Coordinates: 20S 47E

Madagascar
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Madagascar (/mdskr/ ; Malagasy:

Madagasikara), officially the Republic of Madagascar Republic of Madagascar
(Malagasy: Repoblikan'i Madagasikara [republikan Repoblikan'i Madagasikara (Malagasy)
madaaskar ]; French: Rpublique de Madagascar), Rpublique de Madagascar (French )
and previously known as the Malagasy Republic, is an
island country in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of
Southeast Africa. The nation comprises the island of
Madagascar (the fourth-largest island in the world), and
numerous smaller peripheral islands. Following the
prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana,
Flag Seal
Madagascar split from the Indian peninsula around
88 million years ago, allowing native plants and animals Motto:
to evolve in relative isolation. Consequently, Madagascar "Fitiavana, Tanindrazana, Fandrosoana" (Malagasy)
is a biodiversity hotspot; over 90% of its wildlife is "Amour, Patrie, Progrs" (French)
found nowhere else on Earth. The island's diverse "Love, Fatherland, Progress" [1]
ecosystems and unique wildlife are threatened by the Anthem: Ry Tanindrazanay malala !
encroachment of the rapidly growing human population Oh, Beloved Land of our Ancestors!
and other environmental threats.

The first archaeological evidence for human foraging on

Madagascar dates to 2000 BC. Human settlement of
Madagascar occurred between 350 BC and AD 550 by
Austronesian peoples arriving on outrigger canoes from
Borneo. These were joined around AD 1000 by Bantu
migrants crossing the Mozambique Channel from East
Africa. Other groups continued to settle on Madagascar
over time, each one making lasting contributions to
Malagasy cultural life. The Malagasy ethnic group is
often divided into 18 or more sub-groups of which the
largest are the Merina of the central highlands.

Until the late 18th century, the island of Madagascar was

ruled by a fragmented assortment of shifting Location of Madagascar (dark blue)
sociopolitical alliances. Beginning in the early 19th in Africa (light blue & dark grey)
in the African Union (light blue)
century, most of the island was united and ruled as the
Kingdom of Madagascar by a series of Merina nobles. Capital Antananarivo
The monarchy collapsed in 1897 when the island was and largest city 1855S 4731E

absorbed into the French colonial empire, from which Official languages Malagasy French
the island gained independence in 1960. The Ethnic groups 26% Merina
autonomous state of Madagascar has since undergone 15% Betsimisaraka
(2004[2])
four major constitutional periods, termed republics. 12% Betsileo
Since 1992, the nation has officially been governed as a 7% Tsimihety
constitutional democracy from its capital at 6% Sakalava
Antananarivo. However, in a popular uprising in 2009, 5% Antaisaka
5% Antandroy
president Marc Ravalomanana was made to resign and 24% others
presidential power was transferred in March 2009 to
Andry Rajoelina. Constitutional governance was Demonym Malagasy,[3] Madagascan[4][5]
restored in January 2014, when Hery Government Unitary semi-presidential
Rajaonarimampianina was named president following a constitutional republic
2013 election deemed fair and transparent by the President Hery Rajaonarimampianina
international community. Madagascar is a member of the Prime Minister Olivier Solonandrasana
United Nations, the Organisation Internationale de la Legislature Parliament
Francophonie and the Southern African Development
Upper house Senate
Community (SADC).
Lower house National Assembly
Madagascar belongs to the group of least developed Independence
countries, according to the United Nations.[11] Malagasy from France 26 June 1960
and French are both official languages of the state. The Current 17 November 2010
constitution
majority of the population adheres to traditional beliefs,
Christianity, or an amalgamation of both. Ecotourism Area
and agriculture, paired with greater investments in Total 587,041 km2 (226,658 sq mi)
education, health, and private enterprise, are key (47th)
elements of Madagascar's development strategy. Under Water 5,501 km2 (2,124 sq mi)
Ravalomanana, these investments produced substantial Water (%) 0.9%
economic growth, but the benefits were not evenly
Population
spread throughout the population, producing tensions
2016[6] estimate 24,430,325 (52nd)
over the increasing cost of living and declining living
standards among the poor and some segments of the 1993 census 12,238,914
Density 35.2/km2 (91.2/sq mi) (174th)
middle class. As of 2017, the economy has been
weakened by the 20092013 political crisis, and quality GDP (PPP) 2017 estimate
of life remains low for the majority of the Malagasy Total $40.055 billion[7]
population. Per capita $1,563[7]
GDP (nominal) 2017 estimate
Total $10.372 billion[7]
Contents Per capita $405[7]
1 Etymology Gini (2010) 44.1[8]
2 Geography medium
2.1 Climate
2.2 Ecology HDI (2015) 0.512[9]
2.3 Environmental issues low 158th
3 History Currency Malagasy ariary (MGA)
3.1 Early period
3.2 Arab and European contacts Time zone EAT (UTC+3)
3.3 Kingdom of Madagascar Summer (DST) not observed[10] (UTC+3)
3.4 French colonization
Drives on the right
3.5 Independent state
4 Government Calling code +261[10]
4.1 Structure
4.2 Politics ISO 3166 code MG
4.3 Security Internet TLD .mg
4.4 Administrative divisions
4.5 United Nations involvement
5 Economy
5.1 Natural resources and trade
5.2 Infrastructure and media
6 Health
7 Education
8 Demographics
8.1 Ethnic groups
8.2 Languages
8.3 Religion
9 Culture
10 Arts
 10.1 Sport and recreation
10.2 Cuisine
11 See also
12 Notes
13 References
14 External links

Etymology
In the Malagasy language, the island of Madagascar is called Madagasikara [madaaskar ] and its people are
referred to as Malagasy.[12] The island's appellation "Madagascar" is not of local origin, but rather was
popularized in the Middle Ages by Europeans.[13] The name Madageiscar was first recorded in the memoirs of
13th-century Venetian explorer Marco Polo as a corrupted transliteration of the name Mogadishu, the Somali
port with which Polo had confused the island.[14]

On St. Laurence's Day in 1500, Portuguese explorer Diogo Dias landed on the island and christened it So
Loureno. Polo's name was preferred and popularized on Renaissance maps. No single Malagasy-language
name predating Madagasikara appears to have been used by the local population to refer to the island, although
some communities had their own name for part or all of the land they inhabited.[14]

Geography
At 592,800 square
kilometres
(228,900 sq mi),[15]
Madagascar is the
world's 47th largest
country[6] and the
fourth-largest
The terraced paddy fields of the central highlands of Madagascar (left) give way to tropical
island.[15] The country
rainforest along the eastern coast (center) bordered by the shores of theIndian Ocean (right).
lies mostly between
latitudes 12S and
26S, and longitudes 43E and 51E.[16] Neighboring islands include the French territory of Runion and the
country of Mauritius to the east, as well as the state of Comoros and the French territory of Mayotte to the north
west. The nearest mainland state is Mozambique, located to the west.

The prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana separated the MadagascarAntarcticaIndia landmass
from the AfricaSouth America landmass around 135 million years ago. Madagascar later split from India
about 88 million years ago, allowing plants and animals on the island to evolve in relative isolation.[17] Along
the length of the eastern coast runs a narrow and steep escarpment containing much of the island's remaining
tropical lowland forest.

