1.

Introduction
2. What is solar panel,
3. how the current is generated
4. characteristics of solar panel
5. maximum power
6. conditions which boost the
max.voltage
7. efficiency of solar panel
8.

SOLAR PANEL CHARACTERISTICS

CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND POWER CURVES OF A SOLAR (PV) PANEL

Fig.1. Current, Voltage and Power Curves

A Current (I) versus Voltage (V) Curve of a PV / Solar Module shows the possible combinations of its
current and voltage outputs. A typical I-V curve for a 12 V Module is shown at Fig. 1 above.
The power in a DC electrical circuit is the product of the voltage and the current. Mathematically,

Power (P) in Watts (W) = The Current (I) in Amperes (A) X the Voltage (V) in Volts (V) i.e. W = V X A

A Solar (PV) Cell or a Panel / Module produces its maximum current when there is no resistance in
the circuit, i.e. when there is a short circuit between its Positive and Negative terminals. This
maximum current is known as the Short Circuit Current and is abbreviated as Isc. When the Cell /
Panel (Module) is shorted, the voltage in the circuit is zero.

Conversely, the maximum voltage occurs when there is a break in the circuit. This is called the Open
Circuit Voltage (Voc). Under this condition, the resistance is infinitely high and there is no current,
since the circuit is incomplete. Typical value of the open-circuit voltage is located about 0.5
0.6 V for Crystalline Cells and 0.6 0.9 V for Amorphous Cells. These two extremes in load
resistance, and the whole range of conditions in between them, are depicted on the I-V Curve.
Current, expressed in Amps, is on the vertical Y-axis. Voltage, in Volts, is on the horizontal X-axis.

The power available from a photovoltaic device at any point along the curve is just the product of
Current (I) in Amps (A) and Voltage (V) in Volts (V) at that point and is expressed in Watts. At the
short circuit current point, the power output is zero, since the voltage is zero. At the open circuit
voltage point, the power output is also zero, but this time it is because the current is zero.

There is a point on the knee of the I-V Curve where the maximum power output is located and this
point is called the Maximum Power Point (MPP). The voltage and current at this Maximum Power
Point are designated as Vmp and Imp.

The values of Vmp and Imp can be estimated from Voc and Isc as follows: Vmp = (0.75 0.9) Voc
Imp = (0.85 0.95) Isc

The rated power of the PV / Solar Module in Watts (Pmax) is derived from the above values of voltage
Vmp and current Imp at this Maximum Power Point (MPP):

Rated power in Watts, Pmax = Vmp x Imp

Example of I-V Curve and Ratings of a 12 V Solar (PV) Panel

Fig.2. Example of I-V Curve and Ratings of a 12 V PV / Solar Panel

The I-V Curve for a typical 12 Volt PV / Solar Panel is shown at Fig.2 above

This Maximum Power Point in the example curve given above is where Vmp is 17 Volts, and the
current Imp is 2.5 amps. Therefore, the rated or the maximum power Wmax in watts is 17 Volts times
2.5 Amps, or 42.5 Watts.

The I-V curve is also used to compare the performance of PV / Solar Modules. The curve is, therefore
generated based on the performance under Standard Test Conditions (STC) of sunlight and device
temperature of 25 C. It assumes there is no shading on the device. Standard sunlight conditions on
a clear day are assumed to be 1,000 Watts of solar energy per square meter (1000 W/m2 or 1
kW/m2). This is sometimes called one sun, or a peak sun. Less than one sun will reduce the current
output of the PV device by a proportional amount. For example, if only one-half sun (500 W/m2) is
available, the amount of output current is roughly cut in half.

ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLAR PANELS (PV

MODULES)
 Each solar panel, or module, is rated to produce a certain
wattage, voltage and amperage under specific conditions. Learn
more about how modules earn these ratings and what factors
affect energy production.
Written by Ben Gorman
STC
The industry standard against which all PV modules are rated
and can be compared is called Standard Test Conditions (STC).
STC is a defined set of laboratory test conditions which
approximate conditions under which solar panels, or PV
modules, might be used. Although there are other standards that
offer better real-world approximations, STC offers the most
universal standard. The same standard is also used to evaluate
potential installation locations, since it is the basis for values.
STC includes three factors:
1. Irradiance (sunlight intensity or power), in Watts per square meter
falling on a flat surface. The measurement standard is 1 kW per
sq. m. (1,000 Watts/m2)
2. Air Mass refers to thickness and clarity of the air through which
the sunlight passes to reach the modules (sun angle affects this
value). The standard is 1.5.
3. Cell temperature, which will differ from ambient air temperature.
STC defines cell testing temperature as 25 degrees C.
MAXIMUM POWER POINT GO FOR THE KNEES!
Every model of solar panel has unique performance
characteristics which can be graphically represented in a chart.
The graph is called an I-V curve, and it refers to the modules
output relationship between current (I) and voltage (V) under
prevailing conditions of sunlight and temperature. The curve
looks like a seated persons leg:

