Intercrystalline Corrosion

Definition - What does Intercrystalline Corrosion mean?

This corrosion attacks the surface grain layers or crystallites and is known to
penetrate metal objects along the grain boundaries. This results in destruction
of the metal articles along the grain boundaries.

It arises from the precipitation of chromium carbide at the grain boundaries. This
happens when chromium-nickel austenitic stainless steels are welded in the
presence of various corrosive media. This results in an improvised chrome in
the surrounding area and loss of the passivation effect.

Intercrystalline corrosion can also be referred to as intergranular corrosion or

weld decay.

Corrosionpedia explains Intercrystalline Corrosion

Intercrystalline corrosion occurs when steels are heated with a temperature of
about 450-800C. Chromium carbides precipitate at the boundaries of the
affected grains. This results in the weakening of the chromium protection on the
peripheries of the grains at the zones of the weld.

There are many test procedures that can be used in the determination of
intercrystalline corrosion. These tests include the Strauss test, the improved
Strauss test, the Streicher test and the Huey test. All these tests are based on
the specimen's aging in a holding time, definite temperature and definite
solution. The mass lost, or the depth of the attack after the specimen has been
bent is measured.

Electrochemical potential-dynamic reactivation (EPR) is the most common

method that is applied. This method describes the susceptibility of
intercrystalline corrosion of the rolled austenitic strip. The potential range
between the passivation region and the free potential is applied. This method
reactivates voids within the passive layer. The current density from the
reactivation and passivation loop is used for data interpretation. Also necessary
is the interpretation of corrosion attack in the case of weldments.

Intercrystalline corrosion can be prevented when the correct grade of steel is

used. The best steels are those with a low carbon content of not more than
0.03%. One can also use niobium- or titanium-stabilized steels. Intercrystalline
corrosion is also dependent on the nature of the surface. A smooth and
homogeneous surface will result in better corrosion resistance. A post weld and
heat-treated material can overcome this type of corrosion.
 Different Types of Corrosion
- Recognition, Mechanisms & Prevention
Intergranular Corrosion (Cracking)
Recognition

What is intergranular corrosion? Intergranular corrosion is sometimes also called "intercrystalline

corrosion" or "interdendritic corrosion". In the presence of tensile stress, cracking may occur along grain
boundaries and this type of corrosion is frequently called "intergranular stress corrosion cracking
(IGSCC)"or simply "intergranular corrosion cracking".

"Intergranular" or 'intercrystalline" means between grains or crystals. As the name suggests, this is a form
of corrosive attack that progresses preferentially along interdendritic paths (the grain boundaries).
Positive identification of this type of corrosion usually requires microstructure examination under a
microscopy although sometimes it is visually recognizable as in the case of weld decay.
The photos above show the microstructure of a type 304 stainless steel. The figure on the left is the
normalized microstructure and the one on the right is the "sensitized" structure and is susceptible to
intergranular corrosion or intergranular stress corrosion cracking.

Mechanisms
What causes intergranular corrosion? This type of
attack results from local differences in composition,
such as coring commonly encountered in alloy
castings. Grain boundary precipitation, notably
chromium carbides in stainless steels, is a well
recognized and accepted mechanism of intergranular
corrosion. The precipitation of chromium carbides
consumed the alloying element - chromium from a
narrow band along the grain boundary and this makes
the zone anodic to the unaffected grains. The chromium
depleted zone becomes the preferential path for
corrosion attack or crack propagation if under tensile
stress.

Intermetallics segregation at grain boundaries in aluminum alloys also causes intergranular corrosion but
with a different name - "exfoliation".

Prevention

How to prevent intergranular corrosion? Intergranular corrosion can be prevented through:

Use low carbon (e.g. 304L, 316L) grade of stainless steels

Use stabilized grades alloyed with titanium (for example type 321) or niobium (for example type
347). Titanium and niobium are strong carbide- formers. They react with the carbon to form the
 corresponding carbides thereby preventing chromium depletion.
Use post-weld heat treatment.