To the west of this ridge lies a plateau in the center of the island ranging in altitude from 750 to 1,500 m (2,460
to 4,920 ft) above sea level. These central highlands, traditionally the homeland of the Merina people and the
location of their historic capital at Antananarivo, are the most densely populated part of the island and are
characterized by terraced, rice-growing valleys lying between grassy hills and patches of the subhumid forests
that formerly covered the highland region. To the west of the highlands, the increasingly arid terrain gradually
slopes down to the Mozambique Channel and mangrove swamps along the coast.[18]
Madagascar's highest peaks
rise from three prominent
highland massifs:
Maromokotro 2,876 m
(9,436 ft) in the Tsaratanana
Massif is the island's
highest point, followed by
Boby Peak 2,658 m The grassy plains that dominate the western landscape are dotted with stony massifs
(8,720 ft) in the Andringitra (left), patches of deciduous forest, and baobab trees (center), while the south is
Massif, and Tsiafajavona characterized by desert and spiny forests (right).
2,643 m (8,671 ft) in the
Ankaratra Massif. To the
east, the Canal des Pangalanes is a chain of man-made and natural lakes connected by canals built by the
French just inland from the east coast and running parallel to it for some 600 km (370 mi).[19]

The western and southern sides, which lie in the rain shadow of the central highlands, are home to dry
deciduous forests, spiny forests, and deserts and xeric shrublands. Due to their lower population densities,
Madagascar's dry deciduous forests have been better preserved than the eastern rain forests or the original
woodlands of the central plateau. The western coast features many protected harbors, but silting is a major
problem caused by sediment from the high levels of inland erosion carried by rivers crossing the broad western
plains.[19]

Climate

The combination of southeastern trade winds and northwestern

monsoons produces a hot rainy season (NovemberApril) with
frequently destructive cyclones, and a relatively cooler dry season
(MayOctober). Rain clouds originating over the Indian Ocean
discharge much of their moisture over the island's eastern coast; the
heavy precipitation supports the area's rain forest ecosystem. The
central highlands are both drier and cooler while the west is drier still,
and a semi-arid climate prevails in the southwest and southern interior
of the island.[18]

Tropical cyclones annually cause damage to infrastructure and local

economies as well as loss of life.[20] In 2004 Cyclone Gafilo became the
strongest cyclone ever recorded to hit Madagascar. The storm killed 172 A Kppen climate classification map
people, left 214,260 homeless[21] and caused more than US$250 million of Madagascar
in damage.[22]

Ecology

As a result of the island's long isolation from neighboring continents, Madagascar is home to an abundance of
plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth.[23][24] Approximately 90% of all plant and animal species
found in Madagascar are endemic,[25] including the lemurs (a type of strepsirrhine primate), the carnivorous
fossa and many birds. This distinctive ecology has led some ecologists to refer to Madagascar as the "eighth
continent",[26] and the island has been classified by Conservation International as a biodiversity hotspot.[23]

More than 80 percent of Madagascar's 14,883 plant species are found nowhere else in the world, including five
plant families.[27] The family Didiereaceae, composed of four genera and 11 species, is limited to the spiny
forests of southwestern Madagascar.[18] Four-fifths of the world's Pachypodium species are endemic to the
island.[28] Three-fourths[29] of Madagascar's 860[27] orchid species are found here alone, as are six of the
world's nine baobab species.[30] The island is home to around 170 palm species,
three times as many as on all of mainland Africa; 165 of them are endemic.[29]
Many native plant species are used as herbal remedies for a variety of
afflictions. The drugs vinblastine[31][32] and vincristine[31][33] are vinca
alkaloids[34][35], used to treat Hodgkin's disease,[36] leukemia,[37] and other
cancers,[38] were derived from the Madagascar periwinkle.[39][40] The traveler's
palm, known locally as ravinala[41] and endemic to the eastern rain forests,[42]
is highly iconic of Madagascar and is featured in the national emblem as well as
the Air Madagascar logo.[43]

Like its flora, Madagascar's fauna is diverse and exhibits a high rate of
endemism. Lemurs have been characterized as "Madagascar's flagship mammal
species" by Conservation International.[23] In the absence of monkeys and other Biogeographic timetable of
competitors, these primates have adapted to a wide range of habitats and Madagascar over the last 200
diversified into numerous species. As of 2012, there were officially 103 species million years
and subspecies of lemur,[45] 39 of which were described by zoologists between
2000 and 2008.[46] They are almost all
classified as rare, vulnerable, or
endangered. At least 17 species of lemur
have become extinct since humans
arrived on Madagascar, all of which
were larger than the surviving lemur
species.[47]

The ring-tailed lemur is one of over A number of other mammals, including

100 known species and subspecies of the cat-like fossa, are endemic to
Madagascar. Over 300 species of birds
lemur found only in Madagascar.[44]
have been recorded on the island, of
which over 60 percent (including four
The island's iconic traveller's
families and 42 genera) are endemic.[23] The few families and genera of reptile palm (ravinala) features in
that have reached Madagascar have diversified into more than 260 species, with the national emblem.
over 90 percent of these being endemic [48] (including one endemic family).[23]

The island is home to two-thirds of the world's chameleon species,[48] including

the smallest known,[49] and researchers have proposed that Madagascar may be the origin of all chameleons.

Endemic fish of Madagascar include two families, 15 genera and over 100 species, primarily inhabiting the
island's freshwater lakes and rivers. Although invertebrates remain poorly studied on Madagascar, researchers
have found high rates of endemism among the known species. All 651 species of terrestrial snail are endemic,
as are a majority of the island's butterflies, scarab beetles, lacewings, spiders and dragonflies.[23]

Environmental issues

Madagascar's varied fauna and flora are endangered by human activity.[50] Since the arrival of humans around
2,350 years ago, Madagascar has lost more than 90 percent of its original forest.[51] This forest loss is largely
fueled by tavy ("fat"), a traditional slash-and-burn agricultural practice imported to Madagascar by the earliest
settlers.[52] Malagasy farmers embrace and perpetuate the practice not only for its practical benefits as an
agricultural technique, but for its cultural associations with prosperity, health and venerated ancestral custom
(fomba malagasy).[53] As human population density rose on the island, deforestation accelerated beginning
around 1400 years ago.[54] By the 16th century, the central highlands had been largely cleared of their original
forests.[52] More recent contributors to the loss of forest cover include the growth in cattle herd size since their
 Tavy (slash-and-burn) destruction of native forest habitat is widespread (left), causing massive erosion
(center) and silting of rivers (right).

introduction around 1000 years ago, a continued reliance on charcoal as a fuel for cooking, and the increased
prominence of coffee as a cash crop over the past century.[55] According to a conservative estimate, about
40 percent of the island's original forest cover was lost from the 1950s to 2000, with a thinning of remaining
forest areas by 80 percent.[56] In addition to traditional agricultural practice, wildlife conservation is challenged
by the illicit harvesting of protected forests, as well as the state-sanctioned harvesting of precious woods within
national parks. Although banned by then-President Marc Ravalomanana from 2000 to 2009, the collection of
small quantities of precious timber from national parks was re-authorized in January 2009 and dramatically
intensified under the administration of Andry Rajoelina as a key source of state revenues to offset cuts in donor
support following Ravalomanana's ousting.[57]

It is anticipated that all the island's rainforests, excluding those in protected areas and the steepest eastern
mountain slopes, will have been deforested by 2025.[58] Invasive species have likewise been introduced by
human populations. Following the 2014 discovery in Madagascar of the Asian common toad, a relative of a
toad species that has severely harmed wildlife in Australia since the 1930s, researchers warned the toad could
"wreak havoc on the country's unique fauna."[59] Habitat destruction and hunting have threatened many of
Madagascar's endemic species or driven them to extinction. The island's elephant birds, a family of endemic
giant ratites, became extinct in the 17th century or earlier, most probably due to human hunting of adult birds
and poaching of their large eggs for food.[60] Numerous giant lemur species vanished with the arrival of human
settlers to the island, while others became extinct over the course of the centuries as a growing human
population put greater pressures on lemur habitats and, among some populations, increased the rate of lemur
hunting for food.[61] A July 2012 assessment found that the exploitation of natural resources since 2009 has had
dire consequences for the island's wildlife: 90 percent of lemur species were found to be threatened with
extinction, the highest proportion of any mammalian group. Of these, 23 species were classified as critically
endangered. By contrast, a previous study in 2008 had found only 38 percent of lemur species were at risk of
extinction.[45]

In 2003 Ravalomanana announced the Durban Vision, an initiative to more than triple the island's protected
natural areas to over 60,000 km2 (23,000 sq mi) or 10 percent of Madagascar's land surface. As of 2011, areas
protected by the state included five Strict Nature Reserves (Rserves Naturelles Intgrales), 21 Wildlife
Reserves (Rserves Spciales) and 21 National Parks (Parcs Nationaux).[62] In 2007 six of the national parks
were declared a joint World Heritage Site under the name Rainforests of the Atsinanana. These parks are
Marojejy, Masoala, Ranomafana, Zahamena, Andohahela and Andringitra.[63] Local timber merchants are
harvesting scarce species of rosewood trees from protected rainforests within Marojejy National Park and
exporting the wood to China for the production of luxury furniture and musical instruments.[64] To raise public
awareness of Madagascar's environmental challenges, the Wildlife Conservation Society opened an exhibit
entitled "Madagascar!" in June 2008 at the Bronx Zoo in New York.[65]