IV Curve (shows Current and Voltage)

Theoretically, every solar panel has multiple I-V curves (several

of which are shown above for one particular module) one each
for all the different combinations of conditions that would affect
the STC rating parameters above: temperature, air mass,
irradiance thats a lot of possible graphs! You can see from the
illustration above that this module loses voltage as the cell
temperature increases; that effect is common to all crystalline
modules.
Because of Ohms Law (and the equation Power = Voltage x
Current), the result of reduced voltage is reduced power output.
The ideal position on any I-V curvethe sweet spot where we
can collect the most power from the moduleis at the knee.
Thats the maximum power point (MPP), and you can see that its
position changes with temperature and irradiance.
 In battery-based PV systems, an MPPT, or maximum power point
tracking charge controller monitors the array constantly to find
the ever-changing MPP and thus capture the most power from
the array. In straight grid-tied systems, MPPT technology is built
into all the inverters, so these systems tend to have very high.
A MOVING TARGET
Two groups of conditions which can boost voltageand change
the MPPin a PV or solar electric system include over-
irradiance and temperature effects. Over-irradiance is just a fancy
way of saying sunlight with an intensity above the standardized
STC value of 1,000 Watts per square meter.
Over-irradiance can occur in several ways:
1. Reduced Air Mass . This means less energy-robbing
atmosphere for sunlight to pass through. This condition could
occur at high altitudes, for example.
2. Edge-of-cloud effect. This effect occurs as a cloud shadow passes
out of the incoming sunlights pathway to the solar panels.
Refraction can concentrate the sunlight while the edge of the
shadow passes by. The result is a boost in module voltage
output.
3. Ambient sunlight reflection. Strong reflections from nearby bodies
of water and even a surrounding carpet of snow on a bright,
winter day can produce a boost of solar intensity that can affect
voltage.
COLDER IS BETTER
Temperature effects are the result of an inherent characteristic
of crystalline silicon cell-based modules. They tend to produce
higher voltage as the temperature drops and, conversely, to lose
voltage in high temperatures.
Any solar panel or system derating calculation must include
adjustment for this temperature effect. Usually, this derating is
performed when calculating the sizes of related system
components, such as charge controllers or grid-tied inverters, as
these components must be sized to handle the possible current
spikes from the PV array caused by over-irradiance and
temperature effects.
Grid-tied inverter sizing, particularly, relies on identifying
the lowest recorded temperature at a proposed site. Inverter
manufacturers include this variable in their tables or online PV
string-sizing tools. They, in turn, get factoring data from the,
Section 690.7. If a low temperature is even remotely possible,
you must plan for it or you risk frying your charge controller or
inverter. Since module voltage could spike under bright sunlight
and lower temperatures, you need to ensure that your charge
controller or inverter can handle the highest possible voltage and
current.
Careful homework pays off (in an undamaged system!). For site
temperature data, I recommend consulting the weather data
available at weather base .
ITS ALL IN THE PLANNING
In designing a PV system, STC is your first guide for sizing and
planning. But STC is based on laboratory conditions. Solar
panels have unique I-V power output curves which vary with
changing real-world conditions. There are many factors that can
boost modules output above STC, including over-irradiance and
temperature effects. Following appropriate derating procedures
will ensure a safe and effective PV system.
Characteristics of a Solar Cell and
Parameters of a Solar Cell
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Solar cell is the basic unit of solar energy generation system where
electrical energy is extracted directly from light energy without any
intermediate process. The working of a solar cell solely depends
upon its photovoltaic effect hence a solar cell also known as
photovoltaic cell. A solar cell is basically a semiconductor device.
The solar cell produce electricity while light strikes on it and the
voltage or potential difference established across the terminals of
the cell is fixed to 0.5 volt and it is nearly independent of intensity
of incident light whereas the current capacity of cell is nearly
proportional to the intensity of incident light as well as the area
that exposed to the light. Each of the solar cells has one positive
and one negative terminal like all other type of battery cells.
Typically a solar or photovoltaic cell has negative front contact and
positive back contact.A semiconductor p-n junction is in the middle
of these two contacts.
While sunlight falling on the cell the some photons of the light are
absorbed by solar cell. Some of the absorbed photons will have
energy greater than the energy gap between valence band and
conduction band in the semiconductor crystal. Hence, one valence
electron gets energy from one photon and becomes excited and
jumps out from the bond and creates one electron-hole pair. These
electrons and holes of e-h pairs are called light-generated electrons
and holes. The light-generated electrons near the p-n junction are
migrated to n-type side of the junction due to electrostatic force of
the field across the junction. Similarly the light-generated holes
created near the junction are migrated to p type side of the
junction due to same electrostatic force. In this way a potential
difference is established between two sides of the cell and if these
two sides are connected by an external circuit current will start
flowing from positive to negative terminal of the solar cell. This was
basic working principle of a solar cell now we will discuss about
different parameters of a solar or photovoltaic cell upon which the
rating of a solar panel depends. During choosing a particular solar
cell for specific project it is essential to know the ratings of a solar
panel. These parameters tell us how efficiently a solar cell can
convert the light to electricity.
Short Circuit Current of Solar Cell
The maximum current that a solar cell can deliver without harming
its own constriction. It is measured by short circuiting the terminals
of the cell at most optimized condition of the cell for producing
maximum output. The term optimized condition I used because for
fixed exposed cell surface the rate of production of current in a
solar cell also depends upon the intensity of light and the angle at
which the light falls on the cell. As the current production also
depends upon the surface area of the cell exposed to light, it is
better to express maximum current density instead maximum
current. Maximum current density or short circuit current density
rating is nothing but ration of maximum or short circuit current to

