Here the factor k2 is always <1. It looks very simple but determining best value of k2 is very
difficult and k2 varies from between 0.78 and 0.92.
When the PV array output current is approximately 90% of the short circuit current, solar
module operates at its MPP. In other words, the common value of k2 is 0.9
Measuring during operation is problematic. An additional switch usually has to be added
to the power converter. Boost converter is used, where the switch in the converter itself can
be used to short the PV array.
Power output is not only reduced when finding but also because the MPP is never
perfectly matched. A way of using compensating factor k2 is proposed such that the MPP
is better tracked while atmospheric conditions change.
To guarantee proper MPPT in the presence of multiple local maxima periodically sweeps
the PV array voltage from short-circuit to update k2.
Benefits:
1. It is simple and low cost to implement.
2. This method does not require an input.
3. In low insulation conditions, it is better than others.
26
Drawbacks:
1. Irradiation is never exactly at the MPP due to variations on the array that are not
Considered (it is not always accurate).
2. Data varies under different weather conditions and locations.
3. It has low efficiency.
The most common methods are:
Perturb and Observe (P&O)
Incremental Conductance method
In this Project we use the perturb and observe (P&O) method
4-Perturb and Observe (P&O) method of MPPT

A perturb and observation (P&O) method is the most frequently used algorithm to track the
maximum power due to its simple structure and high reliability[14].
Which moves the operating point toward the maximum power point periodically increasing
or decreasing the PV array voltage by comparing power quantities between in the present
and past.
If the power increased, the perturbation is continuous in the same direction in the next
perturbation cycle; otherwise the perturbation direction is reversed.
This way, the operating point of the system gradually moves towards the MPP and oscillates
around it in steady-state conditions. This means the array terminal voltage is perturbed for
every MPPT cycle [15].
Table 3.1 Summary of perturb and observation algorithm
Perturbation Change in power Next perturbation
Positive Positive Positive
Positive Negative Negative
Negative Positive Negative
Negative Negative Positive
27
The logic of this algorithm and the flowchart are explained in

Fig. (3. 4).
The operating voltage of the PV system is perturbed by a small increment of V, which causes
change in P. If P is positive, the perturbation of the operating voltage needs to be in the same
direction of the increment. On the contrary, if P is negative, the obtained system operating
point moves away from the MPPT and the operating voltage needs to move in the opposite
direction of the increment [16].
The variations of the output voltage & power before and after changes are then observed
and compared to the reference for increasing or decreasing the load in the next step.
The advantages of perturb & observation method are simple structure, easy implementation
and less required parameter. This algorithm is not suitable when the variation in the solar
irradiation is high. The voltage never actually reaches an exact value but perturbs around
the maximum power at MPP.
Start
Take Sample
V(t),I(t)
dP=P(t)-P(t-1)
dV=V(t)-V(t-1)
Yes
dP=0
NO
dP>0
Yes NO
dV>0 dV<0
Yes NO NO Yes
Vref=Vref+dV Vref=Vref-dV Vref=Vref-dV Vref=Vref+dV
Return
Fig. (3. 4) Flow chart for perturb & observe method [14]
28
The advantages of this method include [6, 17]
Very simple and easy to implement and does find true MPP.
It can be taken as either an Analog or Digital technique of MPPT.
Most commonly used so searching for troubleshooting is widely available.
Provides predictive and accurate solutions to MPPT under PSC.
No oscillation during tracking and steady state operations
The disadvantages of this method include:
Under rapid varying irradiance & load conditions, the system can track in the wrong
direction.
The size of the change in operation voltage chosen, determines the speed &
convergence of the MPP and the range of oscillation.
5-Incremental Conductance (IC) method of MPPT

This method always adjusts the array terminal voltage according to the MPP voltage,
computes maximum power and directly controls the extracted power from the PV
cell.
This method can track the maximum power points accurately at high speeds and
greatly increase the power output of a solar array under Partially Shaded Conditions.
This method computes the maximum power point by comparing
(I/V)(Incremental conductance) to (I/V) (array conductance).
Fig. (3. 5) shows the basic idea of the IC method on the P-V curve, the MPP occurs when
the slope of the curve is zero, with the slope becoming greater than zero to the left hand
side and less than zero to the right hand side of where the slope is equal to zero.
Therefore the aim of the algorithm is to keep the slope of the curve at Zero all of the
time.
29
Ppv [w]
MPP
PMPP
System
approaching MPP P<0
P>0 System moving

away from MPP
V>0 V>0
VMPP Vpv [v]
Fig. (3. 5) P-V curve of IC algorithm
If dP/dV is negative then MPPT is lies on the right side of recent position and if the MPP
is positive the MPPT is on left side [18]
The equation of IC method is
() (3. 3)
= = +

(3. 4)
=+

MPP is reached when dP/dV =0 and

(3. 5)
=

ThenVP > Vmpp ) 3.6(

<

ThenVP = Vmpp (3.7)
=

Then Vp < Vmpp (3.8)
>

31
IC methods can be used for finding the MPP, improving MPP where lies on right side
(dI/dV< -I/V) and then the PV voltage must be decreased to reach the MPP [19]. The PV
efficiency, reduce power loss and system cost.
Implementation IC on a microcontroller produced more stable performance when it

compared to P&O [20].
The oscillation around MPP area also can be suppressed to trade its implementation
complexity. Tracking time is still not fast since the voltage increment and decrement had
been selected manually by trial and error.
Benefits,
This algorithm has advantages over P&O such as; it can determine when the MPPT has
reached the MPP, where P&O oscillates around the MPP. Also, incremental conductance
can track rapidly increasing and decreasing conditions with higher accuracy than P& O.
Drawbacks,
Slowly converging to maximum power point and there is oscillations around this point.
A flow chart that explains the Incremental Conductance method of MPP, See Fig. (3.6).
31
START
Read PV array I and V
Calculate I and V
NO YES
V=0 ?
YES YES
I/V = -I/V ? I =0?
NO NO
YES NO NO YES
I/V > -I/V ? I>0 ?
Increase Decrease Increase Decrease

operating operating operating operating
Voltage Voltage Voltage Voltage
RETURN
Fig. (3.6) Flow chart for Incremental Conductance method of MPPT
32
3.5-Comparison between MPPT technique
Table 3. 2. characteristics of different MPPT techniques
MPPT Convergence Implementation Periodic Sensed