History
Early period
The settlement of Madagascar is a subject of ongoing research and
debate. Archaeological finds such as cut marks on bones found in the
northwest and stone tools in the northeast indicate that Madagascar was
visited by foragers around 2000 BC.[66][67] Traditionally, archaeologists
have estimated that the earliest settlers arrived in successive waves
throughout the period between 350 BC and 550 AD, while others are
cautious about dates earlier than 250 AD. In either case, these dates
make Madagascar one of the last major landmasses on Earth to be
settled by humans.[68]
Malagasy ancestry reflects a blend of
Early settlers arrived in outrigger canoes from southern Borneo. Upon Austronesian (Southeast Asian) and
arrival, early settlers practiced slash-and-burn agriculture to clear the Bantu (East African) roots.
coastal rainforests for cultivation. The first settlers encountered
Madagascar's abundance of megafauna, including giant lemurs, elephant
birds, giant fossa and the Malagasy hippopotamus, which have since become extinct due to hunting and habitat
destruction.[69] By 600 AD groups of these early settlers had begun clearing the forests of the central
highlands.[70] Arab traders first reached the island between the seventh and ninth centuries.[71] A wave of
Bantu-speaking migrants from southeastern Africa arrived around 1000 AD. They introduced the zebu, a type
of long-horned humped cattle, which they kept in large herds.[52]

By 1600, irrigated paddy fields were developed in the central highland Betsileo Kingdom, and were extended
with terraced paddies throughout the neighboring Kingdom of Imerina a century later.[70] The rising intensity
of land cultivation and the ever-increasing demand for zebu pasturage had largely transformed the central
highlands from a forest ecosystem to grassland by the 17th century.[52] The oral histories of the Merina people,
who may have arrived in the central highlands between 600 and 1000 years ago, describe encountering an
established population they called the Vazimba. Probably the descendants of an earlier and less technologically
advanced Austronesian settlement wave, the Vazimba were assimilated or expelled from the highlands by the
Merina kings Andriamanelo, Ralambo and Andrianjaka in the 16th and early 17th centuries.[72] Today, the
spirits of the Vazimba are revered as tompontany (ancestral masters of the land) by many traditional Malagasy
communities.[73]

Arab and European contacts

Madagascar was an important transoceanic trading hub connecting ports

of the Indian Ocean in the early centuries following human settlement.
The written history of Madagascar began with the Arabs, who
established trading posts along the northwest coast by at least the 10th
century and introduced Islam, the Arabic script (used to transcribe the
Malagasy language in a form of writing known as sorabe), Arab
astrology, and other cultural elements.[20] European contact began in
1500, when the Portuguese sea captain Diogo Dias sighted the
island.[15] The French established trading posts along the east coast in A pirate cemetery at le Sainte-Marie
the late 17th century.[20]

From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar gained prominence among pirates and European traders, particularly
those involved in the trans-Atlantic slave trade. The small island of Nosy Boroha off the northeastern coast of
Madagascar has been proposed by some historians as the site of the legendary pirate utopia of Libertalia.[74]
Many European sailors were shipwrecked on the coasts of the island, among them Robert Drury, whose journal
is one of the few written depictions of life in southern Madagascar during the 18th century.[75] The wealth
generated by maritime trade spurred the rise of organized kingdoms on the island, some of which had grown
quite powerful by the 17th century.[76] Among these were the Betsimisaraka alliance of the eastern coast and
the Sakalava chiefdoms of Menabe and Boina on the west coast. The Kingdom of Imerina, located in the
central highlands with its capital at the royal palace of Antananarivo, emerged at around the same time under
the leadership of King Andriamanelo.[77]

Kingdom of Madagascar

Upon its emergence in the early 17th century, the highland kingdom of Imerina
was initially a minor power relative to the larger coastal kingdoms[77] and grew
even weaker in the early 18th century when King Andriamasinavalona divided
it among his four sons. Following almost a century of warring and famine,
Imerina was reunited in 1793 by King Andrianampoinimerina (17871810).[78]
From his initial capital Ambohimanga,[79] and later from the Rova of
Antananarivo, this Merina king rapidly expanded his rule over neighboring
principalities. His ambition to bring the entire island under his control was
largely achieved by his son and successor, King Radama I (181028), who was
recognized by the British government as King of Madagascar. Radama
concluded a treaty in 1817 with the British governor of Mauritius to abolish the
lucrative slave trade in return for British military and financial assistance. King Andrianampoinimerina
Artisan missionary envoys from the London Missionary Society began arriving (17871810)
in 1818 and included such key figures as James Cameron, David Jones and
David Griffiths, who established schools, transcribed the Malagasy language
using the Roman alphabet, translated the Bible, and introduced a variety of new technologies to the island.[80]

Radama's successor, Queen Ranavalona I (182861), responded to increasing political and cultural
encroachment on the part of Britain and France by issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice of Christianity
in Madagascar and pressuring most foreigners to leave the territory. Residents of Madagascar could accuse one
another of various crimes, including theft, Christianity and especially witchcraft, for which the ordeal of
tangena was routinely obligatory. Between 1828 and 1861, the tangena ordeal caused about 3,000 deaths
annually.[81] Among those who continued to reside in Imerina were Jean Laborde, an entrepreneur who
developed munitions and other industries on behalf of the monarchy, and Joseph-Franois Lambert, a French
adventurer and slave trader, with whom then-Prince Radama II signed a controversial trade agreement termed
the Lambert Charter. Succeeding his mother, Radama II (186163) attempted to relax the queen's stringent
policies, but was overthrown two years later by Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony (18521865) and an
alliance of Andriana (noble) and Hova (commoner) courtiers, who sought to end the absolute power of the
monarch.[20]

Following the coup, the courtiers offered Radama's queen Rasoherina (186368) the opportunity to rule, if she
would accept a power sharing arrangement with the Prime Ministera new social contract that would be
sealed by a political marriage between them.[82] Queen Rasoherina accepted, first wedding
Rainivoninahitriniony, then later deposing him and wedding his brother, Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony (1864
95), who would go on to marry Queen Ranavalona II (186883) and Queen Ranavalona III (188397) in
succession.[83] Over the course of Rainilaiarivony's 31-year tenure as prime minister, numerous policies were
adopted to modernize and consolidate the power of the central government.[84] Schools were constructed
throughout the island and attendance was made mandatory. Army organization was improved, and British
consultants were employed to train and professionalize soldiers.[85] Polygamy was outlawed and Christianity,
declared the official religion of the court in 1869, was adopted alongside traditional beliefs among a growing
portion of the populace.[84] Legal codes were reformed on the basis of British common law and three
European-style courts were established in the capital city.[85] In his joint role as Commander-in-Chief,
Rainilaiarivony also successfully ensured the defense of Madagascar against several French colonial
incursions.[85]

French colonization
Primarily on the basis that the Lambert Charter had not been respected, France
invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first Franco-Hova
War.[86] At the end of the war, Madagascar ceded the northern port town of
Antsiranana (Diego Suarez) to France and paid 560,000 francs to Lambert's
heirs.[87] In 1890, the British accepted the full formal imposition of a French
protectorate on the island, but French authority was not acknowledged by the
government of Madagascar. To force capitulation, the French bombarded and
occupied the harbor of Toamasina on the east coast, and Mahajanga on the west
coast, in December 1894 and January 1895 respectively.[88]

A French military flying column then marched toward Antananarivo, losing

many men to malaria and other diseases. Reinforcements came from Algeria
and Sub-Saharan Africa. Upon reaching the city in September 1895, the column
bombarded the royal palace with heavy artillery, causing heavy casualties and
leading Queen Ranavalona III to surrender.[89] France annexed Madagascar in A French poster about the
1896 and declared the island a colony the following year, dissolving the Merina Franco-Hova War
monarchy and sending the royal family into exile on Runion Island and to
Algeria. A two-year resistance movement organized in response to the French
capture of the royal palace was effectively put down at the end of 1897.[90]

Under colonial rule, plantations were established for the production of a variety of export crops.[91] Slavery
was abolished in 1896 and approximately 500,000 slaves were freed; many remained in their former masters'
homes as servants[92] or as sharecroppers; in many parts of the island strong discriminatory views against slave
descendants are still held today.[93] Wide paved boulevards and gathering places were constructed in the capital
city of Antananarivo[94] and the Rova palace compound was turned into a museum.[95] Additional schools were
built, particularly in rural and coastal areas where the schools of the Merina had not reached. Education became
mandatory between the ages of 6 to 13 and focused primarily on French language and practical skills.[96]

