{ , LOUAY SABI i 2 3 i: g z 3 He 3 Is 2 3 3 = IE: & 8 The Foundat{q] of Knowledg? A Comparative Stuly in Ilomic oan Methods of InguiryCONTENTS Preface x PART I: THE INADEQUACY OF ESTABLISHED METHODS (Chapter 1: The Quost for an Islamic Methodology [Meshodclogy and the Sty of Scientifi Methods 3 Tnadogucy of Westen Metods 4 ‘The "Telamization of Krowhedge” Projet 3 “Objecion tothe Developseut of Nev Islamic Methodology 9 The inadequacy of Trains! Metbo 2 ite Traeton: Prom Principles to Techniques 4 “The Specter of Madhhabiyah 0 \ A Step inte Righe Direction 2 ‘The Tsk Ahead 4 PART I: CLASSICAL MUSLIM METHODS Prelude to Part I 3 ‘Chapter 2: Textual Analysis: Rules of Direct Inference Bayan) 35, Bayan 36 “Texal Clay: General Typoogies 2 resin, Referee, and'Refret ' 3 ‘Contexace (Nap: Expression and Meaning 6 Explcaon and Metpbori Language 3Tae da Ewe ret Bealap Tar Assetaton) Sat (Chapter 3: Logical Analysis: Rakes of Systematle Inference Science Define Deducive Loge [Concept rawr) Rules of Deion Proposition Fallacies Tidueon ‘The Theory of Magid al Sharah: An Ely Syhesis ‘Chapter 4 Science andthe Problematic of ‘Metaphyocal Knowledge inition of Rasional Arguments The Philosopher” Argumeat, Ghaztis Objection Reson Without Cnsality (Chgue of Grsk Lovie Conslsion to Par TT PART II: MODERN WESTERN METHODS Prelude to Part Chapter §: Bil Analysis: Rules Inductive nernce Method of Agreement aces 3 16 » 8 50 9s » 106 m2 ne 13 ns ss Method of Difference Joint Mets of Agreement and Difeence Method of Residoet Methed of Concomitant Viitions Locke Revelation Undermined Hime nd Kant (Chapter 6: Naturalistic Methods and the Pecallarity of ‘Socal tudes Natalie Methods andthe Stay of Sci! Phenomenon Popper's Conjetre and Falsifation ‘Conctuston to Part TL PARTIV: AN ALTERNATIVE METHODOLOGY (Chapter 7: Towards A Unified Approach to Shariah ‘nd Socal Inference ‘The Metaphysical Presupposions of Empire Knowledge ‘The Radoaly of Revelation Reveded and Empirical Realy. The Quali of Evidence ‘Revelation and Social Sciences Sources of Knowledge ‘The Revealed Source The Rules of Text! Inference ‘The Historical Soue: Roles of Historical lference A Unified Methodological Approach ‘Theoretical Framework ani Theory Bailing Conctuding Rema Selected Bibliography Index 19 130 BI ir Be 1 9 us v9 155 166 m im 14 176, ue 180 12. 17 190 191 12 ryPREFACE “ras std aso primary purposes The fr so cicaly examine those ‘stathmin nd edge spp, wie we asc ‘th nica scolar, bth te sas Maio and oars ‘Wenn sgn don. The erarinon se stony odo Ingrstod ichinfuacededeveopen of Matin ed West Sho bt t ean the eet wich hy can be sapere inne amie mel, abl sping to scl ad tec! Chaloner of modem sony. Tht otnng sn tn SreRiecmeiniing ie cand pues of teach, “Ro today's Muslim scholars, wo sets of methods giming at under siping od png Homan ston toe, Te ire ae comes Cs ej pln We i ator ag ian posal tn $Est, hy pre Mon lees tha seen etn aly, tut 5 po eons es Revelion pgp snr oso Knol Te pen corpnde yo dt ar Wen oli ‘Sipe Revel corso ner yf es ala Inge asnpige cnn wp Wena rps an cai “Te rol ot of etd sale for Maly xa ty ‘es develope x uel Mos sch. Cae Mean medode Ire pinay seed with udestnng te Ding Te nd = ‘ng noi fing nde ston wn strycrng se {sernctn, Cline! Mos sca showed, howe, nett ‘dying ssh atone wich dont finn te revel ora, And ‘hile ry Nosh scholars age ist. hyd not noe {>edsconer he es and feces of isto, but of beady he cena of hinecl scr. With he excepton off Koad Impemiv nek a Magaddinoh Musk bison by and age mete sated nln tpn see sl ost ofThe Fda of owe ‘Yet unerauaing the lave and forces gorrang the evolution of sory it fo thse who would ke to comprehend ts happenin ‘nd thas fo become ave partpuns in shaping hora event an ‘estustsing soil elton In waYs which bag sal pacts a 0 focmity withthe prinspes of tah and ety. ‘Gen the rate ofthe dicate facing cotenporary Msn scolaspculined above, tis study pups oevecome the shore lags of bth last Mastin and made Western methods by beg {nt ayes yore of he clement developed in th wombs of the wo ‘adn. The sje is preseated nw ode! coined in up. ‘ec. Howevet te unified mode, while bldg on be achevenets of “Mosh and Westen wads ot conered with banging harmo between the twoadtions, but aspires te laterite th Enowedge rected from revdge wih be oe aed om bas eapveace. nally, he inode! preset’ is Work should ot be seen a « fullledged etiology Clearly to model ras Farber develop” tet elaboration, nd referent. The rede shuld rate be cen a5 & proposal be examine, ad, pel. constacvelycigued by tase tho truly fee! the srpeat ooo forthe development ofan leoative sane metodo. Is oly i he Hak of sch eonstucve crite trie proposed sel cane Eich T wish to express my gratitude tothe Research Board ofthe Inver! Islamic University Malaysla fr supporting this xy hough » grant and eduction of eching tsigaments. Iam partly tritefa fo the chairman of the Research Board, ‘AbdolHlamid ‘AbSlaym, or his personal suppor: ad encouragement, Wiha it rong emphasis of reserch ster, and enwaverng s4pport for ‘meee weit te ntraional lai Univery, png ie po eto ave ben exe s T wish'to seyabwledge the corsbatog of Mohammad Tabit IMs for rein te entze mamas and proving atl ca rest T shoal so thank my wife Raza fr her coninsous supp, Alt Prin ae dt the Almighty Ah Lousy Saft 2 Jana Ati 1414/16 November 193 ‘Kula Lampar, Malai ey Part I THE INADEQUACY OF ESTABLISHED METHODSCHAPTER 1 ‘THE QUEST FOR AN ISLAMIC METHODOLOGY* ‘ecaise dh tvro study ats dt from the costenton that a new ' ‘hetodlogy is needed for sévaning Islamic seblership ths chapter {devoted t ie usk of (1 expuning why a néw Lane methodlo . fle nende, (2) andercorng the dficltes ich he nthe path Towards developiag the desited tethddology, and (3) rls the - , Iniporantguetons which regi the inimadte attention of thore iho ze invotved inthe sk of Ideuying appropiate methods for tvancing mosem Islami scholarship, But before wet to address ‘hese thee areasof,concer inthis chapter, we need ff clan ee what we mean by the terms method an methodology ea ‘METHODOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF SCIENTIFIC ‘METHODS [Methodology is the field of scketifc ingury coheed with he cexainton of the metbots ued in he stdy of maa ane Dhenomens. A slentifie method consists of a mumber of rales» eseareiIous Yollow in the study of the subject ater f his research, Mose researches who apply scene metho nay ln (at he knowledge Produced by ther esearch sslentil. However, ‘escachas who fal te enpioy scene nethods ay oy ain 6 ‘efene,eveh whet the resis of thelr research hien to corespond ‘with the tue farure of things. For, lacking the support of « sound ‘meth, the eorespondence between knowledge haphazardly pro ocead'te tue nature of thngs maybe a sheer enincience. TS oss sot men, however, tht inguines ot slays we ethods cu “Shoat vei ie apr pb I he Ana Jal of anc : ‘Schl Se Spe 195, ep. 3 ———————————Tre aman Kowa rently acknowledged by he sfetfieconmaniy 8 sient, for tit ‘quite legitimate fr a researcher to use 2 new method, never used trsfore, provide he ean demonstrate “soundness.” The determi ttn of te soundoes of cenfe methods isthe sk of mettodaogy (GRUECSIRGLSURRIS AS sch, methodology i nt confined 1 escrpionof selec procedures, but nvovesthe-amalyss ofthe (gounds which us ter we, This means hat be sty of mehodor I ipiags on questions stated under te abel of episteology. or be teary of owes. However, whe sete xaninaon i exteded ‘n epitemology, tll ore quests slang o knowledge, in ‘actodology te examiyton revolves around tose qpestons Which ier tothe we of see method Thi sta, we ei eae ern carseves ‘with exploring methods developed by bo classical [sumic and modem Were scolar want ave a lea tive stenfe mtbods moe congruent wi samle norms ed ences ‘THE INADEQUACY OF WESTERN METHODS ‘As oon athe notion ofan steative metooogy peared twats ‘Mamie noms i novice ti quston of newly of rete inquiry is sed. The qhestion Seawall framed the Yom of siedoonie cating fet vers wae, soy vrs ec. ‘ys slence versus rly, ut vero tere, We do pd ere repos te Get on ese comes, bt oly pat four tose win quo he ed fr een posto, Inne mebodoiogy sx methods a prely techn proce Iocig ey somatve clement, and hence epmglsly objective Wa ape wid the noon hat metods can be prey tena, ‘ne eonted tht methodologies whch estsh te condos fot {Sigs = such inno or owes canbe dese ‘spud, a Pa I we wil delintesome ofthe pcs of th mats cyl y Wise sas which evel het Westen pec. E22 atcgt blu anaancy of Wenn eos ‘by bt pol ot ect penny Fi, ever ste el cary forlaton ine wok of Francs Baca and René Desa, Stoven Weaer meio ave bad an ence bas wich ssn 4 "he us ores Matdlgy a contemporary times in the logical postivisic approach embodied in ‘Westen bebavioalism. It is tue tt tay Wester sac sas hve alraty aandooed bebaioresm under press fos le cannes of sepating ft fom vale n socil studies. Yet post-bhavioralism does not sigly feos ange inthe mode of scenic reser, bu marly sepe sled at seeing eties. The posta bss of Western mele es willbe dicusedaengh ithe second pat ofthis work, 3y employing pov, aad hee shins mato, Western smetodologies aso the level of universality pestces absosced hon, fontemparry Wesem socisy, theehy elevang yerms eobolled ie ‘dem society to te sats of wivrtal nwa Assoc, te nehods embraced by Westem schoasipeven when they vem pay ea ‘el proce normative based laws apd bers Secondly, thoughout the as tree centuries, Wester. scolar Ship was able o completely eliminate revelation a sosce of kno ‘ge, thereby reducing i no the level of mere fleion and my Altoogh his eliminalon occured a a rest ofthe conics bere ‘Western seolersip and revelation in is tabi fer, a Meahig ae “ati ads it impossible to incorporate elation into soll seas cao as » source of nowedge, or acep revelation a the expene of completely abendoring modecs mods and confing inet sey lassie! methods ‘THE “ISLAMIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE” PROJECT 1 was this dvison of stent aprosces into Shart ad secu, ‘eadng int edvestlonal and ctrl deals ja Musi scien whch prompted the “Tlamizaton of Knowledge" Prec Th ebte, es and gata plan of te project were set forth In mmogroh authored by Isma“l R. al-Farag and fist published ty the rational Insite of Isic Thong IT) in 1982 andr tse Lelanisation of Knowledge: General Principles and Work Plan: tn ‘hi monograph, a-Frtg singled otto factors beng respovabig Ta a a i EEE APRSS lenin Ente: Glo a Hor Pa 5The Fendaon cf aoe fox the perpetuation ofthe averse conons of he wma —cond echoed th alaie ofthe uaalr—eamely the cient 5b. toe eso dnalty of he edocational system it Mk societies and ee of eta visio to gud and det Musi acton, The ejuve- ve oe Pe uma, be argued is cosingent on he inegration of lat scales, ina wed on coding sets dy “The task confionting the urah i'the fifteenth cetary Tinga stat of solving the problem of dvsaton. There canbe no hope‘ «Benue revival of the-ammah uss fhe edvezorl sytem ie revamped ands fs comet, cds what seeded ie forthe system 1 be formed ane. ‘Pac oveent calm i Mas eatin, i ifreasion To Ee lle and seca system, must be ressoved and ‘sted ence and fer ll The two systems Be ait fd iterated? “According oar the desired Ineration of Muslim es tion i the tk of scdemcians Who are well west in Hot moder ‘Milnes and lami legaey. Tis ntraton of knowleda, howe rare maniesaon i tbe production of university-level fktbooks ‘eeeng slamized Knowledge, the essence of what ab Fil cota etamtastion of Knowledge” "slanizing knowledge.” be cet im coerce ters, o stamize the disciplines, or Ber 10 tec une level etboks easing me twenty snes accordance wit ch Islami visi." “Hower thnk of integration by po means. ane mi ing of sss folamie and modern Western kaowiee, batter & 1 te eae ad restoring ofthe ene lof bas Fyetedge im accordance with anew set of eer and cago, ‘read frm ni based onthe lite wodview Belg concemed “Ginyu the poet of “samizaton of kiwedge” #8 ‘Pactra Pri not veanre it the area of metboolony pet at confined himself to Wentying some epltemelogiest The Quer on Madly pracpes. Under th rang of “st pips of aie metboda Sif ede eal is wih bead on {tthe basi emework or guiding be poco of aan A sees idng te proces of aman AS Whi sit cing pal td hoo De ing of wast ods, Kana ot Keowldge cop obese $number of priniples which consi the esens of in To re Gp wir een ot Islam means subjection of their theory and method, th et ‘principles and goals tothe following [principles] * oe Asti iets ave pnp of se metas cxyeesiod tsa ive ute he any of Allah, of craton, Sci ley pgs se heor yeing (ontology), and hence constitute the 3 -suppositions 7 cmolog) 5 soins of an haw scnology). Ste i ay tla ah nn tscuss any ner the content of thes : nied sean ues roster hoven, a nc tl toy Ft cnt ont neal ips whch contents tie epee flan ane nosey Lata ow st atl ie of or Torr eof hemo of rcelsge mono “ian wh rs ngayon cece pesmi neh wp hows oe Ea wi Bg nord ose he eat of san” On te ee of hese req i pn tesa nh Honor ie