Technique Speed Complexity Tuning Parameters
Perturb & observe Varies Low No Voltage
Incremental Voltage
Varies Medium No
conductance ,current
Fractional OC Medium Low Yes Voltage
Fractional ISC Medium Medium Yes Current
33
34
CHAPTER FOUR
MULTI -LEVEL
BOOST CONVERTER
4.1 Introduction
Electricity that is generated by PV system and controlled by MPPT Technique needs to be
boosted with high conversion ratio and steady voltage at duty cycle spikes from MPPT
control source ,When an extremely low or high voltage gain is required [21] .
In dc-dc power conversion, traditional topologies sacrifice the switching frequency and the
system size because of the extremely low or high duty cycle, and become not suitable for
high voltage gain applications because of high voltage stresses.
Cascaded boost converter that is mentioned in [22] and other methods are used to achieve
high voltage gain. all of them with high complexity compared with the conventional single
switch converters [23] . Cascading of boost converter requires more number of switches and
gate driver circuits, so these converters requires large space on board [21].
The requirements in the selection process are:
To achieve high conversion efficiency for a wide PV power range.
Low cost implementation.
Ease of implementation and control.
To limit the current and voltage ripple in the system.
Achievable voltage gain.
4.2 Dc-Dc Converters

The Dc-Dc converters are used for stepping DC voltage up or down, the output voltage can
be either lower or higher or both as compared to input voltage, with respect to level of
changing output voltage. The Dc-Dc converter are classified as Buck converter, Boost
converter and Buck Boost converter.
35
Chapter Four Multi-Level Boost Maximum Power Point Tracking
4.2.1 DC-DC boost converter

In general, a power converter can be defined as an electronic device which converts the
electrical quantities (magnitude, frequency or phase angle) of voltage and current with the
help of a switching arrangement to match the load requirement. In order to continuously
adjust the voltage, current levels and match the PV source to the load in a standalone PV
system, in electrical power supplies, transforming the DC voltage from one level to another
is achieved through using a controlled DC-to-DC switch mode power converter.
These converters, which work to transform input DC voltages to controllable output DC
voltages, are often used for regulating the output of DC power supplies and driving DC
motor applications. A DC to DC boost converter is typically required. The boost converter
transforms a low input voltage to a higher magnitude output voltage, usually with the same
polarity as the input.
There are two sorts of DC/DC boost converter: an isolated boost converter and a non-
isolated boost converter.
During the last decade, a large number of DC-to-DC boost converter topologies have been
proposed to maximize the efficiency of PV systems.
PV MODULE BOOST
LOAD
CONVERTER
V I D
MICROCONTROLLER BASED
MPPTCONTROLLER
Fig. (4.1) Block diagram of PV cell
4.2.2 The Operation of Boost Converter

Boost converter steps up the input voltage magnitude to a required output voltage magnitude
without the use of a transformer. The main components of a boost converter are an inductor,
capacitor, a diode and a high frequency switch.
36
Chapter Four Multi-Level Boost Converter
These are in a co-ordinate manner to supply power to the load at a voltage greater than the
input voltage magnitude. The control strategy lies in the manipulation of the duty cycle of
the switch, which causes the voltage change.
ipv iL L iout
PV vout
vin S
Cin cout RL
Fig. (4.2): DC -DC conventional boost converter
4.2.3 The modes of operation of a boost converter

There are two modes of operation of a boost converter.
Those are based on the closing and opening of the switch. The first mode is when the switch
is closed; this is known as the charging mode of operation. The second mode is when the
switch is open; this is known as the discharging mode of operation.
1-Charging Mode
In this mode of operation; the switch is closed and the inductor is charged by the source
through the switch. The charging current is exponential in nature but for simplicity is
assumed to be linearly varying. The diode restricts the flow of current from the source to
the load and the demand of the load is met by the discharging of the capacitor.
iL,is L
+
ic + io=ia
Load
vs C
vc _
_
Mode 1
Fig. (4.3) Equivalent circuit for boost converter (Mode 1)
37
2-Discharging Mode
In this mode of operation; the switch is open and the diode is forward biased. The inductor
now discharges, charges the capacitor with the help of the source and meets the load
demands.
The load current variation is very small and is assumed constant throughout the operation
in many cases.
L Dm
iL,is i1 io=ia
+ +
ic
vs vc C Load
_ _
Mode 2
Fig. (4. 4) Equivalent circuit for boost converter (Mode 2)
38
4.2.4 Waveforms
switch
t
ton toff
T
vL
vin
Area A
t
Area B
vin - vout
iL
iLmax
iL
iLmin
id
i
iL
vs
vout
Fig. (4. 5) Waveforms for boost converter
39
In this project, we use multi-level boost:
4.2.5 Multi-level boost converter (MLBC)