For more details

More details on intergranular corrosion are included in the following corrosion courses which you can take
as in-house training courses, course-on-demand, online courses or distance learning courses:

Corrosion and Its Prevention (5-day module)

API 571 Damage Mechanisms Affecting Fixed Equipment in the Refining and Petrochemical Industries (5
days)
Corrosion Inspection, Testing and Monitoring: Techniques and Applications (5)
Corrosion, Metallurgy, Failure Analysis and Prevention (5 days)
Marine Corrosion, Causes and Prevention (2 days)
Materials Selection and Corrosion (5 days)
Stainless Steels and Alloys: Why They Resist Corrosion and How They Fail (2 days)
Intergranular corrosion
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Microscope view of a polished cross section of a material attacked by intergranular corrosion

Intergranular corrosion (IGC), also known as intergranular attack (IGA), is a form

of corrosion where the boundaries of crystallites of the material are more susceptible to
corrosion than their insides. (Cf. transgranular corrosion.)
This situation can happen in otherwise corrosion-resistant alloys, when the grain
boundaries are depleted, known as grain boundary depletion, of the corrosion-inhibiting
elements such as chromium by some mechanism. In nickel alloys and austenitic stainless
steels, where chromium is added for corrosion resistance, the mechanism involved is
precipitation of chromium carbide at the grain boundaries, resulting in the formation of
chromium-depleted zones adjacent to the grain boundaries (this process is
called sensitization). Around 12% chromium is minimally required to ensure passivation, a
mechanism by which an ultra thin invisible film, known as passive film, forms on the surface
of stainless steels. This passive film protects the metal from corrosive environments. The
self-healing property of the passive film make the steel stainless. Selective leaching often
involves grain boundary depletion mechanisms.
These zones also act as local galvanic couples, causing local galvanic corrosion. This
condition happens when the material is heated to temperature around 700 C for too long
time, and often happens during welding or an improper heat treatment. When zones of
such material form due to welding, the resulting corrosion is termed weld decay. Stainless
steels can be stabilized against this behavior by addition of titanium, niobium, or tantalum,
which form titanium carbide, niobium carbide and tantalum carbide preferentially to
chromium carbide, by lowering the content of carbon in the steel and in case of welding
also in the filler metal under 0.02%, or by heating the entire part above 1000 C
and quenching it in water, leading to dissolution of the chromium carbide in the grains and
then preventing its precipitation. Another possibility is to keep the welded parts thin enough
so that, upon cooling, the metal dissipates heat too quickly for chromium carbide to
precipitate. The ASTM A923,[1] ASTM A262,[2] and other similar tests are often used to
determine when stainless steels are susceptible to intergranular corrosion. The tests
require etching with chemicals that reveal the presence of intermetallic particles,
sometimes combined with Charpy V-Notch and other mechanical testing.
Another related kind of intergranular corrosion is termed knifeline attack (KLA). Knifeline
attack impacts steels stabilized by niobium, such as 347 stainless steel. Titanium, niobium,
and their carbides dissolve in steel at very high temperatures. At some cooling regimes
(depending on the rate of cooling), niobium carbide does not precipitate and the steel then
behaves like unstabilized steel, forming chromium carbide instead. This affects only a thin
zone several millimeters wide in the very vicinity of the weld, making it difficult to spot and
increasing the corrosion speed. Structures made of such steels have to be heated in a
whole to about 1065 C (1950 F), when the chromium carbide dissolves and niobium
carbide forms. The cooling rate after this treatment is not important, as the carbon that
would otherwise pose risk of formation of chromium carbide is already sequestered as
niobium carbide. [1]
Aluminium-based alloys may be sensitive to intergranular corrosion if there are layers of
materials acting as anodes between the aluminium-rich crystals. High strength aluminium
alloys, especially when extruded or otherwise subjected to high degree of working, can
undergo exfoliation corrosion, where the corrosion products build up between the flat,
elongated grains and separate them, resulting in lifting or leafing effect and often
propagating from edges of the material through its entire structure. [2] Intergranular
corrosion is a concern especially for alloys with high content of copper.
Other kinds of alloys can undergo exfoliation as well; the sensitivity
of cupronickel increases together with its nickel content. A broader term for this class of
corrosion is lamellar corrosion. Alloys of iron are susceptible to lamellar corrosion, as the
volume of iron oxides is about seven times higher than the volume of original metal, leading
to formation of internal tensile stresses tearing the material apart. Similar effect leads to
formation of lamellae in stainless steels, due to the difference of thermal expansion of the
oxides and the metal. [3]
Copper-based alloys become sensitive when depletion of copper content in the grain
boundaries occurs.
Anisotropic alloys, where extrusion or heavy working leads to formation of long, flat grains,
are especially prone to intergranular corrosion. [4]
Intergranular corrosion induced by environmental stresses is termed stress corrosion
cracking. Inter granular corrosion can be detected by ultrasonic and eddy current methods.

