MASTER

FILE
ON
MATERIAL
TECHNOLOG
Y

1
 FOR
CP01-I SEMESTER
MASTER FILE

SUB : MATERIAL TECHNOLOGY

DOCUMENT N0. : MF-CP1-00-08

REV N0 :0

REV DATE : 2006 06 19

VOLUME :1

TOTAL NO OF PAGES : 50

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NTTF TECHNICAL TRAINING CENTRE

AMENDMENT DETAILS

SUB: MATERIAL TECHNOLOGY DOC NO.: MF-CP1-00-03

SL. NO REV NO. REV. DATE. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF BASIS OF

AMENDMENT AMENDMENT

01 0 1998 02 23 FIRST ISSUE -

02 01 2006 06 20 SECOND ISSUE -

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PREPARED BY: DTC APPROVED BY-UNIT HEAD DTC

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NTTF TECHNICAL TRAINING CENTRE

CONTENTS
SUB: MATERIAL TECHNOLOGY DOC. NO: MF-CP1-00-08

SEMESTER I

SL #. CHAPTER PAGE NO.

1 SCOPE OF MATERIAL TECHNOLOGY 08-12

2 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 13-18

3 ATOMIC BONDS IN THE STRUCTURE OF METAL 19-25

4 CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE 26-37

5 SOLID SOLUTIONS, SOLID PHASE AND PHASE DIAGRAM 38-44

6 SOLIDIFICATION OF METALS AND ALLOYS 45-49

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MATERIAL TECHNOLOGY

Syllabus
Semester I
1.0 Material Technology
1.1 Historical perspective: Role of engineering material.
1.2 Classification: - List and the different types of ferrous metals - pig iron - cast iron -
wrought iron - steel
1.2 Materials applicable to metal working: Different metals used in metal working -
Ferrous metals - Non ferrous metals

2.0 Properties of materials:

Classify the properties of material: physical properties of material - chemical
properties of material mechanical properties of material. Enumerate the physical
properties: specific gravity - specific heat - conductivity - magnetic properties -
electrical properties. Enumerate the chemical properties: resistance against acid -
resistance against alkalis - resistance against oxidations. Enumerate the mechanical
properties: strength - elasticity - stiffness - toughness - resilience - ductility and
malleability - hardness - hardenability - fatigue creep

3.0 Atomic bonds

3.1 Explain the atomic bond.
3.2 Classification of atomic bond: primary bond -secondary bond
Primary Bond: Ionic bond - covalent bond - metallic bond
Secondary Bond: Dispersion bond -dipole bond -hydrogen bond
3.3 Compare the different types of bond: Ionic and metallic - covalent and metallic

4.0 Crystalline structure.

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4.1 Introduction - Types of solids: crystalline solid - non-crystalline solid - explanation of
crystal and crystal structure
4.2 Space lattice - Explain unit cell and space lattice - Classify the space lattice: body
centered cubic lattice - face centered cubic lattice-closed packed hexagonal lattice
4.3 Crystal planes of direction - Explain: crystal plane - miller indices - identify miller
indices - Use of miller indices in finding out the crystal direction
4.4 Crystal imperfection-Explain crystal imperfection-effect of crystal imperfection on the
mechanical properties of metals-Types of crystal imperfections- point defects-line
defects-surface defects.

5.0 Solid solution

5.1 Solid solutions - classify - explain
5.2 Solid phases and its types: single phase solids- multiphase solids - Phase diagram -
explain alloy - classify the phase diagram: unary phase diagram - binary phase
diagram

6.0 Solidification of metals

Explain the solidification process of metals - Explain the structural change in the
metal with rate cooling curve
Semester II
7.0 Deformation of crystals
Explain different types of crystal deformations: deformation by slip -
deformation by truing

8.0 Ferrous metals

Meaning - Different types: Pig iron - Cast iron -Wrought iron - steel.

9.0 Cast iron

Process of manufacturing cast iron-Classification: grey cast iron-white cast iron-
malleable cast iron-chilled cast iron- alloy cast iron. Properties and use of different
cast iron

10.0 Steel
Composition of steel: Iron-carbon-other elements. Influence of following constituents:
carbon - silicon - manganese - sulphur -phosphorous. Classification of steel
according to: carbon contents - purpose - method of manufacture. Plain carbon steel
- Composition and application: low carbon steel- medium carbon steel - high carbon
steel - tool steel

11.0 Alloying elements

Alloying elements - classification of alloy steel: chemical composition- purpose -types
of steel-alloy structural steel -alloy tool steel - alloy steel with special physical
properties. Effects of different alloying elements: chromium - nickel-manganese-
vanadium - molybdenum -silicon - tungsten - sulphur- copper - cobalt. Composition
properties and uses of alloy steel: nickel steel-chromium steel - nickel chrome steel-
molybdenum steel- chromium molybdenum steel - nickel chrome- molybdenum steel
- manganese steel - silicon steel. Special alloy steel - composition properties and
uses: heat resisting steel - magnet steel - shock resisting steel - stainless steel - high
speed steel. I.S.I. Specification: plain carbon steel - alloy steel - tool steel.

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12.0 Different steels and uses - Identify the metals used for: Press tool- jigs and fixtures
- moulds - hand tools

13.0 Non Ferrous metals and alloys

Need-Different non-ferrous metals- Uses. Aluminum: Uses - Aluminum alloy -Cast
aluminum -Application. Copper: Uses - Copper Zinc alloy-Copper Tin alloy-Copper
Aluminum alloy - Copper Nickel alloy-Copper Nickel Zinc alloy- Applications.

14.0 Testing of Material

14.1 Mechanical Testing: Explain - Need - Types: Routine test - Exploratory tests -
Destructive test - Nondestructive test - Scale model test - Fall scale test - Tests by
inspection.
14.2 Destructive test: Explain -Types: Tensile test- Compression test - Hardness test
(Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers) - Impact test - Fatigue test - Creep test.
14.2 Nondestructive Test: Explain - Types: Visual Examination-Radiographic tests-Ultra
sonic testing- Liquid penetration test - Magnetic particle test.

15.0 Organic material

15.1 Introduction to organic material: Application Different materials used in engineering:
Natural materials -synthetics
15.2 Polymers: Monomers and polymers- Types: Naturally occurring - Synthetic polymers.
15.3 Mechanism of Polymerization: Describe - Types: Additional polymerization -
Condensation.
15.4 Additives to Polymers: Uses - Advantage- Types: Plasticizer - Fillers - Catalysts -
Initiators - Dyes - Pigments
15.5 Classification of Polymer structure: Linear and frame work structure - Branch and
chain structure - Cross link chain structure - Crystalline structure.
15.6 Strengthening of Polymers - Methods - Crystallization - Cross-linking - Chain
stiffening.

16.0 Ceramics
16.1 Introduction to Ceramic material: Explain - Materials: Abrasives - White ware -
Chemical stoneware - Porcelain Enamel - Electrical porcelain - Glass - Bricks - Tiles
- Cement & concrete - Refractories - Slag and fluxes -Insulators
16.2 Properties of ceramics: Mechanical properties; Compressive strength - Tensile
strength - Torsional strength - Impact strength - Modules of elasticity.
Electrical property: Insulation property - Die electric property - Conducting property.

16.3 Thermal Property: Thermal capacity -Thermal conductivity - thermal shock resistant
16.4 Application of Ceramics in industry.

17.0 Semiconductors
17.1 Properties of Semiconductor material: Electronic property - list different
semiconductor material
17.2 Properties of super conducting materials: Thermal magnetic property - list different
super conductivity material.