Initially introduced in [24] the dc-dc multilevel boost converter MLBC combines the boost
converter and the switched capacitor function to provide an output of several capacitors in
series with the same voltage and self-voltage balancing by using a static voltage multiplier
structure see [Fig. (4. 6)].
Vdc2
D3
+
C2
-
D2
+
C1 Vdc1
-
L D1
+
C3
-
Vdcin Cin sw
Fig. (4. 6): Bi-level MLBC equivalent circuit.
4.2.6 The operation of Multilevel Boost Conversion:

The number of levels can be increased by adding capacitors and diodes; hence it is possible
to achieve real implementations. It has near continuous input current and large conversion
ratio without using an very high duty cycle.[24]
The circuit used in this application is two level circuit (N=2), Presented also in [Fig. (4. 7].
41
When the switch is closed; if the capacitor C1 has lower voltage than C2, the diode D2 would
close connecting C1 and C2in parallel, and C2clamps the voltage in C1 [Fig. (4. 7]
When the switch opens and the inductor current closes D1; if the voltage in C3 is lower than
the voltage in C1 diode D3would close chargingC3, this action clamps the voltage in all
capacitors to be the same and provides a self-balancing capability [Fig. (4. 8].
For example; if a diode clamped multilevel converter is connected as a load, the MLBC
would maintain balanced voltage in all dc levels [24].
Vdc2
D3
+
C2
-
D2
+
C1 Vdc1
-
L D1
+
C3
-
Vdcin Cin sw
Fig. (4. 7): Bi level MBC circuit when SW is Closed.
41
Vdc2
D3
+
C2
-
D2
+
C1 Vdc1
-
L D1
+
C3
-
Vdcin Cin sw
Fig. (4. 8): Bi level MLBC circuit when SW is Open.
4.2.7 The main advantages of multilevel boost:

It can control the voltage by pulse width modulation and self-balance (all levels have the
same voltage) with few components, only one driven switch, one inductor, (2N-1) diodes
and (2N-1) capacitors are needed for an N-times.
The main advantages of this topology are:
A continuous input current.
A big conversion ratio without extreme duty cycle.
Transformer-less.
Allow high switching frequency.
It can be built in a modular way and more levels can beaded without changing the
main circuit.
42
CHAPTER FIVE
MULTI-LEVEL
INVERTER
5.1 Introduction
The dc-ac converter, also known as inverter, converts dc power to ac power at desired output
voltage and frequency, as shown in (fig.5.1). The dc power input to the inverter is obtained
from an existing power supply network or via a rotating alternator through a rectifier or a
battery, fuel cell, photovoltaic array or magneto hydrodynamic generator. The filter
capacitor across the input terminals of the inverter provides a constant dc link voltage. The
inverter therefore is an adjustable-frequency voltage source. The configuration of ac to dc
converter and dc to ac inverter is called a dc-link converter.
Vd
Battery or Cd Inverter AC
Rectifier Voltage
Fig. (5.1) DC-link converter

A typical power inverter device or circuit requires a relatively stable dc power
source capable of supplying enough current for the intended power demands of the system.
The input voltage depends on the design and the purpose of the inverter.
An inverter can produce a square wave, modified sine wave, pulsed sine wave, pulse width
modulated wave (PWM) or sine wave depending on circuit design. The two dominant
commercialized waveform types of inverters as of 2007 are modified sine wave and sine
wave.
43
Chapter Five Multi-Level Inverter
In this project, we use multilevel inverter.

Multilevel inverters have become more attractive for researchers due to their advantages
over conventional pulse width modulation (PWM) inverters. They offer improved output
waveforms, smaller filter size, lower EMI and lower THD,
However the total number of the power electronic elements used is increased as the number
of levels increased.
5.2 Types of inverter

a) the type of inverter according to Input:
1. Voltage source inverters.
2. Current source inverters.
b) The type of inverter according to the AC load:
1. Single-phase inverters.
2. Three -phase inverters.
c) The wave shape of inverter according to the AC output:
1. Sine wave.
2. Modified sine wave.
3. Square wave.
5.2.1- TYPES OF INVERTERS ACCORDING TO INPUT:
A) Voltage Source inverter

The inverter is called voltage source inverter (VSI), if the input dc is a voltage source. The
simplest dc voltage source may be a battery bank, which may consist of several cells
connected in series-parallel combination. Solar photovoltaic cells can be another voltage
source. An AC voltage supply, after rectification into DC, will also qualify as a dc voltage
source. A voltage source is called stiff, if the source voltage magnitude does not depend on
load connected to it. All voltage source inverters assume stiff voltage supply at the input.
B) Current source Inverter (CSI)
Current source inverters; a DC source is connected to an inverter through a large series

inductor Ls .the inductor of Ls is sufficiently large that the direct current is constrained to
be almost constant.
44
The switch current output waveform will be roughly a square wave, since the current flow
is constrained to be nearly constant.
5.2.2 TYPES OF INVERTER ACCORDING TO WAVE SHAPE OF AC OUTPUT:
a) Pure sine wave