Sensitization effect[edit]
Sensitization refers to the precipitation of carbides at grain boundaries in a stainless steel
or alloy, causing the steel or alloy to be susceptible to intergranular corrosion
or intergranular stress corrosion cracking.

Unsensitized microstructure

Heavily sensitized microstructure

Certain alloys when exposed to a temperature characterized as a sensitizing temperature

become particularly susceptible to intergranular corrosion. In a corrosive atmosphere, the
grain interfaces of these sensitized alloys become very reactive and intergranular corrosion
results. This is characterized by a localized attack at and adjacent to grain boundaries with
relatively little corrosion of the grains themselves. The alloy disintegrates (grains fall out)
and/or loses its strength.
The photos show the typical microstructure of a normalized (unsensitized) type 304
stainless steel and a heavily sensitized steel. The samples have been polished and etched
before taking the photos, and the sensitized areas show as wide, dark lines where the
etching fluid has caused corrosion. The dark lines consist of carbides and corrosion
products.[3]
Intergranular corrosion is generally considered to be caused by the segregation of
impurities at the grain boundaries or by enrichment or depletion of one of the alloying
elements in the grain boundary areas. Thus in certain aluminium alloys, small amounts
of iron have been shown to segregate in the grain boundaries and cause intergranular
corrosion. Also, it has been shown that the zinc content of a brass is higher at the grain
boundaries and subject to such corrosion. High-strength aluminium alloys such as
the Duralumin-type alloys (Al-Cu) which depend upon precipitated phases for strengthening
are susceptible to intergranular corrosion following sensitization at temperatures of about
120 C. Nickel-rich alloys such as Inconel 600 and Incoloy 800 show similar
susceptibility. Die-cast zinc alloys containing aluminum exhibit intergranular corrosion
by steam in a marine atmosphere. Cr-Mn and Cr-Mn-Ni steels are also susceptible to
intergranular corrosion following sensitization in the temperature range of 420-850 C. In
the case of the austenitic stainless steels, when these steels are sensitized by being
heated in the temperature range of about 520 to 800 C, depletion of chromium in the
grain boundary region occurs, resulting in susceptibility to intergranular corrosion. Such
sensitization of austenitic stainless steels can readily occur because of temperature service
requirements, as in steam generators, or as a result of subsequent welding of the formed
structure.
Several methods have been used to control or minimize the intergranular corrosion of
susceptible alloys, particularly of the austenitic stainless steels. For example, a high-
temperature solution heat treatment, commonly termed solution-annealing, quench-
annealing or solution-quenching, has been used. The alloy is heated to a temperature of
about 1,060 to 1,120 C and then water quenched. This method is generally unsuitable for
treating large assemblies, and also ineffective where welding is subsequently used for
making repairs or for attaching other structures.
Another control technique for preventing intergranular corrosion involves incorporating
strong carbide formers or stabilizing elements such as niobium or titanium in the stainless
steels. Such elements have a much greater affinity for carbon than does chromium; carbide
formation with these elements reduces the carbon available in the alloy for formation
of chromium carbides. Such a stabilized titanium-bearing austenitic chromium-nickel-
copper stainless steel is shown in U.S. Pat. No. 3,562,781. Or the stainless steel may
initially be reduced in carbon content below 0.03 percent so that insufficient carbon is
provided for carbide formation. These techniques are expensive and only partially effective
since sensitization may occur with time. The low-carbon steels also frequently exhibit lower
strengths at high temperatures.

See also[edit]
Intergranular fracture

References[edit]
1. Jump up^ ASTM A923 Intergranular Corrosion Testing of Duplex Stainless Steel
2. Jump up^ ASTM A262 Intergranular Corrosion Testing of Stainless Steels
3. Jump up^ Weld Decay and Intergranular Corrosion
Intergranular Corrosion

The microstructure of metals and

alloys is made up of grains,
separated by grain boundaries.
Intergranular corrosion is localized
attack along the grain boundaries,
or immediately adjacent to grain
boundaries, while the bulk of the
grains remain largely unaffected.
This form of corrosion is usually
associated with chemical
segregation effects (impurities have
a tendency to be enriched at grain
boundaries) or specific phases
precipitated on the grain
boundaries. Such precipitation can produce zones of reduced corrosion resistance in the
immediate vicinity.