The Merina royal tradition of taxes paid in the form of labor was continued under the French and used to
construct a railway and roads linking key coastal cities to Antananarivo.[97] Malagasy troops fought for France
in World War I.[15] In the 1930s, Nazi political thinkers developed the Madagascar Plan that had identified the
island as a potential site for the deportation of Europe's Jews.[98] During the Second World War, the island was
the site of the Battle of Madagascar between the Vichy government and the British.[99]

The occupation of France during the Second World War tarnished the prestige of the colonial administration in
Madagascar and galvanized the growing independence movement, leading to the Malagasy Uprising of
1947.[100] This movement led the French to establish reformed institutions in 1956 under the Loi Cadre
(Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence.[101] The Malagasy Republic
was proclaimed on 14 October 1958, as an autonomous state within the French Community. A period of
provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on 26 June
1960.[102]

Independent state

Since regaining independence, Madagascar has transitioned through four republics with corresponding
revisions to its constitution. The First Republic (196072), under the leadership of French-appointed President
Philibert Tsiranana, was characterized by a continuation of strong economic and political ties to France. Many
high-level technical positions were filled by French expatriates, and French teachers, textbooks and curricula
continued to be used in schools around the country. Popular resentment over Tsiranana's tolerance for this "neo-
colonial" arrangement inspired a series of farmer and student protests that overturned his administration in
1972.[20]
Gabriel Ramanantsoa, a major general in the army, was appointed interim
president and prime minister that same year, but low public approval forced him
to step down in 1975. Colonel Richard Ratsimandrava, appointed to succeed
him, was assassinated six days into his tenure. General Gilles Andriamahazo
ruled after Ratsimandrava for four months before being replaced by another
military appointee: Vice Admiral Didier Ratsiraka, who ushered in the socialist-
Marxist Second Republic that ran under his tenure from 1975 to 1993.

This period saw a political alignment with the Eastern Bloc countries and a shift
toward economic insularity. These policies, coupled with economic pressures
stemming from the 1973 oil crisis, resulted in the rapid collapse of
Madagascar's economy and a sharp decline in living standards,[20] and the
country had become completely bankrupt by 1979. The Ratsiraka
administration accepted the conditions of transparency, anti-corruption Philibert Tsiranana, the first
measures and free market policies imposed by the International Monetary Fund, president of Madagascar
World Bank and various bilateral donors in exchange for their bailout of the (196072).

nation's broken economy.[103]

Ratsiraka's dwindling popularity in the late 1980s reached a critical point in 1991 when presidential guards
opened fire on unarmed protesters during a rally. Within two months, a transitional government had been
established under the leadership of Albert Zafy (199396), who went on to win the 1992 presidential elections
and inaugurate the Third Republic (19922010).[104] The new Madagascar constitution established a multi-
party democracy and a separation of powers that placed significant control in the hands of the National
Assembly. The new constitution also emphasized human rights, social and political freedoms, and free
trade.[20] Zafy's term, however, was marred by economic decline, allegations of corruption, and his introduction
of legislation to give himself greater powers. He was consequently impeached in 1996, and an interim
president, Norbert Ratsirahonana, was appointed for the three months prior to the next presidential election.
Ratsiraka was then voted back into power on a platform of decentralization and economic reforms for a second
term which lasted from 1996 to 2001.[103]

The contested 2001 presidential elections in which then-mayor of Antananarivo, Marc Ravalomanana,
eventually emerged victorious, caused a seven-month standoff in 2002 between supporters of Ravalomanana
and Ratsiraka. The negative economic impact of the political crisis was gradually overcome by Ravalomanana's
progressive economic and political policies, which encouraged investments in education and ecotourism,
facilitated foreign direct investment, and cultivated trading partnerships both regionally and internationally.
National GDP grew at an average rate of 7 percent per year under his administration. In the later half of his
second term, Ravalomanana was criticised by domestic and international observers who accused him of
increasing authoritarianism and corruption.[103]

Opposition leader and then-mayor of Antananarivo, Andry Rajoelina, led a movement in early 2009 in which
Ravalomanana was pushed from power in an unconstitutional process widely condemned as a coup d'tat. In
March 2009, Rajoelina was declared by the Supreme Court as the President of the High Transitional Authority,
an interim governing body responsible for moving the country toward presidential elections. In 2010, a new
constitution was adopted by referendum, establishing a Fourth Republic, which sustained the democratic,
multi-party structure established in the previous constitution.[104] Hery Rajaonarimampianina was declared the
winner of the 2013 presidential election, which the international community deemed fair and transparent.[105]

Government
Structure
Madagascar is a semi-presidential representative
democratic multi-party republic, wherein the popularly
elected president is the head of state and selects a prime
minister, who recommends candidates to the president to
form his cabinet of ministers. According to the constitution,
executive power is exercised by the government while
legislative power is vested in the ministerial cabinet, the
Senate and the National Assembly, although in reality these
two latter bodies have very little power or legislative role.
The constitution establishes independent executive,
legislative and judicial branches and mandates a popularly
elected president limited to three five-year terms.[15]

The public directly elects the president and the 127 Antananarivo is the political and economic capital
members of the National Assembly to five-year terms. All of Madagascar.
33 members of the Senate serve six-year terms, with 22
senators elected by local officials and 11 appointed by the president. The last National Assembly election was
held on 20 December 2013[15] and the last Senate election was held on 30 December 2015.[106]

At the local level, the island's 22 provinces are administered by a governor and provincial council. Provinces
are further sub-divided into regions and communes. The judiciary is modeled on the French system, with a
High Constitutional Court, High Court of Justice, Supreme Court, Court of Appeals, criminal tribunals, and
tribunals of first instance.[107] The courts, which adhere to civil law, lack the capacity to quickly and
transparently try the cases in the judicial system, often forcing defendants to pass lengthy pretrial detentions in
unsanitary and overcrowded prisons.[108]

Antananarivo is the administrative capital and largest city of Madagascar.[15] It is located in the highlands
region, near the geographic center of the island. King Andrianjaka founded Antananarivo as the capital of his
Imerina Kingdom around 1610 or 1625 upon the site of a captured Vazimba capital on the hilltop of
Analamanga.[72] As Merina dominance expanded over neighboring Malagasy peoples in the early 19th century
to establish the Kingdom of Madagascar, Antananarivo became the center of administration for virtually the
entire island. In 1896 the French colonizers of Madagascar adopted the Merina capital as their center of
colonial administration. The city remained the capital of Madagascar after regaining independence in 1960. In
2017, the capital's population was estimated at 1,391,433 inhabitants.[109] The next largest cities are Antsirabe
(500,000), Toamasina (450,000) and Mahajanga (400,000).[15]

Politics

Since Madagascar gained independence from France in 1960, the island's political transitions have been marked
by numerous popular protests, several disputed elections, an impeachment, two military coups and one
assassination. The island's recurrent political crises are often prolonged, with detrimental effects on the local
economy, international relations and Malagasy living standards. The eight-month standoff between incumbent
Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana following the 2001 presidential elections cost Madagascar
millions of dollars in lost tourism and trade revenue as well as damage to infrastructure, such as bombed
bridges and buildings damaged by arson.[110] A series of protests led by Andry Rajoelina against
Ravalomanana in early 2009 became violent, with more than 170 people killed.[111] Modern politics in
Madagascar are colored by the history of Merina subjugation of coastal communities under their rule in the
19th century. The consequent tension between the highland and coastal populations has periodically flared up
into isolated events of violence.[112]

Madagascar has historically been perceived as being on the margin of mainstream African affairs despite being
a founding member of the Organisation of African Unity, which was established in 1963 and dissolved in 2002
to be replaced by the African Union. Madagascar was not permitted to attend the first African Union summit
because of a dispute over the results of the 2001 presidential election, but rejoined the African Union in July
2003 after a 14-month hiatus. Madagascar was again suspended by the African Union in March 2009 following
the unconstitutional transfer of executive power to Rajoelina.[113] Madagascar is a member of the International
Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the United States military.[15] Eleven
countries have established embassies in Madagascar, including France, the United Kingdom, the United States,
China and India.[114]

Human rights in Madagascar are protected under the constitution and the state is a signatory to numerous
international agreements including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention on the
Rights of the Child.[115] Religious, ethnic and sexual minorities are protected under the law. Freedom of
association and assembly are also guaranteed under the law, although in practice the denial of permits for public
assembly has occasionally been used to impede political demonstrations.[57][115] Torture by security forces is
rare and state repression is low relative to other countries with comparably few legal safeguards, although
arbitrary arrests and the corruption of military and police officers remain problems. Ravalomanana's 2004
creation of BIANCO, an anti-corruption bureau, resulted in reduced corruption among Antananarivo's lower-
level bureaucrats in particular, although high-level officials have not been prosecuted by the bureau.[57]