18.0 Manufacturing processes

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18.1 Casting: Process of casting - Advantages and disadvantages of casting - Explain
types: Sand casting - Investment casting - Slush casting - Centrifugal casting - Die
casting
18.2 Mechanical working of metals: Hot working - cold working - merits and demerits-
Types of hot working: Rolling - Forging - Piercing-Drawing- Spinning- Extrusion-
Types of cold work: Cold rolling - Cold drawing - Bending - Squeezing - Peening -
Spinning
18.3 Powder metallurgy: Process - Manufacturing of powder: Character of powder -
Safety in handling - Size of powder - Bleeding of powder - Compacting Pre-
sintering- sintering - secondary operation. Product produced - advantages -
disadvantages - limitations.

1.0 SCOPE OF MATERIAL TECHNOLOGY

Material science or Science of Materials

as is sometimes called needs a clear idea of what it means to one who is just beginning to
learn to know the subject. The term material science is a combination of two popular words
used in engineering- Material and Science. The meaning of these words when integrated
together therefore gives an insight to the subject.

1.1 Historical Perspective: Role of Engineering Material: -

The material science refers to that branch of applied science concerned with investigating
the relationship between the structure of materials and their properties, and it concerns with
the interdisciplinary study of materials for entirely practical purposes.

A wide range of materials is available today and proper selection has to be made to suit the
requirements. The selection of a material for a particular application involves consideration
of factors like service requirements (strength, the manner in which load is applied- steady,
fluctuating, sudden, wear, corrosion resistance, electrical properties, etc), manufacturing
requirements (ease of machining, finish desired, fabrication techniques to be adopted,
casting, molding etc), method of forming- hot or cold, method of joining various assemblies,
need of heat treatment to achieve or restore properties, cost of raw material. Usually two or
three possible solutions in selection of a material will arise, and the final decision should be
based on the preference and experience of the engineer and the user. Flow diagram is
given below.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS
_____________________________________________

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 METALS NON METALS
_________________________

Ferrous metals Non-ferrous metals Plastic

a) Thermoplastic
Copper b) Thermo set plastic
Brass Paper
Aluminium Rubber
Lead Wood
Magnesium, Tin etc. Glass
Fuels, Ceramics etc
___________________________________________________________________

Pig Iron Cast Iron Wrought Iron Steel

________________________________________ _________

Grey White Malleable Ductile Plain Carbon Alloy

Cast Iron Cast Iron Cast Iron Cast Iron steel steel
CLASSES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

After defining the limits of materials that come within the scope of material science, may be
classified in the three broad groups according to their mode of occurrence.

1. Metals and alloys

2. Ceramics and
3. Organic Polymers

A metal is an elemental substance whilst an alloy is formed when two or more relatively pure
metals are melted together to form a new metal, having properties quite different from those
of the two metals used in its manufacture.

Ceramics are materials consisting of phases. A phase is a physically separable and

chemically homogeneous constituent of a material. These are themselves compounds of
metallic and non-metallic elements. All metallic compounds, rocks, minerals, glass, glass-
fiber, abrasive and all fired clay are ceramics.

Organic materials are those materials derived directly from carbon. They usually consists of
carbon chemically combined with hydrogen, oxygen or other non-metallic substances, and
their structures are, in many instances fairly complex. Termed polymers because they are
formed by polymerization reaction in which relatively simple molecules are chemically
combined in to massive long chain molecules or three-dimensional structures.

Some important grouping of materials Common examples of engineering Use

Group of materials
Steels, aluminium, copper, brass, bronze,
1. Metals and alloys super alloys, etc.

2. Ceramics MgO, Cds, ZnO, SiC, silica, concrete, etc.

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3. Organic Polymers Plastics, Fibers, Natural and synthetic
rubbers, leather etc.

Engineering requirements of Materials

Some of the most important properties of materials are:

Mechanical: Strength, stiffness, ductility, elasticity, plasticity, toughness, brittleness,

hardness, and malleability.

Electrical: Conductivity, receptivity and dielectric strength.

Magnetic: Permeability, coercive force etc.

Thermal: Specific heat, thermal expansion, conductivity etc.

Chemical: Corrosion resistance, acidity, alkalinity, composition etc

Physical: Density, porosity, structures

1.2 Classification of Engineering Material

Different types of ferrous metals

The Latin word of iron is ferrum. So metals, which contain iron, are all classified as ferrous
metals. The ferrous metals used in Engineering are classified under the following groups.

1. Pig Iron
2. Cast Iron
3. Wrought Iron
4. Carbon steel
5. Alloy steel

1.3 Materials applicable to Metal Working:

Different metals used in metalworking.

Ferrous metals: -

Ferrous metals and alloys are widely used because of the developments of a technology
that has produced thousands of different alloys and grades that provide a wide range of
properties not found in any other family of materials.

Ferrous metals can be classified as

1) Pig Iron
2) Wrought iron

3) Cast Iron

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 a. Grey Cast Iron
b. White Cast Iron
c. Malleable Cast Iron
d. Chilled Cast Iron
e. Alloy Cast Iron
f. Mechanite Cast Iron

4) Steels

a. Plain carbon steel - [Low carbon steel, Medium carbon steel, High carbon steel ]

b. Alloy steel - [ Low alloy steel, High alloy steel ]

Pig Iron: - It is raw material for all iron and steel products. Pig iron is of great importance in
the foundry and in steel making process. All iron and steel products are derived originally
from pig iron. This is the raw material obtained from the chemical reduction of iron ore in a
Blast furnace.

Wrought Iron: - It is the mechanical mixture of very pure iron and a silicate slag. It is used
in building construction, industrial purposes, etc. It is highly refined iron with a small amount
of slag, forged out into fibers. The slag characteristic of wrought iron is useful in black
smithing operations and gives the material its peculiar fibrous fracture. Also the presence of
slag produces a structure, which diminishes the effect of fatigue caused by shock and
vibration.

Cast Iron

Cast Iron is pig iron remelted and refined in a cupola or other form of remelting furnace and
poured into suitable moulds of required shape. The varieties of cast iron in common use is

1. Grey Cast Iron

2. White Cast Iron
3. Malleable Cast Iron
4. Ductile Cast Iron
5. Chilled Cast Iron
6. Alloy Cast Iron
7. Mechanite Cast Iron

Grey Cast Iron: - It is an alloy of carbon silicon with iron. It is used for machine tool
structures, manhole covers, ingot moulds, etc.

White cast iron: - White cast iron has almost all its carbon chemically combined with iron as
iron carbide (Fe3C). It is used for producing malleable iron.

Malleable cast iron: - It is obtained from white cast iron through controlled heat conversion
process. This is used for making gear case, automobile crankshaft etc.

Ductile Cast Iron: - it is also called as spheroidal graphite cast iron. It consists of graphite in
the form of round particles.

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Steel

Steel is fundamentally an alloy of Iron and carbon, with the carbon content varying up to
1.5%. The carbon is distributed throughout the mass of the metal not as elemental or free
carbon but as compound (chemical combination) with iron.

Plain Carbon Steels: - This is an alloy of iron and carbon and it is malleable in nature.

Alloy steels: - This steel contains one or more alloying elements other than carbon.

Non-ferrous metals: -

These are all metals that are not iron based. The common non-ferrous metals are copper,
aluminium, lead, magnesium, nickel, tin, and zinc and their alloys.

Copper and its alloys: -

Copper has excellent resistance to corrosion, non-magnetic properties etc. Their alloys can
be used for casting intricate shapes.

Aluminium and its alloys: -

This has lightweight and its alloys are used for producing drums, pipes, heat exchangers
etc.

Magnesium and its alloys: -

Magnesium is not sufficiently strong, so it is not use in its purest form. Its alloys are used for
producing material handling equipments, foundry equipment etc.