Intergranular corrosion of a failed aircraft component made of 7075-T6 aluminum (picture width
= 500 ?m)

The attack is usually related to the segregation of specific elements or the formation of a
compound in the boundary. Corrosion then occurs by preferential attack on the grain-boundary
phase, or in a zone adjacent to it that has lost an element necessary for adequate corrosion
resistance - thus making the grain boundary zone anodic relative to the remainder of the
surface. The attack usually progresses along a narrow path along the grain boundary and, in a
severe case of grain-boundary corrosion, entire grains may be dislodged due to complete
deterioration of their boundaries.

In any case the mechanical properties of the structure will be seriously affected. A classic
example is the sensitization of stainless steels or weld decay. Chromium-rich grain boundary
precipitates lead to a local depletion of Cr immediately adjacent to these precipitates, leaving
these areas vulnerable to corrosive attack in certain electrolytes. Reheating a welded
component during multi-pass welding is a common cause of this problem. In austenitic stainless
steels, titanium or niobium can react with carbon to form carbides in the heat affected zone
(HAZ) causing a specific type of intergranular corrosion known as knife-line attack. These
carbides build up next to the weld bead where they cannot diffuse due to rapid cooling of the
weld metal. The problem of knife-line attack can be corrected by reheating the welded metal to
allow diffusion to occur.

Many aluminum base alloys are susceptible to intergranular corrosion on account of either
phases anodic to aluminum being present along grain boundaries or due to depleted zones of
copper adjacent to grain boundaries in copper-containing alloys. Alloys that have been extruded
or otherwise worked heavily, with a microstructure of elongated, flattened grains, are particularly
prone to this damage.

Wrought aluminum alloys Exfoliation corrosion is a further form of intergranular

corrosion associated with high strength aluminum
alloys. Alloys that have been extruded or otherwise
worked heavily, with a microstructure of elongated,
flattened grains, are particularly prone to this damage
Corrosion products building up along these grain
boundaries exert pressure between the grains and th
end result is a lifting or leafing effect. The damage
often initiates at end grains encountered in machined
edges, holes or grooves and can subs

SL = Short longitudinal
ST = Short transverse
LT = Longitudinal transverse
Nace International
Corrosionpedia
WebCorrServices
INTERGRANULAR
CORROSION (IGC)

Intergranular corrosion (IGC) is a selective attack in the vicinity of the

grain boundaries of a stainless steel. It is as a result of chromium
depletion, mainly due to the precipitation of chromium carbides in the
grain boundaries.

Chromium carbides can be precipitated if the stainless steel is

sensitized in the temperature range 550850C (10201560F), for
example during heat treatment or welding. If the temperature lies in the
critical range for too long, chromium carbides will start to form in the
grain boundaries, which then become susceptible to intergranular
corrosion. The area adjacent to the grain boundaries becomes
depleted in chromium (the chromium reacts with carbon and forms
 carbides) and this zone, therefore, becomes less resistant to
intergranular corrosion.

How to reduce the risk of intergranular corrosion (IGC)

Materials with less than 0.05% carbon normally have sufficient
resistance against intergranular corrosion after welding. ELC (extra low
carbon content) steels, i.e. steels with maximum 0.030% carbon, have
very good resistance to intergranular corrosion. The same applies to
steels stabilized with titanium (Ti) or niobium (Nb), since these types of
steel form niobium or titanium carbides instead of chromium carbides,
thus avoiding the critical decrease in the chromium content.

Intergranular corrosion testing

Intergranular corrosion (IGC) testing is the only corrosion test
performed as a standardized pre-delivery test. Strauss, Huey and
Streicher are the common test methods. They are carried out as a rule
on samples from finished tubes in the as-delivered condition or on
material that has been sensitized, i.e. heated in the critical temperature
range in a furnace or by welding.

Facts in brief about intergranular corrosion

Intergranular corrosion (IGC) is a selective attack in the vicinity of the
grain boundaries of a stainless steel
Chromium carbides can be precipitated if the stainless steel is
sensitized in the temperature range 550850C (10201560F), for
example during heat treatment or welding
Materials with good resistance to intergranular corrosion are steel
grades with low carbon content and Ti/Nb-stabilized steels
 Intergranular corrosion
Save