of cl tion, lan appears overwhelming exceed sted ‘Th plan esto ipa prc cnsderesins a stk ly cae tp mas tt ep ha rns sep meme Hore ‘Bien of sag scent omar tat Sth nese i td‘he Pum f Koa steers en aii terse rors as ioe ety ee cre fo es soe recatbet seine “Another schema for implementing the workplan 1s wo divide te wong ntarmaee tre & ‘slmultaneously. The importance of dls women tEeaten geet nae see Sete er aac sehen teammate oe Tate evan fH 008 oi ears atau oe site neat ae ior raceaie Sau ees to swe tt hee woo nw 2 vietnam recoaet som et Sots pecs wer etc mig street Sete ameecan atta? oe lotr Seana ese eee stip eur schema reprerete in gare I. Thi sehen, tough i cold be rte deranding in tes of te nellectanl wort egies, provides Phe simplified procedure conssing of two, steps: masty of “pet tacwedge and max of metodo Howl. cages phe a yet ares cu a ge ee ne ath el of cveloment acid he cs rt tae Reg eat re ene 8 eee The Que oa ani Madey ‘vlly shows that he production of en Isamized knowledge i con ‘gent on the emergeace af Tame methods, ‘Before ve tr to examine sever wocks on methodology wit ten by Masim scholars since the inapgurtion of the project oF Islamizatn le oer a decade ago, two points ae in one Fst, though he proaction of Islamizad Koowiedge is conagent on the ‘spplieajn ef methods rooted in the Inamic welds, this does at ‘sn that he articulation of an Istamic ethology must pecede fubstanve contribution t the process of "Ilaszation of know ‘ge Second, he fra oteome ofthe schema chown ing I, the production of university textbooks, ¢ knowledge which may be dese as Iamzed only tentatively. The Islami of tis kaon tdge can be confirmed ony though the involvement ofthe Islamic ‘elena community. We wil retin elbcte hs poin later “The eve towards developing ah Ilamie metodolgy has, thes far, iced te types of responses. The ist two (epesented hereby ‘Moharumad Si-a-BOt and Fazlur Ran) deny the nee for the evelopment of an Islamic methoology. However, wal a B clains | ‘ha a slanse metodology has already been “discovered” by Classi! Muslim scholars, Faz Rahman avanes an argument reminiscent of Tbe Rush's costeron hat methods ae basil oss inept of any gious erottin. The ted group consist of echo who have sipped he project of samizaon and have ade significant tongs to conbuet:ts advancement But before we local a some ‘fhe most inporant conus of his goup let ya icy examine ‘he two major disertng respone to th Ielaniation ests OBJECTIONS TO THE DEVELOPMENT'OF A NEW ISLAM- IC METHODOLOGY na paper pesemed the Foy Intecnathonal Confrence on Islamic Methodology aad Behavioral and Education Seiences held ta ‘arto, Suan in M071087, an lar publsed by IT. ait ‘oniended thatthe Scenic method is. fat( hagigeh which iS “Amt ih et yn nga ston he Cano tai mt Tamme Oe Sema ‘ntl as martyr hon aw a ee ‘bomthak (Hendon, VAs ITT, L4UL/2990), pp. 55-45. ms °he Fema ecole rong to the “ejective world” Le ll ei ngs" H bs 2 Peck tre, cmpletlyindependeat noth i seacare and ex ret Tao human thought and easaing® According to al-Bi the "See uny and permanence of the scenic method (mara al aeons otcesiated by i nein. Since te siete metiod aye sal (nin) fo enariag the cstecoess and sound- aaseetnnkg validity haf be independent ofthe thinking Do ree alt Hage al Bot once, the seientfic method canfot be shined ot altered by reason; otherwise, one-as to sec anotes motia fora asin, leading inte regres He therefore Mouce since he weenie medi fied and permanent 8 not aoe bl to developmen bd innvacon This means tha th oe of mem ness ths case Muslim infec mtd to ienifying for dscovefing the “Sound metas” 2° Traber, contemporary Muslims need oot bathe to dscover the sound sathod” of bowie, he contends, for this discovery bas “SOU boon ucsomplsbed by ealy Muslims inthe “goon age of Jian2i As tothe question. te role of eontemporsy Islamic schol hip irelation to fetentifie methodology mAbs argmca is probe for eas ew sso, ist cotases For wie one say agus tat the principe Of reason aE Moloney or of non-conracico) are nln to vee preening. and soc unease can hardly say the sme aur the ctmges and pence ust in ast alsa e..itsin) The Que fran anc Maadolgy REET TMNT if fees 3 nse of ncton an ot fo, wy shoul nore ca ess inet pepe cle mtd ina ew nguage tls a ‘etn cmap eee Feu Rehman, ie alBih, dared withthe project of ‘saniatonof nofdge, bt frconply tere ease Tak eae The Amen our of et Sa Secs (ass) sory afer dah, Pe Ran we gig at ftach of comtemporary Hoowlsdg eect Wevem en soapy Costened ot oe caot Sve metheloy deta 2 sey ferachnng ini loud, Te ely hope sin ave fr Twining about Islamic knowledge, he argued Nom PB So faras the problem under consiertion—Islamizatin of Inowledge—is concemed, I, Greefore, conclude that We ‘ist not gt enamoured over making snaps and chars of how 1 go about creating islamic knowledge, ERO ‘AURNNNNEGIE EAA IGESAMESCACEGN. Indeed, Faslur ahmar hel could not nna sla il teed of hs article Inthe ealy pars ofthe artel, he contend hat one cannot develop meted for guiding Homan teavon, fr "naman tight" he po elumed, "bats own mode of operaton. We. sill donot know what ‘he natu of the human hough process." Arist wed, be cn tended to discover the Shucue of human ciaking Mis efor cul Fe, Men aA Rp ean afTre eden ef Knee ated inthe theory of sllogam. Bet Aristo filed bocause, be ded, "Talboluely nothing ofthis sor happens in actal rely man hough doesnt behave sylogtcally.” “Yet one pragsp nt, the al aks a srpiing tara when zhu Raha ootines athe conslsion ois aca twofld sat 2 in whic he call upon Muslim seolas wo exami, Sst, Musi ttedlon, ane, seer, Wester wadtion. To under this amin. on, heads, Pin ke exublahe ofthis tof elas whats amie methodology 5 ‘i about Faalur Raiman's concluding paragraph seems to conta his ciation against methods, atleast reveals certain incon tency and ambiguity inthe author's tad twas methodology. Foe ‘oe it conde tht tee is ned for “otal eter”. gulde the examination of Musi and Western ttellecteal traditions, 090 ‘as fo concede, well the need fr rls to guide the derivation and pplication of thee estes, Le an Islamic methodology ‘THE INADEQUACY OF TRADITIONAL METHODS “The eificutes facing modern Islamic scholarship are made more cite by the fat that employing clase Maslin stences canot be readily subsruted forthe ‘ask of overcoming the inadequacy of| ‘Western sciences. This s because. the classical sciences are, them selves lnadesuni for guiding moler senife ues, This ial qucy hasbeen highlighted by a amber of schoas. ‘ageremesearnalscespsedsaicnicy Te ft endeey 1.0 resi he fell of geod to gate rensoning, Le. Ge subasion nde robs der eal negra ela the mu tahid wo xagth urs, ad reducing scicoce to legal scence The oer teadeney fo eiminate all atonal cteia and standards y ‘Mopung"spuey inulve and esoece methlo.” Ths ough ter methodology shou avo he excess of eve (wo approaches Tha sy shoud avoid eng Tesnig to the exe ht n ‘he Que ora ani Madey ‘modem problems conootiag Mili scnasip are place use the realm of sient een, and shold boat he tne ne Aw the dso of ton and sper na the el of knowledge! “The sue concer is echoed by "Ab Hamid Aby Sayan vo tink th ere of modem Mish elects othe mos ‘opal inadequacy beng contemporary Malin thug man Teng isa nthe employment of exclsvel ings end lea pers of taking Aesording fo AbO Susy, he derma of fSutmporay Matin cece tht eth fh ut nal hd nr tes Re nines oe pete 2 a al-ound, waver intact, cpeble of esling a lems of modern society. As he put it: oes ine alo ‘The isis [of Isla thought) lo tein the mature of or Islamic methods of esearch, which are cfined to texte suds of language, wadions and enhodo jrisprodence. These.two atitudes aro manifested in our tendecy to regard the fai Gris) nthe itor see ws oe who Is capable of resolving the exist of thet, culture, sod owed. Aber dipect ofthe inadequacy of clase methods i high- Ughted by Mons AbuL-Fodl The reason cli! methods are inade- late, she points ou, 1s that while the stady of socal phenomena ‘equies« Bliste approach whereby socal elation are sytemized pursuant to universal rls, clasia! methods ae atom eying frmanly oo analgial reasoning “The inadequacy of modern Wesecn and clasial Muslin mth cs points tothe need for forging alternative methodological approaches capable of tantcending te liao cf both, However, efforts aimed at ovecoming the above-mentioned inadequacies — ‘mainly based on she Islamizton framework have been hindered by ‘mounting difcutes. Understanding te dicate assisted ith Sens bah i Suburi aod anak. 2067. Bhe andoon of Koneie the ak of lauacing alternative mathodolgical approaches wil Be ‘our primary’conce athe ext secon, DIFFICULT TRANSITION : FROM PRINCIPLES TO TECH- NIQUES “The [MIERICTUERNOTE ofthe workplan proposed by te Isamlzaton ‘of Knowledge Projects seleced in th works ofthe boas who hare Uden te tsk of bering he IMamizatonpeojct by aemtng ‘0 QerRermERRREATRETETNG Before we examine four impos ‘combaons, shoud bo pied ut Ut neti = = NEE Tonia (GER (tps 1, 2, and Gf the workplan; segue} of slamizaton ‘workplan, wll last complelyoverook he "Islan egscy tack (sep 3,45, nd 70 gue “Among thas who atemptod to Mensly posible avenes forthe evelopment ofan Islanie methodlogy within the “Isemizaen of Koowlodge" frameworks SERENMIESATM na moderates paper tntiled "Tae Islamization of Knowledge and Some Methodologies Teves in Paradigm Buin." "Ant both cued and applied ro cece for bling a Islamic paradigm or wove (he to tas fe ted hy “An nerchangealy). Desig on nue Laktoss movin ff Selec Research Progam (SRP), he calls upon Musi shia ‘o-adop the SRPelaborsed by al-Farqh. By so dine, Mslim schol tus reduce the tak of bailing Isami prams in tat vespctive Aisciplines, he argues, to the realization ofthe goals of the ““Ilamuzation of Knowledge” program”. ALFrag's SRP, “Ani on tends haste vitae oF promoting the ocorprion of revelation to felenie reser, thereby fice Muslin schol from the con ‘ait of Wester epistemology” Since the eistemolotel eae es intwaced by ab Fico ae 109 broad, Af rocognioes the ned forte devon of « more spesfi at of prieiples which can guide ‘conomie esearch, However, in hls tempt ro move fom the general tothe spesfalycconomi, “Arf os in rogh ean. Tha Sup ot fn te no of ee at foe Msn Te et bi te i pn omc Pap "he Qutfronanie Mablty Ing. move, he abandons the Idanization apeosch end embraces two approaches geneated wii the confines of theorteal physics. Both ‘approaches ean help n developing aa Islamic paradigm (or word ow), An prclans, fhe roe ofthe cal scents engaged ‘ne slamiaton of owiedge resembles that of thet ‘To make tings more compat, ‘Arf eoduces th concep of llsopical foundation, which, he epics, conse the prod vpn ‘whch an samc waridview is eee However, the selection of po- ‘Sophia! ouniation the lunatepormive grou, a mater of Yale Judgement on he pact of the sett With he fermion of the pro ‘ea the question Eecomes: bow does a soca lent ane a parti lar workdview given the philosophical founcations of hisses thdught? In response to this question be proposes two diferent approaches: sateation” approach, borowed rom Fin sea feation Of scatfc syste’ ud the “ccalzatn” approach, adapted from the Acadonis Amerizin Bncyciepedia. Eins eaiction prosede cal forte conorpial tystemizaton of physice though Zarles of conceptual abstractions, whereby concepta derived from “Immediate experenot’ are brured oder moe general coe fa an upward movement coding with the most abstract concepts. The ovement fin the pemary a0 concrete the secon te absrct system lows the scent to dea witha strife model ih sal and hence more manageable, set of eonepts‘The “idealization” ‘apmach lows complete opositn othe ‘eaeaon area’ ‘he movement fm hemos perl and abstract othe most pric se conerets, for hee the parameters ofthe system ae speed Is ‘vane oft substan elaboration "Yer pupoe ofthe “striction snd “ielizaton’prooe- ‘res st anawer the question bow does a socal sett sve at parculr wold vw? the above exerci best prbiemate. The "Soaetion”pocedue rane i dec opsiton fo te Ianiztion project, fr deve he eal and universe from he acl and pe {eul However, while the “iéealiraton procedure does hot cons ict he Tslnuzaion-amewor i tringsus bak to the ia ques toa, since this proedare prespposes the availablity ofthe word 1s‘he att of Eee iw which it presumes to elaborate, The most rublesome aspect of he paper doesnot, however, Me tn ts atempt ve explore procedures, bt rather in is sppieton of ‘hese precede. Arif contends that by applying the method of t= ‘ation he was able fo come up with ive crite forte evalation of the performance of Islamic economic systems 1) socioeonomle tice fr efficiency and growth 2)feedem for the individual aa- nize his fll, 3) pay, 4) liination of else deminane, and 5) ‘xual oppor al Susan soundness ald, he scat aus of the above itt traf igh uetorable. For oe hing, as an empty based ‘metod, staan’, when used in social cence, can ely serv 10 ‘deze the anu As Suh, "sratfeaon can only proces ester in ‘wach the fought