Tin: -

It is soft and it is used in cold work such as extrusion, rolling etc.

Zinc: -

It has resistance to corrosion and high thermal conductivity. It is used for shells for dry
batteries etc.

Nickel: -

It is used in incandescent lamp industry, and in chemical industries for producing

evaporators etc.

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2.0 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Introduction

Property of a material (or material

property) is a factor that influences qualitatively or quantatively the response of given a
material to imposed stimuli and constraints. e.g.: - forces, temperature, etc.

Some properties are dependent on actual crystal structure and are called structure sensitive
properties. In these crystal defects will affect their property.
e.g.:- strength, ductility, di-electric strength etc

Structure sensitive material properties are independent on crystal structure.

E.g.:-stiffness, density, and electrical conductivity.

Important material properties are:-

1. Physical properties
2. Thermal properties
3. Magnetic properties
4. Electrical properties
5. Mechanical and Technological properties
6. Chemical properties
7. Optical properties

2.1 Physical Properties

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These are employed to describe a material under conditions in which external forces are not
concerned. This include

Dimension: - Implies its size and shape

Appearance: - This includes lustre, color and finish of a material. Lustre is the ability of a
material to reflect light when finely polished. Colour of a material depends upon the
wavelength of the light that it can absorb.

Density: - It is the mass of unit volume of material and its unit is Kg/m3.

i.e. Density= Mass / Volume

Specific gravity: - It is the ratio of the density of the material to the density of a substance
taken as a standard. As it the ratio of same parameters, it has no dimension. Solids and
liquids are referred to water as standard (at maximum density of 4degree Celsius, standard
atmospheric pressure). If we use weight of body instead of mass the density is called weight
density.

Melting Point: - It is that temperature at which the solid material changes into the molten
state. At this state solid and liquid are in equilibrium.

Porosity: - A material is said to be porous if it has the pores within it. Pores can absorb the
lubricant as in a sintered self-lubricating bearing.

Structure: - It implies geometric relationship of material components.

2.2 Thermal Properties

This means the response of a material to the application of heat, e.g.:- Heat capacity,
specific heat, thermal expansion etc.

Heat capacity: - It indicates the materials ability to absorb heat from external surroundings.
Its unit is J/K. in other words it is the amount of heat absorbed by the given mass of
substance in raising its temperature by unit degree.

Specific heat: - Quantity of heat that must be added to a unit mass of the solid to raise its
temperature by one degree. Its unit is J/ (Kg.K). It increases with temperature.

Thermal expansion: - The increase in volume of material as temperature increases is

called thermal expansion.

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Thermal conductivity: - This determines the rate at which heat can flow through a material
under the influence of a given temperature gradient. It is measured by thermal conductivity.

2.3 Magnetic Properties

Some of the magnetic properties are,

Permeability: - This measures the relative ease with which magnetism may be developed in
a material. It is the ratio of the magnetic induction to the magnetic field.

Coercive force: - It is the opposing magnetic force, which is necessary to remove previous
magnetization or residual magnetization.

Hysteresis: - It may be defined as the lag in the changes in the magnetization behind the
variation of magnetic field.

Super conductivity: - It is a phenemnon referring to the state at which the abrupt drop in
electrical resistance of certain materials at temperature below a certain critical temperature.

2.4 Electrical Properties

Resistivity: -It is that electrical property of a material owing to which it resists the flow of
electricity through it. Its unit is Ohmmeter.

Conductivity: - It is due to this property the electrical current flows easily through the
material. It is reciprocal of the resistivity. Its unit is Mho/meter.

Temperature coefficient of resistance: - It is employed to specify the variation of resistivity

with temperature.

Dielectric strength: -This means the insulating capacity of a material against high voltages.

Thermo electricity: - This forms the basis for the thermocouple operation. If two dissimilar
metals are joined and this junction is then heated, a small voltage in milli-volt range is
produced and this is known as thermo electric effect.

2.5 Mechanical Properties

The mechanical properties of materials define the behavior of materials under the action of
external forces, called loads. They are the measure of the strength and lasting
characteristics of a material in service, and are of great importance in the design of tools,
machines and structures.

Mechanical properties are structure sensitive in the sense that they depend up on the crystal
structure and its bonding forces, and especially upon the nature and behavior of the
imperfections, which exists within the crystal itself or at the grain boundaries.

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The most important and useful mechanical properties are briefly explained below to ensure
that the readers will be able to choose thee proper material for a given design quickly and
wisely.

Strength: - The strength of a material is its capacity to withstand destruction under the
action of external forces or loads. The stronger the material the greater the load it
can withstand. The stronger the material the greater the load it can withstand. It
therefore determines the ability of a material to withstand stress without failure.
The maximum stress that any material will
withstand before destruction is called its ultimate strength.

Elasticity: - Elasticity is that property of a material by virtue of which deformation caused by

applied loads disappears upon the removal of the load. In other words elasticity of a
material is its power of coming back to its original position after deformation when
the stress or load is removed. Elasticity is a tensile property of a material.

Stiffness: -The resistance of a material to elastic deformation or deflection is called stiffness

or rigidity. A material which suffers slight deformation under load has a high degree
of stiffness or rigidity. For instance suspended beams of steel and aluminium may
be strong enough to carry the required load but the aluminium beam will sag or
deflect further. In other words, the steel beam is stiffer or more rigid than aluminium
beam.

Plasticity: - The plasticity of a material is its ability to undergo some degree of permanent
deformation without rupture or failure. Plastic deformation will take place only after the
elastic range has been exceeded.
Plasticity is important for forming, shaping, extruding, and many other
hot or cold working processes. Materials such as clay, lead, etc are plastic at room
temperature and steel is plastic when at bright heat. In general, plasticity increases with
increasing temperature.

Ductility: - Ductility is that property of a material, which enables it to draw out into thin wire.
Mild steel is a ductile material. The percentage elongation and the reduction in area
in tension are often used as empirical measure of ductility.

Malleability:- Malleability of a material is its ability to be flattened into thin sheets without
cracking by hot or cold working. Aluminium, copper, tin, lead, steel, etc are
malleable metals.

Resilience: -Resilience is the capacity of the material to absorb energy elastically. On

removal of the load, the energy stored is given off exactly as in spring when the
load is removed.

The maximum energy, which can be stored in a body up to elastic limit, is called proof
resilience, and the proof resilience per unit volume is called modulus of resilience. This
property reveals capacity of material to bear shocks and vibrations. The resilience of a
material is of great importance in the selection of materials that is used for various types of
springs.

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Toughness: - Toughness is a measure of the amount of energy a material can absorb
before actual fracture or failure takes place. For example, if a load is suddenly
applied to a piece of mild steel and then to a piece of a glass, the mild steel will
absorb much more energy before failure occurs. Thus mild steel is said to be much
tougher than a glass.

The toughness of a material is its ability to withstand both plastic and elastic deformations. It
is, therefore, a highly desirable quality for structural and machine parts, which have to
withstand shock and vibration. Manganese steel, wrought iron, mild steel, etc are tough
materials.

Hardness: - Hardness is a fundamental property, which is closely related to strength.

Hardness is usually defined in terms of the ability of a material to resist to
scratching, abrasion, cutting, indentation, or penetration.

Hardenability: - Hardenablity indicates the degree of hardness that can be imparted to

metal, particularly steel, by the process of hardening. It determines the depth and
distribution of hardness induced by quenching. A metal that is capable of being hardened
throughout its structure is said to have high hardenability.

Brittleness: - Brittleness of a material is the property of breaking without much distortion.

There are many materials, which break or fail before much deformation takes place. Such
materials are brittle, e.g. glass, cast iron. Therefore a non-ductile material is said to be brittle
material.