Security

The rise of centralized kingdoms among the Sakalava, Merina and other ethnic groups produced the island's
first standing armies by the 16th century, initially equipped with spears but later with muskets, cannons and
other firearms.[116] By the early 19th century, the Merina sovereigns of the Kingdom of Madagascar had
brought much of the island under their control by mobilizing an army of trained and armed soldiers numbering
as high as 30,000.[117] French attacks on coastal towns in the later part of the century prompted then-Prime
Minister Rainilaiarivony to solicit British assistance to provide training to the Merina monarchy's army. Despite
the training and leadership provided by British military advisers, the Malagasy army was unable to withstand
French weaponry and was forced to surrender following an attack on the royal palace at Antananarivo.
Madagascar was declared a colony of France in 1897.[118]

The political independence and sovereignty of the Malagasy armed forces, which comprises an army, navy and
air force, was restored with independence from France in 1960.[119] Since this time the Malagasy military has
never engaged in armed conflict with another state or within its own borders, but has occasionally intervened to
restore order during periods of political unrest. Under the socialist Second Republic, Admiral Didier Ratsiraka
instated mandatory national armed or civil service for all young citizens regardless of gender, a policy that
remained in effect from 1976 to 1991.[120][121] The armed forces are under the direction of the Minister of the
Interior[107] and have remained largely neutral during times of political crisis, as during the protracted standoff
between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana in the disputed 2001 presidential elections,
when the military refused to intervene in favor of either candidate. This tradition was broken in 2009, when a
segment of the army defected to the side of Andry Rajoelina, then-mayor of Antananarivo, in support of his
attempt to force President Ravalomanana from power.[57]

The Minister of the Interior is responsible for the national police force, paramilitary force (gendarmerie) and
the secret police.[107] The police and gendarmerie are stationed and administered at the local level. However, in
2009 fewer than a third of all communes had access to the services of these security forces, with most lacking
local-level headquarters for either corps.[122] Traditional community tribunals, called dina, are presided over by
elders and other respected figures and remain a key means by which justice is served in rural areas where state
presence is weak. Historically, security has been relatively high across the island.[57] Violent crime rates are
low, and criminal activities are predominantly crimes of opportunity such as pickpocketing and petty theft,
although child prostitution, human trafficking and the production and sale of marijuana and other illegal drugs
are increasing.[107] Budget cuts since 2009 have severely impacted the national police force, producing a steep
increase in criminal activity in recent years.[57]
Administrative divisions

Madagascar is subdivided into 22 regions (faritra).[15] The regions are

further subdivided into 119 districts, 1,579 communes, and 17,485
fokontany.[122]

Regions and former provinces[123]

Former Area in Population
New regions 2
provinces km 2013 estimate[124]
Diana (1) Antsiranana 19,266 700,021
Sava (2) Antsiranana 25,518 980,807
Itasy (3) Antananarivo 6,993 732,834
Analamanga (4) Antananarivo 16,911 3,348,794
Vakinankaratra (5) Antananarivo 16,599 1,803,307
Bongolava (6) Antananarivo 16,688 457,368
Sofia (7) Mahajanga 50,100 1,247,037
Boeny (8) Mahajanga 31,046 799,675
Betsiboka (9) Mahajanga 30,025 293,522
Melaky (10) Mahajanga 38,852 289,594
Alaotra Mangoro (11) Toamasina 31,948 1,027,110
A map of Madagascar's regions
Atsinanana (12) Toamasina 21,934 1,270,680
Analanjirofo (13) Toamasina 21,930 1,035,132
Amoron'i Mania (14) Fianarantsoa 16,141 715,027
Haute-Matsiatra (15) Fianarantsoa 21,080 1,199,183
Vatovavy-Fitovinany (16) Fianarantsoa 19,605 1,416,459
Atsimo-Atsinanana (17) Fianarantsoa 18,863 898,702
Ihorombe (18) Fianarantsoa 26,391 312,307
Menabe (19) Toliara 46,121 592,113
Atsimo-Andrefana (20) Toliara 66,236 1,316,756
Androy (21) Toliara 19,317 733,933
Anosy (22) Toliara 25,731 671,805
Totals 587,295 21,842,167

United Nations involvement

Madagascar became a Member State of the United Nations on 20 September 1960, shortly after gaining its
independence on 26 June 1960.[125] As of January 2017, 34 police officers from Madagascar are deployed in
Haiti as part of the United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti.[126] Starting in 2015, under the direction of
and with assistance from the UN, the World Food Programme started the Madagascar Country Programme with
the two main goals of long-term development/ reconstruction efforts and addressing the food insecurity issues
in the southern regions of Madagascar.[127] These goals plan to be accomplished by providing meals for
specific schools in rural and urban priority areas and by developing national school feeding policies to increase
consistency of nourishment throughout the country. Small and local farmers have also been assisted in
increasing both the quantity and quality of their production, as well as improving their crop yield in
unfavorable weather conditions.[127]
Economy
During Madagascar's First Republic, France heavily
influenced Madagascar's economic planning and
policy and served as its key trading partner. Key
products were cultivated and distributed nationally
through producers' and consumers' cooperatives.
Government initiatives such as a rural development
program and state farms were established to boost
production of commodities such as rice, coffee,
cattle, silk and palm oil. Popular dissatisfaction
over these policies was a key factor in launching the
socialist-Marxist Second Republic, in which the
formerly private bank and insurance industries were
nationalized; state monopolies were established for
such industries as textiles, cotton and power; and
importexport trade and shipping were brought
under state control. Madagascar's economy quickly A proportional representation of Madagascar's exports
deteriorated as exports fell, industrial production
dropped by 75 percent, inflation spiked and
government debt increased; the rural population was soon reduced to
living at subsistence levels. Over 50 percent of the nation's export
revenue was spent on debt servicing.[19]

The IMF forced Madagascar's government to accept structural

adjustment policies and liberalization of the economy when the state
became bankrupt in 1982 and state-controlled industries were gradually
privatized over the course of the 1980s. The political crisis of 1991 led
to the suspension of IMF and World Bank assistance. Conditions for the
resumption of aid were not met under Zafy, who tried unsuccessfully to Embroidered tablecloths are produced
attract other forms of revenue for the State before aid was once again for sale to tourists at Nosy Komba.
resumed under the interim government established upon Zafy's
impeachment. The IMF agreed to write off half Madagascar's debt in 2004 under the Ravalomanana
administration. Having met a set of stringent economic, governance and human rights criteria, Madagascar
became the first country to benefit from the Millennium Challenge Account in 2005.[15]

Madagascar's GDP in 2015 was estimated at 9.98 billion USD, with a per capita GDP of $411.82.[128][129]
Approximately 69 percent of the population lives below the national poverty line threshold of one dollar per
day.[130] Over the last five years, the average growth rate has been 2.6% but is expected to have reached 4.1%
in 2016, due to public works programs and a growth of the service sector.[131] The agriculture sector
constituted 29 percent of Malagasy GDP in 2011, while manufacturing formed 15 percent of GDP.
Madagascar's other sources of growth are tourism, agriculture and the extractive industries.[132] Tourism
focuses on the niche eco-tourism market, capitalizing on Madagascar's unique biodiversity, unspoiled natural
habitats, national parks and lemur species.[133] An estimated 365,000 tourists visited Madagascar in 2008, but
the sector declined during the political crisis with 180,000 tourists visiting in 2010.[132]

Natural resources and trade

Madagascar's natural resources include a variety of unprocessed agricultural and mineral resources. Agriculture
(including raffia), fishing and forestry are mainstays of the economy. Madagascar is the world's principal
supplier of vanilla, cloves[135] and ylang-ylang.[21] Other key agricultural resources include coffee, lychees and
shrimp. Key mineral resources include various types of precious and
semi-precious stones, and Madagascar currently provides half of the
world's supply of sapphires, which were discovered near Ilakaka in the
late 1990s.[136]

Madagascar has one of the world's largest reserves of ilmenite (titanium

ore), as well as important reserves of chromite, coal, iron, cobalt, copper
and nickel.[19] Several major projects are underway in the mining, oil
and gas sectors that are anticipated to give a significant boost to the
Malagasy economy. These include such projects as ilmenite and zircon Toy animals made from raffia, a
mining from heavy mineral sands near Tlanaro by Rio Tinto,[137] native palm[134]
extraction of nickel near Moramanga and its processing near Toamasina
by Sherritt International,[138] and the development of the giant onshore
heavy oil deposits at Tsimiroro and Bemolanga by Madagascar Oil.[139]