accords with the One has, then to ask how "Al ould ave ast of penile tht spires to change rater ten pe ‘etuat the sats quo by wing an nsiclly marae sete. But {or more impart reasons he methods though which te so-aled ster forthe easton of fe slic econo system ae tobe en- ted d no ezanate rom Within the slamizatenamesork el, at are preticated ona logical postivisic approac. Unaware of the ro- found congruence between opel postivsm sb ami eos, At sees be role Mili Solar in rs of roconcing Islamic ves ‘i lola posite mefods. At be exlly pus: "The above Alscstion [tbe reteence sta Frog's cal for concn way nd ‘agi cables us to understand the complementary of Revelation in ‘san aed what we might cl loge pstviom — sich a sogersted by De Euragi are the to elements whose interaction produces the ami epistemology" Needless lo 84. the complementary of Revelation .. td ~ logical positivism’ i ‘Ani's misreading of l= Fn’ ell or reccating revelation (way) and eeso, Bor, wll logis post, a-Fragyhas runneth wil th mater ord ss sbjet aw of recess, human (moral eres abject malay 0 luo of redom2 ‘Aver work deserving crcl examination i mad by ‘Abd a= Rashid Mote, polis slertt who atempeed Ia pper ened Etna ese 16 ‘i Qu or hat ates Jamizaton of Knowledge: Methodology of Research in Political Seno" 1 ube be objesives of he Isanzation project nthe ld of plied scence. Like “Anf, Moen sets ot from the framework of Tsamieaton of knowsige develop an alee othe caenty ominant Westen paradigm. Uke “An he rejects lpial posta 4 pareular, as well as naturalistic methods which consrute the ‘bedrock foandtion of contemporary Western social scence. The new rag, be aus, sal! td “india beaver within te con fext ofan ene soci sen The new paradigm sboud abandon ‘he"individualisic (and hence cthnocente and anthropomorphic) spproachof Wester policl selene for one which views man ie {Sanorgni whole and integrates moral alesnd sol eal ‘Yet Motn rej the saturalisie model of since witht com ley abandoning empecl research. The sient vale of empl fl Binings has to be deteminod in connection wih a tee ayer Stems of human knowledge which nce, in addtion to empirical oowledge toc andabeolste Knowledge Ate explains To be sre, the plas of he two scence (poli und nat tall nthe scheme of human Knowledge i one and the same, to unfold and comprehend the Divine pat. In the Quranic scheme, this Knowledge (lm) isto be ‘obtined throagh zeveision of divinely rdkined aso now hagq al yagi), rationalism o inference based ‘upon jude and appa! oeidece (im a-yeqn snd trough empiricism and perception, thats. by observ tion, experinen, istorel repos, Gesripton of ie expe- enor and te ike ("ym agit), Thus, the Islamic way ‘of knowing secon fll feadom to experince and exper toeut and 0 rtonl and intelectzal inary win the = ‘enferenes of revealed knowledge Athough he sbove-oulined model employs Qutictenniolo 1s the model itself has ot been systomatically derived from the [5p a ao “inn of Kola: Mey of Res {pe Sacer Zuma f nn Sal Sees 2 ”The Fandaton fridge (ui, national argues, or enpiial expereace, Nevertheless, the ‘ears value ofthe model canot be overlooked, tne Ie provides & ‘err caegristion which conesponds with intive, atonal, and empl Knowledge. However, te model needs fain devlop. ‘ment ard more igrous grounding. Att stds now, the model can ot gulde selene research, since i aes subsumption rules whch may telat the empl tothe ralonal, andthe rules of derivation ogh which ke absolste can vat he ratonal>® Yet asso0n as Moten tums to Iden sbstantve elements of the Islemic paradigm, be-almose completely abandons hs ntl ‘methodological concems, and moves to embrace unamined notions and concepts. Following te Jead of ach be proposes an ogame model ofthe amma for advancing subsantive Isic research the feldof political scence. Anerganic mali jsified onthe Dass of prophet sttement and four ragmae and meephyscal conse. tons: Yet isthe abscoce of wel defined rules of dertvation wih allow for lgrous predation of polite! theories upon propetic sxemenso& metaphysical epuments, tbe rcilaton of autho ‘We of metaphysical amen in suport ofthe ehlarscenteation {s wonisome, That i to sy, the se af a popes sateen, whose ‘aumedite reference is othe solidarity ofthe tlievers, forte justi «atlon‘of an orpaiepolilal organization with farreaching conse. quences is iadequates to es sletiprumding. Such am exercise fils more in th elm of speculative reson han rigorous Slent. Jc decivaton, Indeed, u comprehensive examination of the organic ‘mode of the Ilanic polity bexomes more trgen when onc relzes that tbe model eontadlets ipso facto the contact model embrace ‘by casa! Malin scolar 4n fast Mote, like all contemporary Maslim scholar, is well evar ofthe tesion existing cuedy between reson and eve Iaion, and devotes » secon in hnpaper to this question. ls vey ‘nie teanent of chs question presupposes, Bowever, tt he tension wil fae away a soon as Maslin scholars rect Weser sfeatie ‘approaches and enbrace approaches oe tbe Min legary, ‘Yet the general and psig ference made tothe trons re owsip which hstrealy existed betwee revelation and ten in he Islamic legs, oveloks the uneasiness which gradually gre mihi [Sete repent dete ele, een ees 7 ae EE ‘he ue for aan Matos the Ait schoo, the dominant inate soo, ctmiatng in he elu snce which mane se ently ait non Tegal scores Tis tra that, as Motea sates, te Aas, ben ring wi Abo aan s-Asbar inet, sony defended he Ge of reason” Butts alo tr th the Afar wed sor oly a defen sive roeanie,a ves i lepimate we (ote defense ofthe ‘workview elirted by Kalam schol ever he one ema by Asif scholars. Aad so while Motn's pens aseton hac tbe rth ‘ot revelaon yas aways appecatod aig of eens bore by ‘he soy of Msi chars, a dae exaiacon of he ela Ship ofthe fveae and he ests uncovers was of eas ab ean fet wblh need the immediate anes of crsemporry Musi ho ‘af the projec of “amzaon of knowledge” is tobe ered on sli fonda, ‘THE SPECTER OF MADHHABIYAR. Caco eae ise ating ote Mane ke wil ll ins entre sage ests ety for kf ese dftion {ttc lain baw es an ear —manye pen of decoction twee tens end ology. The ben ba sa tron the foe a sty mayan ay i ‘ook pba yao no oe Tg) ete the ie of Man) abt jim Che Meg of Sia Recashy™, Anan cope tee xo tie of gh port {cn nd per a et pins at fr lg tn ee ‘ota Ot oft or pats St ook Ra ot ‘pes inet inh ete of to cont sty eee eens 9 "Enbecet cen wins cocoa sn pom wero of tevin san nn woof eee ann op of Sook Anse emp rm asc he posi ono cc eco tht cepa eatin io ef 35 sexe Sm Moe 1, At se prarey em amon Ai, Mel thin bp a po et spel ts Rr ros Retort enn » eelThe amdasonf Eovese nce, This relncorporaton, he contends, should be comeensive, ‘whereby bods Qu ane vales and eanoxps ae enployed forging Selec esearch. The Quo, be aru, could cotabue to the deve: ‘pment of soca tp in de fren ways. Ica, frst, provide ‘sur Infaon on th ntre of ery stil. can, seo, ‘atl the mpiyacs of social nowiedge on uesons concesing be treaten and eviog of ma Abd rca, lly, lp us ferme rd ‘troover cal ays Yet rae hah ariculating mbods which may allow sgoroes ‘compare what he ells the "sctal gradatio™(adarr iim) of Islamic soci seeace with tose of capitalist abi Mart soil sl- nce. Sine the purpose ofthis moalyl soto atenpt a compre hensive ertigue of Amzivan's work, bt only to emphasize the pole that a uuly“Islamized” knowledge presuppose the emergence of| ‘mature and sophisticated methodlog, | wll dese only one ofthe conceps which Aawiyan conses se pat of Isle social sles, sumaly soil nego ‘While stl inequity, os he preps to pat “the rich versus the poor” al ghant magabi a fag sgifls fee cempestion under ‘apatism and econonc exploitation under Marne, simply sgn ‘es socal iegrton and complement ander aan. Ths mean Ing, Ameiyan proclaim, is imple (ha) inthe Quake vere (a Zaktwat32) which rede: Is tty who would portion othe Mercy of thy Lord? Ie |: We who porion oat betes them thei void in the Iie of ths Woda: Aad we rie some of them above otis Janko that sme may command wook fon others. But the Mercy of your Lord is better than that whieh they “The quoston which mast be rated here isthe following: ace there ules which must be fllowed by the Masi social statist in sof had ine en of bry ok mand, ASHE disngusted bawecn mjiahs wh die peices rom texts ad thoes no deve les fom te univesalpitipes of Shara ag {ty ta wile te frmer nod tobe seit wi the Divine Text whe prcedresneesary for is inrpeaton god analy, he ter abe asst only wih the parposes. [IKHTILAP AND IJMA"(DIVERGENCE AND CONSENSUS) ecilna posuced wag th pate of ith by nvm 2a cers th eh oer ang at (Con), a ck er, nig contorted Saget Hoe Sf bn ebro cei ners Tis st as rasta Ensen Munim work oo rebels weet SSESan Since ae to spect of sence” be wate a a Teche Femdom af ronedge lh “md nd bala ais so, ve wl ok eto {he tute fli and review malo proces expoyed by ‘Masi sol for wanvag confit ad erence, the Wet ss some important ssues pening Jn™ IKETILAF ae source ateeat} That i to say, what Kind of eucumstances hat give rise to divergence? In al-Miewafagat, al-Shati : rmetbodolgteat os conspcuos 1, The use of homonyms (mthtarak Tete ftom ‘which pent fer 2. The metphorc usage of words. 3. The existence of otter pce of evidence independent ofthe pes dross, clan of nde 4. Whether the evidence being ‘mpication, studied hat agonal or specie 5. Ditfereoces a reports Differences over the specie suc of jihad and gis 7. Whether abrogating (nasith) evidence can be ted The possibly of deren interpret Dep preaons ofthe same ev o Tama Any: Pa alae is freee The cight sources, with the exception ofthe sat, reat 0 the existence of conflicting evidence, The conflict (tadrud) between thee evidence canbe reseved by employng four major provedes ‘These we: 1. Tay (assencaon) 2. Tay (pavetarzation) 3. Nash (abrogation) 44 Ta wit (exlcatica) ‘TARJIH (ASSENTATION) “Te ist procedure for emoving aa start Tans calle for ‘when conic appears between to conflctng pees of evidence, I The dsnpie of Shari'ah egal researc, conic usually aes placs fcwecn two textual statements, or two efficient ennses (a). The tem ier here refer to revealed ext, consisting of both Qua sate {nents and their Propbesie elaborations. Since abSba' wrote Ms ‘Rodla im which he gave the Suna he sts ofa primary source of ‘Sha‘oh standing on pr wth the Qua, Muslin shots hye, Dy cad lage, cenaaered the Quin and Sunda £0 be cneal sources of ‘Shara "Yet the two hve 2 Very impart diferene a ems of thet dogs of ertanty, While the Qua s certain ga a-aba) the Soma is onoetan (gana! al-hubat), The balk ofthe Suan (documented inte Hadi falls wader the etgory of indivi! ar fation (haber aad). Only few hadith ean be raised wo the Bevel of ‘conivetrrton (habar muta) Clay, aS was obvi ‘or tothe inte difference Berwoen the Quite and te Sunnah then be placed the two on a per For slace the Quin enjoys absolute Terai whe the Sunnh ea bet probable Gam the suns bas to ake a wobodiate sas othe Qu. In determining the relationship between the Quan and the Sunnah, Shaft dete ce poi ypes of elaton. He sas: “The Suna ofthe Messenger of Allah of wo types eter SotaTe Fondation ridge ‘he Quran males an explict (nag) statement, and the ‘Messenger of Allah follows i asd or ibe Qu’ an ‘makes] an ince (mujmal) seer, and the messge of Alla lari what Allah sad inncily (mde). do ot know of any scholar who asapees that the Saath of the Propet is of tee ype. They ageed consenselly (jima'u) on two types. The tid type which they don't have consensus on) i what the Mesenger of Aah hes stablished on which de Quin sen As a Sha’ is ily observed, the thi tpe of Sanath which ‘stables a rule hats no ben sted in the Qu is he toe that hasbeen open for contetioa,eapecilly between the aS and ana econo gh Yet a-Shifl''s typology ss incomplete. For the third type ‘consists of two diferent types of summa the saonah wih is ie, or at east doesnot conic, withthe Qua stents, and te sum ah whichis n confit. The fourfold relation of the Seana tothe (ar’an can readily be recognized when we make the comspasien Derwee he cern and uncer evidence, el Sih dd The Shah evidence canbe ether cera (ga) o po ble (zon) 1s cern there wo question that shots be considered... Buti peobabl, ther could be sa sued unde @ cerainpriipe orf ced not Its sb sumed under a estan pencpl, (the probable evidence) should aso te considered it sit has to be fst ver fied and can never be readily accepted. But this one involves ewo eases: one coeds a erin picipl, sn ‘one neither contacts nor agrees with I Therese ete: foe four eases in all. The ston eqaes 0 fre lr faton. The second he probable wich canbe submume under certain principle, should be lnplemonted. (This ‘ype include al india mations (bar had). The thr, the probeble which contradicts ext principe nd "not substantiated ith anther cera rine, should @ esa Ane: Te ate of cree etc rejected. The forth, the robsbl WAS i tts ym cos fea ern pt open oe customs elegy Is va ba Setar tmand ghar) ‘TAKHSIS (PARTICULARIZATION) ‘When part ofa genea goup