Creep: - The slow and progressive deformation of a material with the time at constant stress
is called creep. Creep can take place and leads to fracture at static stresses much
smaller than those, which will break the specimen when loaded suddenly. For
example creep occurs in steel at higher temperatures. This is always considered
while designing I C engines, boilers, turbines, etc.

Fatigue: - It has been recognized that a metal part subjected to repetitive or fluctuating
stress will fail at a stress at a much lower than that are required to cause fracture on a single
application of load. The term fatigue applied to materials refers to premature failure under
the action of repeated stresses. A component subjected to that type of stresses develops
characteristics behavior, fundamentally different from the behavior of metal part subjected to
steady loads. The behavior is called fatigue and is marked by

1) Loss of strength
2) Loss of ductility
3) Increased uncertainly in both strength and service life.

Actually fatigue causes over 85% of the operating failures of the machine elements. Even in
ductile materials, the failure of materials by fatigue will be sudden i.e. brittle like fracture. It is
important in design of crankshafts, axles, aircraft wings, etc. It is found that for most
materials there is a limiting stress below which a load may be repeatedly applied an
indefinitely large number of times without causing failure. This limiting stress is called
endurance or fatigue limit. So endurance limit is therefore used as a principle criterion of the
resistance to fatigue of materials. The presence of stress raises such as notches at the
surface lower the endurance limit.

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The events that lead to fatigue i.e. mechanism include crank nucleation, crack growth, and
fracture. Fatigue is a structure sensitive property. Surface condition, temperature, range of
stress, frequency of stress cycle, environment and metallurgical factors can be considered
as variables affecting fatigue life.

2.6 Technological Properties

The technological properties of a material are those properties, which completely define its
behavior in shaping, forming and fabrication operations during manufacturing operations.
The main five technological properties are discussed below.

Malleability: - It is the property of the material by virtue of which it can be deformed in to

thin sheets by rolling or hammering without rupture. It depends on the crystal structure of the
material.
e.g. Gold, silver, aluminium, copper etc

Machinability: - This property indicates the ease with which it can be cut or removed by
cutting tools in various operations such as turning, drilling, boring, etc. E.g. copper
aluminium alloy, grey cast iron etc.

Weldability: - This property indicates the ease with which two similar or dissimilar metals
are joined by fusion with or without the application of pressure as well as filler material.

Formability: - The term formability or workability may be defined as the property of the
metal, which indicates the ease with which it can be formed into different shapes and sizes.
e.g. Low carbon steel.

Castability: - It may be defined as the property of the metal, which indicates the ease with
which it is formed into different shapes and sizes form its liquid state.

The factors affecting the mechanical properties are grain size, temperature, heat treatment,
and atmospheric exposure.

2.7 Chemical properties

This describes the combining tendencies, corrosion characteristics, reactivity, solubility etc
of substances. e.g. corrosion resistance, chemical composition, acidity or alkalinity.

2.8 Optical properties

Refractive Index: - It is the ratio of the velocity of light in vacuum, to the velocity of light
within the material.

Absorptivity: - The energy incident on any material gets partially transmitted, reflected or
absorbed. The decimal fraction absorbed is known as the absorptivity.

Resistivity: - It is the decimal fraction reflected.

18
3.0 ATOMIC BONDS
Engineering materials are mostly solids and liquids. The properties of the material
are dependent on the type of inter atomic bonding. It has been observed that when the atom
of the element combines to form molecules, a force of attraction is developed between the
atoms, which holds them together. This force of attraction is known as Atomic Bond.

Cause of Bonding: -
It is obvious that the atoms of most of the elements form bonds with one another in
order to achieve a stable electronic configuration. It has been observed that the atoms can
achieve stable configuration in the following three ways.
By loosing one or more electrons to another ion.
By gaining one or more electron fro, another atom.
By sharing one or more election with other atom.

3.1 Classification of atomic bonds: -

Atomic bonds between atoms can be divided into two groups namely, primary or
strong bonds and secondary or weak bonds

PRIMARY BONDS: -
A primary bond is an inter atomic bond in which electrostatic force of attraction holds
the atoms together. It may be noted that a primary bond is stronger and more stable.

19
SECONDARY BONDS: -
A secondary bond is an inter molecular bond in which the weak force holds the
molecule together. The weak force is also known as VANDER-WAALS force it may be
noted that a secondary bond is weak and less stable than the Primary bond.

3.1.1. Types of Primary Bonds: -

The Primary Bonds are of three types
-Ionic Bonds
-Covalent Bonds
-Metallic Bonds

IONIC BONDS: - When one or more electrons, from the outer most shell of one atom are
transferred to the outer most shell of the other atom, an ionic bond is formed.
We know that the atom, which loses the electron, acquires a positive charge and
becomes a positive ion. And the atom which gains the electron acquires a negative
charge becomes a negative ion. In this way both the atoms becomes oppositely
charged ions and an electrostatic attraction is created due to which the ionic bond is
formed. Following are the two conditions required in the formation of ionic bonds.

- The atom, which loses electron, should need a small amount of energy to remove
the electron form its outermost energy level.
- The atom, which gains electron, should be able to readily accept an electron in its
outermost energy level (affinity).

The formation of the ionic bond is illustrated by the formation of sodium chloride.

- Atomic number of sodium is 11 and its electronic configuration is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
- Atomic number of chlorine is 17 and its electronic configuration is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
- The atomic structures of both the atoms are shown in figure 3.1

-Sodium has one electron in outermost energy level and chlorine has seven electron in its in
its outermost energy level.

-Sodium loses the electron and the chlorine accepts the lost electron of sodium thereby
creating an electrostatic force of attraction between each other to form a new solid called
sodium chloride.

Properties of Ionic Solids: -

We know that the ionic solids are oppositely charged and due to electrostatic force of
attraction they are bounded to each other. Some of the important properties of ionic bonds
are: -

Rigid, Unidirectional, and crystalline: - They are rigid, Unidirectional, and crystalline in
nature. Since they are held together by electrostatic force of attraction and form a regular
crystal.

20
Bad conducting capacity:- Since atoms are tightly bound together, there is no possibility of
movement of ions. So they are bad conductors of electricity.

Boiling and Melting Temperature: - As a considerable energy is required to break the bonds
between them, it has high melting and boiling points.

Covalent Bond: -

Covalent bond is also known as Homopolar bond. The electronic structure of an atom is
relatively stable if it has eight electrons by sharing electrons in its outer valence shell.
Sometimes an atom may acquire these eight electrons by sharing two electrons with the
adjacent similar atom. Thus, when electrons are shared between atoms, it gives rise to
Covalent Bond

The formation of a covalent bond is illustrated by the following example:

If we look into the chlorine atom the outer shells of each atom have seven electrons. Each
chlorine atom would to try to gain one electron, and thus form a stable octet. This can be
done by sharing of two electrons between pair of chlorine atoms thereby producing stable
diatomic molecules. In other words, each atom contributes one electron for the sharing
process. Figure 3.2 & 3.3

21
Ionic Bond

Covalent Bond

22
METALIC BOND: -

In the metal atoms, the electrons in their outer most energy levels are loosely held by their
nucleii. Due to which a very less amount of energy is required to detach themselves from
their nucleii. At room temperature all the metal atoms lose their electron from their outermost
energy levels, which form an electron cloud or common pool of electrons. These atoms
leaving outermost electron level, acquires positive charge and becomes positive ion,
surrounded by a large number of free electrons, forming electron cloud or electron gas as
shown in Figure 3.4. The electrostatic force of attraction between the electron cloud and the
positive ions forms a bond called as Metallic Bond.