Exports formed 28 percent of GDP in 2009.[15] Most of the country's export revenue is derived from the
textiles industry, fish and shellfish, vanilla, cloves and other foodstuffs.[132] France is Madagascar's main
trading partner, although the United States, Japan and Germany also have strong economic ties to the
country.[19] The Madagascar-U.S. Business Council was formed in May 2003, as a collaboration between
USAID and Malagasy artisan producers to support the export of local handicrafts to foreign markets.[140]
Imports of such items as foodstuffs, fuel, capital goods, vehicles, consumer goods and electronics consume an
estimated 52 percent of GDP. The main sources of Madagascar's imports include China, France, Iran, Mauritius
and Hong Kong.[15]

Infrastructure and media

In 2010, Madagascar had approximately 7,617 km (4,730 mi) of paved

roads, 854 km (530 mi) of railways and 432 km (270 mi) of navigable
waterways.[10] The majority of roads in Madagascar are unpaved, with
many becoming impassable in the rainy season. Largely paved national
routes connect the six largest regional towns to Antananarivo, with
minor paved and unpaved routes providing access to other population
centers in each district.[20]

There are several rail lines. Antananarivo is connected to Toamasina,

Ambatondrazaka and Antsirabe by rail, and another rail line connects A news stand in Antananarivo
Fianarantsoa to Manakara. The most important seaport in Madagascar is
located on the east coast at Toamasina. Ports at Mahajanga and
Antsiranana are significantly less used due to their remoteness.[20] The island's newest port at Ehoala,
constructed in 2008 and privately managed by Rio Tinto, will come under state control upon completion of the
company's mining project near Tlanaro around 2038.[137] Air Madagascar services the island's many small
regional airports, which offer the only practical means of access to many of the more remote regions during
rainy season road washouts.[20]

Running water and electricity are supplied at the national level by a government service provider, Jirama,
which is unable to service the entire population. As of 2009, only 6.8 percent of Madagascar's fokontany had
access to water provided by Jirama, while 9.5 percent had access to its electricity services.[122] 56% of
Madagascar's power is provided by hydroelectric power plants with the remaining 44% provided by diesel
engine generators.[141] Mobile telephone and internet access are widespread in urban areas but remain limited
in rural parts of the island. Approximately 30 percent of the districts are able to access the nations' several
private telecommunications networks via mobile telephones or land lines.[122]
Radio broadcasts remain the principal means by which the Malagasy population access international, national
and local news. Only state radio broadcasts are transmitted across the entire island. Hundreds of public and
private stations with local or regional range provide alternatives to state broadcasting.[108] In addition to the
state television channel, a variety of privately owned television stations broadcast local and international
programming throughout Madagascar. Several media outlets are owned by political partisans or politicians
themselves, including the media groups MBS (owned by Ravalomanana) and Viva (owned by Rajoelina),[57]
contributing to political polarization in reporting.

The media has historically come under varying degrees of pressure over time to censor their criticism of the
government. Reporters are occasionally threatened or harassed and media outlets are periodically forced to
close.[108] Accusations of media censorship have increased since 2009 due to the alleged intensification of
restrictions on political criticism.[115] Access to the internet has grown dramatically over the past decade, with
an estimated 352,000 residents of Madagascar accessing the internet from home or in one of the nation's many
internet cafs in December 2011.[108]

Health
Medical centers, dispensaries and hospitals are found throughout the island,
although they are concentrated in urban areas and particularly in Antananarivo.
Access to medical care remains beyond the reach of many Malagasy, especially
in the rural areas, and many recourse to traditional healers.[142] In addition to
the high expense of medical care relative to the average Malagasy income, the
prevalence of trained medical professionals remains extremely low. In 2010
Madagascar had an average of three hospital beds per 10,000 people and a total
of 3,150 doctors, 5,661 nurses, 385 community health workers, 175 pharmacists
and 57 dentists for a population of 22 million. 14.6 percent of government
spending in 2008 was directed toward the health sector. Approximately
70 percent of spending on health was contributed by the government, while
30 percent originated with international donors and other private sources.[143]
The government provides at least one basic health center per commune. Private
health centers are concentrated within urban areas and particularly those of the
central highlands.[122] Maternal mortality declined
after 1990 but rose sharply
Despite these barriers to access, health services have shown a trend toward after 2009 due to political
improvement over the past twenty years. Child immunizations against such instability.[122]
diseases as hepatitis B, diphtheria and measles increased an average of
60 percent in this period, indicating low but increasing availability of basic
medical services and treatments. The Malagasy fertility rate in 2009 was 4.6 children per woman, declining
from 6.3 in 1990. Teen pregnancy rates of 14.8 percent in 2011, much higher than the African average, are a
contributing factor to rapid population growth.[143] In 2010 the maternal mortality rate was 440 per 100,000
births, compared to 373.1 in 2008 and 484.4 in 1990, indicating a decline in perinatal care following the 2009
coup. The infant mortality rate in 2011 was 41 per 1,000 births,[15] with an under-five mortality rate at 61 per
1,000 births.[144] Schistosomiasis, malaria and sexually transmitted diseases are common in Madagascar,
although infection rates of AIDS remain low relative to many countries in mainland Africa, at only 0.2 percent
of the adult population. The malaria mortality rate is also among the lowest in Africa at 8.5 deaths per
100,000 people, in part due to the highest frequency use of insecticide treated nets in Africa.[143] Adult life
expectancy in 2009 was 63 years for men and 67 years for women.[143]

Education
Prior to the 19th century, all education in Madagascar was informal and
typically served to teach practical skills as well as social and cultural
values, including respect for ancestors and elders.[20] The first formal
European-style school was established in 1818 at Toamasina by
members of the London Missionary Society (LMS). The LMS was
invited by King Radama I (181028) to expand its schools throughout
Imerina to teach basic literacy and numeracy to aristocratic children.
The schools were closed by Ranavalona I in 1835[145] but reopened and
expanded in the decades after her death.

By the end of the 19th century Madagascar had the most developed and Education access and quality were
modern school system in pre-colonial Sub-Saharan Africa. Access to prioritized under Ravalomanana.
schooling was expanded in coastal areas during the colonial period, with
French language and basic work skills becoming the focus of the
curriculum. During the post-colonial First Republic, a continued reliance on French nationals as teachers, and
French as the language of instruction, displeased those desiring a complete separation from the former colonial
power.[20]

Consequently, under the socialist Second Republic, French instructors and other nationals were expelled,
Malagasy was declared the language of instruction and a large cadre of young Malagasy were rapidly trained to
teach at remote rural schools under the mandatory two-year national service policy.[146]

This policy, known as malgachization, coincided with a severe economic downturn and a dramatic decline in
the quality of education. Those schooled during this period generally failed to master the French language or
many other subjects and struggled to find employment, forcing many to take low-paying jobs in the informal or
black market that mired them in deepening poverty. Excepting the brief presidency of Albert Zafy, from 1992
to 1996, Ratsiraka remained in power from 1975 to 2001 and failed to achieve significant improvements in
education throughout his tenure.[147]

Education was prioritized under the Ravalomanana administration (200209), and is currently free and
compulsory from ages 6 to 13.[148] The primary schooling cycle is five years, followed by four years at the
lower secondary level and three years at the upper secondary level.[20] During Ravalomanana's first term,
thousands of new primary schools and additional classrooms were constructed, older buildings were renovated,
and tens of thousands of new primary teachers were recruited and trained. Primary school fees were eliminated
and kits containing basic school supplies were distributed to primary students.[148]

Government school construction initiatives have ensured at least one primary school per fokontany and one
lower secondary school within each commune. At least one upper secondary school is located in each of the
larger urban centers.[122] The three branches of the national public university are located at Antananarivo
(founded in 1961), Mahajanga (1977) and Fianarantsoa (1988). These are complemented by public teacher-
training colleges and several private universities and technical colleges.[20]