is exladed from the inpliation of the flee eridence we have eat of paralizaton Examples: ° ae Pgmage dy people owe 0 Al — ths ford the joey. The above satement is prtiularznd by exchting thse who do ot have the means fo make the pllgmage. Therefore only adults who ave he mean are ingle Silly dy of ibertnce (mir are pariaized by the ti ortho killer thee ino inert ‘And thove who lauoch a charge against chaste women, abd frodoce not four witnesses, (0 support their allegation), Fog tha with ety supes™ Parieuaried bythe aya ‘And those who laure charges aginst their sponses, 8d fave mo evdenc (ia suppor) ba tel own, et sltary tence (ean be roveved) thy Sear witness solemnly tela he th Pescara notte i weet a dence, ba shoud ice at well established pines of he Shan and ts geaca pps, Fo as we Wl soe later, the pn Brereriet corms 6‘he Fenda one les and purposes of Sherah themselves deed fom the revealed "ex, provi a more cétain has for prtculanation. The exploy tment of the esablished piel of Shariah i eapctllyinpant when adh sued to parcalrize Qortic texts, Tis cae the adh aaa, whch costite the blk of the hath ls « oe ‘ztalnsoure.Indeod because ofthe lack of certainty in wing the adh, Hana scholars Go not slow tals by advil naraion (iabar abd) o gy. unless the general txt or rule has leas been prcularized by Qu dn semen? NASKH (ABROGATION) feo pices of evidence (dat) come nt onic, whereby aot oss to make farts (bth have the sane stent), ot tahoe (Goth are general) the hss as of ma (abrgaon) For example the following two dyahy sgn «case of abeogs: leis presrbd, when doth proces any of yu ie eave ny gods tat mae a equest to paca an rent Aliah (ns) ects you as regatds your ciea's iabert tance): to the male a portion equal to that of two females, fr your parent, saath share of te fakes Here we have two conflicting Quine texts, Resolving the con Alt requires tht the tine sequence of rvelation be determined, con sidering thatthe later txt he supereding power over the fooaen oowever, the folowing conditions mae be observe: 1. A text cannot be abogated excep by another et equal fit {n cerany, Therefore, te Qur'an ca oly be abrogated by the Qur'an, While he Quan may abrogate both Qor ent Sunnah, AL-Shat' boweyer taxis tat Stanah may ote broptd by the Qur'an see ea Ane: The Rae of ies rece 2. Atextmay note abrogated by gar or ima 2, test stings fc, nota rule, may not be srogted tall [IMAC (CONSENSUS) Se sal dctntin onde sgn of mai Be ca of Makan als ANN was here Ckinayonetrag aoe mates een te ik! et one an Mast he flowing gps of Gnd? 1. tt a nna Tis nsf ote grant of he re si commanity Ths te boast peo re for imocs all niuae who i, do, and wil cept [sla vevlaon. But while tt he bodes in terms ‘of maters upon Iermbecip tis he asowrst ten Atle he Mins ae naionsy aed. These mates te limited, Jom Haun ned, to he baste tinal and prota prsiper fsam, Oscar he x a: rset oped bs Suahe des, 1 dense Gnd of the dane imal Sabah (Companions). Tis ste most importa ‘ope of md, since thengh tte Quraa was documented i verified, an through which te basi practices ofthe Sanna have been sented 3. ma alulana’. Ti se ype 10 which the Classical def on of a fr. 4d witha oe isos scons of gh Along trp a dt st tr ory edn eS so nf swat shyt ean hn te abut oma Ts eof dex devotedhe Fondation of nig whoa sho jurist ays "this is th opinion of eu companions" 5. Und! al al-Madinah lmd® ah al Madinah is ove ofthe tousce of Shari'ah inte Male school of igh, By this ype Of fma® Malik means the practice amal) ofthe common pecple of a-Mainah, since they hae inhented the practice Dt the Sabbah and the ely Muslim commanty. However, Imam Male coasidered the ythad of the scholars of a Madinah w ave no sitions sgniicance over the hd of ether Musi scours. Ts spe of Uma hasbeen doc ened in malik’ Mama’ od bat Uefore, aimed the form of gt document, hereby crossing "SUS ‘Te ive categories Ise above canbe redced to vo malo ca zones: 1 Gi on a textalevidenee 2. Sma on iment ave thoogh the practice of had ‘THE INFALLIBILITY OF IMAC (CISMAT ALLIMAS), By the fourth Hit centr the bak of Muslim scholars seemed to Ive aproed that whenever an opaion has ben abated by ina sesie generation, assumes the stats ofsbsolete truth thet ‘anne be contracted or epeaied by late generations. Many sci 2% including al-Ghazzli and a-Si, used the erm nat eer {otis ma’. The most important evidence cia to defend ts pratice 1S hadith mrsted a e9 version “My Ungah does no agree (have jms) on dstoton (delta The sbovecited texts eactde in both forms the possiblity that he cathe ummah might gic on eer er dovition. Te ext dove mot ay that whenever the uma aves a 9 consensat ox mater thas omens is absovtely te. Furtber, the te ummah in the above [pa om Ralf by nk Tena Ani Te Rate of De rece text refers tothe followers of Isis in al places and times. A ch, fant be sod to support the contention of the dec of ama al ‘jn’ whic init tha fone generation of Muslims achieved al- {Ja onan ss ler generations are bound by this ensenss* ‘Therefore, ay Jd shoulé Bold ony insofar as he cpnion or the ling it spore conines to be supra by seen evidence. When its shown, however, that the evidenoe Is Tacking Jind loses Iswengh ad sa be rejected oCHAPTER 3. LOGICAL ANALYSIS: THE RULES OF SYSTEMATIC INFERENCE In Chapter I, we reviewed methods developed by Mastin shor for Snterpeation of tx and derivation of legal ales, In hs cape We examine methods doped by soar ad scents or the interpreta tion of ely. The steace which concerns elf wth asus relating tothe human conden andthe ear of existence he sy of being) 1 im al-tolam. To andestand the place and sgificace of ‘na alin elation f ter slenees one need ely look ito the dvision of sleces provided inthe inaction ofa: Ghazzal' Must, He ‘You need to know tat seiences are divided fat tonal ‘Foi sch 6 medicine athe, and ent —e- Jes which donot cone us more—and roe. ch Tim, igh ands pps (ul) slence of had ence offi (Qari terete, ad sence of bn Cnet Sel mean the secs of he spit ane prieation from Toy moras Bach of te ational ad eligi scenes Is futor dive eo wer and prt, The uve of religous slences slam: wil the oh sciences sch igh an spicier Aah otf, are part ences. This because the mor (he inetpeter ofthe (Qura suas ely te meaning of te [revealed Hook. The mubadath hadth specials) [say looks oaly 1 [the ‘ueson off adh aubrey in paral, The matali (alan specialist is, [neon the one who Stalls the nos peer of ings, Beng 6 iat Ana: Tae of Sena rece He fuer explains he relationships between alam and theres You have ear om his clasication ht tel St ence] hegns by staying the mos. gnsa of things, uzely Being. Then lt gradually descends to the details we men tino above [tbe ter aes of parca sciences] to esab- Hin the truth of the soures of religious elenees, 2 the (Qur'an, Sunnah, andthe wastwortiness of the Messenger [ot Alb). The maar then takes fom the tity exam Ine by the mula ove spetc (aea, te Qui, ao tudes ts nterpesation. (Stary) the adh specalst propits another pei faethe Suna, an siies the wags rough which iis aubeneard. The fb spectal- [st likewise) appropriates oe specific (aca, the a's Lmatala sevos, nd stds het eatons wo te Sharh command The foregoing two passage revel the noble place the sence of al cupid inthe clslal syst of science. The subject mate ‘ded under Hal was the most general ne, nei dealt withthe ute of velty tel A-GhazzAlt classifies Kila urider the rel lows since (as oppasd tthe rational) ebvieusly not because cludes atonal and remoning, ba bcs ie subordinates eso to revelation, and be comtases with plesophy which considers feason fo bean incepeodnt and super judge (te tenton tween alam ad philosophy fe examined in some detail in chapter 4) ‘Although Kalan emerged sa stence aiming at finding te exsteni ‘ening of certain Qur Se assertions about existence an reality, ‘rndaly assumed ender the Aaa school w more defensive ace, epeially wader the onslaught of Greek philosophy. Araby rae, alam was avery niga scene in erly Molin bola hip not only bocauee defended the fith aguas tacks by papanrooted ‘Greek philnopy but also heeae ft was # univer, sn overching selene ringing sty toto parla scenes of eligion. "While ham wat nots a-Ghazz tells, prely ronal, efinitely rmployed rational argaments and rxtional patterns of . @ail Ancie Te le ee inference nuqwindt) othe thing nse. Ignorance, on te other hand, enor a Kowedge ofthe thing which s contrary to its whatness or ‘tu. In Berwen these two ends stand two eer degrees of know ‘ge! hak (skepticism) and zann (prabable knowledge). Shake ‘onus when vo oppose uestandigs ofa hing are alone ual possiblies, while gan takes place when ove of the two possible [nverprotions ie made probable ri) In terms of the degre of ce tainty, cen Knowledge ought be eter certain ox probable: split and ignorance are no science. Yet as ahaa ced, cena by tel need not be seis conviction (gad) casein pint. One may be convinced about the tuolute certamty of someting, the might be absolutely wrong. ‘According to al-Cbazzl, conviction oecrs when a person Boks that ometing Is beta ide waoat atempnting the possible th fs ‘rps. Fig Genco) fe heretoe stanza belt, ad ence ‘8 present. Asa Ghazal pt “Te ifeence Bernsen “lm (since) and Fig (oavi= tio) is at Frigdd means the acceptance of ether of two possible bliefvewed fom the viewpoint ofa skepc— tritoatcontemplitng fs oposte in he mind, ad witoat ‘Mowing is oppose to ener the soul. The sept sys the ‘wold was either erated oreemal Te edocs (mat™ (aad) sys the world was crested, and coatiues to bod that {bee without coatmpltng ihe posit ofteing ee tT ignore (jah) sys he weed lee and contin {esto bold this (oonvition] to be toe. Yet even when rig seconds with he baled thing (maftaged), sof the sme typeof ignorance, hough les fr ts ‘sition [to tect). This ia because te one who dogma ‘ly belles fmatagid) hat Zayas nthe ase wil com tinue to bol the sub bli even when Zay leaves the ese. Keowlege im), onthe ther han, wal ect tm impossibility ta consider the thing mlm) constant while etchanging* Tm Wea Adah fd Fgh as a ia, 1400 ‘Nluia® AD) pas anossowen 97 Sa along Vl 1 92560 "on Te Fondo f Eonege ‘hoaght wo respond to de treat of Grek piloeophy. The very ne of the science, “Elm” testifies oto rtonl ate ofthe file. The Arabic word “lalan” meens lteally speach. By speech, however, Classical Maslin scholars understood thoaght andthe process of thinking in general. Tissigalicaion of the term Kolm hasbeen leary arcalzed by a leading mutta, Inn at Harataya ABO {MN alJowayni mistook aloha: “Te peeple of eth fal ‘hag? contend tat the loen of speech (kala) les inthe self (naff is nothing ele but the mas hough” “ee evel,” headed, “ether bystatmentso by any ther sgn agreed upon SCIENCE DEFINED (TASRIF AL-SILM) 5 ‘The matali sem to agre on he folowing gee defiaiton of selene Fm) "The knowledge of the thing (okay) a8 exist ‘itelf" This definidon dates back to the pecod when th mutch ‘wer the mass ofthe science of hal. AL-Bajliai, the foremost dvocate ofthe Astfat school of dam founded by AbO alan A Aabfar (a fermer outa}, modified dhe definition by stating tho term knowable clan) for hing However, a-Digia's mod fication seems tbe motated more by hie delopel dking of te ‘mail than by siete concen * The term thing signed for the muzaallinin, both the matarilah snd asharyah, a existent ‘Any existent no mater what sabstane, frm, or eesencoit may ake, {ca Mthing” The muzaallina believed that the thing a-sel (al. shay'ald mahi bik) can be comprehend, a beace cat be now to the human mind. As we wilbse in a sobsoqent chapter, ‘modern science denies, begining wit Kant he possibilty of this Kind of keowedge “The miallinan distinguished among degree of knowlege, _Accordingto aera, knowlege varies, in ters of kedeges of ot ‘ain, between two ends: Fm (siente Knowledge) snd ah! Gn ‘nce, Scenic knowledge as we ound eae, the Knowledge of the whataess (nahlyah) ofthe “thing,” ite intrinsic properties Spain Atha He ova ails eid (Bee Merman Aan a Tpbnah HOSAH/PS ADD, p18 ‘ate aah osha in ow Taya : 70gk as Te eof Soma fee 2 Semimenta (machahdatbatniya):slf-Anowledge, oF oowladge of one's inser self and extn. 3. Sensory (mast sarah: nowledge though he seas, 44 Enna irbr) knowledge trough obserration 53 Macowatnit extensive narrations): fs established ough 6. issory (ami) based on pe common sense. 