Intergranular corrosion (IGC), also known as intergranular attack (IGA), is a form

of corrosion where the boundaries of crystallites of the material are more susceptible to
corrosion than their insides. (Cf. transgranular corrosion.)
This situation can happen in otherwise corrosion-resistant alloys, when the grain
boundaries are depleted, known as grain boundary depletion, of the corrosion-inhibiting
elements such as chromium by some mechanism. In nickel alloys and austenitic stainless
steels, where chromium is added for corrosion resistance, the mechanism involved is
precipitation of chromium carbide at the grain boundaries, resulting in the formation of
chromium-depleted zones adjacent to the grain boundaries (this process is
called sensitization). Around 12% chromium is minimally required to ensure passivation, a
mechanism by which an ultra thin invisible film, known as passive film, forms on the surface
of stainless steels. This passive film protects the metal from corrosive environments. The
self-healing property of the passive film make the steel stainless. Selective leaching often
involves grain boundary depletion mechanisms.
These zones also act as local galvanic couples, causing local galvanic corrosion. This
condition happens when the material is heated to temperature around 700 C for too long
time, and often happens during welding or an improper heat treatment. When zones of
such material form due to welding, the resulting corrosion is termed weld decay. Stainless
steels can be stabilized against this behavior by addition of titanium, niobium, or tantalum,
which form titanium carbide, niobium carbide and tantalum carbide preferentially to
chromium carbide, by lowering the content of carbon in the steel and in case of welding
also in the filler metal under 0.02%, or by heating the entire part above 1000 C
and quenching it in water, leading to dissolution of the chromium carbide in the grains and
then preventing its precipitation. Another possibility is to keep the welded parts thin enough
so that, upon cooling, the metal dissipates heat too quickly for chromium carbide to
precipitate. The ASTM A923,[1] ASTM A262,[2] and other similar tests are often used to
determine when stainless steels are susceptible to intergranular corrosion. The tests
require etching with chemicals that reveal the presence of intermetallic particles,
sometimes combined with Charpy V-Notch and other mechanical testing.
Another related kind of intergranular corrosion is termed knifeline attack (KLA). Knifeline
attack impacts steels stabilized by niobium, such as 347 stainless steel. Titanium, niobium,
and their carbides dissolve in steel at very high temperatures. At some cooling regimes
(depending on the rate of cooling), niobium carbide does not precipitate and the steel then
behaves like unstabilized steel, forming chromium carbide instead. This affects only a thin
zone several millimeters wide in the very vicinity of the weld, making it difficult to spot and
increasing the corrosion speed. Structures made of such steels have to be heated in a
whole to about 1065 C (1950 F), when the chromium carbide dissolves and niobium
carbide forms. The cooling rate after this treatment is not important, as the carbon that
would otherwise pose risk of formation of chromium carbide is already sequestered as
niobium carbide. [1]
Aluminium-based alloys may be sensitive to intergranular corrosion if there are layers of
materials acting as anodes between the aluminium-rich crystals. High strength aluminium
alloys, especially when extruded or otherwise subjected to high degree of working, can
undergo exfoliation corrosion, where the corrosion products build up between the flat,
elongated grains and separate them, resulting in lifting or leafing effect and often
propagating from edges of the material through its entire structure. [2] Intergranular
corrosion is a concern especially for alloys with high content of copper.
Other kinds of alloys can undergo exfoliation as well; the sensitivity of cupronickelincreases
together with its nickel content. A broader term for this class of corrosion is lamellar
corrosion. Alloys of iron are susceptible to lamellar corrosion, as the volume of iron
oxides is about seven times higher than the volume of original metal, leading to formation
of internal tensile stresses tearing the material apart. Similar effect leads to formation of
lamellae in stainless steels, due to the difference of thermal expansion of the oxides and
the metal. [3]
Copper-based alloys become sensitive when depletion of copper content in the grain
boundaries occurs.
Anisotropic alloys, where extrusion or heavy working leads to formation of long, flat grains,
are especially prone to intergranular corrosion. [4]
Intergranular corrosion induced by environmental stresses is termed stress corrosion
cracking. Inter granular corrosion can be detected by ultrasonic and eddy current methods.
Sensitization effect

Sensitization refers to the precipitation of carbides at grain boundaries in a stainless steel

or alloy, causing the steel or alloy to be susceptible to intergranular corrosion
or intergranular stress corrosion cracking.