exposed surface area of the cell. Where, Isc is short circuit

current, Jsc maximum current density and A is the area of solar cell.

Open Circuit Voltage of Solar Cell

It is measured by measuring voltage across the terminals of the
cell when no load is connected to the cell. This voltage depends
upon the techniques of manufacturing and temperature but not
fairly on the intensity of light and area of exposed surface.
Normally open circuit voltage of solar cell nearly equal to 0.5 to 0.6
volt. It is normally denoted by Voc.

Maximum Power Point of Solar Cell

The maximum electrical power one solar cell can deliver at its
standard test condition. If we draw the v-i characteristics of a solar
cell maximum power will occur at the bend point of the
characteristic curve. It is shown in the v-i characteristics of solar

cell by Pm.

Current at Maximum Power Point

The current at which maximum power occurs. Current at Maximum
Power Point is shown in the v-i characteristics of solar cell by Im.

Voltage at Maximum Power Point

The voltage at which maximum power occurs. Voltage at Maximum
Power Pointis shown in the v-i characteristics of solar cell by Vm.

Fill Factor of Solar Cell

The ratio between product of current and voltage at maximum
power point to the product of short circuit current and open circuit

voltage of the solar cell.

Efficiency of Solar Cell

It is defined as the ratio of maximum electrical power output to the
radiation power input to the cell and it is expressed in percentage.
It is considered that the radiation power on the earth is about 1000
watt/square metre hence if the exposed surface area of the cell is
A then total radiation power on the cell will be 1000 A watts. Hence
the efficiency of a solar cell may be expressed as
Introduction:

The current and power output of photovoltaic solar panels are

approximately proportional to the suns intensity. At a given
intensity, a solar panel's output current and operating voltage are
determined by the characteristics of the load. If that load is a
battery, the battery's internal resistance will dictate the module's
operating voltage.
A solar panel, which is rated at 17 volts will put out less than
its rated power when used in a battery system. Thats because the
working voltage will be between 12 and 15 volts. Because wattage
(or power) is the product of volts multiplied by the amps, the
module output will be reduced. For example, a 50-watt solar panel
working at 13.0 volts will products 39.0 watts (13.0 volts x 3.0
amps = 39.0 watts). This is important to remember when sizing a
PV system.
An I-V curve (see image) is simply all of a solar panel's
possible operating points (voltage/current combinations) at a given
cell temperature and light intensity. Increases in cell temperature
increase a solar panels current slightly, but significantly decrease
voltage output.