17 Acceptable (mashhurdt: widely aecopted episions and prover Although a-Chasil diseased those type unde the label of certain knowledge, some of the discussed types can hardly be ‘escrted as cea soaces of knowledge. In fact hs ist sms 0 De fan expanded version fm an early one inroduced by Tb Sit. Ton ‘Sint identified only four soures of cerain knowledge? exomati ‘epi, extensively narated and season!) Losic cy matali were lacs wo sce the vat of Grek og 28 to for scund reasoning. However, hey gos came ace ‘an exe red of soning 8 ogi eelved the Sopp oe tal emiect scholar Lope bree porte mahod of senie ‘esr, alter al Ghz bolely embraced hy mnie version ofthe Acsoain lpi, conering ta eset etod of scence. ‘AL-Ghaza, furthermore, expanded te auton of log oi eason- tng tng that o cr Solr can be sed waout his heving | ‘mater lpi. Many early Mosim scolar fe tht Gree lie was ‘enn (hash nce sence of aha (Abe grazman) prove th proper rules and srwcaces for Hingis iverece. Fo may oF them lope was 4 Oreek grammar wile nay was Arle loge Tis Undesancng erefled in a debate on te lions becween oe tn gama whic ack ple athe cout of the Abbasé Minster Toa {-Puratbenteen Abu Saal Hasan Sra, en eminet gus, and ‘Mata iba Yosus,sleadog ogician of sine. Following ae exces aroha Anta ye 3h "ps a ah i a A137 AD, 66 2 Tre aman Eowete Setence requires, as a-Charzat ells us, ettea! attude towards the kromable (malin), an open mindedgess which allows ‘he cen (9 consider the opposes and examine oer poses, ‘Scien titi are therfore examined elit Tf science cequies the examination of beliefs, does tht mean ‘hac ll senuie knowledge consists of exarined facts and belles? Hee the matatalimise dninguised between two types of ko ‘lige: darriyah (acessury and nazriak (Deore) knowledge. ‘Necasary Inowlee sina (frfyoh),emnsting dey fom the very nate of human reasoning. One ls bora witht and doot not tech fom experince rte, Is necessary knowledge case tne earnot deny ts ootenme witho fling tothe rel of warty (cut. Se krowledge aa the pels of reason sch he pt ciple oferty and noneeniriton, are goed examples of his Kind of knowledge. Taeoretiea! knowledge, on the othe hand, is an Ingered (sia) knowledge ad is beace cured musasab)? ‘Nazari knowledge is acquired though nazar (essoning). l= Jawayni defined mazar a "he (process of] thinking trough whch S| scquied whatever owledge} based on lm (crn knowledge) {a (probable)"® Acquired knowledge trough esoring, he args, ‘nay be divided into two types, Cotes (shi) o incorect sd). CConect knowledge ts supported by evidene (dali) anyng else 5 cogidere incor. Aliovaya eld ht ons fr evidence op" hoce const owed, two cea mst beet? 1, ‘Theevidence must be substantively ore 2. The formal rales of deriation (suman al-dait) through Which the evidences aequed shoud be sound Interms of essen sources of cleat evden, a away ‘ected two majo sates: al (etioal and tan Gare suthriave) A-ha fer elaband te sources ito even: 1. axiomatic fala sel-oiset knowledge which i nec- ‘sully know a pion (gablah) nopt aa: Te ef Sytem rece wits meaning i intimate (shored). Hence, the meaning is Taperor to expression, while expretsion 38 Inferior 10 esnig. al-swan: You are wrong, for logic (manfg) gamma abw), expression lf) srtcolation (fs, delaretion (ira), informing (nba), speech (hadith, reporting fanben,lnguing (iste) Yoeon ard). ace ofthe fame pe ae ate? “This imcrestng exchange between a leading grammaran (navi) and opin (nonin) refit te tension that existed etworn the tO ‘leciplincy.‘The tension between the two rooted in ideological (sida) cot, ts behind the ese postions takes by a-Si i Mata, For nither la Mat justified in denybog that aguists {uty te telaonhlp beeween meaning ane expression, fo they ob Sea) eae we Gemoaraed ia Chapter 220s abSWf jostiied in arfg tog could be independent from he substan study of fanpage The later confusion ray be atbibuted primary to tefl ae sdngush between formal and med lope Later logins egot on the sy of frm logs, a esr 1th usage of 3 ‘eines Tho Stes did 0 ighight their concer wit the formal oF Teka aspect ofthe statement, Clearly logic and language ‘dowlyimenelaed. AB we wil Sc ater, many ofthe problems sin faa sdy of lng have a lingutic rigin. We wil ce ater how Topical arpurient (mahdkads) musrepresent reality when they ace 1eGriet i ngustic rule, Logiclans use the tin fallacy to refer tothis kind of argument. ‘Matlin false and matali divided the study of gic tex two pat th andy ftv (Conee® and he stay oft (validate) The later ie in trn divided into the stady of gad (Ghost) andthe stay of gis @logian). (The division o asia (Gieeadina and qinas Is not universally embraced Iba Sina fF Tena, equi tag with gis, we ahaa equates twit tpn) ts dvson ts designed Ghazal, 8 10 ake ‘SPs of logis oaespond tote secur of knowiege anu 1st jah p sel Mp aim 9.6 6 ng 1eFoadaton of aoiege oped or debe as pore yA Hap a are te, then the entire contol state ments tre This makes py and py necessary and sufcentconitons ‘org This elation canbe expresied in the ellowing statment form: ‘aifand oly ip 298-2) “The foregoing statement expreses a causal elaionship (with some qulifestions which we wil dacust is a subsequent chap) ‘The eve i caused hy a st of conditions (py and p3). Bach ofp, and pt pecessry coniton for 9, and th tal set suet co ion forthe oceuseace of event Arumentation (Muah) 7 To Sin oe in Bis important work ahi wa alan bt at cavoning signifies the movement of thought lr) from knowledge vith which the mid ie soquaimied to new knowledge? He agusd tha for he movement of thought to produce sciemc knowledge, t had to ake deform ofan argument (Aa), which could follow the pat of syllogism (gia) oF inaction (gra) Like propositions, argement iy be divided 1 two major types ‘categoria (hem) and eandtonal (shar), with the Iter divide to conjunctive (ata) and disjunctive (mane) Categorial Arguments Conder the flowing statement: ‘The man died instanancoualy because be was hit in his brain vith bal ‘This is compound statement consisting of te simple statements: ‘The man ded nrtetaneosly ‘He was tiniest witha bli. Picea . ®‘he Rendoton of Kowa \Natce the second simple statement is uted in the compound statement to explain te fist one. The explanatory eation between ‘he wo is denoted by the te "becayic™ But how could the send ‘rovide such an explanation? Moi reds whl find the sbove sate ‘ents eifevidesttat hey would eek no forberclarifcaten. The fare would be diferent if we were confronted ih the following ‘Reagan cana be rnominted fr the presidency because ‘tis servd to tems a¢ US, Prsieat Fors person who eat familar ith U.S. constutonal aw, the send matement doesnt provide any stislactry explanation fore first To make the connection clear on st ad another statement ‘Any pesdent who as served two tr aang be renominate ‘The Stractre of Spiogsm | complet argurieet (ula shoulcompss thee ano nly two ‘Sulements to premises aot poncusion. Let us sehow a complee argumencissuacted 1, Reagunis «US; presen who has sried to rs 2 “very posit who serves two terms coanot be resomia?? of : 9, Thrfoe Rega aot ees . Ths fet stemeat called te minor pee (al muadneh, teup) be secon! nknowa se nar ree fama ‘lb, ote nt one called the conse a maa). “The gro le eo 9 WAY the conarion seal. flow from the ve prises. To sneer te gueion, let ake iplp cramp: 1. very tons anki 2, Bvery animals mor 3, Therefore every tons mrt "4 | ail ni Thee ef Seti nee “Te fregotag slog may be ween inthe flowing eee ated forme 1 Bey Lis 2. Bvary AlsM. 3, Therfoe every Lis. Nouce tht the aplloglam har only shee terms, and that his movement of thought fm the rent the conc sade ‘Pane tvoughe the agency ofthe mide tem, To Muse BOW due con rls to he minor and maj tears, let us use eC epe- fenton {eds lea from the dagran that Lis subgroup of MUstig ie rung representation one can review the posible intersections ‘Rowena the verous forme of te yogis. Teeefoe, a divgramic ‘epesentaton shows why the following argument vai: very cattle. ery dog is tye ‘Theefone deny man smart O@®‘The Fandaion ef Krovi (Cul diagrams also help usw verify th ut of negatives Le) \@/ Nostoneis alive. Marbles stone ‘Therefore no marble alive, ‘Rules of the Syogsm ‘Te following ght rules should be observed when analyzing slot isms 4 1 The syllogism has only the terms miner, major and mi ae 2. No teem may.be broader n the conesson than in the pre- mises "The mid tem ms ot appear in he coelsion, ‘The mle tem mast be ested at es once rom two negative conclusions nating follows “Two affnoaive premises cana give a negative concson The conclusion mast follow-—quantaively and qualitative: ly te err pres {8 From two parca premises noing follows? 3 Kompanion) pie one wee maj er (gepdconiompe eg so bran mera Sr te onus ct ofthe ge Salon Pundomena % ail cp Te leo Sema ere Validity (hho) and Iavaiity (sad) “Theres of syllogism ar designed tn ensre the vay ofthe ar rent (ihbak) and at te sobetantve truth (sid). Am aggumert is ‘als fis src i accordance with be forma ues ofthe ‘iam. Logiians have iene four major forms or figures (asa!) ‘ach with Some mior forms or mows (arab). We ate no going 0 Giscuss these forms here since argumeats ea beer be vriied by ‘sing ciel represcotation The tu ofan argument om the other ‘and, determined by examining wheter te sae fects comespond 0 ‘he objects of aly. Conditional Arguments Conditional arguments have two valid forms: (I) affirming the nace! (mgaddan) and (2) denying te consequent) a. Mptbeng ? “Tus g 2 iptieng Neg Thos nop 1 Consider te fotlowing exam: 1. yoo score over 9, then You receive a8, You sore ove 9. Ifyou score over 90, thes You rceive an A, ‘You do ot reseive tn A ‘Thus you dt oc coe over 90, Deayng de antecedent or aming te consequence does 10%, however, produce valid argument. Comite following staterent “UE Rala Lumperis ip Jobo, theo its a Malaysia" Note that while ‘Htmming the anecedantprodoces vali argument, affirming the ‘consequent does ot Kela Lumpur is indo In Malaya, yt ts ahe Fondation rope InJoher. Similarly, denying the antecedent doesnot eps the th of the consequent. Ths would Bethe case when the anlecedet ls no rnecesary condita fer the conequet. Division and Heaminaton (a Tsim warl-Sabr) ‘The foregoing proposition forms denote only one type of conditions spumeats, al the conjunctive, There i however note ype of ondioal argument known as djnctive (many). Tis ype my beexpressed inthe felowing fom, i Biherporg ber porg Notp oe Note Ths ¢ Thus p ‘The show sylogisn was adopt by clase Musi faa’ ss, and lopcans, and developed non impocantprocadue fr fe ‘iftcaon The procedure known day in West rare by he le “jsiation by eliminaon" The rocedur wes sucnctly deserted by aS i his iptat work Mito aul’ “AL Tati wa a ‘abr [ay be inet) by jing, one auer of ames to the fast nae (mbtada). One ofthe tl tet fF nares) will bo inna upon de nepaion of tere. As you may sy (fo example. Zayas thre, othe Mas ora the market Bathe nee at ‘uk, ara the Maj. Terloce hei at ome. The type, when i visio s sound ands neg sw, povies gat (can) knoe edge” The general form othe rocedre maybe sated allows: Dy org ory Not ind net ‘Thas,Ds For this procedure to be valid two rules moat be observed 5 see Road N Give, Undertaning Scene Reaoing (New Yt Hol, tet nd Wns 198) pes rae by Mai ho a ‘haa pra in td Aba Tye Pa A aman Vl 9 923. Sa Ma p50 8 Lal nate Thee ef Sema nance 1. Divison must be exhaustive. All prs clases most be incladed go tht th examination apie ote waa exnge ‘of possiblity, td not aly ta pat of 2, ‘Thototal group must bedded by ung these pence Fae to observe the tio conditions sated shove coud ead vo rave errs. Using Sika example to illustat this pint, the clusion tat Ze ea Rome willbe wrongs aya could be ound ina plc ether than hose sated in the antecedeat Fallacies (mughalatat Flas result fom two pes of ero linguist nd logis. The forte arise wien the rls Of lage ae vilued, te later wen the ries of reasoning re ignored Lt ws brief fev some aor ‘examples of fallacies, ening wih che later ype. Logical Fallacies (mughalatat mantigiyah) 1, lay of acide tis filly occurs wen the scidetal ad suprfial rconfared withthe eset and ani, 5 ‘when one coaclides tat white car are he best ing ca boca he happened to wires several white cars wn car 2. Fallacy ofthe false case: thi fllicy occas when causal Tinkae is assed whenever sicession ours betwen (0 Linguistic Fallacies 1, allay of equvocaton: isfy also knowa as "sean tie fallagy This Sours when an expression (Word prs) ving mor than ne dine meaning usd In an argument Foceampe: Whatever sharp pated ‘Vinegar is shape ‘Thus vinegars pointedThe amd ef Ewe 2. Filla of ambiguous consraction: Omar and his two cose filers, Al ard Ahmad were the best tania te cls, ‘The youngest of them, thoagh by no means the brightest appeoe ogo he highest rade this tine. ndedon (gee) ‘The spumens dacesied above employ deductive reasoning. Csi! ‘Maslin sealers employed intr arguments (gj the procedae of inigra induction). Tey, farther datogashed tween two types of liga’: isigra" mm (complete sndsction) which prodaces gf Knowledge, and iigra nag acomplete nduetion) wih gives & 2a o& probable kowledge ‘We wll lscus the prooedures of lira in det in Chapter S; farnow csffoes wo sates geeral for 5) BF SF Sis Tass 6F orlfSjq IF, then is F ‘When nequls the tal numer of , te induction i complete ar when mises thn the ttl number ofS, te induction I incom lee. ‘THE THEORY OF MAQASID AL-SHARICAH: AN EARLY SYNTHESIS, Por ceunres, gas coutimed be the rainy frost forester lie res ofthe Shara o now evens (waqe'*) Grady, however, ‘many Msi scars Beg reali that he pocedite Ser from a east two shortcomings. Fist thé exeason of judgment made Detween two paral objects A s-Skxikt razed in his Miah ‘Ful, ta or he exesio wo be erat, one hase cena that the prope perceived tobe shred bythe vo objets mst he the re ‘eson lh) of tering, condition, be nod, bat ea ary be Scamp n Sk 9. 