Pure sine wave inverters produces a nearly perfect sine wave output (less than 3% total
harmonic distortion) that is essentially the same as utility-supplied grid power and are used
for operating sensitive electronic devices that require high quality waveform with little
harmonic distortion.
b) Modified sine wave
Modified sine wave inverters (modified square wave or step wave) approximate a pure sine
waveform. Modified sine wave inverters are designed to satisfy the efficiency requirements
of the photovoltaic system while being less expensive than pure sine waveform inverters.
These inverters are capable of operating a wide variety of loads; electronic and household
items including TV, VCR, and satellite receiver, computers, and printers.
c) Square wave
The earliest electronic inverters produced a square wave, which can be seen as a sine wave
sampled twice per cycle.
A square wave has a very high harmonic content.
5.2.3 TYPES OF INVERTER ACCORDING TO AC LOADS
a) Single-phase inverter
One of the simplest inverter configurations is the single-phase half bridge inverter. The
circuit consists of a pair of switches S1 and S2 connected in series across the dc supply.
For single-phase full wave bridge inverter: consists of four switching devices.
b) Three Phase Inverter

A three-phase inverter converts a DC input into a three-phase AC output. Its three arms are
normally delayed by an angle of 120 to generate a three-phase AC supply.
45
5.3- Multilevel Inverter
This inverter topology uses two carrier signals to generate PWM signals for the switches.
Some switches operate at fundamental frequency and others operate at switching frequency.
The powerful merit of the proposed inverter is that the proposed inverter has less number of
elements compared with others single-phase inverter found in the literature [25],[26]
Sx S1 S3
Vdc2 R
D1
+ Vo -
Vdc1 S4 S2
Fig. (5.2) single-phase five level inverter
Today, it is hard to connect a single power semiconductor switch directly to medium voltage
grids (2.3, 3.3, 4.16, or 6.9 kV). For these reasons, a new family of multilevel inverters has
emerged as the solution for working with higher voltage levels [27, 28].
Multilevel inverters include an array of power semiconductors, capacitor voltage sources
and the output generated voltages with stepped waveforms. The commutation of the
switches permits the addition of the capacitor voltages, which reach high voltage at the
output, while the power semiconductors must withstand only reduced voltages Fig. (5.3)],
shows a schematic diagram of one phase leg of inverters with different numbers of levels,
for which the action of the power semiconductors is represented by an ideal switch with
several positions.
A two-level inverter generates an output voltage with two values (levels), with respect to
the negative terminal of the capacitor.
[See Fig. (5.3)], while the three-level inverter generates three voltages, and so on.
46
+
Vc
+
Vc
+ a
Vc
a
+ a +
Vc Vc +
Vc
Va Va Va
0 0 0
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. (5.3) one phase leg of an inverter operating As:

a) Two levels B) Three levels C) n levels
The most attractive features of multilevel inverters are:

1) they can generate output voltages with extremely low distortion.
2) They draw input current with very low distortion.
3) They generate smaller common-mode (CM) voltage, thus reducing the stress in the
motor bearings. In addition, using sophisticated modulation methods, CM voltages can be
eliminated [29].
4) They can operate with a lower switching frequency.
5.4-OVERVIEW OF POWER SEMICONDUCTOR SWITCHES USED

POWER MOSFETS: -
5.4.1-Operation:
This type has no physical channel, so it is in off-state with zero gate-source voltage. If we
apply positive gate-source voltage, an induced voltage attracts electrons from P-type
subtract and accumulate them at the surface beneath the oxide layer. If this positive voltage
is equal or larger than the threshold voltage, sufficient numbers of electrons are accumulated
to form a virtual N-channel and the current flow from drain source, MOSFET symbol is
shown in (Fig. (5.4))
47
S
Fig. (5.4) MOSFET
5.4.2-Properties of MOSFET as a switch:

1-It is voltage controlled device and requires only small current input.
2- Its switching speed is very high.
3- It is relatively difficult to protect it under short circuit fault condition.
4- MOSFETs have a positive temperature coefficient for stopping thermal runaway.
5- The on-state resistance has no theoretical limit; hence on-state losses can be far lower.
The MOSFET also has a body-drain diode, which is particularly useful in dealing with
limited freewheeling currents.
6- It is used in high-speed power converters at frequency range of several tens of kHz.
7-It has Power ratings up to 1000Vand 100A (relatively low power ratings).
5.5- SWITCHING ALGORITHMS FOR THE PROPOSED

PWM SWITCHING TECHNIQUES
Switching frequency and ON-OFF terminal voltage of power semiconductor devices are
the main factors that affect the inverter power loss and harmonic contents.
The method that proposed is stair case switching technique for the single- phase five-level
inverter is basically depends on generating gate signals by comparing rectified reference dc
carrier signal with a reference sine wave.
The intersection points between sine wave reference with the reference waveform decide
the inverter output voltage level. The first level of the inverter output voltage and the
48
second level of the output voltage 2 is generated at the intersection points of the
reference voltage waveform and the dc carrier signal.
The positive half-cycle of the reference sine wave waveform is responsible for generating
the positive dc voltage levels ( and2 ) in the output voltage, whereas the negative half-
cycle is responsible for generating the negative dc voltage levels ( and2 ).
According to the reference voltage.
Switching modes
States ON switches
A + 1 ,2 and1
B 2 + 1 ,2 and
C 0 0
D 3 ,4 and 1
E 2 3 ,4 and
Sx S1 S3
Vdc2 R
D1
+ Vo -
Vdc1 S4 S2
(a)
49
Sx S1 S3
Vdc2 R
D1
+ Vo -
Vdc1 S4 S2
(b)
Sx S1 S3
Vdc2 R
D1
+ Vo -
Vdc1 S4 S2
(c)
Sx S1 S3
Vdc2 R
D1
+ Vo -
Vdc1 S4 S2
(d)
51
Sx S1 S3
R
Vdc2
D1
+ Vo -
Vdc1 S4 S2
(e)
Fig. (5. 5) single-phase five-level inverter PWM switching techniques
51
52
Chapter SIX
MATLAB/Simulink
Simulation Results
And Analysis
A- Simulink models:
MATLAB/Simulink model of the overall System "with PV array , Multilevel Boost Converter
Controlled by MPPT/CV Switched Controllers , and Multi Level Boost Inverter Also Switch Connected
to a Resistive load and Utility Grid"
Is shown in the Fig. (6. 1).
Fig. (6. 1) MATLAB/Simulink model of the overall PV system
53
Chapter Six Simulation Results and Analysis
A.6-1 PV Array
Canadian Solar CS5A-150M' PV Cell Is used in this Electrical system which has the following
Electrical Characteristics
Table (6. 1) PV cell output characteristics
Maximum Power (W) 150W