PV solar panels are very sensitive to shading:

Unlike solar thermal panels used in hot water heating that can
tolerate some shading, many brands of PV solar panels cannot
even tolerate shading from the branch of a leafless tree.
Shading obstructions can be from soft or hard sources. If a tree
branch, roof vent, chimney or other item is shading from a
distance, the shadow is diffuse or dispersed. These soft sources
significantly reduce the amount of light reaching a solar panels
cells. Hard sources are defined as those that stop light from
reaching solar cells, such as a blanket, tree branch, bird dropping
sitting directly on top of the glass. If even one full cell is hard
shaded, the voltage of that module will drop to half of its un-shaded
value in order to protect itself. If enough cells are hard shaded, the
module will not convert any energy and will, in fact, become a tiny
drain of energy on the entire system.
Examples of partial cell shading that reduce solar panel power by half.

Partial shading of even one cell on a 36-cell solar panel, will reduce
its power output. Because all cells are connected in a series string,
the weakest cell will bring the others down to its reduced power
level. Therefore, whether 1/2 of one cell is shaded, or 1/2 a row of
cells is shaded, (as shown above), the power decrease will be the
same and proportional to the percentage of area shaded, in this
case 50%.
When a full cell is shaded, it can consume energy produced by the
remainder of the cells, and trigger the solar panel to protect itself.
The solar panel will route the power around that series string. If
even one full cell in a series string is shaded, as seen on the right,
it will likely cause the module to reduce its power level to 1/2 of its
full available value. If a row of cells at the bottom of a solar panel
is fully shaded, as seen in Figure 7, the power output may drop to
zero. The best way to avoid a drop in output power is to avoid
shading whenever possible.
 Maximum power is derived at the knee of the curve. Check the
amperage generated by the solar array at your battery's present operating voltage
to better calculate the actual power developed at your voltages and temperatures.

Solar Cell I-V Characteristic and the Solar Cell I-V Curve

Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curves show the current and voltage ( I-V )
characteristics of a particular photovoltaic ( PV ) cell, module or array giving a detailed description of
its solar energy conversion ability and efficiency. Knowing the electrical I-V characteristics (more
importantly Pmax) of a solar cell, or panel is critical in determining the devices output performance and
solar efficiency.
Photovoltaic solar cells convert the suns radiant light directly into electricity. With increasing demand
for a clean energy source and the suns potential as a free energy source, has made solar energy
conversion as part of a mixture of renewable energy sources increasingly important. As a result, the
demand for efficient solar cells, which convert sunlight directly into electricity, is growing faster than
ever before.

Photovoltaic ( PV ) cells are made made almost entirely

from silicon that has been processed into an extremely pure crystalline form that absorbs the photons
from sunlight and then releases them as electrons, causing an electric current to flow when the
photoconductive cell is connected to an external load. There are a variety of different measurements
we can make to determine the solar cells performance, such as its power output and its conversion
efficiency.
The main electrical characteristics of a PV cell or module are summarized in the relationship between
the current and voltage produced on a typical solar cell I-V characteristics curve. The intensity of the
solar radiation (insolation) that hits the cell controls the current ( I ), while the increases in the
temperature of the solar cell reduces its voltage ( V ).

Solar cells produce direct current ( DC ) electricity and current times voltage equals power, so we can
create solar cell I-V curves representing the current versus the voltage for a photovoltaic device.
Solar Cell I-V Characteristics Curves are basically a graphical representation of the operation of a solar
cell or module summarising the relationship between the current and voltage at the existing conditions
of irradiance and temperature. I-V curves provide the information required to configure a solar system
so that it can operate as close to its optimal peak power point (MPP) as possible.

Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curve

The above graph shows the current-voltage ( I-V ) characteristics of a typical silicon PV cell operating
under normal conditions. The power delivered by a solar cell is the product of current and voltage ( I x
V ). If the multiplication is done, point for point, for all voltages from short-circuit to open-circuit
conditions, the power curve above is obtained for a given radiation level.
With the solar cell open-circuited, that is not connected to any load, the current will be at its minimum
(zero) and the voltage across the cell is at its maximum, known as the solar cells open circuit voltage,
or Voc. At the other extreme, when the solar cell is short circuited, that is the positive and negative
leads connected together, the voltage across the cell is at its minimum (zero) but the current flowing
out of the cell reaches its maximum, known as the solar cells short circuit current, or Isc.