0a Grant sta ppt. [ i Ana Theale of Sonate rene scievd hough gy In addon tthe absece of cea, ly {hg pony on the procadreof gato aply reveled injunctions ‘be evlvig condtions of society eas tothe agmentaton of the body of shrFah ling, since overarching principles ae ase. "Yet ty the constant searching for the efficient cases ofthe rules cof thsharah, the reaeos fr pian body of Shas2h sae ‘oot were explained by the tr of the seventh century. This enabled {brant Muslin sehr to fatroduce an Ingenious theory. Dahm ‘im Mash alShatbt formulated, in bis eight Ht cenury werk a “Mioafog the theory of magasid ol Sha ah (urpses of Shara, ‘The ory, despite the itt potential it bas forthe systemazaton of the rules of Sharah, Nad either beeo developed, nor Bas I ben ‘plemented by subsequent Muslim scolars, bot had been almost Comply ignored, unt i was recovered by Mubammod Abdo ext than a century a0 ‘A-Shan's Ys may be stmmasied as flows. The pasar (ju') tes of he sharFak ce governed by universal laws (gandnin alia) These ls could be knowa by aconprebeasive survey of be ‘Sharh sateen By resorting the proce of complete Indo tion (gra ad), oe can foe from he parle res the ver sal laws ofthe SharFoh Al Shs proposal amounted o nothing less ttn an extorelnay and profound siti metbooloial procedures ‘This bcause apna ShAHD"s procodres woud immediately expan the sooe Of had fom xy Hsiao optus gar to a compeebenive proces in which both indvetion end éedvction. ‘tad be lized, ndacon wood alow us to ve fom the paral {ote genera, wl deduction permits tbe opposite moveren from the ene tothe paul ‘Clea, Soi wes not he fit Mushm boar we ee ‘in. Indcon (tigr’) ad been used since te early development oF {igh by vasoas scholars. AL-Shaf, fr one, wed iin hs Risa to how tha th generality (umd) and petty (up) of ms can ‘onl be determined when ey sf sid na speci ngustc con ‘ea: However, a Sha was the att nla siga’ as a meta fl tol for devine prvepes, Simul, ab Sha was the Hist to Sabotage a2. 2939. p ”he Pandan of Keone Integrate inactive ad deductive resconing into a wna methodalo 1. Farther, al SbBUbi openly called forthe use of logial gar {Rated of fight gyas i legal reasoning. Before al Shih, logical yas was used Gly tn dalam and pllosophieal works, while only {ami giv wae formally allowed in fgh ties By demonstrating the posit, even he necesito a combined epprcach of induc tion und detton, forte sptematcaton of fig aS ade the ‘eo lea as (leg) een. Anaing te seo Every shartah inference is predicate. mabri) 02 180" remiss. One belongs to the process ofthe realization of fhe efficient eause (akgty amandt) ofthe judgment (Gu) The ote belongs tobe share gh judgement isl "The frmer theoretical By theoretical I mean ere hat ‘snot arative (nolo, egardes of whether Ii esta she by tought or by contemplation. Therefore, 1 do 20t ‘mean 1 const the theoretical with he necessary. The Second premise is parative naga). The application of {his evident n-evrysharan subject: even apis ‘lew every subject, be Ht ralonal or marae. (For example}, hea you say every intoxicating (substance) is tnkavtl (hard): {substance canot be judged ul it can be veriied whedber can be used {because I Is aot fetxiatng] or canot be ued. Is necessary therefore 1 feck whether [Is amr (aioxcam) or not Bar, and this isthe meaning of ahgigabmangt(calization of tie efficient ease) AL.Shitib Sdenified three levels of universal Iaws.o¢ rales (awed) which he refered to also by the term magasi (urpeses), [Atte op of he thee sory Neary und al maga a daria (ecesary purposes). These ae nesesary cau hey ae inion thie forthe ataament of he “atresof elon, and if.” without which cormition and disorder would preva? He deatiied five nes, Po oll Ana Teale Sonat renee essary purposes of Shara: preservation of ein, i, peoeeny, eed inlet oP ie second level ofthe Rirarchy of oiversal purposes mages) of tn Sharh wt Scaled hae {Crgene) He dd ot deny any ofthese pines, but eed (ease nee corollary pancpes intended fo ese harsh and ‘tee cts wc ond esd leness an tac. "Thi nd ial level of paps consist of what a Stat cate ina es). Whe fhe previo cuegay was intended {2 iinet eptv hi at xegry purport enforce ad fromute the pie in th eof mane Hee agin a-Si id oot Tienly the vad, o even the general. princes, bu conned TBA pe “elngs othe ae of wre und omy "Av Shah, farer, argoed that ue the rules of Sharh which are proba (conn) the thee sts of uatersal principles Tomi) He cut re cen (gt) Certain res from he ‘esmuaon of probable evidence (le zanda Lets follow al Shas argument toss how be i sustained bis lm: ‘Noone ofthe people of had in Shara can be pial Shout the cert ofthese thes (ss) of principles e the acess, exigencies, std fetes), The poof of that [sserdon cn be found In aplying the principle of ndoe- tonto te ShorFah, and contemplating ts partial and tntversal rls, 30 at dicover is general aspects. The Touome ofthis) nduction confirmed aot by Indiv] vides, but by th proces of accumulation of evidence itt ‘he procature suggested by a.Shb smite tate nor on: sided fori invelves sccesive applica of both induction and ‘lducon whereby the prise cosstamly brought under the fl ‘fe univers tte camo time the universal is cominsesly co ected end refined by the prtcua. The lect proces i defined ‘by two inrlted rae:The Fondation alge int, the confit beween he uaversal rncples an few arcalrcaes doesnot neat the former Second the univer shouldbe modified, whenever fas bet sccommodat the partear>™ Cleary, he wives cannot be negated jst because cou ot sscqut fora few cases, fora principe ans the level of universally only afer «lang and extensive process in which countess pret ‘wes have subsaniated and alate is ewth, On the other band, ‘inc the universal pringipl seine by contenplting the pte lar, the liter can ayer bo ignored. The universal has oe mae S0 aso accommads, and gout for, pial case Tis if sation contbates,undoubledly to the sefinement of te universal nip CHAPTER 4 +1 SCIENCE’AND-THE:PROBLEMATIC (OF METAPHYSICAL KNOWLEDGE The wanaon of Grek cess ato Ab, ante emerge of the eee of lit end Iaith clas of Grek ik Ion eigen these of dv, ore Mab acai amin the grounds of knowledge, Kala scholars, Al Ghar desde Gre pserion a owls tout te ely spe ain troop sana! wy. They peste ct of ‘reupiyl poposton eed oni ndersuntng Of eelaon [tn Ru, rpresnting the Mati porphin, demented, bow ver tae ely shat dra ron he fveled Sores rr fewed. Toe cee bess Rash and aha a the gone of subsoguit Misti ola on pars ofthe debate, tring bee rd sue of apes erin 1a ehcp ds wit sopra to, these Asch replys eppaes a mec ce png cece ech wc as en, cml, Terry xy plier nes which Can be apeehinde trvogh hens wi fall ule np, Yt meray Sassi wit ore te Piston gol as (cally ein of he psa ec (eG. gly Sd hi I) Map os ‘psn ia wi a fone tds ie te oer LIMITATION OF RATIONAL ARGUMENTS j ‘Walle beth flash and muakatinin accepted Greek ogi 8 as ence te ater rejected the substantive aspects of Gree plsonty, socially testy of lahat lin) The tension between pe aoa cei at gs ted a Cre piotophy, apa tw ‘etal ce mtd lu i eae alfa a Borsa 0a) 9she Paton of Ena Tosophy and kalam reached is apex inthe theoretical exchange betwee vo eminent Muslin scholar, Abu Hamid a-hazzal who wrote his work Tahafut a falasifah ("The Breakdown of the Philosopher) to repudae the wick of plosopers, especial in the aes of divin, while Abu al Wald fon Rashd (Averoes) woe his ‘work Tahdfi'e-Tahaur The Breaky ofthe Breghéow) which ‘could be equally ented the breakdown of he matali, ‘A-Ghazzii's major claim agaist he plop fs tha hee Jodgmens re based ot on verified and certsn knowledge, but 08 Speculation a probabil, Pater, a-Ghazel argue tat he cred Diliy of Grek betphysics as ot based ons own mere Rte, ie Yai was predidted onthe crest of the Grek mathematical and lpia ictenes? “He identified thee area n which kala and philosophy may come ind conflict: seman, physics and metaphysics (o vin). ‘While he warned Misi sebolrs again hy ejection of philo- sophie knowledge on te bas of semaniedisigremeat ove te ‘sage of cetain terms, or on the basis of apparent dsugreement ‘betwen Quine saterents and physi pwede, he dno et: tate to assert whit he eegarded at an ungedecmabie esntadtion tecvten wi a i genes of eli a the etn yf Divinity (aha) > TI is beyond the scope of thie sty to review all he twenty pint of rebital discussed into Take Raber, we wil sy one ft te arguments to understand th bai of Ghazi’ objection “The fie be riod by aGhazal pss plonophers is eatied “Refutation oft bel ofthe eternity of the word” The sppoach -Ghazza employs in his rebutal Is to povie 2 fll exposition of the pilosophers’ argument, before he ges ha refutation or cuter argument, We wil follow al-Ghizzai's staegy and provide the looper’ argument, as arated by al-Gharl himself, before we fet ferth el Ghai owa argument - ‘THE PHILOSOPHERS’ ARGUMENT ; In'odérto presérve al Ghazals atte towards ihe sibjest mater SS es id Se di Pron of phy Kl nd his made of argument, we will quot extensively fom his book, Tahipt a-faasifah intodng te folowing soceinet summary ofthe hlsophes' argument ‘The procession of «temporal (being) ftom an eternal (Geiog) is absoltelyinporble. Fo, if we suppose the ternal at a sage when te word had pot yet onginated fic Hi, then te reton why ft had nt ongaated mst Inve been ta here wat no determinant for is existence, fini thatthe exsience of the word at pssity onl. So, when Inter the world comes into existence, WE mst hoon one of the evo aerautves (10 explant —namey, ‘iter tha the dtemnant has, o that tas ot, emerged. If the determinant dd aot emerge, the would should st femain in the tate of bare possiblity, in which It was tefore But if thas emerged, whois ti orgiaor ofthe ‘termina ise? And why dees it come into belng 20%, lf eid ot do 9 Before? Thu, te question regi the (igi ofthe determinant stand, In esac ll te states tthe Elen a alte, ether noting cal originate fom lo whatever orgies ell contin to oignte for- ve Fortis imposible that he stat of aving off shoal {er from the ste of ang vp “To coi the point, may be Sad: why db He mo ong {nate the word before ir elton? Ti He posse so say. "Because of His inbity to bing te werd ito exs- tenes” nor could one sa: "Because of. he imposslity of the word's coming into being.” For this weold mean tat He changed from iabilty to power o that the world ‘hanged form imposiblity Yo pessiiy. And bot senses {Ee absurd Nor can be sid that, before he time ofthe ‘rgnaton ofthe world, thee was no purpose, and that a ‘purpose emerged later, Nori posable vo ascebe (the forrorgination ofthe world before it actully originated) fo te lack of means a one sage, and ts existence at tether. The nearest thing to imagine 0 5y that He had ot wild the wo’ existence befor. But fom his fle ows that oe rt lo say "The word the result of His . 