Unsensitized microstructure

Heavily sensitized microstructure

Certain alloys when exposed to a temperature characterized as a sensitizing temperature

become particularly susceptible to intergranular corrosion. In a corrosive atmosphere, the
grain interfaces of these sensitized alloys become very reactive and intergranular corrosion
results. This is characterized by a localized attack at and adjacent to grain boundaries with
relatively little corrosion of the grains themselves. The alloy disintegrates (grains fall out)
and/or loses its strength.
The photos show the typical microstructure of a normalized (unsensitized) type 304
stainless steel and a heavily sensitized steel. The samples have been polished and etched
before taking the photos, and the sensitized areas show as wide, dark lines where the
etching fluid has caused corrosion. The dark lines consist of carbides and corrosion
products.[3]
Intergranular corrosion is generally considered to be caused by the segregation of
impurities at the grain boundaries or by enrichment or depletion of one of the alloying
elements in the grain boundary areas. Thus in certain aluminium alloys, small amounts
of iron have been shown to segregate in the grain boundaries and cause intergranular
corrosion. Also, it has been shown that the zinc content of a brass is higher at the grain
boundaries and subject to such corrosion. High-strength aluminium alloys such as
the Duralumin-type alloys (Al-Cu) which depend upon precipitated phases for strengthening
are susceptible to intergranular corrosion following sensitization at temperatures of about
120 C. Nickel-rich alloys such as Inconel 600 and Incoloy 800 show similar
susceptibility. Die-cast zinc alloys containing aluminum exhibit intergranular corrosion
by steam in a marine atmosphere. Cr-Mn and Cr-Mn-Ni steels are also susceptible to
intergranular corrosion following sensitization in the temperature range of 420-850 C. In
the case of the austenitic stainless steels, when these steels are sensitized by being
heated in the temperature range of about 520 to 800 C, depletion of chromium in the
grain boundary region occurs, resulting in susceptibility to intergranular corrosion. Such
sensitization of austenitic stainless steels can readily occur because of temperature service
requirements, as in steam generators, or as a result of subsequent weldingof the formed
structure.
Several methods have been used to control or minimize the intergranular corrosion of
susceptible alloys, particularly of the austenitic stainless steels. For example, a high-
temperature solution heat treatment, commonly termed solution-annealing, quench-
annealing or solution-quenching, has been used. The alloy is heated to a temperature of
about 1,060 to 1,120 C and then water quenched. This method is generally unsuitable for
treating large assemblies, and also ineffective where welding is subsequently used for
making repairs or for attaching other structures.
Another control technique for preventing intergranular corrosion involves incorporating
strong carbide formers or stabilizing elements such as niobium or titanium in the stainless
steels. Such elements have a much greater affinity for carbon than does chromium; carbide
formation with these elements reduces the carbon available in the alloy for formation
of chromium carbides. Such a stabilized titanium-bearing austenitic chromium-nickel-
copper stainless steel is shown in U.S. Pat. No. 3,562,781. Or the stainless steel may
initially be reduced in carbon content below 0.03 percent so that insufficient carbon is
provided for carbide formation. These techniques are expensive and only partially effective
since sensitization may occur with time. The low-carbon steels also frequently exhibit lower
strengths at high temperatures.
See also

Intergranular fracture

References

1. ASTM A923 Intergranular Corrosion Testing of Duplex Stainless Steel

2. ASTM A262 Intergranular Corrosion Testing of Stainless Steels
3. Weld Decay and Intergranular Corrosion
Corrosin intergranular

Salvar

La corrosin intergranular (IGC), tambin conocida como ataque intergranular

(IGA), es una forma de corrosin en la que los lmites de las cristalitas del
material son ms susceptibles a la corrosin que su interior. (Cf. corrosin
transgranular).

Esta situacin puede ocurrir en aleaciones resistentes a la corrosin, cuando

los lmites de grano se agotan, conocidos como agotamiento de los lmites de
grano, de los elementos inhibidores de la corrosin tales como cromo por algn
mecanismo. En las aleaciones de nquel y aceros inoxidables austenticos,
donde se aade cromo para resistencia a la corrosin, el mecanismo implicado
es la precipitacin de carburo de cromo en los lmites de grano, dando lugar a
la formacin de zonas de deplecin de cromo adyacentes a los lmites de grano
(este proceso se denomina sensibilizacin) . Alrededor del 12% de cromo es
mnimamente requerido para asegurar la pasivacin, un mecanismo por el cual
una pelcula invisible ultra fina, conocida como pelcula pasiva, forma sobre la
superficie de los aceros inoxidables. Esta pelcula pasiva protege el metal de
ambientes corrosivos. La propiedad de auto-curacin de la pelcula pasiva
hacen que el acero inoxidable. La lixiviacin selectiva suele implicar
mecanismos de agotamiento de los lmites del grano.