Properties of Metallic Bonds: -

We know that free electrons are bounded to different atoms at different times and that too
for an extremely small period. It is due to this reason that a metallic bond is weaker than the
ionic and covalent bonds. Some of the important properties of metallic solids from the
subject point of view are:

Electrical & Thermal conductivity: - Due to the presence of free electrons and variable
electrostatic force of attraction, ions move freely through large distance when electric field is
applied, thereby having more electrical and thermal conductivity.

Malleability & Ductility: - As the metallic bond is weaker and the planes of atom can slip over
each other while a little force and moreover the surrounding of each ion remain same even
after slip due to the availability of electron cloud. Thus the metallic solids are malleable and
ductile.

Melting & Boiling temperature: - We know that the electrostatic force of attraction between
the positive ions and electrons is less than ionic and covalent bonds. Therefore less energy
is required to melt and boil them.

23
Types of Secondary Bonds
We know primary bond results from either a transfer of electrons or from sharing
of electrons, but secondary bond do not generally involve the valence electron at all. In
these bonds comparatively weak inter molecular bonds formed as a result of dipole
attraction, which is formed as a result of the unbalanced distribution of electrons in an
asymmetrical molecule. These bonds may be permanent or temporary and these bonds are
called as Van-Der Waals Bonds.

Three types of intermolecular or secondary bonds are

- Dispersion bonds
- Dipole bonds
- Hydrogen bonds

DISPERSION BONDS: - (Fig 3.5)

Bonds of these are made possible largely because of the repulsion action of
adjacent electron. But in a symmetrical molecule, the center of positive charge and negative
charge coincides with each other as shown in fig (a). But it has been observed that at
certain times the distribution of electron in the molecule is not symmetrical around the
nuclei. This results in the displacement of the center of positive and negative charge as
shown in fig (b). The electronic imbalance is known as Polarization. This polarization is of
the fluctuating nature and is known as dispersion effect due to which there exists a weak
force of attraction between two molecules of the same element and a bond is formed
between them, which is known as Dispersion Bond.

DIPOLE BONDS: -

We have seen that a Covalent bond is formed when two or more electrons of
an atom share the outermost electron of an atom. But some times there is an unequal
sharing of electrons in those atoms, which has a high affinity to attract an electron than the
other. The effect of this unequal sharing is to create opposite charge on the parent atom. As
result of this, permanent dipoles are produced. It has also been observed that such dipoles
attract each other and a bond is formed known as Dipole Bond.

The formation of Dipole bond in case of hydrogen fluoride molecule is illustrated in fig 3.6

We know that atomic number of hydrogen is one and atomic number of fluorine
is nine and their electronic configuration are 1s1 and 1s2 2s2 2p5 respectively. Number of
electrons in the outermost shell of hydrogen and fluorine are one and seven. To have more
stable configuration fluorine needs one more electrons and also hydrogen needs one
electron. Therefore both the hydrogen and fluorine shares electrons and forms a covalent
bond. But the fluorine has more affinity than hydrogen. Thus the shared electron pair shifts
towards the fluorine atom, which produces a dipole.

HYDROGEN BOND: -
The formation of hydrogen bond is illustrated with the water molecule.
We know that atomic number of hydrogen is one and atomic number of oxygen is
eight. The electronic configuration is 1s1 & 1s2 2s2 2p4 responsively. We see that there is
only one electron outermost energy level of hydrogen and six in oxygen. Therefore the
oxygen and hydrogen will share their electrons to acquire stable configuration. This leads to
the formation of covalent bond and molecules so formed are known as water molecules. But

24
oxygen atom has higher affinity than the hydrogen atom that tends to shift the hydrogen
atom towards the oxygen atom by forming a dipole. Thus hydrogen bonds are formed in
water. Refer Fig 3.7

3.2 COMPARISION BETWEEN IONIC, COVALENT AND METLIC BOND: -

Comparison between Ionic, Covalent and metallic bonds:
The following table gives the comparison between, ionic, covalent, and metallic bond: -

S.NO Ionic Bond Covalent Bond Metallic Bond

1. It exists due to electrostatic It exists due to the It exists due to the
force of attraction between electrostatic force of electrostatic force of
Positive and negative ions of attraction between attraction between
different elements. Atoms, which shared Electron cloud and
electrons pairs to form a positive ions of same or
covalent bond. Different metals.
2. It is formed between two It is formed due to the It is formed when the
different elements. One of sharing of electron pairs valence electrons
the atoms looses its valence between the atoms of detach themselves from
electron and other accepts it. same or different their parent electrons
The ions so formed attract elements. and form common pool.
each other to from an ionic The force, which binds
bond. the electron cloud and
the positive ions of the
metal, forms the metallic
bond.
3. The ionic solids have very The covalent solids have The metallic solids have
low electrical and thermal low electrical and thermal high electrical and
conductivity. conductivity. thermal conductivity.
4. The ionic solids have very The covalent bond have The metallic solids have
high hardness due to their low hardness except soft crystalline structure.
crystalline structure. diamond, silicon, carbide
etc,
5. The ionic solids are not Covalent solids are also The metallic solids are
malleable and ductile. not malleable and malleable and ductile.
ductile.

6. The ionic solids have high The covalent solids have The metallic solids have
melting and boiling lower melting and boiling slightly lower melting
temperature. temperature than the and boiling temperature
ionic solids. than the ionic solids.
7. The ionic compounds exist in The covalent compound The metallic compound
the form of solids only. exists in the form of also exists in the form of
solids, liquids and gases. solids only.
8. The ionic solids are soluble The covalent solids are The metallic solids are
in water soluble in benzene and neither soluble in water
toluene etc, nor in benzene etc,

25
Secondary Bonds

26
4.0 CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE

4.1 INTRODUCTION
If we examine a few metallic solid materials with which we daily come across, we
shall find that most of them do not have any characteristic difference in their out ward
appearance. These solids can be classified in two types, namely crystalline solids, and non-
crystalline solids.

CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS
Crystalline solids are those in which the atoms or molecules are arranged in a very
regular and orderly manner in the three dimensional pattern. Metals and alloys are the
examples of crystalline solids. It may be either in the form of single structure or as ploy
crystalline structure.

AMORPHOUS SOLIDS
Amorphous solids are those in which the atoms or molecules are arranged in an
irregular pattern. These are non-crystalline in nature. Some of the examples an wood, glass,
plastics, etc.

Crystal
The term crystal of a material may be defined as a small body having a regular
polyhedral form, bounded by smooth surfaces, which are acquired under the action of its
intermolecular force. The crystals are also called as grains, the boundary separating the two
adjacent grains is called grain boundary, by research it has been observed that the crystals
are symmetric in nature, which helps us in the classification of crystals and describing their
behavior.

Crystal structure
A crystal structure is a regular array of atoms arranged one over the other.
Many have crystal structure that are best described as a close packed or closest packed
since the atoms packed together so that a minimum of free space or unoccupied volume is
present with in the structure.
If the atoms are represented by spheres, such as Ping-Pong balls, these
layers of these spheres can be built which corresponds to a close packed layer of atoms.
The below fig. Shows the crystal structure. (4.1)

27
4.2 SPACE LATTICE

Space lattice
A space lattice is an infinite, three-dimensional pattern of atoms in space. The
regularity with which atoms are packed in solids arises from geometrical conditions, which
are imposed by directional bonding and close packing. Crystal structure observed in solids
are described in terms of an idealized geometric concept called space lattice and may be
rationalized in terms of the way CO-ordination polyhedral pack together to minimize the
energy of solids.

Unit cell.