7The aundaton of ease ving Docome.aailler of is existence after not having ‘een willer* So de wil should have had a begining in time. But the erginsion of he wil nth Divine eng is possible for He isnot subject to temporal evens. And the eriginaion.of the wll nine being cannot make Himewaler : ea if we ge up te ingiry concerning the wat in which he wl ergata, doesnot the icky eegarting the very actof origination stand? Whence does the will ignate? Why does it oitnate now? Why didnt orig as bafere? Does nw originale rom soar thes than Goa? if thee canbe otempral existent whic bas not ben ‘brought int existence by anyone then the word alt should be soch an existent, 50a to be independent of ho Crestor. For what i the difercce betwen one tetera tient and nother? Sov if the nig the werd ated to God's action, the question remains: why now, and why ot before? Was Itdae the absence af means, or power, or parpose, ot atte? IF 0, the anion from He sage to that of exe ‘ence wil revive the fic we a to face athe outset ‘And if ts sid 1 have been dito the absence of wil, then one ak of will mast standin need of anoter, and 23 (nd iftum From this tis absolely lett te ro- cession of the temporal fromthe eternal is impossible UBISS there were change inthe elena in respect of ower means, or ine or pate And 4 mpossibe 9 fuppoe a change inte ste of the eer For en oral event, ht change-rogd be tke any ote eange (in nog-ceral beings). Therefore (in case ofthe etre), change any Kind whasoeser impossible. And now thst the world has bees proved (alway) to have existed, andthe Impossby of Is begining-In time bas been show follows that he word eternal os Sime an he rte of MespyalEoeee In cde oundeetand he ste of the argument, andthe basis of disagreement between a-Ghazall, representing te mutakalimin, nd the pilosopbers, let vt summarize the foregoing argument Subsng ty tment of agen wath symbols we ok: G = Gods Heal D Word sEterat W God's wil seme God's powers sbolute “The main thrastof te argument canbe sta ws Folows (4) 1 God is cera, thon Hs wil eters and is power is absolute orf G the (W and P. (@) If Gn’ wile tera and Hs power i absolute the work sera, orlf QW andP then D. @) Gedis eter, 6. (4 His wis eter and His power i absolute, (5) Ths the wort is tera ceThmD, Lotus smite the above sagumeat () 1G Bea QW and 2) I6QW andP) hen D ac 1 @WandP (TmD AL-GHAZZAL1'S OBJECTION ‘ALGhazzl's objection tothe philosopher” argumentation isnot ict agai the alidy of orm or stactre,bat the th ofthe : »Fmdaon Roig ‘eoond premise. Ades the piosophrs, be argue: ow will you disprove one who says thatthe world came Into ing beats ofthe tel will wish demanded ts fexistace atte ime a whic actully eame into ex fence, and which demsnded the non-existence (ofthe ‘wert asta long a ated, and (Semanded the exe ‘enve to bogin wheres steally beg? So, 08 this view, xine ofthe wor was not an object ofthe teal wl, before th would uctally exitd; hence is nom acta? ton. And i as in object of the wl at thé tine when it actualised. What ean proveat us from believing such & ‘hing 2nd what dhe contain involved in By replacing l-Ghasals sted premise i he foregoing arg ‘ment withthe philosophers” premise which appear in 2), we btn 1eQW and P) hea ~D ‘The complete argument now akes the following form (2) 16 hen cw gna) 2) HOW and P) ben =D os @ Wana 7 (© Ts Novice thatthe arguments of both the falsiih and al hazztt ‘ae veld, The dsagicement therefore bols down othe determination ‘of whos version of premise (2) i te, led hee les a-ha ‘ain conztion against the philosophers” aseton thatthe wid Is ‘tema Ashe pute 5 ow do you now th ingonsiiy of sertng te ain ‘hromeing 0 tcc il Is fie ste ‘nal necessity, o theoretical knowledgt, wile ithe ground” rr Sn nd te Prema of Maps Kole of your judgement? Or, to ese the erms employed by ou fn logs, are the two terms i your judgement joined by ‘ean of midlet, oe without & middle ten? I you ‘aim that they are jned by means of a male tm ~ {, lfyour method deductive — ou mat tte what at term But if you cla that ts unpossty s sown 25 fa scleewdent fac, why do ot your opponents share this owe with you? People wi belive inthe temperal crgin of te world ae confised wether to a number nor within cy. And m0 one would suspect tha, ot of spite for eso, they belove in something which they know 10 bbe une, It ls, defor, necessary fr you to prove, in sscordnce withthe ules of lol, tat Is impossible © ‘serbethe elgn ofthe wer othe eeaal wil. All you Dive su 0 far oly amounts to a suggestion of improba ‘iy, and wo cempsrton ofthe Divine Wil to out fi tn or wil. The comparison is alse; fr te ternal will + doesnot resemble emporal intentions. Aad te mer 5 fenton of improbebilty, ensoppored by an argument, s ot eno AL-Gbazri's objection ie slghforward. The aserton that the would is etemal sneer jstified on the bass of syogism (for a Inde ter i lacking), nos Is i necessary truth which reason ‘eles, Therefore it ands on an ua Tooting ith negation. Al Chal tila shows thatthe rslaton of the conic: between the aserons of the pilsopbors and mutate cannot be made fon the bss of opel argument, baton the bass of otelogical ath. By so doing he exposed the ination of fogial argues. "AL-Gharli's work provoked «song respose fom anther smo schola,Tba Rash Ten Rosa cotemprary of -Ghazzilt (2. AD 1198 ), sympathized with the falasfah rather than the ‘matali. In ahi o-Tahife (Breakdown of he Breakdown), ‘bn Roshd sets out o demonstrat tht the fle agurents were ‘more edible tan those ofa. Ghazal, and ofthe mutakaiman in {ener He dos oot completely diapros with l-Gbazl nis tu {ttlon of the falefak, no does he completely suppor thee ag Aci, Tle, 9, wan. 18. totMe Foon of ripe iments. On many oocasios-he furtersal-Ghazza's eftation ofthe falsifah even where testo show that a-Ghazza's argues ae ‘ot valid? Soo Ras ts defended the flafah onthe ground tht While the soundness (dg) of te arguments may be doubted, thir “aly Tho sy ot Thus’ defense ofthe falsfah dows not detract from alk ‘Ghazi glam tha their matspical asters were mere sess ‘ion (otimin)- His man Cotttbution however was to sbOW thatthe arguments of the mutaallnin were purely speculalive a wel, od hnnce could not proce cealn (ga) Fnowedge. Tha Ras takes sl-Ghazzi to tad by showing dha the arguments te later sited (o demonstrate tht te rd hasan eign tn tine were unfunded He als aks the alin to ak Cor ising hat the weld Was creued from noting, hereby contradicting revealed evidence that ‘as cated foi previously exstag mater: To show how Tba Rushd demonsttes that the methods ofthe ‘matali dot ne othe evel of rigors scence, we wil look Imo how he responds thei roto he oiiation of the wood. We wil Spin with is refutation of al-Gbar's proof, then move to ct= uss his objection co the entlze approach of the mutakaliman, Following aia agent nd Ibn Rusts eb: (ALGhazzat says: How wi you refute your aversaies hen ey say th etemiy ofthe wold posible, Zor Linple a nite number anda afniy ofits forthe sphecclrevotion, altioogh they can be divided by sc, by four, and by woe Forth spec of he snevoleinoe yah pe of ‘Sten tstrty yeu ands Satev's ween a an apr eoien rps inte Sut atwelof Ue sn etlaon But Sern pope Scot onto iy ad even ten of te me of Sh ul wach font eet at Tag RToca ro a i Ce: Deng Yt ans oly ine abwevied er, oped fal. wa a | Sei an he Prenat of Mey Kouae sand years the same athe daly revoltoa which i sun erorms in twenty-four hours If row your adversary {hth plaly impossibe tn what does your argument ‘ile rom his? An suppose asked: are the number of ‘ese revoltone even ar ineven or both even and uneven ‘or nether even por uneven? Ifyou answer, Both even and ‘uneven, of tote even nor uneven, you Say what 5 er ‘ently absurd. Hf, however, you say “even” of uneven’, ‘ven and ureven become never an eves bythe aon ‘Fone unit and how could nfsty be owe unt shor? You tt therefore, drow the conelsion that ty ae either fon Ros a “This oo sophisti rpumen Tt amount to syn: la {he ste way at you ar abl to reflec arguments fr the cretion ofthe word inte, tha iF were eral, ‘evoluons would be nether even aor uneven, $0 we can ‘otefate your theory thatthe effect of an agent whose ‘ondtions to act are alway filled canoe be delayed ‘This argament ams oaly at creating'and establishing a abt which ron of the sop abjectives ‘But yoo, reer of his took, have skeady beard the az ‘ments of te pllosophers 9 etbls the eter. of the ‘world and the refutation of th AshTars. Now hear the > proofs of te Asean for tht refttion ander tear ‘ments ofthe pllosophers to fue those proofs In the ‘wording of Chazz aay Ths it fm ble dha, Af you nape two cecslar move meat none and the same Fite time, and imagine they & Iimied part of these movements in coe andthe same finite ‘em the proportion between the arts ofthese emo cular ‘movenents and been tht wholes wil ete same. For Instance, if he cial movernent of Satu inte ped ‘Which we calla years a dhreh ofthe car movenest (of hes in is pet, and you Iagine te whol Of the ° 103eFunds of nog circular movements ofthe sun in proportion to tbe whole ff the ceuar movements of Satur in one and the same period, necessarily the propaon between thle wholes nd beeen tee parts wil be the sare, however tere ‘eo proportion between vo moverens in tet cou, because they ave both poteadal, Le, dey have nether boginaing nor end bu-thee exists a propodtion becveen (he pars, because they are both acta, thea the proportion between the wale isnot neces the same as he ro- prion between te parts —altiough many thinks, bas {ng ther proof om this prejudice — for thee is no propor tion between tv magntnds o wantes which re Bath faken tobe infinite, Whon, hse, te ancients belived tha, foc instance, the ttalty of the movements ofthe tn and of Saturn banter bepinning nor end, there could bo no proportion Between them, for this would have Innplied the finde of bth thse totais just a thi it Implicé forthe parts of bot. This is self-evident. Out ‘adversaries believe that when a proportion of more and Tees ens between prs, this proporson holds good also forthe ttlies, bats only Binding when the toates fe finite For wba thee leno end there le neiter more orlees? ALGtazsai's argument may be sara a foows: (0) tee word was eral, then the spheial evlutios ofthe ‘elesilbaces sould Be ee (2) The spherical revolutions ofthe celestial bodies are not nual (6) Thus he wold snot cea Substang variables forthe foregoing statement, the argunent cen be weiten nthe fellowing fom ma Fa a oa pT, Tat 1 108 Sine and iPro Meche Eng W + The worldis eternal R : The spherical revolutions of the cols buds are caval () WW Genk QR 6) Tw ‘The shove argameat i logclly ald tho Rats objection i ‘ot red alga rm, but aber ts substatve ith The owen ofthe two scholars i over whaher or no he contol roposion is rue. ALGhnz2a'scontenton is that since the propor ‘on ofthe spherical veut af 9p clea body to that of another {sat varance, te cli thatthe Worl ieee eannot be susan Ta Rusha's response is atthe vaance in popton ofthe revo tion of eesti bodies loses is sgiance a we move toward an ty. Pith or st infinty makes no diflerence, fr they all amoent {nfaty. To Rushd succesfully shows tata Ghz’ negation of the eet ofthe word was mathemazcaly ungrounded “on Rate snot aiid with showing tha a Ghazals ref tion ofthe philosophers is ungrounded, but goes on 1 demeonsalp ‘hatte clalm of te matali that Ue world was created from ‘noting at varaace with bod umn experience and vine Zee Now, having esomed hat the heavely body hs ben po ace thy (be matali] sppoied that tis prods ‘ond tken plac in que ferent, way from wha iy ‘understood by production inthe empirical word. kn te empirical world namely, things ae produced from sete “hing, n tive and space, ané with a dette quality, nn ‘hae toa. Heee in the empire! werkt there m0 peo ction ofa body fom that which snot a Body. Nord they suppose gen ac ike an agen inthe epical +r for the empirical aget changes on qual sn the fruseat inc aoter doesnot charge abso noee= tence int exstence—no, tbings the existent Into a form and an intelligible quality through which this existent becomes another existent instead ofthis, cifeea frm in substance, deimiten, name, and act i S.expresed in osFenda of atalee he Divine Words; "We have rete mn fom an exact ‘chy, then We made him a clot ina sre depostry, then ‘We created the clot congealed blood, and we created the congealed bod «moral, "Ri for ths roaion atthe tele plosopbers elcved thatthe absolute exstet ne ther comes ito existence nor ean be destroyed Now; if one once th matali that he beads vere created in ine, hey ae unable fo prove that ey are theft of eratod tng, a the evident meaning Of what {ssid inthe Venenble Bodkin more than one ers, for Instance, in the Divine Wor, ‘Do ot the unbelievers se tha the evens andthe earth were joined togetber” and in ‘he words, and Histone wasup th wate’ and inthe words, "then He ade i heaven snd it was bt smoke, Evident, ba Rushé s more ftreted in undetning te eons of a-Ghazzlh andthe matcalind ta genera: haa In defending ne {falasah- Poe ve does nx hy avy from pong out what be eles {04 Ue evry (tan) fe alah, eng Wik se of {he natalia’ “er h ves fo be pati ctl of he muting’ spprach o learning and scence, accsing then of being more inter ‘ted in persuading the msses, and ging popular supper, thar a ensuing uth. REASON WITHOUT CAUSALITY To Rates refutation ofthe muakalimin, a1 a-Gharzl sot confined to the mode of argument they employed in thesudy of ‘iin, ba als tothe one they aed for understanding nance Ia he Tahafut a flasah,a-Ghazza, ough accepting natural siences studied by abFolastiah, eects fou noon he phlosophers wii In tht dy, One of thse notions the principle of ecsliy! Al- Fg, ps comma i, Saupe Boson 105, Sine nde Problema of MaphyRnoldpe (azz rejects in parca the existence of neccesary connection ‘etwoen cause andeffoct. As be pts In ou view, he conaction between what ar believed tobe the caute sd the effect it not necesary. Take any tO things. Tiss aot That or can That be This. The afr. ‘oa of one does nt inply the alimaton ofthe other nor oes its denial ply the denial of te other. The existence Sones by the meses of abr, Tae or fesance ay two things, ach 25 he gueaching of ts draking ssf of hanger and eating; bung and cxn- ‘ac wit fre; ligand the seo he Sus death athe trance of the Bead frm the unk; being andthe use of ‘males te loosing of bowels and the use of pura, or any ther st of events observed ta be comecied together In Medleie, or Asuanomy, oc Ans or Craft. They ae ca ected as he reat ofthe Decree of Allsh (High ig He), which proceed ther xseace If one follows the ee, tis Tecate He has ested them oat fasion nx ecase the ooneton nel necessary and indole. He has the ower to ccate the stan of hunger witout eg, ot {ath watt the severance ofthe hen or event aval fife when the head hasbeen ext of or any ober hing from smong the comectd things dependent of what t posed to bes case) * So wile aceping mat ences, Al-Ghural dees he very Giz ejection ofthe principe of cazsalty is motivated by hs fear that one's beleving in causally would undermine hs ft Alla the timate ator ofa things. He therefor insisted that he ‘ast of burning canot be atibuted tothe fire, which afer alga mere | pence wich sates he ta fee poste, Brent. substan lacking te Wil to act. The ac Offre sto bebe, ‘hereto to Allah or angel acing in is ba. As he pute ‘hiss what we deny. We say its God who — though the Aiea, Tea, 9 225; cane. 1. 