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Then the span of the solar cell I-V characteristics curve ranges from the short circuit current ( Isc ) at
zero output volts, to zero current at the full open circuit voltage ( Voc ). In other words, the maximum
voltage available from a cell is at open circuit, and the maximum current at closed circuit. Of course,
neither of these two conditions generates any electrical power, but there must be a point somewhere in
between were the solar cell generates maximum power.
However, there is one particular combination of current and voltage for which the power reaches its
maximum value, at Imp and Vmp. In other words, the point at which the cell generates maximum
electrical power and this is shown at the top right area of the green rectangle. This is the maximum
power point or MPP. Therefore the ideal operation of a photovoltaic cell (or panel) is defined to be at
the maximum power point.
The maximum power point (MPP) of a solar cell is positioned near the bend in the I-V characteristics
curve. The corresponding values of Vmp and Imp can be estimated from the open circuit voltage and
the short circuit current: Vmp (0.80.90)Voc and Imp (0.850.95)Isc. Since solar cell output
voltage and current both depend on temperature, the actual output power will vary with changes in
ambient temperature.
Thus far we have looked at Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curve for a single solar cell or panel. But
many photovoltaic arrays are made up of smaller PV panels connected together. Then the I-V curve of
a PV array is just a scaled up version of the single solar cell I-V characteristic curve as shown.

Solar Panel I-V Characteristic Curves

Photovoltaic panels can be wired or connected together in either series or parallel combinations, or
both to increase the voltage or current capacity of the solar array. If the array panels are connected
together in a series combination, then the voltage increases and if connected together in parallel then
the current increases. The electrical power in Watts, generated by these different photovoltaic
combinations will still be the product of the voltage times the current, ( P = V x I ). However the solar
panels are connected together, the upper right hand corner will always be the maximum power point
(MPP) of the array.

The Electrical Characteristics of a Photovoltaic Array

The electrical characteristics of a photovoltaic array are summarised in the relationship between the
output current and voltage. The amount and intensity of solar insolation (solar irradiance) controls the
amount of output current ( I ), and the operating temperature of the solar cells affects the output voltage
( V ) of the PV array. Solar cell I-V characteristic curves that summarise the relationship between the
current and voltage are generally provided by the panels manufacturer and are given as:

Solar Array Parameters

VOC = open-circuit voltage: This is the maximum voltage that the array provides when
the terminals are not connected to any load (an open circuit condition). This value is much
higher than Vmp which relates to the operation of the PV array which is fixed by the load.
This value depends upon the number of PV panels connected together in series.

ISC = short-circuit current The maximum current provided by the PV array when the
output connectors are shorted together (a short circuit condition). This value is much higher
than Imp which relates to the normal operating circuit current.
 MPP = maximum power point This relates to the point where the power supplied by
the array that is connected to the load (batteries, inverters) is at its maximum value, where
MPP = Imp x Vmp. The maximum power point of a photovoltaic array is measured in Watts
(W) or peak Watts (Wp).

FF = fill factor The fill factor is the relationship between the maximum power that the
array can actually provide under normal operating conditions and the product of the open-
circuit voltage times the short-circuit current, ( Voc x Isc ) This fill factor value gives an idea
of the quality of the array and the closer the fill factor is to 1 (unity), the more power the array
can provide. Typical values are between 0.7 and 0.8.

%eff = percent efficiency The efficiency of a photovoltaic array is the ratio between the
maximum electrical power that the array can produce compared to the amount of solar
irradiance hitting the array. The efficiency of a typical solar array is normally low at around
10-12%, depending on the type of cells (monocrystalline, polycrystalline, amorphous or thin
film) being used.
Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curves are graphs of output voltage versus current for different levels of
insolation and temperature and can tell you a lot about a PV cell or panels ability to convert sunlight
into electricity. The most important values for calculating a particular panels power rating are the voltage
and current at maximum power.
Some solar panels are rated at slightly higher or lower voltages than others of the same wattage value,
and this affects the amount of current available and therefore the panels MPP. Other parameters also
important are the open circuit voltage and short circuit current ratings from a safety point of view,
especially the voltage rating. An array of six panels in series, while having a nominal 72 volt (6 x 12)
rating, could potentially produce an open-circuit voltage of over 120 volts DC, which is more than
enough to be dangerous.