Cells per module 72 cell
Open circuit voltage 43.5 V
Short-circuit current 4.7 A
Voltage at maximum power point 34.8V
Current at maximum power point 4.3 A
The PV array is getting its input from Irradiance generator which simulates variable Irradiation at the
input of the PV cell, the output terminals of the PV array is connected to 10uF Electrolyte Capacitor Used
to fix the output Voltage at its terminal. The PV array Model is shown in
Also the irradiation graph Used is shown in Fig. (6. 3).
Fig. (6. 2) MATLAB/Simulink model of PV Array
54
Fig. (6. 3) Irradiation input of PV Array
A.6.2 Multi-Level Boost Converter

The arrangement of the 3-level boost converter is shown in the Fig. (6. 4).
The Converter is implemented using MOSFET/IGBT switch , the values of the Boost arrangement is
mentioned in the appendix D , the total output voltage of the Converter (during Off-grid Mode ) is shown
in the Fig. (6. 5)
Fig. (6. 4) MATLAB/Simulink model of Multi-level boost converter
55
Fig. (6. 5) Total output voltage of the Converter (during Off-grid Mode )
Fig. (6. 6) Total output voltage of the Converter (during ON-grid Mode )
A.6.2.1 Boost Converter Controllers

The output voltage of the boost converter is controlled by two methods ( Constant voltage Control for off-
grid operation , MPPT Control for On-grid operation) , Switched by manual switch topology , the
Simulink Model of each Controller ,switch topolody is shown in
Fig. (6. 7) , Fig. (6. 8) .
56
Fig. (6. 7) MATLAB/Simulink model of Constant voltage Controller
Fig. (6. 8) MATLAB/Simulink model of MPPT Controller
57
Fig. (6. 9) MATLAB/Simulink model of Switched Control
A.6.3 Five-Level Inverter

The arrangement of the 5-level boost converter is shown in
Fig. (6. 10) ,
The inverter mainly consists of Five Switches Sx, Q1,Q2,Q3,Q4 and Bypass diode,
This arrangement is shown in and the control of the inverter is shown in
Fig. (6. 11) .
Fig. (6. 10) MATLAB/Simulink model of Five-level Inverter
58
Fig. (6. 11) MATLAB/Simulink model of Inverter Controller
A.6.4 Loads and Grid

The load at inverter terminals is connected to load and utility grid and switched depending on the Boost
control operation discussed at 6.2 , the simulink model is shown in Fig. (6. 12).
Fig. (6. 12) MATLAB/Simulink model of RLC Switched Load
59
Fig. (6. 13) MATLAB/Simulink model of Switched Grid Operation
6.2- Simulink results

For R-load and Off-grid Operation (R=341 )
The following figures indicate the output voltage, Output Current, and Output Harmonic
Spectrum waveforms.
Fig. (6. 14) Output voltage for R-load off-grid operation
61
Fig. (6. 15) Output current for R-load off-grid operation
Fig. (6. 16) Harmonic Spectrum for R-load off-grid operation
For RL-load and Off-grid Operation
(R=341 , XL =210 )
The following figures indicate the output voltage, Output Current, and Output Harmonic
Spectrum for Voltage and current waveforms.
61
Fig. (6. 17) Output Voltage for RL-load off-grid operation
Fig. (6. 18) Output Current for RL-load off-grid operation
Fig. (6. 19) Harmonic Spectrum for output voltage for RL-load off-grid
operation
62
CHAPTER SEVEN
Experimental Work
7.1 Introduction
In this topology, as shown in Fig. (7. 1)), two power circuits which are the Multi-Level Boost
circuit and the Five Level Inverter circuit. Two control circuits one of them it is controller
for Multi-level Boost and the other one is for the five Level Inverter.
Vdc1
Vdcin Multi-Level Boost Vdc2 Five Level Inverter Vac
Gate Drive Gate Drive
PIC 18F4620 PIC 18F4620

Microcontroller Microcontroller
Vin Vout IL F=50 Hz
Fig. (7. 1)General circuit layout
The Multi-Level Boost is using for control the input DC voltage Vdcin by using the
controller PIC 18F4620 to the desired output DC voltage into two levels Vdc1 Vdc2 . Five
Level Inverter takes the two levels voltages Vdc1 and Vdc2 to invert them by using
controller PIC 18F4620 into Five Levels AC output voltage.
7.1.1 Multi-Level Boost Converter (MLBC)