As a result of increased educational access, enrollment rates more than doubled between 1996 and 2006.
However, education quality is weak, producing high rates of grade repetition and dropout.[148] Education policy
in Ravalomanana's second term focused on quality issues, including an increase in minimum education
standards for the recruitment of primary teachers from a middle school leaving certificate (BEPC) to a high
school leaving certificate (BAC), and a reformed teacher training program to support the transition from
traditional didactic instruction to student-centered teaching methods to boost student learning and participation
in the classroom.[149] Public expenditure on education was 13.4 percent of total government expenditure and
2.9 percent of GDP in 2008. Primary classrooms are crowded, with average pupil to teacher ratios of 47:1 in
2008.[150]
Demographics
In 2016, the population of Madagascar was estimated at 24 million.[6] The annual population growth rate in
Madagascar was approximately 2.9 percent in 2009.[15] The population grew from 2.2 million in 1900[20] to an
estimated 24 million in 2016.[6]

Approximately 42.5 percent of the population is younger than 15 years of age, while 54.5 percent are between
the ages of 15 and 64. Those aged 65 and older form three percent of the total population.[132] Only two general
censuses, in 1975 and 1993, have been carried out after independence. The most densely populated regions of
the island are the eastern highlands and the eastern coast, contrasting most dramatically with the sparsely
populated western plains.[20]

Ethnic groups

The Malagasy ethnic group forms over 90 percent

of Madagascar's population and is typically divided
into eighteen ethnic sub-groups.[15] Recent DNA
research revealed that the genetic makeup of the
average Malagasy person constitutes an
approximately equal blend of Southeast Asian and
East African genes,[151][152] although the genetics
of some communities show a predominance of
Southeast Asian or East African origins or some
Arab, Indian or European ancestry.[153]

Southeast Asian origins specifically from the

southern part of Borneo are most predominant
among the Merina of the central highlands,[112]
who form the largest Malagasy ethnic sub-group at
approximately 26 percent of the population, while
certain communities among the coastal peoples
(collectively called ctiers) have relatively stronger
East African origins. The largest coastal ethnic sub-
groups are the Betsimisaraka (14.9 percent) and the
Tsimihety and Sakalava (6 percent each).[20]

The regional distribution of Malagasy ethnic sub-groups

 Malagasy ethnic sub-groups Regional concentration
Antankarana, Sakalava, Tsimihety Former Antsiranana Province
Sakalava, Vezo Former Mahajanga Province
Betsimisaraka, Sihanaka, Bezanozano Former Toamasina Province
Merina Former Antananarivo Province
Betsileo, Antaifasy, Antambahoaka, Antaimoro, Antaisaka, Tanala Former Fianarantsoa Province
Mahafaly, Antandroy, Antanosy people, Bara, Vezo Former Toliara Province

Chinese, Indian and Comorian minorities are present in Madagascar, as well as a small European (primarily
French) populace. Emigration in the late 20th century has reduced these minority populations, occasionally in
abrupt waves, such as the exodus of Comorans in 1976, following anti-Comoran riots in Mahajanga.[20] By
comparison, there has been no significant emigration of Malagasy peoples.[19] The number of Europeans has
declined since independence, reduced from 68,430 in 1958[101] to 17,000 three decades later. There were an
estimated 25,000 Comorans, 18,000 Indians, and 9,000 Chinese living in Madagascar in the mid-1980s.[20]

Languages

The Malagasy language is of Malayo-Polynesian origin and is generally

spoken throughout the island. The numerous dialects of Malagasy,
which are generally mutually intelligible,[154] can be clustered under
one of two sub-groups: eastern Malagasy, spoken along the eastern
forests and highlands including the Merina dialect of Antananarivo and
western Malagasy, spoken across the western coastal plains. French
became the official language during the colonial period, when
Madagascar came under the authority of France. In the first national
Constitution of 1958, Malagasy and French were named the official A Malagasy child
languages of the Malagasy Republic. Madagascar is a francophone
country, and French is mostly spoken as a second language among the
educated population and used for international communication.[20]

No official languages were recorded in the Constitution of 1992, although Malagasy was identified as the
national language. Nonetheless, many sources still claimed that Malagasy and French were official languages,
eventually leading a citizen to initiate a legal case against the state in April 2000, on the grounds that the
publication of official documents only in the French language was unconstitutional. The High Constitutional
Court observed in its decision that, in the absence of a language law, French still had the character of an official
language.[155]

In the Constitution of 2007, Malagasy remained the national language while official languages were
reintroduced: Malagasy, French, and English.[156] English was removed as an official language from the
constitution approved by voters in the November 2010 referendum.[1] The outcome of the referendum, and its
consequences for official and national language policy, are not recognized by the political opposition, who cite
lack of transparency and inclusiveness in the way the election was organized by the High Transitional
Authority.[104]

Language Policy

Over the years, Madagascar has had different language policies under different influences of authority. The
indigenous language of Madagascar, Malagasy, was the predominant language on the island until the French
colonization in 1897. Malagasy has developed throughout the decades from an oral language to a language that
has a written system (Latin orthography), a change that was enforced by King Radama I, in 1823. Following
the French colonization, the language of instruction and media changed from Malagasy to almost exclusively
French. Moreover, the first French governor-general, Gallieni, also encouraged the French officials to learn
Malagasy as well. After the advent of the Malagasy independence, the Madagascans tried to reinstate Malagasy
as a language of instruction especially in secondary schools. However, the language policy was inadequately
planned and Malagasy was struggling to surpass French as the language of instruction.[157] Today, Madagascar
has two official languages: Malagasy and French. Madagascar managed to maintain the indigenous language,
Malagasy, in society and in schools despite the colonizing power. Malagasy and French are both the language
of instruction in primary and secondary schools in Madagascar. The inclusion of the African language as a
medium of instruction is usually uncommon in other colonized African countries.[158]

Religion

Approximately half of the country's population practice traditional religion,[15]

which tends to emphasize links between the living and the razana (ancestors).
The veneration of ancestors has led to the widespread tradition of tomb
building, as well as the highlands practice of the famadihana, whereby a
deceased family member's remains are exhumed and re-wrapped in fresh silk
shrouds, before being replaced in the tomb. The famadihana is an occasion to
celebrate the beloved ancestor's memory, reunite with family and community,
and enjoy a festive atmosphere. Residents of surrounding villages are often
invited to attend the party, where food and rum are typically served and a
hiragasy troupe or other musical entertainment is commonly present.[159]
Consideration for ancestors is also demonstrated through adherence to fady,
taboos that are respected during and after the lifetime of the person who
establishes them. It is widely believed that by showing respect for ancestors in
these ways, they may intervene on behalf of the living. Conversely, misfortunes
are often attributed to ancestors whose memory or wishes have been neglected. A Famadihana reburial
The sacrifice of zebu is a traditional method used to appease or honor the ceremony.
ancestors. In addition, the Malagasy traditionally believe in a creator god, called
Zanahary or Andriamanitra.[160]

Almost half the Malagasy are Christian, with practitioners of Protestantism slightly outnumbering adherents to
Roman Catholicism.[15] In 1818, the London Missionary Society sent the first Christian missionaries to the
island, where they built churches, translated the Bible into the Malagasy language and began to gain converts.
Beginning in 1835, Queen Ranavalona I persecuted these converts as part of an attempt to halt European
cultural and political influence on the island. In 1869, a successor, Queen Ranavalona II, converted the court to
Christianity and encouraged Christian missionary activity, burning the sampy (royal idols) in a symbolic break
with traditional beliefs.[161] Today, many Christians integrate their religious beliefs with traditional ones related
to honoring the ancestors. For instance, they may bless their dead at church before proceeding with traditional
burial rites or invite a Christian minister to consecrate a famadihana reburial.[159] The Malagasy Council of
Churches comprises the four oldest and most prominent Christian denominations of Madagascar (Roman
Catholic, Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar, Lutheran, and Anglican) and has been an influential force in
Malagasy politics.[162]

Islam is also practiced on the island. Islam was first brought to Madagascar in the Middle Ages by Arab and
Somali Muslim traders, who established several Islamic schools along the eastern coast. While the use of
Arabic script and loan words and the adoption of Islamic astrology would spread across the island, the Islamic
religion failed to take hold in all but a handful of southeastern coastal communities. Today, Muslims constitute
7 percent of the population of Madagascar and are largely concentrated in the northwestern provinces of
Mahajanga and Antsiranana. The vast majority of Muslims are Sunni. Muslims are divided between those of
Malagasy ethnicity, Indians, Pakistanis and Comorians. More recently, Hinduism was introduced to
Madagascar through Gujarati people immigrating from the Saurashtra region of India in the late 19th century.
Most Hindus in Madagascar speak Gujarati or Hindi at home.[163]
Culture
Each of the many ethnic sub-groups in Madagascar adhere to their own set of beliefs, practices and ways of life
that have historically contributed to their unique identities. However, there are a number of core cultural
features that are common throughout the island, creating a strongly unified Malagasy cultural identity. In
addition to a common language and shared traditional religious beliefs around a creator god and veneration of
the ancestors, the traditional Malagasy worldview is shaped by values that emphasize fihavanana (solidarity),
vintana (destiny), tody (karma), and hasina, a sacred life force that traditional communities believe imbues and
thereby legitimates authority figures within the community or family. Other cultural elements commonly found
throughout the island include the practice of male circumcision; strong kinship ties; a widespread belief in the
power of magic, diviners, astrology and witch doctors; and a traditional division of social classes into nobles,
commoners, and slaves.[20][160]