28
 We have already discussed that atoms are arranged in a crystal system in a
particular fashion, the general arrangement of particles into small parts is called as unit
cells. The above fig 4.2. Shows the three-dimensional view of unit cell. It is formed by
intercepts a, b and c, along their axis respectively. The three angles (alpha, beta, gamma)
are called inter facial angles.

Primitive cell.
The term primitive cell may be defined as a unit cell, which possesses lattice
point at its corners only; a simple cubic cell is an example of a primitive cell. The unit cells
which contain more than one lattice point are called one lattice point are called non-primitive
cells.

Types of crystal lattice:

There are 32 classes of crystals systems based on the geometrical consideration. But it is
common practice to divide all the crystal systems in to seven groups or basic groups, these
seven basic crystals are distinguished from one another by the angles between the three
axis and the intercepts of the faces along them. These seven basic crystal systems are
Cubic.
Tetragonal.
Orthorhombic.
Rombhohedral.
Hexagonal.
Monoclinic.
Triclinic.

Table shows 14 basic Bravies lattices with their characteristics.

29
30
Metallic structure:
It has been found that most of the common metals possess cubic or hexagonal structure.
The type of metallic structure is

Cubic structure.
Body centered cubic structure (BCC).
Face centered cubic structure (FCC).
Hexagonal close packed structure (HCP)

BODY CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE:

In BCC structure there is one atom at each corner of the cube and one atom at
the center of the cube. For any corner atom of the unit cell, the nearest atoms are the
atoms, which are at the centers of unit cell. As eight units cells having eight body-centered
atom, hence CO ordinate number surrounding such corner atom is 8. Similarly by
considering the center atom of each unit cell, we can say that the coordination number is 8,
because the eight equidistant neighbor atoms surround every center atom. Hence
coordination number for BCC structure is 8. The nearest distance between two atoms is
3a/2.

31
FACE CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE:
In this type of structure, the unit cell contains one atom at the center of each
face in addition to the atoms at the corners as shown in the figure. In this it is noted that this
type of structure dose not contain any atom at the center of atom and is obvious that each
nit cell shares 14 atoms. The coordination number for this case is 12 and the nearest
distance between the two atoms is a/ 2

HEXAGONAL CLOSE PACKED STRUCTURE:

In this type of structure, the unit cell contains one atom at each corner on the
hexagonal prism, one atom each at the center of the hexagonal faces and three more atoms
within the body of the cell as shown in the figure. It is obvious that each unit cell shares 14
atoms and contains three atoms within it. It has a coordination number of 12 and nearest
distance between two atoms is a/2.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PLANES AND DIRECTIONS

Introduction:
The layers of atoms or planes along which the atoms are arranged are known as
atomic or crystallographic plane. As one becomes more and more interested in the study of
the crystals, the need for the symbols to describe the orientation in space is of importance.
Crystallographic planes and directions become evident. The Miller system of designating
indices for crystallographic planes and directions is universally accepted for the purpose.

MILLER INDICES:
The orientation of a plane, in every crystal system, is described in terms of
coordinates through which they pass along x-x axis, y-y axis and zz axis. This orientation of

32
faces of a crystal and plane and direction of atom within that crystal is called MILLER
INDICES.

Identification of the miller Indices:

Millers suggested that it is more useful to describe the orientation of a plane by the
reciprocals of its numerical parameters rather than by its linear parameters. These
reciprocals when approximately converted into whole numbers, it is known as Miller indices.

Procedure for finding Miller Indices:

In order to find out the Miller indices of an atom, one comer of the unit cell is assumed to be
the origin of the coordinates then
-Find the intercepts on the three axis in multiples or fractions of unit distances on each
axis from the origin.
-Take the reciprocals of these numbers.
-Change these reciprocals to the smallest integers having the same ratio, i.e., by
multiplying each reciprocals with L.C.M
-Enclose the values in parenthesis.

Example To Find out Miller Indices

A plane in fig that has intercepts x=1, y=1 and z=1 has reciprocal intercepts 1/1,1/1,1/1

33
And the Miller Indices are (111).

A plane in fig has intercepts x=1/3,y=2/3, z=1 has reciprocal intercepts 3,3/2,1.Reduce these
reciprocals to the smallest integers, that are 6,3,2. Then Miller Indices are (632)
(Written without commas and enclosed within round brackets). Miller indices are always
whole numbers, and are never fractions. The directions ox, oy and oz are all regarded as
positive, but directions measured on the other side of the origin are regarded as negative. If
the parameters are negative the corresponding index is written with the negative sign above
it as shown in fig 4.6 g indicated as (100) and as (110) respectively.

CRYSTAL DIRECRIONS:
A direction in general may be represented in terms of three axes with reference to the
origin and a lattice point represents the direction of lattice point.

Procedure for finding crystal direction of Miller indices:

The following are the procedure adopted for finding the Miller indices direction.
Draw a straight line OD passing through the origin O and parallel to the crystal direction RS.
whose Miller Indices are required to be determined as shown in fig.

34
Now draw any point P on the line OD, and draw perpendiculars PL, PM.PN on x-x axis, y-y
axis z-z axis respectively.

Find the intercepts of OL, OM, ON in terms of axial units.

Reduce these intercepts in the smallest integers. Dividing the values of three intercepts
does this. Enclose the smallest integers in square brackets.

4.3 Crystal Imperfections

A crystal is a solid composed of atoms, ions or molecules arranged in a
pattern, which is respective in three-dimensional structure. In an Ideal crystal, the atomic
arrangement is perfectly regular and continuous throughout. But, real crystal as in cast or
welded objects is never perfect. Lattice distortion and various imperfections, irregularities or
defects are generally present in them.

CRYSTAL DEFECTS OR IMPERFECTIONS

It has been observed that the crystals are rarely found to be perfect. The atoms do not have
their full quota of electrons in the lowest energy level. But the atoms vibrate due to thermal
effect and the electrons also change their position. There are many other types of defects
found in the structure of the crystals. It will be interesting to know that the type and
magnitude of any defect, in the structure of the metal crystals, plays an important role at the
time of its selection as well as actual use.
The three types of defects are 1.Point defects 2.Line defects 3.Surface defects

POINT DEFECT: - The defects, which take place due to imperfect packing of atoms during
crystallization, are known as Point Defects. The point defects are also caused due to
vibrations of atoms at high temperatures. Different types of point defects are

Vacancies: - Whenever one or more atoms are missing from a normally occupied position
the defect caused is known as vacancy. It may be noted that there may be single vacancy (if
one) atom is missing), di-vacancies (If two atoms missing), Tri-vacancies (If three atoms are
missing) and so on.

Interstitial defects: - Whenever an extra atom occupies interstitial position i.e. voids in the
crystal system, the defect caused is known as interstitial defect. It may be noted that the
atom, which occupies the interstitial position, is generally smaller than the parent atom.

Frenkle defect: -When ever a missing atom (responsible for vacancy) occupies interstitial
positions (responsible for interstitial defect) the defect caused is known as Frankel defect It

35
may be noted that a Frankel defect is a combination of vacancy and interstitial defects. This
type of defects is more commanin ionic crystal, because the positive ions, being smaller in
size, get lodged easily in the interstitial position.

Substitution defect: - When ever a foreign atom (i.e. other than the parent atoms) occupies
a position, which was initially meant for the parent atom or in other words replaces the
patent atom the defect caused is known as Substitution defect. It may be noted that in this
type of defect the atom, which replaces the parent atom, may be of the same size or slightly
smaller or larger as that of the parent atom.

Schottky drfect: -Whenever a pair of positive and negative ion is missing from a crystal the
defect caused is known as schottky defect .It may be noted that in this type of defect, the
crystal is electrically neutral.