Consists of an inductor coil L 1.377 mH, MOSFET IRFP460, three Power Diodes BY329,
input capacitor Cin 10 uF, C1 100 uF, C2 and C3 440 uF, as shown in [fig 2].
63
Chapter seven - Experimental Work
Vdc2
D3
+
C2
-
D2
+
C1 Vdc1
-
L D1
+
C3
-
Vdcin Cin sw
Fig. (7. 2) Multi-Level Boost Circuit Diagram
Operation Modes
i. Mode I
When the switch is closed, if the capacitor C1 has lower voltage than C2 the
diode D2 would close connecting C1 and C2 in parallel, and C2 clamps the
voltage in C1 [Fig. (7. 3)-a].
ii. Mode II
When the switch opens and the inductor current closes D1, if the voltage in C3
is lower than the voltage in C1 the diode D3 would close changing C3, this
action clamps the voltage in all capacitors to be the same and provides a self-
balancing capability [Fig. (7. 3)-b].
Vdc2
D3
+
C2
-
D2
+
C1 Vdc1
-
L D1
+
C3
-
Vdcin Cin sw
64
(a)
Vdc2
D3
+
C2
-
D2
+
C1 Vdc1
-
L D1
+
C3
-
Vdcin Cin sw
(b)
Fig. (7. 3) Multi-Level Boost Operation Modes
Multi-Level Boost PCB design
Fig. (7. 4) Multi-Level Boost PCB design

Where,
J1= input voltage terminal J4= output voltage sensor signal
J2, J3 = output voltage terminals J5, J6 = mosfet control signal
L1 = inductor J7 = input voltage sensor signal
Q1 = MOSFET IRFP460 J8 = current sensor terminal
C1, C2, C3 = level capacitors R1, R2, R3 = input voltage sensor
C4 = input capacitor R4, R5, R6 = output voltage sensor
65
PCB View
Fig. (7. 5) Multi-Level Boost PCB
Multi-Level Boost controller

PIC 18F4620 Microcontroller is used as controller of Multi-Level Boost, which it control
the switching operation of MOSFET IRFP460 with defined frequency F and duty cycle K ,
and it is measurement the input voltage Vdcin , output voltage Vdc1 and input current I [fig
5 ].
Fig. (7. 6) Multi-Level Boost controller
66
Multi-Level Boost Controller PCB design
Fig. (7. 7) Multi-Level Boost Controller PCB design
Where,
J1= input voltage power supply U1 = 7805 voltage regulator
J2= input/output voltage sensor signal U2 = PIC 18F4620
J3= current sensor terminals C1, C2 = input supply capacitor
J4= switch control signal C3 = output supply capacitor
J5= PICkit3 programmable terminals D1 = indication LED
LDC1 = LCD 16 x 2 B1 = rest switch
X1 = crystal oscillator R1 = PIC enable resistor
PCB View
Fig. (7. 8) Multi-Level Boost Controller View
67
Multi-Level Boost Controller Micro C Code
Fig. (7.9) Multi-Level Boost Controller Micro C Code
68
Multi-Level Boost waveforms

As the Multi-Level Boost is connected to R-load, R= 314 and the input voltage Vdcin =
35 V, the switching frequency Fsw= 20 KHz and duty cycle K = 0.7
Vdc2
D3
+
C2
-
D2
+
C1 Vdc1
-
L D1
+
C3
-
Vdcin Cin sw
Fig. (7.10) Multi-Level Boost Circuit Diagram
69
Fig. (7.11) Multi-Level Boost waveforms
7.2 Five levels Inverter

It consist of five switches (MOSFET IRFP460) Sx , S1 , S2 ,S3 ,S4 , power diode
(BY329) D1 and two voltage source terminals Vdc1 and Vdc2 in arrangement as shown in
Fig. (7.12(
The switching sequence of five level inverter is implemented by PIC 18F4620

Microcontroller to get the five level output voltage with frequency 50 Hz.
Sx S1 S3
Vdc2 R
D1
+ Vo -
Vdc1 S4 S2
Fig. (7.12) five level inverter
Switching modes
Table (7. 1) Inverter Switching Conditions
71
States ON switches
A + 1 ,2 and1
B 2 + 1 ,2 and
C 0 0
D 3 ,4 and 1
E 2 3 ,4 and
Sx S1 S3
Vdc2 R
D1
+ Vo -
Vdc1 S4 S2
(a)
Sx S1 S3
Vdc2 R
D1
+ Vo -
Vdc1 S4 S2
(b)
71
Sx S1 S3
Vdc2 R
D1
+ Vo -
Vdc1 S4 S2
(c)
Sx S1 S3
Vdc2 R
D1
+ Vo -
Vdc1 S4 S2
(d)
Sx S1 S3
R
Vdc2
D1
+ Vo -
Vdc1 S4 S2
(e)
72
Fig. (7.13) five levels Inverter Switching modes
Five levels Inverter PCB design
Fig. (7.14) five levels Inverter PCB design
Where,
Sx, S1, S2, S3, S4 = Switches D1 = Power Diode (BY329)
(MOSFET IFRP460)
J1 = Vdc1 terminal J2 = Vdc2 terminal
J3 = Output voltage terminal J4= S1 control signal terminal
J5= S4 control signal terminal J6 = S3 control signal terminal
J7 = S2 control signal terminal J8 = Sx control signal terminal
PCB View
73
Fig. (7.15) five levels Inverter PCB View
Five levels Inverter Controller

PIC 18F4620 Microcontroller is using as a controller of Five Level Inverter, with a
defined switching sequence to get the desired AC voltage output (five level steps)
waveform with frequency 50 Hz.
Fig. (7.16) five levels Inverter Controller
Switching sequence waveform
Fig. (7.17) Five levels Inverter Switching sequence waveform
74
Five levels Inverter Controller PCB design
Fig. (7. 18) five levels Inverter Controller PCB design
Where,
U1= PIC 18F4620 Microcontroller U2 = 7805 Voltage regulator