Photovoltaic I-V characteristics curves provide the information needed for us to configure a solar power
array so that it can operate as close as possible to its maximum peak power point. The peak power
point is measured as the PV module produces its maximum amount of power when exposed to solar
radiation equivalent to 1000 watts per square metre, 1000 W/m 2 or 1kW/m2.
For more information about Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curves and how they are used to determine
the maximum power point of a photovoltaic cell or panel, or to explore the advantages and
disadvantages of using solar panels as an alternative energy source, then Click Here and order your
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Solar Cells: Solar Cell
Model & What Affects
Solar Cell Performance &
Efficiency
There are 2 major, important parameters to understand the performance
characteristic of a PV cell. They are:

1. Fill Factor: The short-circuit current and the open-circuit voltage are the maximum current
and voltage respectively from a solar cell. The fill factor, abbreviated as FF, is a parameter
which, in conjunction with Voc and Isc, determines the maximum power from a solar cell. The
FF is defined as the ratio of the maximum power from the solar cell to the product of V oc and
Isc. Basically, with higher FF, the performance of a solar cell is better.

2. Efficiency: Efficiency is defined as the ratio of energy output from the solar cell to input energy
from the sun. In addition to reflecting the performance of the solar cell itself, the efficiency
depends on the spectrum and intensity of the incident sunlight and the temperature of the
solar cell. The efficiency of a solar cell is determined as the fraction of incident power, which
is converted to electricity and is defined as:

Some important factors responsible for the performance and efficiency of a

solar cell are given blow:

1. Characteristic resistance: The characteristic resistance of a solar cell is the output resistance
of the solar cell at its maximum power point. If the resistance of the load is equal to the
characteristic resistance of the solar cell, then the maximum power is transferred to the load
and the solar cell operates at its maximum power point.

2. Parasitic Resistances: Resistive effects in solar cells reduce the efficiency of the solar cell by
dissipating power in the resistances. The most common parasitic resistances are series
resistance and shunt resistance. In most cases and for typical values of shunt and series
 resistance, the key impact of parasitic resistance is to reduce the fill factor. Both the
magnitude and impact of series and shunt resistance depend on the geometry of the solar
cell, at the operating point of the solar cell. Impact of both resistances on the solar cell could
seriously reduce the fill factor. For an ideal solar cell, series resistance equals to 0 ohms while
shunt resistances equals to infinity.

3. Temperature: Solar cells are sensitive to temperature. Increases in temperature reduce the
band gap of a semiconductor, thereby effecting most of the semiconductor material
parameters. In a solar cell, the parameter most affected by an increase in temperature is the
open-circuit voltage. As the temperature increases, the open-circuit voltage decreases,
thereby decreasing the fill factor and finally decreasing the efficiency of a solar cell. It is
recommended to operate at 25 degree celsius. The power output for different operating
temperatures is shown in Figure 2.

4. Light intensity: Changing the light intensity incident on a solar cell changes all solar cell
parameters, including the short-circuit current, the open-circuit voltage, the fill factor, the
efficiency and the impact of series and shunt resistances. The light intensity on a solar cell
is called the number of suns, where 1 sun corresponds to standard illumination at AM1.5,
or 1 kW/m2. Solar cells experience daily variations in light intensity, with the incident power
from the sun varying between 0 and 1 kW/m 2. At low light levels, the effect of the shunt
resistance becomes increasingly important. Consequently, under cloudy conditions, a solar
cell with a high shunt resistance retains a greater fraction of its original power than a solar
cell with a low shunt resistance.

5. Ideality factors: The ideality factor of a diode is a measure of how close the diode follows
the ideal diode equation. The derivation of the simple diode equation uses certain
assumptions about the cell. In practice, there are second-order effects so that the diode does
not follow the simple diode equation and the ideality factor provides a way of describing them.

Characteristics of a Solar Cell

current-voltage line of a si-solar cell

The usable voltage from solar cells depends on the semiconductor material. In silicon it amounts to
approximately 0.5 V. Terminal voltage is only weakly dependent on light radiation, while the current
intensity increases with higher luminosity. A 100 cm silicon cell, for example, reaches a maximum
current intensity of approximately 2 A when radiated by 1000 W/m.
The output (product of electricity and voltage) of a solar cell is temperature dependent. Higher cell
temperatures lead to lower output, and hence to lower efficiency. The level of efficiency indicates how
much of the radiated quantity of light is converted into useable electrical energy.