Estas zonas tambin actan como parejas galvnicas locales, causando la

corrosin galvnica local. Esta condicin ocurre cuando el material se calienta
a una temperatura de alrededor de 700 C durante demasiado tiempo, ya
menudo sucede durante la soldadura o un tratamiento trmico inadecuado.
Cuando se forman zonas de dicho material debido a soldadura, la corrosin
resultante se denomina decaimiento de soldadura. Los aceros inoxidables se
pueden estabilizar contra este comportamiento mediante la adicin de titanio,
niobio o tntalo, que forman carburo de titanio, carburo de niobio y carburo de
tntalo preferentemente al carburo de cromo, reduciendo el contenido de
carbono en el acero y en caso de soldadura tambin en el De metal de
aportacin por debajo de 0,02%, o por calentamiento de toda la parte por
encima de 1000 C y apagado en agua, llevando a la disolucin del carburo de
cromo en los granos y previniendo su precipitacin. Otra posibilidad es
mantener las partes soldadas lo suficientemente delgadas para que, al
enfriarse, el metal disipe el calor demasiado rpidamente para que el carburo
de cromo precipite. A menudo se utilizan ASTM A923, [1] ASTM A262, [2] y
otras pruebas similares para determinar cuando los aceros inoxidables son
susceptibles a la corrosin intergranular. Las pruebas requieren grabado con
productos qumicos que revelan la presencia de partculas intermetlicas, a
veces combinadas con Charpy V-Notch y otras pruebas mecnicas.
Otro tipo relacionado de corrosin intergranular se denomina ataque knifeline
(KLA). El ataque de Knifeline afecta a los aceros estabilizados por el niobio,
como el acero inoxidable 347. El titanio, el niobio y sus carburos se disuelven
en el acero a temperaturas muy altas. En algunos regmenes de enfriamiento
(dependiendo de la velocidad de enfriamiento), el carburo de niobio no precipita
y el acero se comporta entonces como acero no estabilizado, formando carburo
de cromo en su lugar. Esto afecta slo a una zona delgada de varios milmetros
de ancho en la misma vecindad de la soldadura, lo que dificulta la deteccin y
el aumento de la velocidad de corrosin. Las estructuras hechas de tales
aceros tienen que calentarse en un todo a aproximadamente 1065 C (1950
F), cuando el carburo de cromo se disuelve y se forma carburo de niobio. La
velocidad de enfriamiento despus de este tratamiento no es importante, ya
que el carbono que de otro modo representara riesgo de formacin de carburo
de cromo ya est secuestrado como carburo de niobio. [1]

Las aleaciones a base de aluminio pueden ser sensibles a la corrosin

intergranular si hay capas de materiales que actan como nodos entre los
cristales ricos en aluminio. Las aleaciones de aluminio de alta resistencia,
especialmente cuando se extruyen o sometidas de otro modo a un alto grado
de trabajo, pueden sufrir corrosin por exfoliacin, donde los productos de
corrosin se acumulan entre los granos planos y alargados y los separan,
dando lugar a un efecto de elevacin o El material a travs de toda su
estructura. [2] La corrosin intergranular es una preocupacin especialmente
para aleaciones con alto contenido de cobre.

Otros tipos de aleaciones pueden someterse a exfoliacin tambin; La

sensibilidad de cupronickel aumenta junto con su contenido de nquel. Un
trmino ms amplio para esta clase de corrosin es la corrosin lamelar. Las
aleaciones de hierro son susceptibles a la corrosin lamelar, ya que el volumen
de xidos de hierro es aproximadamente siete veces mayor que el volumen del
metal original, dando lugar a la formacin de tensiones internas de traccin
desgarrando el material. Un efecto similar conduce a la formacin de lminas
en aceros inoxidables, debido a la diferencia de expansin trmica de los
xidos y el metal. [3]

Las aleaciones a base de cobre se vuelven sensibles cuando se produce el

agotamiento del contenido de cobre en los lmites de grano.

Las aleaciones anisotrpicas, donde la extrusin o el trabajo pesado conducen

a la formacin de granos largos y planos, son especialmente propensos a la
corrosin intergranular. [4]

La corrosin intergranular inducida por tensiones ambientales se denomina

fisuracin por corrosin por tensin. La corrosin intergranular se puede
detectar por mtodos ultrasnicos y de corriente de Foucault.
Efecto de sensibilizacin

La sensibilizacin se refiere a la precipitacin de carburos en los lmites de

grano en un acero inoxidable o una aleacin, haciendo que el acero o la
aleacin sean susceptibles a la corrosin intergranular o al agrietamiento por
corrosin por tensin intergranular.