7 or‘Fodor rider Intemediagyof anges or detly — ithe autor ofthe Cation of Sacks ib enton: ofthe Ssintgraton of 8 ‘art, of tei ranformatio ito a moulding heap oF ‘Ses. Fie, whch f an tanimate thing, has 20 ton lw an-one prove that ian agent The ony argument isi theobiraton ofthe fc of the barnsg athe ime ‘of cobact with ir. Bur absrvation show that one octes rich her ot hat is y Raving, Des, 20 er AL-Gazz's rejection of causally Is podicated on two ar ‘ment lt, tat ter sn logis onto between the case abd the feet A necearyconpecion rues hat rd en 8 eo- ‘ce. Secondly, tht observa cn aly establish a coca, tat tot a causton beiwosn the ecdent evento objet andthe coase- quent ae. Ths argument wil be repeated ltr by a Wester thinker, arid Tune, who wll deny the necesrary conection Mee case tnd efet, bot for completly diferent reasbas While ome dene the ces of causation beat he adopted a purcyempiical mode of thinking ofning to ads any metabysialurgoments it sc ence Chazz rejected the same neces tecase he'Tered tat ‘by miming the neces of causation be wil have 0 rej the oss ily of mirc, I te cane necessary peep, now woul “anyone be able to explain te survival of Hat (Abraham) afer be ‘wa thrown by is people nto a burning ee?" "et relizing hata complete retin ofthe prep of aus ‘ion could lead to absurdity, he avoked he concept of bltsation (adan) Tee contotion Betwoen the couse ad eilot I ot neces {ated by something nase o them, bts posted inthe uma ind sb resulof th act of repettion ALC egal 1 sald: this (denial of easality) might led eco nefain the mat egreplons sberlites. Once It died tht effects necessarily follow fom exafes, sad iF it ‘naltind thn an eet 0 boasted tthe wl ofthe heaton, and thatthe will el! has no particle well | 308 $$ eRe Sele an he Pronto Map eae defined course, but that ts manifestations may be varied land arbivary, then each one might persue himself to Eeliove tht. One who lets Book ia is bose might retunf find ic tanfoanod os intelligent and rvoree= {aby fan vie vera In ply othe froin, we wl sy: you cou prove that ln egal bigs phic can ext there cannot be creat for man a knowiedge thst they “do at exist than thes stsurles woud be ieaapale, We ave no doen regard tothe situations deserted ty yu. For Alla has cestd for ‘the knowledge at He would not do hese hing, aboogh they are pone. We never assert that hey ae neces "They aon posse Le, they may, ay ot, happen Ie Is ony when Something possibe is repeated over an over again 5a fern he Norm (aa that prssnce of ¢ ‘oxy gure in aperance withthe Nom (ada nth tis ely impressed upon or minds. ALGhazz's denial of cansity was eeived with slam by To ‘Rashd. For be regarded al-Gbazza's conten o be ao aly wane essary for ecogizng Allah the ulate aubor of eration, bt be gute dangeroae aswel To Tn Rusa denying cuba ws a amount to denying the very statue of haan reason, aad eace Jnowledge a wee. Thus he woe Now ineignce is pthng bat he perception tings with ‘the causes, and inthis dings fel from ll he ‘ter fecal of apprehension; and be who denis causes ‘us deny the iit Logie plies the exitence of eas Sol effet, snl knowledge ofthese elect can only be re ‘red perfoct trough kaolege of ther cases. Decl of nes implies he denial of knowiedg, atl deni of know ‘ge imps tat nothing i tis word canbe ell own, fl et whats suppoial to be Koowa is nothng tt ola fon tht ether proof or dein exis, and dh ese ta tutes wich compose dtritons re vid" 109‘he oun of Eowete Tb Rush saw no contradiction betwee believing in the retor ss the ultimate case ad oure fr all ctn and evea, nd accepting ‘he necessity of casa eains. Things bave properties abd eects After all besase they wete eeatd and given ther properties nd ese by Ala. As be puts Ah ee sh, we nd ot oat tha sine of ese exis tens cause'each ote and uct trovgh each ote, and tat fn hemocives, they do ot suffice for ter ac, bt tha ty ‘ic ln need of at exiernal agent whode act sx condition af Sir and nol Oly of katt een of hel “The danger that Ibn Rusbd tf the ted repretcate by a Giza ies in the attempt to deny the diverse and el-facted notre of reality. If thing ae denied the incvidal existence and inns proper, then eiferentiatid and rraifiation of zeality ‘become soperiuous, Ar ceva sfnce wil eventaliberdooed the elenoe of vn. ip Ros wee An fate, what do ihe hologians say Sou the essen ‘uel, the understanding of which alone can make a thing Sderiood? Fri i selves that things have esences atl ates which determine the special anon of ech ‘bing ad hough whieh te essenes and nares oF tgs ‘se ferent. I thing bad nots specie nature, ‘woul sthave speci namo po defini, ad al things ‘woul bone — inden aa even one . Finally, Yon Rush thes l-Ghazait to task by analyzing the meaning ofthe term “ah nor) which the iter invoked oer 0 Account foe the tendency to assign necessary relaonsips between ‘objets. Thu Rashd argues that adah (om) eoul be sen a8 the ‘sows ofthe Actor (aril) Le. the dvineWhoge aes manifest: fd instr, the hings of tre, o the Nusa mpd: Fused ca aco ature tthe Divine Being. for “ada sens mere pea >on, yp am eer aaa] 0 L——— EEE rrr y Sele an he Present of esp Eee foc i which the acc e ncohscous ofthe purpose and fntonof| the act The pater ofthe Divine acon he ae and, parpsive, ming atthe eliation of specific ends, The Quy refers fo the Divige puters bythe term Suntah which seis «well-designed law! Second, dah canoe be stituted o objects, for objects not have wil of thelr own to begin with. The pattern of ates jects should be atibuted to er atte (faa). o tet nen Se properties, Final, dah may be atbuted to he manaer by hich we jue object But he hi aged Fadah woud be thing othe ta the at of human seasoning pet se, and heace the very ‘essence of man inlet I Adah edi he ater sense, then ‘3 meant wo equivocal th principle of ey ean inti aspet ‘of tuman esoning = Ths Rsha’s wasting thatthe ejection of casaty amount to & ‘election of raion self ras nt-withut jutifeaton. For wile ie ‘sn exazgeraton onthe part ef Th Rashid fo eget eon With cas ton the principle of curly is. ondoubedly an porta peasiple fof reasonlng, espcally with rgard to understanding nature, Indeed by undermining estsalty the mutaolimin destroyed the foundation of ratinal sciences; bance seeace ws gradually reduced ep sc ‘ence, wile noasharFahslerces were vied only insofar they ‘ere considered to serve the shah slences. This alist tendes yh equation of science with lap siene i apraent in he wring a esng Monti scholars who wer infvenoed Oy the Asia ys tem. Ths legliencan be dscemed inthe wring of al- Ghazal ‘imsefais Muctag, azrat de eles fat ae exe ‘ores: ational ag), aave tna) and athoal natalie, x ‘ecard the rao be useles. Ate polit + Sciences ae ofahree types, Parely rational, Mhichthe “shar does not enéonrage or ee suck ab anthmet, ‘ome, astonomy, andthe ie thee scenes [may be divided itn inf} sel but tated on false speculation (and sometimes speculation ssn); and useless. though ‘may be predicated on tut. [The second type 5} purely ruratvg, like hadi, or tas, of rhetoric (Ahutad).Tie amano Kone Sen nde Prenat ef Meso Faly] the noblest of siones iste on that combines affirmed sausty a8 principle inrnscto human reasoning, nd oth ron and acative and joie both opinion a |. ejected the Asitact notion tat te properties and effec of obecs veut iar) apd the slences of fgh and its pin Shou be ascribed to the fre act ofthe Divine Beng ot othe ate plead of tis kind ofthe objet tet. He wot: Thee are people who deny properties (jab) and oto (ama 8 As a Hasan [a-Asi] and those who fl Towed bim from Mail's, l-Shaft's, and Abmad’s sehoos, These people who deny properes ad effects [also] ny enutes, saying: “Allah brings the effect of fuse with tina), Bat no by 1 (bin).” Hence they fay: “Allah does no satisfy uger by bread o hirst by Iwate; nor does He gow pln by water, bur does that with ‘The emagoutc ata toward ational sciences which We an discon tna Chua's works wa elevated into an nlc pone ere Suaube wridngs In dscssing the fifth peeade in is Showajega af Shapbtdeclaed tht "ascossing a mater which docs at cad to etn isa dsaeion of something the SharFah doesnot ‘oprove "2 He went onto expan bis satement by acgln that stady- ‘ROT ed of suet for he purpose of einng know aboot ‘tears something bat 8 Muli stool eect and evo Deans tis [ena bt aot by (ii These people contact cerray wo the Suna, He frter roclamed that chest kinds of hb by ‘rend were the “paces ofthe phiosopers who ae condemned ty the Qurin, Sean, ad the dd of early Maslin (sala). sect we aoucptng tat is aunet could beobeted 10 | nd contadct reason and sense, Po Allah sid tn 1s ‘Book "Abd Heit is who sends te winds Reads of glad tidings, going before His Mercy: when Sey have cased the neanpladen clouds, we deve them land ths Is he bans Gat Islam equi fearing and cine, be laimed that hs vepirment tas lined to leareag and stay of qustions com ected with acon: (ead, make rain to descend by (Bik) them, and prodice very kind of arvest 2 (i) them: tush we alse up ee es the dead Perchance you may member. So (Aa ot that He cases wate to descend bythe cloudy and es thefts prow by the water. He (6.0) (fires) sad “nthe sin wh Alls sends down fom te skies, ad the Ife whieh He gives there By (ih) to an earth that is "dead And sald: "And We seqd dowa fom the sky rn : charged with Dlesings, abd We predaoed thereby (hi) ‘dns and grein for ares,” And sal ‘igh them, and ‘Allah wl pish ther y (your People know by their fants Pople know by thelr senses and reasoe hat ome things are causes of oer, sty ow tht say Ing hanger is the vault of eng not coun: and that t apps by eating fod, not by eating sone.» ‘We saw above tht te maallinun were able to appropiate Grek Tagan un succesfully a a weapon 1 undermine the project of eG atowpher But whe: te mahal were able t0 sop the pencuton of Greck cule with ts paganiic vaes and sym~ ic ihey undermined athe same time te philosophers” scientific Texaphatment i medicine, mathematics, physics, and other si cess bcatse th malin ited the role of reaioa etencg the ft ojecting Ht positive employment outside the ‘alm of Sharch is naly an usefnes ofthe ileal principles adopted by the mutataliman see Inter questioned by Ton Taymiyah, who Tow tae . Spr an Vo 3. . Sern bets aes : ‘be Tye Gh Ma by “AG aan 9 Stupsia* crane Benet np m2 13 0 EEE oO eee‘The Fondation f aig Tho Taymiah rejected, However, the sation pat forwad by l= sre toriope an esta ad ecu scence. He sd throng rn conpcely vl of oud apes ices py unsonld and unfluided pcp Iba Teyana contended {Hah ly of shoul ete oq of ho sade knee Soc oty bens cues founda oes, ut do bcaie he ‘Shad panes of log aut obama reasoning. The pic Flos ensn he one, owe al peopl ce repng ean ing win a ndpnent coe Taya esi rtiur flo nay Ye edad othe following despa: ist elcing reasoning to tree processes, slope, inde tons snlogy, a eectng obs meds of easing i ot we ne Fr logins have not proved hath nl cannot ero her rouse fr soguringKaowledge [bo Tayi aged ht ‘Meee not miedo these re process whrey te inereace {Prune eth petro he ver (indaca) rm a "eth ure oom be petite pat Vine amlogy le popes anotor poesia wch the infrere s as Sy cbse to flan Between to partalis whl “Bike aogy doesnt hve ay fate conmonality. The rape oes fr Bs ype of inference the knwiedge een may ela eacerning the rere ty observing the rightness ofthe dy. ‘Stooge fi Taymiyyan fd oot prove & name for hs tpe of owl, rs arly Knowledge se on casa los Sindy th Arg un wing ole dons ot sc sly epresent knowledge about realy, bu i could be purty objec {ive Kovwledge, That Ton Tafa contends that log ics he tnothod needa for verfiing the comespondence between words and jes. Defining the 'nguate tres Is good only insofar 9 brings rein the lnguage of sien, butt does nok eabish te uth Efngultc uns, As be put "Definition does 0t help n concep Sizing the facts but only Ia dngushing one defines for woth- ally, although the operation of lope brings about ‘certain (gar) kaniege, one need bot eae ths operation unde 9 spurte Scien nt he Probe of Map Kanete selene of logic nce these processes ae self-evident. IBN KHALDUN'S CRITIQUE Like a-Ghazzt and Tho Taymlyh, Ton Khaldon ejected Greek phi lovophy. However, in refuting philosophy, Ibo Khalid, valk GGhuzzl, dd not concentate op substanave Issues, but dct Bs ‘tiga t its method. He contended that logic as tol and eto of reasoning, sindeqeae for stedying both ature and vat. To

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