X1= Crystal oscillator J1, J2 = PWM Signal
J5, J6, J9 = Control Signal terminal J7 = DC input voltage supply
J8 = PICkit3 Programmable terminal J10, J11, J12 = Ground signal terminals
D1 = Indication LED C1, C2 = dc voltage filter
R1= PIC enable resistance R2= limit resistance
75
PCB View
Fig. (7. 19) five levels Inverter Controller PCB View
76
Five levels Inverter Controller Micro C Code
Fig. (7.20) five levels Inverter Controller Micro C Code
77
7.3 Five-level inverter output waveforms

The load on inverter output has two configurations R-load, RL-load
Shown in the following Fig. (7.21)
Fig. (7.22) which have the following values
Table (7. 2) Load Parameters
R= 314 XL =210
Fig. (7.21) Five Levels Inverter Circuit Diagram R-load
Fig. (7.22) Five Levels Inverter waveforms RL-load
78
A. R-Load
The experimental work has been done using the R load parameters given in Table (7. 2)
It can be seen that output voltage waveform are in phase with current waveform .Though the harmonic analysis
show that the fundamental voltage has a value of approximately 62 V and other harmonics content have below 5V,
that represents less than 8 % with respect to the fundamental voltage.
79
Fig. (7. 23)Five Levels Inverter waveforms R-load
B. RL-Load
The experimental work has been done using the RL load parameters given in Table (7. 2).
It can be seen the effect of the inductive load on smoothing the load current waveform
and distortion occurs on the output voltage. Though the harmonic analysis show that the
fundamental voltage has a value of approximately 60 V and other harmonics content have
below 10V, that represents less than 16.67 % with respect to fundamental voltage.
81
Fig. (7.24) Five Levels Inverter waveforms RL-load
Comparison between Simulation results & Experimental results
(a) Experimental (b) Simulation

Fig. (7.25) Comparison between experimental & simulation output voltage for R-load
81
Fig. (7.26) Comparison between experimental & simulation output current for R-load
Fig. (7.27) Comparison between experimental & simulation output Harmonic spectrum for R-load
Fig. (7.28) Comparison between experimental & simulation output voltage for RL-load
82
Fig. (7.29) Comparison between experimental & simulation output current for RL-load
Fig. (7.30) Comparison between experimental & simulation Harmonic

spectrum for RL-load
(a) (b)
Fig. (7. 31) Comparison between
(a) Harmonic spectrum of Square wave output voltage and,
(b) five level stair wave output for resistive load
83
7.4 Gate Drive

Gate drive is used to isolate the control circuit with the power circuit and it used to
amplifier the control signal level to higher level, which the switch (MOSFET) con sense it
and do its operation.
Fig. (7. 32) Gate Drive Circuit Design

Where,
J1 = input AC power supply U1= 7805 voltage regulator
J2 = input signal control U2 = 6N137 opt coupler
J3= output signal control C1, C2 = dc filter capacitor
BR1 = bridge diode rectifier C3 = signal filter capacitor
R1, R2 = isolating resistor
84
PCB View
Fig. (7. 33) Gate Drive PCB design
Gate Drive waveform
Fig. (7. 34) Gate Drive Waveform
85
86
Conclusion
In this project, a complete low power PV system is proposed , using
simulation software (MATLAB/SIMULINK) and experimental power
electronics circuits and other auxiliary circuits, the system mainly
consists of PV array, three level boost converter, five level inverter ,
and a load represented in resistive load setup or connection to a grid
setup.
Dividing the load setup into two configurations gives two modes of
operation ON or OFF grid mode,
- For "ON grid" mode, the boost converter is operated with the MPPT
which always tracks the PV maximum power to deliver it to the grid.
- For "OFF grid" mode, the boost converter is operated with constant
voltage controller which keeps sustained constant voltage at the load
terminals to ensure load functionality when irradiation is too low.
PV panel that is used in this setup is 150 W panel and it's considered
to work at normal temperature values, and irradiation is assumed to
differ according to testing circumstances.
Boost dc-dc converter used in this system is used for stepping up dc
voltages and it is controlled by system controllers depending on
operation modes, the three level boost configuration of high voltage
and high capacity capacitors is used for stabilizing overall output
voltage in case of instantaneous disturbances on the PV panel which
causes the input voltage to reach zero value for small time, for this
setup these voltage sags are completely eliminated.
In addition to stabilizing output voltage, it provides three levels for the
input of the five level inverter.
87
Five level inverter is used for converting three level dc input voltage
into ac output voltage.
The experimental results in this project is implemented on the OFF

grid mode of the system using the constant voltage controller
represented in a microcontroller circuit and the output voltage
maintained is about 84 Vrms.
It comes clear that the main system advantages are low implementation costs,
high operating efficiency, and Steady output voltage during instantaneous
disturbances, and finally low total Harmonic distortion compared to Modified
PWM inverters, or normal Square wave inverters which is shows more than
55.3% decrease in the total harmonic distortion.
88
APPENDIX A
A.1 Photovoltaic Datasheet:
89
91
A.2 MOSFET (IRFP460)
91
92
A.3 Power Diode (BY329)
93
94
A.4 Opt coupler (6N137)
95
96
97
A.5 Pic Microcontroller (18F4620)
98
99
A.6 Positive Voltage Regulator (7815)
111
111
A.7 LCD DISPLAY (16 X 2)
112
113
APPENDIX B
Multi-Level Boost ISIS design
Where,
BAT1 = input voltage U3= pic 18f4620