Phonon: -Whenever a group of atoms is displaced from its ideal location, the defect caused
is known as Phonon. It may be noted that such a defect caused by thermal vibration. It
happens as the atoms interact with one another, they tend to vibrate in synchronism in the
same way as waves on the ocean surface. It will be interesting to know that this defect
effects electrical and magenetic properties.

LINE DEFECTS: - The defect which takes place due to dislocation or distortion of atoms
along a line in some direction, ate called as Line defects. The line defects also takes place
when a central portion of a crystal lattice slips without effecting the outer portion.

Edge dislocation: - Whenever a half plane of atom is inserted between the planes of atoms
in a perfect crystal, it is called Edge dislocation Figure shows a cross- section of a crystal
where dots represents atoms arranged in an orderly manner (Draw fig from 340) Figure
(b) shows the displacement of atoms when an extra half plane is inserted from the top .It
may be noted from this figure, that top & bottom of the crystal above and below the line x-y
appears perfect if the extra of plane is inserted form top the defect so produced is
represented by =Z and if the extra half plane is inserted form the bottom the defect so
produced is represented >=T

36
Screw dislocation: -whenever the atom are displaced in two separate planes perpendicular
to each other the defect so produced is know as screw dislocation. Figure shows the
displacement of atoms in the region ABC in the screw dislocations the arrangement of
atoms appear like in the screw or a helical surface.

Surface defects: - Defects which take place on the surface of the material are known as
surface defects it my be noted that the surface defects takes place either due to imperfect
packing of atoms during crystallizations or defective orientation of surface the following are
the important types of surface defects.

Grain boundary: - Whenever grains of different orientation separate the general pattern ot
atom and exhibits a boundary as in the figure the defect caused is know as grain boundary
and this generally takes place during the solidifications of liquids metal.

Twin boundary: - When the boundaries in which the arrangement on one side of the
boundary is somewhat mirror of the arrangement of the atoms of the other side as in figure
This defect know as twin boundary.

37
Stacking fault: - whenever the stacking of atoms is not in proper sequence thought the
crystal the fault cased is known as stacking fault. Figure shows the proper sequence of
atomic planes. If we read form bottom to top is A-B-C-A-B-C-A-B-C. Now figure show the
sequence of atomic Planes as A-B-C-B-A-B-A-B-C. The region in which the stacking fault
occurs (A-B-A-B) form a thin region of hexagonal close packing in a FCC crystal.

Stacking Fault

38


When homogeneous mixtures of two or more kinds of atom occur in the solid state they are
known as solid solutions i.e. a solid solution is simply a solution in the solid state and
consists of two kinds of atoms combined in one type of space lattice.

Eg: - 1) Brass is solid solution of copper and zinc. Composition is copper 64% and zinc
36%. Cu is solvent atom and zinc atoms are solute atoms.
2) Ni-Cu alloys (Monel metal); Fe-C alloy (steels).

5.1 SOLID SOLUTION: -

A solid solution is a single phase, as it is chemically homogenous and the

component atoms cannot be distinguished physically or separated mechanically by ordinary
means.
Two types of solid solution formed are:
1. Interstitial solid solutions
2. Substations solid solutions
(a) Ordered.
(b) Disordered

1. Interstitial solid solutions

This is formed when solute atoms are very small as compared to the solvent atoms and they
are unable to substitute solvent atoms (because of the large difference in diameter of
solvent and solute atoms.) and can only fit in to the interstices or space in crystal lattice of
solvent atoms.

Atoms size is not the only factor that determines whether or not an interstitial solid solution
will form. Small Interstitial solid solute atoms dissolve much more readily in transition metals
like (Fe, Ni, Mn, Mo, Cr, etc.) than in other metals.

Carbon forms an interstitial solid with FCC (face centered cubic) iron during the solidification
of steel. Nitrogen also dissolves interstitial in solid steel.

2. Substitutional solid solutions

In this, there is direct substitution of one type of atom for another so that solute atoms (Cu)
enter the crystal to take positions normally occupied by solvent atoms (e.g nickel atoms).

39
That is in substitutions solid solution, the atoms of the solute substitute for the solvent in the
lattice structure of the solvent.

For e.g. Atomic diameter of copper is 2.551A and that of nickel is 2.487 A and the two
form Substitutional solid solutions.

40
Disordered substitutional solid solution: -

If the solute atoms do not occupy any specific position but are distributed at random in the
lattice structure of the solvent, then this is known as disordered substitutions solid solution.

Ordered substitution solid solution: -

If the atoms of the solute material occupy similar lattice points within the crystal structure of
the solvent material, this is known as ordered substitution solid solution

If the alloy in the disordered condition is cooled slowly, it undergoes a rearrangement of

atoms because of diffusion to produce uniform distribution of solute and solvent atoms. This
structure is known as ordered substitutions solid solution or super lattice.

E.g.- -Cu-Zn, Au-Cu etc.

Hume Rotherys rules (or factors governing substitutions solubility):-

The different rules or factors are: -

1 Crystal structure factor: -

The crystal lattice structure of the two elements (metals) should be same (i.e. Both
should be of B.C.C, F.C.C or H.C.P structure) for complete solubility for complete
solid solubility the size factor must be less that 8%.

2 Relative size factor: -

If the sizes of two metallic atoms differ by less than 25% the metals are said to have
favorable size factor for solid-solution formation
E.g.: Cu-Ni, Au-Pt

3 Chemical affinity factor: -

The greater the chemical affinity of two metal, the more restricted is their solid
solubility When their chemical affinity is great two metals tend to form an
intermediate phase rather than a solid solution.

4 Relative valence factor: -

Consider two atoms, one with large valence electrons and other with small number of
valence electrons. The metal of high valence dissolve only a small amount of lower
valence metal, while the lower valence metal may have good solubility for higher
valence metal.

41
 Eg: -In Al-Ni alloy system Ni is lower in volume than Al and thus solid Nickel
dissolves 5% aluminum, but higher valence Al dissolves only 0.04% Ni.

Intermediate phases: -
In binary alloy system when the chemical affinity of metal is great, their mutual
solubility becomes limited and intermediate phase are rather than solid solutions.
Eg: -Cu-Al
There are two types: -
(a) Inter-metallic compounds of fixed composition: -They obey the usual valance laws.
Eg: -NaCl
(b) Inter-metallic compounds of variable composition.
They do not obey the valance laws and are known as electron compounds.
Eg: - Cu-Zn.

5.2 Solid phases and its type: -

Here the solids are described in terms of their phases, such as single-phase solids
two phase solids etc. and this requires compositional approach, which involves temperature,
pressure and concentration of chemical elements present in the solids This is useful in
material science to know the state or condition at which the solids in question exists and
how to improve the properties by changing its from thermodynamic point of view.

Basic terms: -

In the study of phase and phase diagram some terms are frequently used. So
these should be clearly defined before different aspects of the topics are explained.

System: -

A system is a substance or group of substances so isolated from its surroundings that it is

totally unaffected by the surroundings and is subjected to changes in over all composition,
temperature, pressure or total volume only to the extent allowed by the person who
investigates it.

State: -

The state of a system is a physical condition as defined by any combination of quantities,

which fixes the condition.

Components: -

The components of a system are the chemical or compounds that make up the system.

Phase: -

A phase is physically and chemically homogeneous portion of a matter.

42
Equilibrium: -

Equilibrium in a system is the state of minimum free energy under any specified combination
of overall composition, temperature, pressure and total volume.

Degrees of freedom: -

These are defined as the number of independent variables whose values must be specified
in order to exactly define the state of a system.

Solid phases: -

Solid, liquid & gas are quite different in their characteristics and the freezing or at the boiling
point where liquid and solid or gas can exist; these are two homogeneous type of matter.
That is each of three forms constitutes a separate and distinct phase.