Microestructura no sensibilizada

Microestructura muy sensibilizada

Ciertas aleaciones cuando se exponen a una temperatura caracterizada como

una temperatura sensibilizante se vuelven particularmente susceptibles a la
corrosin intergranular. En una atmsfera corrosiva, las interfaces de grano de
estas aleaciones sensibilizadas se vuelven muy reactivas y la corrosin
intergranular resulta. Esto se caracteriza por un ataque localizado en y
adyacente a los lmites de grano con relativamente poca corrosin de los
propios granos. La aleacin se desintegra (los granos caen) y / o pierde su
fuerza.

Las fotos muestran la microestructura tpica de un acero inoxidable 304

normalizado (no sensibilizado) y un acero altamente sensibilizado. Las
muestras se han pulido y grabado antes de tomar las fotos, y las reas
sensibilizadas muestran como lneas anchas y oscuras donde el fluido de
grabado ha causado corrosin. Las lneas oscuras consisten en carburos y
productos de corrosin. [3]

Generalmente se considera que la corrosin intergranular es causada por la

segregacin de impurezas en los lmites de grano o por enriquecimiento o
agotamiento de uno de los elementos de aleacin en las reas de frontera de
grano. As, en ciertas aleaciones de aluminio, se ha demostrado que pequeas
cantidades de hierro se segregan en los lmites de grano y causan la corrosin
intergranular. Adems, se ha demostrado que el contenido de cinc de un latn
es ms alto en los lmites de grano y sujeto a tal corrosin. Las aleaciones de
aluminio de alta resistencia tales como las aleaciones de tipo Duraluminio (Al-
Cu) que dependen de las fases precipitadas para reforzar son susceptibles a la
corrosin intergranular despus de la sensibilizacin a temperaturas de
aproximadamente 120 C. Las aleaciones ricas en nquel tales como Inconel
600 e Incoloy 800 muestran susceptibilidad similar. Las aleaciones de zinc
fundido a presin que contienen aluminio presentan corrosin intergranular por
vapor en una atmsfera marina. Los aceros Cr-Mn y Cr-Mn-Ni tambin son
susceptibles a la corrosin intergranular despus de la sensibilizacin en el
intervalo de temperatura de 420 -850 C. En el caso de los aceros
inoxidables austenticos, cuando estos aceros se sensibilizan por calentamiento
en el intervalo de temperatura de aproximadamente 520 a 800 C, se produce
un agotamiento de cromo en la regin limtrofe del grano, resultando en
susceptibilidad a la corrosin intergranular. Tal sensibilizacin de los aceros
inoxidables austenticos puede producirse fcilmente debido a los requisitos de
servicio de temperatura, como en los generadores de vapor, o como resultado
de la subsiguiente soldadura de la estructura formada.

Se han utilizado varios mtodos para controlar o minimizar la corrosin

intergranular de aleaciones susceptibles, particularmente de los aceros
inoxidables austenticos. Por ejemplo, se ha utilizado un tratamiento trmico en
solucin a alta temperatura, comnmente denominado recocido por disolucin,
recocido por enfriamiento o disolucin en solucin. La aleacin se calienta a
una temperatura de aproximadamente 1.060 a 1.120 C y despus se enfra
con agua. Este mtodo es generalmente inadecuado para tratar conjuntos
grandes, y tambin ineficaz donde la soldadura se utiliza posteriormente para
hacer reparaciones o para unir otras estructuras.

Otra tcnica de control para prevenir la corrosin intergranular implica la

incorporacin de fuertes formadores de carburo o elementos estabilizadores
tales como niobio o titanio en los aceros inoxidables. Tales elementos tienen
una afinidad mucho mayor por el carbono que el cromo; La formacin de
carburo con estos elementos reduce el carbono disponible en la aleacin para
la formacin de carburos de cromo. Tal acero inoxidable de cobre-nquel-cobre
austentico que soporta titanio estabilizado se muestra en la Patente de EE.UU.
3.562.781. O el acero inoxidable puede inicialmente estar reducido en
contenido de carbono por debajo de 0,03 por ciento, de modo que se
proporciona carbono insuficiente para la formacin de carburo. Estas tcnicas
son caras y slo parcialmente eficaces ya que la sensibilizacin puede ocurrir
con el tiempo. Los aceros con bajas emisiones de carbono tambin presentan
frecuentemente resistencias ms bajas a altas temperaturas.

Ver tambin

Fractura intergranular
Referencias

ASTM A923 Prueba de corrosin intergranular de acero inoxidable dplex

ASTM A262 Prueba de corrosin intergranular de los aceros inoxidables

Decadencia de la soldadura y corrosin intergranular