Although social castes are no longer legally recognized, ancestral caste affiliation often continues to affect
social status, economic opportunity and roles within the community.[164] Malagasy people traditionally consult
Mpanandro ("Makers of the Days") to identify the most auspicious days for important events such as weddings
or famadihana, according to a traditional astrological system introduced by Arabs. Similarly, the nobles of
many Malagasy communities in the pre-colonial period would commonly employ advisers known as the
ombiasy (from olona-be-hasina, "man of much virtue") of the southeastern Antemoro ethnic group, who trace
their ancestry back to early Arab settlers.[165]

The diverse origins of Malagasy culture are evident in its tangible expressions. The most emblematic
instrument of Madagascar, the valiha, is a bamboo tube zither carried to Madagascar by early settlers from
southern Borneo, and is very similar in form to those found in Indonesia and the Philippines today.[166]
Traditional houses in Madagascar are likewise similar to those of southern Borneo in terms of symbolism and
construction, featuring a rectangular layout with a peaked roof and central support pillar.[167] Reflecting a
widespread veneration of the ancestors, tombs are culturally significant in many regions and tend to be built of
more durable material, typically stone, and display more elaborate decoration than the houses of the living.[168]
The production and weaving of silk can be traced back to the island's earliest settlers, and Madagascar's
national dress, the woven lamba, has evolved into a varied and refined art.[169]

The Southeast Asian cultural influence is also evident in Malagasy cuisine, in which rice is consumed at every
meal, typically accompanied by one of a variety of flavorful vegetable or meat dishes.[170] African influence is
reflected in the sacred importance of zebu cattle and their embodiment of their owner's wealth, traditions
originating on the African mainland. Cattle rustling, originally a rite of passage for young men in the plains
areas of Madagascar where the largest herds of cattle are kept, has become a dangerous and sometimes deadly
criminal enterprise as herdsmen in the southwest attempt to defend their cattle with traditional spears against
increasingly armed professional rustlers.[70]

Arts
A wide variety of oral and written literature has developed in Madagascar. One of the island's foremost artistic
traditions is its oratory, as expressed in the forms of hainteny (poetry), kabary (public discourse) and
ohabolana (proverbs).[171][172] An epic poem exemplifying these traditions, the Ibonia, has been handed down
over the centuries in several different forms across the island, and offers insight into the diverse mythologies
and beliefs of traditional Malagasy communities.[173] This tradition was continued in the 20th century by such
artists as Jean-Joseph Rabearivelo, who is considered Africa's first modern poet,[174] and Elie Rajaonarison, an
exemplar of the new wave of Malagasy poetry.[175] Madagascar has also developed a rich musical heritage,
embodied in dozens of regional musical genres such as the coastal salegy or highland hiragasy that enliven
village gatherings, local dance floors and national airwaves.[176] Additionally,
Madagascar also has a growing culture of classical music fostered through
youth academies, organizations and orchestras that promote youth involvement
in classical music.

The plastic arts are also widespread throughout the island. In addition to the
tradition of silk weaving and lamba production, the weaving of raffia and other
local plant materials has been used to create a wide array of practical items such
as floor mats, baskets, purses and hats.[140] Wood carving is a highly developed
art form, with distinct regional styles evident in the decoration of balcony
railings and other architectural elements. Sculptors create a variety of furniture
and household goods, aloalo funerary posts, and wooden sculptures, many of
which are produced for the tourist market.[177] The decorative and functional
woodworking traditions of the Zafimaniry people of the central highlands was
inscribed on UNESCO's list of Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2008.[178]
A Hiragasy dancer.
Among the Antaimoro people, the production of paper embedded with flowers
and other decorative natural materials is a long-established tradition that the
community has begun to market to eco-tourists.[177] Embroidery and drawn thread work are done by hand to
produce clothing, as well as tablecloths and other home textiles for sale in local crafts markets.[140] A small but
growing number of fine art galleries in Antananarivo, and several other urban areas, offer paintings by local
artists, and annual art events, such as the Hosotra open-air exhibition in the capital, contribute to the continuing
development of fine arts in Madagascar.[179]

Sport and recreation

A number of traditional pastimes have emerged in Madagascar.

Moraingy, a type of hand-to-hand combat, is a popular spectator sport
in coastal regions. It is traditionally practiced by men, but women have
recently begun to participate.[180] The wrestling of zebu cattle, which
is named savika or tolon-omby, is also practiced in many regions.[181]
In addition to sports, a wide variety of games are played. Among the
most emblematic is fanorona, a board game widespread throughout
the Highland regions. According to folk legend, the succession of
King Andrianjaka after his father Ralambo was partially due to the
obsession that Andrianjaka's older brother may have had with playing
fanorona to the detriment of his other responsibilities.[182] Moraingy is a traditional martial art of
Madagascar.
Western recreational activities were introduced to Madagascar over the
past two centuries. Rugby union is considered the national sport of
Madagascar.[183] Soccer is also popular. Madagascar has produced a world champion in ptanque, a French
game similar to lawn bowling, which is widely played in urban areas and throughout the Highlands.[184] School
athletics programs typically include soccer, track and field, judo, boxing, women's basketball and women's
tennis. Madagascar sent its first competitors to the Olympic Games in 1964 and has also competed in the
African Games.[19] Scouting is represented in Madagascar by its own local federation of three scouting clubs.
Membership in 2011 was estimated at 14,905.[185]

Because of its advanced sports facilities, Antananarivo gained the hosting rights for several of Africa's top
international basketball events, including the 2011 FIBA Africa Championship,[186] the 2009 FIBA Africa
Championship for Women,[187] the 2014 FIBA Africa Under-18 Championship,[188] the 2013 FIBA Africa
Under-16 Championship,[189] and the 2015 FIBA Africa Under-16 Championship for Women.[190]
Cuisine

Malagasy cuisine reflects the diverse influences of Southeast Asian, African, Indian, Chinese and European
culinary traditions. The complexity of Malagasy meals can range from the simple, traditional preparations
introduced by the earliest settlers, to the refined festival dishes prepared for the island's 19th-century monarchs.
Throughout almost the entire island, the contemporary cuisine of Madagascar typically consists of a base of
rice (vary) served with an accompaniment (laoka). The many varieties of laoka may be vegetarian or include
animal proteins, and typically feature a sauce flavored with such ingredients as ginger, onion, garlic, tomato,
vanilla, coconut milk, salt, curry powder, green peppercorns or, less commonly, other spices or herbs. In parts
of the arid south and west, pastoral families may replace rice with maize, cassava, or curds made from
fermented zebu milk. A wide variety of sweet and savory fritters as well as other street foods are available
across the island, as are diverse tropical and temperate-climate fruits. Locally produced beverages include fruit
juices, coffee, herbal teas and teas, and alcoholic drinks such as rum, wine, and beer.[170] Three Horses Beer is
the most popular beer on the island[191] and is considered emblematic of Madagascar.[192] The island also
produces some of the world's finest chocolate; Chocolaterie Robert, established in 1940, is the most famous
chocolate company on the island.[193]

See also
Index of Madagascar-related articles
List of island countries
Outline of Madagascar

Notes
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External links
Country Profile from BBC News
"Madagascar". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
Madagascar at DMOZ
Madagascar from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Wikimedia Atlas of Madagascar
Key Development Forecasts for Madagascar from International Futures
Geographic data related to Madagascar at OpenStreetMap
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Madagascar&oldid=788582222"

Categories: Madagascar Countries of the Indian Ocean Islands of Madagascar

Islands of the Indian Ocean Southeast African countries Former French colonies
French-speaking countries and territories Least developed countries
Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie Member states of the African Union
Member states of the United Nations States and territories established in 1960
1960 establishments in Madagascar 1960 establishments in Africa Physiographic provinces Republics
Countries in Africa

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