Single and multi-phase solids: -

A single crystal of a material can consist of one phase only, while polycrystalline materials
may be single or multi-phase, depending upon the nature of the individual crystals or grains
present. Solid solubility of the metals melted together to form a particular alloy. The most
common multi phase materials are the naturally occurring solids called rocks. It is composed
of two or more phases. Ceramic materials, wood, a number of polymers, fiberglass are
common multiphase alloys. A number of structural features are important in multiphase
materials, namely number of each phase and size of its domains. The structural Property
relationship in multi phase materials depends upon the physical and chemical natures of the
phase present, the percentage amount of each present distribution of phase in relation to
one another and a size of the domains occupied by each phase.

Alloys: -
An alloy is a substance that possesses metallic property and composed of two or more
element of which at least one is metal, is called an alloy. The base metal of an alloy is the
metal present in greatest proportion, while other constituents are called alloying elements.

Phase diagram: -

A phase diagram or equilibrium diagram or constituent diagram is a graphical method

of representation of the different compositions. Phase diagrams have temperature on the
vertical axis and percentage composition by weight along horizontal axis. Phase diagram
indicates the temperature at which the solid alloy will start and finish melting and the
possible phase changes, which will occur as a result of altering composition, or temperature.

Phase rule:-
Gibbs phase rule: -

This establishes the relationship between the number of degrees of freedom (F), the number
of component (C) and a number of phases (P).
Mathematical representation is F=C-P+2, That 2 stands for two variable say temperature
and pressure.

Unary Phase diagram: -

43
In unary or one component system, only temperature and pressure may be varied and
coordinates of unary phase diagrams are temperature and pressure. In unary, temperature
Is shown along x-axis. For one component system, the phase rule becomes

F = 1-P+2 =3-P
This implies that the maximum number of phases in equilibrium is three when F=0. As
shown figure, which has three regions, solid, liquid and vapor. In any one of these regions or
phases temperature or pressure may be varied with no change in phase as there are two
degrees of freedom (F=3-P, i.e. F=3-1=2) for two phases to continue to coexist only
temperature or pressure can be varied independently. The point of intersection of these lines
of phases is known as Triple point. At this point, the solid, liquid and vapor coexist in
equilibrium.

Binary phase diagrams: -

In binary or two-component system, the maximum number of variables is three. Those
are changes of temperature, pressure and concentration. Only one concentration is required
to define the composition of two components, since the second component is found by
subtracting from unity. The graphical representation of such a system requires a three
dimensional diagram which is complicated. In order to simplify it, binary phase diagrams are
drawn at constant pressure showing variations in temperature and composition only. The
phase rule reduces to

F=C-P+1

44
6.0 SOLIDIFICATION OF METALS
6.1 The solidification process of the metal: -

The metal begins to solidify when the temperature of liquid metal drop below a
certain critical value. As a result the metal is transformed into crystalline state. Refer fig 6.1

The figure shows the solidification process based on freezing or cooling curve. The
first center of crystallization or nuclei appears at point m at temperature t. As the liquid
metal continues to cool, new nuclei form within the solidified metal and the already formed
crystal grow in size. Since the freezing process is accompanied by the evolution of latent
heat of fusion solidification occurs at constant temperature at point n. This is shown by
horizontal line in the diagram. A further drop in temperature is observed, when all the metals
solidify.

Depending on the rate of cooling the amount of impurities in the melt, the crystal, which
forms in the process of solidification, may have dendritic, laminar needle type structure. A
single crystal can be obtained, if the temperature of the melt is reduced slowly and material
is of high degree of purity. In major cases, tree like crystal are obtained, which are called as
dendrites. The nucleus has a number of equivalent crystallographic direction along which
crystal growth may occur. The nucleus develops in form a dendritic crystal chiefly along the
direction of maximum linear rate of growth. This results in the formation of long branches
and they branch out in various direction of the initial nucleus. Finally the spaces between the
branches are filled with the solidifying metal. Further freezing of the metal and the
development of dendrite crystal, all the liquid metal in the spaces are solidified.

For example in a casting, the entire melt is not cooled at a uniform rate. This is due to heat
removed through the walls of the mould. This causes the melt in contact with the wall to
freeze first. Therefore solidification moves towards the center from the nuclei formed near to
the wall. The crystals grow in the direction of heat removal i.e. normal to mould walls. This
results in the formation of long grains perpendicular to the walls of the mould when the
freezing is complete and thus a columnar grain structure is formed.

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6.2The structural change in the metal with the rate-cooling curve

Cooling curve helps to determine the temperature at which the phase changes, i.e
from liquid to solid or vice versa will occur in an alloy system . It consists of following the
temperature as the function of time as different alloys in the system are cooled slowly.Refer
Fig 6.2

Consider the cooling curve for pure iron. Iron has many allotropic forms such as ,,,
in the solid state. Existence of one form to other depends upon the temperature to which
iron is heated. Referring the figure the melting point of pure iron is 1535C. At 1535C, first
horizontal steps appear on the curve, It shows transformation from the liquid state takes
place at the constant temperature. On freezing the melt, delta iron is formed and this has
body centered lattice with constant a=2.93A. The second effect occurs at 1400C and
corresponds to the transformation of delta iron into gamma iron which has face centered
cubic lattice with constant a=3.63 A. Gamma iron is paramagnetic. The third effect starts
effect starts at 910C forming alpha iron from gamma-iron with body centered cubic lattice
having a constant a=2.9A and it is non magnetic. The last effect occurs at 768C and
corresponding to alpha iron, which is highly magnetic and exist at room temperature can
dissolve very little amount of carbon. The changes said above are reversible.

Iron Carbon Equilibrium Diagram

An equilibrium diagram is a graphical representation of the effects of a temperature and

composition upon the phases present in an alloy. It is constructed by plotting temperature
along Y-axis and percentage composition of the alloy along X-axis.

Iron carbon equilibrium diagram indicates the phase changes that occur during the heating
and cooling, the nature and amount of the structural components that exist at any
temperature. By referring to this diagram, one may get proper quenching temperatures for
any carbon steel. The critical points in figure, on the line A FEX are denoted by A1 or Ae,
those on line BE by A3, and those of line EC by Acm.

Consider an example of a piece of 0.2%Carbon steel which has been heated to a

temperature around 850C. Above A3 this steel is a solid solution of gamma- iron called
austenite. It has a face centered cubic lattice and is non magnetic. Plain austenite contains
up to 2%carbon at temperature of 1148C. On cooling this steel, the iron atoms start to form
a body centered cubic lattice below the point A3 i.e. BE line, which is known as ferrite or
alpha iron and is a solid solution of carbon in alpha iron containing up to 0.008% carbon at
room temperature.

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 As the steel is cooled to A1 more ferrite is formed. At the A1 line the austenite
that remains is transformed to pearlite. Pearlite may be fine or coarse, lamellar or granular
structure. The pearlite constituent in steel is machinable.
As carbon content of steel increases above 0.2%, temperature at which ferrite
is first rejected from austenite drops till 0.8% carbon and after this percentage (i.e. point E)
no free ferrite is rejected. This steel is called eutectoid Steel and is 100% pearlite.
Eutectoid point is the lowest temperature at which changes occur in solid solution.
If carbon content of steel is greater than eutectoid (0.8% carbon), new line
Acm is seen, denoting the temperature at which iron carbide is first rejected from austenite,
known as cementite.
A point D the eutectic mixture containing 4.3% carbon is known as
Ledeburite. Steels containing less than 0.8% carbon is called Hypereutectoid and which
contain more carbon are called Hypereutectoid steels.

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