J1 = output voltage (Vdc1 + Vdc2 ) X1 = crystal oscillator
J2 = output voltage Vdc1 LCD1= LCD 16 x 2
L1 = inductor Q1 = switch (MOSFET)
C1= input capacitor C2, C3, C4 = level capacitors
D1, D2, D3 = level diodes R4, R5, R6 = input voltage sensor
R10, R11, R12 = output voltage sensor U1 = current sensor
U2 = gate drive
114
Five levels Inverter ISIS design
Where,
Sx, S1, S2, S3, S4 = Switches (MOSFET IFRP460) D1 = Power Diode (BY329)
BAT1 = Vdc1 BAT2 = Vdc2
J1 = Output voltage terminal U1= PIC 18F4620 Microcontroller
U2, U3, U4, U5, U6 = Gate drive X1 = Crystal oscillator
115
Multi-Level Boost
Multi-Level Boost Controller
Five levels Inverter
116
Five levels Inverter Controller & Gate Drive
PV Solar Cell
117
Overall project
118
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South Valley University Faculty of Engineering

ON/OFF Grid Photovoltaic

B.Sc. Graduation Project

ON/OFF Grid Photovoltaic

Abdelrhman Hesham Mohamed Mohamed

In the beginning, we would like to acknowledge our supervisor Dr. Essam E.

We would like to express our sincere appreciation and gratefulness to those

1.2 RENEWABLE ENERGY .....................................................................................................................2

1.3 ENERGY CONSUMPTION .................................................................................................................2

1.3.1 Types of Renewable Energy ...............................................................................................................3

1.4 Photovoltaic system ...............................................................................................................................4

2.2- SOLAR RADIATION ..........................................................................................................................9

2.3- ANGLE DEFINITION.......................................................................................................................11

2.4- SOLAR ANGLES USED IN POWER CALCULATIONS FOR PV PANELS ............................11

2.5- ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLAR CELLS [9] ................................................................12

2.7- PHOTOVOLTAIC MODEL WITH SERIES AND PARALLEL RESISTANCES ....................14

2.8- SOLAR CELL "IV" CURVES CHARACTERISTICS [10] .........................................................16

2.9- INFLUENCE OF IRRADIATION AND TEMPERATURE .........................................................17

2.10- SOLAR PANEL ................................................................................................................................17

2.11- SOLAR PANEL MODULE .............................................................................................................18

2.12- TYPES OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS..........................................................................18

3.2 -WHAT IS MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING (MPPT) ..................................................22

3.3-THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND IRRADIANCE ON MAXIMUM POWER POINT

3.4-MPPT METHODS ..............................................................................................................................25

1-Constant Voltage (CV) ...........................................................................................................................25

2-Fractional open circuit voltage ..............................................................................................................25

3-Fractional short circuit current ............................................................................................................26

4-Perturb and Observe (P&O) method of MPPT ...................................................................................27

5-Incremental Conductance method of MPPT .......................................................................................29

3.5-COMPARISON BETWEEN MPPT TECHNIQUE ......................................................................33

4.2- DC-DC CONVERTERS ....................................................................................................................35

4.2.1- DC-DC BOOST CONVERTER .....................................................................................................36

4.2.2- THE OPERATION OF BOOST CONVERTER .........................................................................36

4.2.3- THE MODES OF OPERATION OF A BOOST CONVERTER ...............................................37

4.2.5- MULTI-LEVEL BOOST CONVERTER (MLBC)......................................................................40

4.2.6- THE OPERATION OF MULTILEVEL BOOST CONVERSION: ..........................................40

5.2 TYPES OF INVERTER

b)The type of inverter according to AC Loads .......................................................................................44

c) The wave shape of inverter according to the AC output ...................................................................44

5.2.1 TYPES OF INVERTERS ACCORDING TO INPUT: .................................................................44

5.2.2 TYPES OF INVERTER ACCORDING TO WAVE SHAPE OF AC OUTPUT: ......................45

5.2.3 TYPES OF INVERTER ACCORDING TO AC LOADS ............................................................45

5.3 MULTILEVEL INVERTER ..............................................................................................................46

5.4 OVERVIEW OF POWER SEMICONDUCTOR SWITCHES USED POWER MOSFETS .....47

5.4.2 Properties of MOSFET as a switch:................................................................................................48

5.5 SWITCHING ALGORITHMS FOR THE PROPOSED PWM SWITCHING TECHNIQUES 48

A.6-1 PV Array ..........................................................................................................................................54

A.6.2 Multi-Level Boost Converter ..........................................................................................................55

A.6.3 Five-Level Inverter ..........................................................................................................................58

A.6.4 Loads and Grid ................................................................................................................................59

6.2- SIMULINK RESULTS ......................................................................................................................60

2. MULTI-LEVEL BOOST CONVERTER (MLBC) ............................................................................63

3. FIVE LEVELS INVERTER .....................................................................70

FIVE-LEVEL INVERTER OUTPUT WAVEFORMS .........................................................................78

4.GATE DRIVE. ............................................................................................84

GATE DRIVE CIRCUIT DESIGN ........................................................................................................84

A.2 MOSFET (IRFP460)...........................................................................................................................91

A.3 POWER DIODE (BY329) ..................................................................................................................93

A.4 OPT COUPLER (6N137) ...................................................................................................................95

A.5 PIC MICROCONTROLLER (18F4620) ..........................................................................................98

A.6 POSITIVE VOLTAGE REGULATOR (7815) ..............................................................................100

A.7 LCD DISPLAY (16 X 2) ...................................................................................................................102

FIVE LEVELS INVERTER ISIS DESIGN ..........................................................................................105

MULTI-LEVEL BOOST ........................................................................................................................106